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The Normalcy of Hate

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The Normalcy of Hate THE NORMALCY OF HATE A Critical Exploration of Micro-Crimes Targeting Transgender People December 2018 This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy at Kingston University London. Ben COLLIVER K1544506 Abstract This thesis explores the ‘lived reality’ for transgender people who experience a range of hate crimes targeting their gender identity. More specifically, it focuses on exposing ‘everyday’ and ‘mundane’ incidents of abuse which manifest in the form of verbal abuse, harassment and threats of violence. The study adopts a mixed method approach and draws on data from 396 online surveys and 32 semi structured interviews with transgender and gender non-conforming people. It also addresses the changing landscape in which hate speech is facilitated through an exploration of the construction of transgender people online. A discourse analysis of YouTube comments on ‘gender- neutral toilets’ was conducted. The findings of this study highlight the pervasive and ‘everyday’ nature of both offline and online hate crime in which victimisation is normalised and intrinsically embedded into ‘everyday’ routines. It emphasises the importance of ‘space’ and ‘belonging’ and argues that particular sex-segregated spaces are conceptualised as significant spaces of risk for transgender people. The thesis embraces a Queer theoretical framework throughout and challenges dominant hate crime hierarchies, introducing ‘micro-crimes’ as a concept that seeks to legitimise the criminality of many incidents of transphobic abuse. i Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank everyone who participated in this research. I feel honoured to have been trusted with your experiences and narratives. I hope that through this research I have been able to present your stories and journeys as authentically as possible. My supervisors, Dr Marisa Silvestri, Dr Joanna Jamel and Professor Adrian Coyle, who provided me with hours of support, critique and points of reflection. Marisa for always seeing potential in me and encouraging me to reach my potential. Thank you for inspiring me to embark on my PhD journey and for always offering support both personally and professionally. Joanna, for her attention to detail and her in-depth subject knowledge and the timely publication of ‘Transphobic Hate Crime’ in which your insights into this field provided me with endless areas of thought and deliberation. Adrian, for encouraging and mentoring me in developing new analytic skills which I take with me through my career. Your support has been invaluable. Dr Matthew Bond, for providing me with endless support with my quantitative data analysis, without which I would not have been able to succeed. Professor Vron Ware, for organising and bringing together the postgraduate community at Kingston, allowing us to listen, encourage and support each other. Elaine Vassell for listening and encouraging me throughout my PhD, always reminding me how quickly this journey would come to an end and continually telling me that I would make it. Mum, Dad, Sister, Nan, Harry, Ryan, Oscar for providing me with financial, practical and emotional support. My family are the reason I continually seek to develop and improve myself. I hope I have made you all proud. John, Chloe, Hannah and Tanya for always being there to help me unwind and de-stress when things were getting too much. The endless moments of laughter shared between us will stay with me forever. A huge thank you to you all. ii Content’s Page Declaration 1 List of Tables and Figures 2 Chapter 1: Introduction 4 1.1 Research Questions 5 1.2 Definitions 6 1.3 Background and Context 9 1.3.1 Legislation 12 1.4 Theoretical Perspective 14 1.5 Thesis Outline 18 Chapter 2: Overview of Existing Literature Addressing Transphobic 24 Hate Crime 2.1 Defining Hate Crime 24 2.2 Framing Hate Crime 26 2.2.1 Prevalence of Hate Crime 26 2.2.2 Victim-Perpetrator Relationship 28 2.2.3 Online Experiences 30 2.2.4 Impact of Hate Crimes 33 2.2.5 Intersectionality 34 2.2.2 The Policing and Reporting of Transphobic Hate Crime 36 2.3 Low-Level, ‘Everyday’ and Mundane Incidents 38 2.4 Transgender and Non-Binary Exclusion 42 2.5 Theoretical Explanations of Hate Crime 47 2.6 Conclusion 52 Chapter 3: Methodology 54 3.1 Introduction 54 3.2 Research Design 55 3.3 Data Collection Methods 58 3.3.1 Online Survey 58 3.3.2 Interviews 63 3.3.3 Discourse Analysis 67 3.4 Data Analysis 71 3.4.1 Online Survey 72 3.4.2 Interviews 74 3.4.3 Discourse Analysis 79 3.5 Ethical Considerations 83 3.5.1 Voluntary Participation 83 3.5.2 Informed Consent 84 3.5.3 Potential Risk of Harm 85 iii 3.5.4 Privacy, Confidentiality and Anonymity 87 3.6 Limitations of Research 89 3.7 Critical Reflective Awareness 90 Chapter 4: Normalcy and the ‘Everyday’ 95 4.1 Victimisation as a Result of Daily Routine 