Ford: Not a Lincoln but a Hayes? a Lesson in History and Political Science

John A. Donnangelo

As history or social studies teachers, we are constantly striving to make the ers and students should try to identify past come alive for our students and to help them see that, not only does the past across time periods. relate to the present, but it can also give us insights into the future. The recent passing of former President Gerald R. Ford provides social studies teachers with just such Evaluating the Ford Presidency an opportunity. Ford’s death brought his name to the attention of middle and high As part of the national mourning that took school students, and opens the door to teaching an important lesson on presidential place following Ford’s passing, various history. It also offers an opportunity to have students begin thinking about the 2008 tributes and retrospectives to and about presidential election. the former president expressed Ford’s wish that historians remember him as a Discussion of the Ford presidency interpretation of his Constitu- “healer,” in reference to the Watergate inevitably involves his famous self-char- tional powers, and, therefore, scandal and the Vietnam War. Ultimately, acterization: “I’m a Ford, not a Lincoln.” does not set up overwhelming he has been recognized as a very humble This statement will stir questions such as, public expectations; man, and American political history and “What did President Ford mean when analysis seem to bear out his statement: he said this?” or “What do the names 4. Stephen Skowronek’s theory “I’m a Ford, not a Lincoln.” However, ‘Ford’ and ‘Lincoln’ really mean or stand (described in further detail later political history and analysis also seem for in this statement?” A comparison of on in this article) that presidential to bear out that, while Ford may not Presidents Ford and Lincoln should allow power or success is dependent have been a Lincoln, he may have been a teachers to broaden the discussion or les- upon outside forces (social, eco- Hayes—a President Rutherford B. Hayes, son to include the four major theories on nomic, and other). so to speak. Almost 100 years apart in presidential performance from political terms of their time in office, both Hayes science. The four theories are: According to Skowronek’s theory, it is and Ford, to a significant extent, have possible to predict a current or prospec- been obscure figures within American 1. Richard Neustadt’s theory that a tive president’s level of success by look- political history and analysis. However, president’s power or success lies ing back to a time when outside forces they shared a strength of political charac- in his power to persuade, due to a were similar to current conditions. After ter, most notably seen in their steadfast- lack of Constitutional power; seeing how president X did under those ness and stability in the face of significant conditions, it is possible to make a simi- political adversity. 2. James David Barber’s theory that lar forecast about a current or prospec- Rutherford B. Hayes came into office presidential power or success is tive president facing similar conditions. in March 1877, on the heels of the con- based upon a president’s person- Understanding the “signs of the times,” tested election of 1876; the election was ality type; is key to applying Skowronek’s theory. settled in his favor by the Compromise What is going on in society that is shaping of 1877, in which northern, radical 3. Theodore Lowi’s theory that a the presidency and that the president may Republicans politically traded an end successful president is one who be attempting to re-shape? The sidebar to military Reconstruction in the South sticks to a strict constructionalist shows the kinds of characteristics teach- with southern Democrats in return for

M a r c h 2 0 0 7 105 President Gerald Ford reads a proclamation in the White House on September 8, 1974, An undated portrait of Rutherford B. Hayes, granting former president Richard Nixon “a full, free and absolute pardon” for all 19th president of the United States, “offenses against the United States” during the period of his presidency. (AP Photo) 1877-1881, by Mathew Brady. (Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division [LC-DIG-cwpbh-05109])