95 4.2 Micro-Crimes and Victimisation as an Inherent and Pervasive Part of 101 Daily Life 4.3 Online Victimisation and Participants’ Relationship with the Internet as 106 Part of the ‘Everyday’ 4.4 The ‘Everyday’ Impact and Normalisation of Transphobic Hate Crime 117 4.5 Discussion 123 4.6 Conclusion 128 Chapter 5: The Hierarchical Nature of Hate Crime Victimisation 130 5.1 Social Hierarchy of Protected Characteristics 130 5.2 Hierarchy of Offence Types 134 5.3 Hierarchical Nature of Victim-Perpetrator Relationship 141 5.4 Impact of the Hierarchies on Policing and Reporting Practices 146 5.5 Discussion 153 5.6 Conclusion 159 Chapter 6: Space, Place and Belonging 160 6.1 The Policing of Gender and the Distinction between Public and Private 161 6.2 Othering: From Within and Out 169 6.3 No Safe Space: The Role of Intersectionality in Hate Crime Victimisation 178 6.4 Discussion 182 6.5 Conclusion 186 Chapter 7: The Online Othering of Trans People in Relation to ‘Gender- 188 Neutral’ Toilets 7.1 Gender Neutral Toilets as a Site of Sexual Danger 189 7.1.1 Male Sexuality as Uncontrollable: Risk of Sexual Violence and 190 Child Victimisation 7.1.2 Trans People as Offenders 195 7.1.3 Safety in Segregation 197 7.2 Claiming Victimhood: Gender-Neutral Toilets as Undermining the Rights 199 of Cisgender People 7.2.1 Victims of a Political Agenda 200 7.2.2 Loss of Rights, Privacy and Safety 201 7.2.3 The End of the World 205 7.3 The De-legitimisation of Trans People 207 7.3.1 Mental Health Claims as a Method of De-legitimising Trans People 208 iv 7.3.2 Trans People as Challenging the Given Order: Invocations of Nature 210 and Biology 7.3.3 Mobilization of Religious and Moral Values and Norms 213 7.3.4 Media Responsibility for Trans People as a ‘Modern Trend’ 218 7.3.5 Reinforcing Gendered Binaries: Invoking Physicality 221 7.4 Discussion 223 7.5 Conclusion 234 Chapter 8: Conclusions, Implications and Future Research 236 8.1 Summary of Findings 237 8.2 Theoretical Contributions 243 8.2.1 Micro-aggressions, Micro-Crimes and Hate Crime 246 8.2.2 The Role of Visibility in Hate Crime Victimisation 247 8.3 Policy and Practice Implications 251 8.4 Recommendations for Future Research 257 8.5 Concluding Comments 260 References 262 Appendices Appendix 1: Online Survey 298 Appendix 2: Pilot Response Feedback 320 Appendix 3: Interview Schedule 321 Appendix 4: Survey Participants’ Demographic Information 324 Appendix 5: Coded Interview 329 Appendix 6: Ethics E-mail 341 Appendix 7: Participant Information Sheet - Survey 342 Appendix 8: Participant Information Sheet - Interview 345 Appendix 9: Debrief Sheet – Survey 348 Appendix 10: Debrief Sheet - Interviews 350 Appendix 11: Informed Consent Survey 352 Appendix 12: Informed Consent Interviews 353 v Declaration 1 List of Tables and Figures Table 1: Interview Participants Demographic Information Table 2: Interview Data Themes and Sub-Themes Table 3: Overview of Themes – Discourse Analysis Table 4: Participants’ Feeling of Risk from Healthcare Professionals Table 5: Participants’ Feeling of Risk of Experiencing a Hate Crime Table 6: Participants’ Experiences of Abuse Online Table 7: Paired Samples Test – Change in Participants’ Confidence Level after Experiencing a Hate Crime Table 8: Regression Analysis on Change in Confidence Level after Experiencing a Hate Crime Table 9: Participants’ Experience of Physical Abuse as a Hate Crime Table 10: Participants’ Perception of Hate Mail as a Hate Crime Table 11: Participants’ Perception of Intimidation as a Hate Crime Table 12: Participants’ Perception of Verbal Abuse as a Hate Crime Table 13: Participants’ Feeling of Risk from Extended Family Table 14: How Confident are Participants in the Police’s Ability to Identify and Tackle Hate Crime Table 15: Participants’ Feeling of Risk in LGBT Venues Table 16: Participants’ Experiences of Hate Crime Figure 1: Have Participants ever Experienced a Hate Crime? Figure 2: Have Participants ever Experienced a Hate Crime Targeting their Gender Identity? Figure 3: Do Participants Feel at Risk of Experiencing a Hate Crime Online? Figure 4: Was Hate Crime Online Abuse? Figure 5: Have Participants ever Experienced Abuse Online? Figure 6: Participants’ Perception of Mis-Gendering as a Hate Crime Figure 7: Participants’ Perception of Outing as a Hate Crime Figure 8: Was Hate Crime Verbal Abuse? Figure 9: Do Participants Feel at Risk of Experiencing Abuse from Strangers? Figure 10: Do Participants Feel at Risk of Experiencing Abuse from Acquaintances? Figure 11: Do Participants Feel at Risk of Experiencing a Hate Crime in their Local Area? 2 Figure 12: Do Participants Feel at Risk of Experiencing a Hate Crime in an LGBT Venue? Figure 13: Relationship Between Micro-Aggressions, Micro-Crimes and Hate Crimes 3 Chapter 1: Introduction This thesis provides a critical exploration of hate crime targeted at transgender and non- binary individuals.
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