their certifying the presidential elec- dencies. They both also faced significant Similar Societal toral vote in favor of Hayes. Hence, a adverse political forces acting upon their Characteristics to Look to cloud of public cynicism hovered over presidencies, making “presidential suc- Identify Across Time Periods Hayes throughout his term in office—he cess” a nearly impossible task. Skowronek was often referred to as “Rutherfraud” asserts that forces outside of the presi- instead of “Rutherford.” Many people dency are what determine the success 1. Is there a strong or weak soci- considered that Hayes stole the election or failure of a president. According to etal opposition toward govern- of 1876 from Samuel Tilden. He later Skowronek, when you discover a nexus ment at a particular time? would say: “I am not liked as a President between the present forces acting upon by the politicians in office, in the press, the presidency and a time in the past, you 2. (Related to number 1) Is the or in Congress.”2 can reasonably determine a prospective president having to fight against Ford’s ascent to the presidency has or current president’s chances of success public opinion, special interests, some parallels: the fact that he had never or failure. This theory compares the per- the economy, or government been elected vice president or president formance difficulties faced by both presi- itself? brought out many critics who felt that dential administrations and underlines Ford did not deserve the office. This the problems that confronted the Ford 3. Does the president have the image or opinion of the president became administration. Ford and Hayes each ability to influence the outside ensconced when he granted a full presi- followed a president from his own party forces mentioned in number 2? dential pardon to President Nixon for his whose administration was plagued by role in the Watergate scandal. scandals. Both Hayes and Ford lacked 4. Summary by Skowronek: “What The Ford presidency is interesting in control of Congress in the mid-term elec- ... political challenges face a the light of any of the four theories I have tion after becoming president; each faced leader at any given stage [or mentioned. I believe, however, that the significant economic difficulties, namely, moment in time]? How is the theory advanced by Skowronek is the one inflation; and each faced the difficult task quality of presidential perfor- that offers the most insights into the chal- of trying to heal a nation divided in the mance [whether a president lenges of the Ford presidency, and that an aftermath of a long and arduous war. does well or poorly] related to apt comparison can be made between the “Our long national nightmare is the changing shape [of the conditions facing Hayes and those facing over,” President Ford said in the wake 1 politics of the times]?” Ford. Both Hayes and Ford faced ques- of Watergate. Hayes might have said the tions over the legitimacy of their presi- same, because the Compromise of 1877,

S o c i a l E d u c a t i o n 106 Both Hayes and Ford lacked control of Congress in the if they would continue to support their particular candidate for president. This mid-term election after becoming president; each faced longitudinal lesson may then culminate significant economic difficulties, namely, inflation; and near November 2008, for example, in an informed mock election (as opposed each faced the difficult task of trying to heal a nation to a mere popularity contest). Political scientist Stephen Bennett of divided in the aftermath of a long and arduous war. the University of Cincinnati has been advocating for years for more engaging which brought him into office, brought each president came into office, in both and rigorous political and civics educa- an end to military Reconstruction in cases they were not entirely ended. tion at all levels. I believe that the type the South. However, for both Ford and Despite the Paris Peace Accord of of pedagogy I have suggested heeds Hayes, “the nightmare” of governing in 1973, fighting continued in Vietnam Bennett’s call to action. While neither troubled times was just beginning. As until 1975, when the American people the Ford nor Hayes presidencies will mentioned previously, Ford received saw on television Americans desperately stand out in the annals of presidential notable criticism for pardoning Nixon, fleeing the American embassy during the history or become highlights of politi- while Hayes had to deal with the scan- fall of Saigon. By comparison, the Civil cal science research, both presidencies dal fall-out from Grant’s administra- War was effectively over when Hayes can teach us important future lessons. tion, namely Credit Mobilier and the came into office; however, deep sec- For, as the oft-mentioned saying goes, Whiskey Ring. tionalism between the North and South “Those who do not learn from history Because of the public’s disenchant- still existed; the South was poor, and are condemned to repeat it.” ment with government at the time southern Democrats, due to the of each administration, both Hayes Compromise of 1877, expected politi- Notes and Ford found themselves unable to cal favors from Hayes. 1. Michael Nelson, ed., The Presidency and the Political System 3rd. Edition (Washington, D.C.: Congressional exercise control of Congress through Ford, of course, was not elected presi- Quarterly Inc., 1990), 119. their own parties after the 1878 and dent in 1976, losing out to Jimmy Carter; 2. Joslyn Pine, ed., Wit and Wisdom of the American Presidents: A Book of Quotations (Mineola, N.Y.: 1974 mid-term elections, respectively. nonetheless, he ran a valiant campaign Dover Publications, 2001), 30. Nonetheless, Hayes and Ford still during which he almost closed a 30-point 3. Ibid. pursued the hallmark of their respec- gap in the election polls following the 4. Frank Freidel and Hugh Sydney, The Presidents of the United States of America (The White House tive administrations—the restoration of Republican National Convention in late Historical Association in association with Scala good government. Hayes, for example, August of 1976. In his inaugural address, Publishers, 2006), 79. saw to legislation outlawing government President Carter said, “For myself and workers’ participation in political cam- for our nation, I want to thank my pre- paigns, for, as he stated, “He serves his decessor for all he has done to heal our References party best who serves his country best.”3 land.”4 Hayes himself decided to serve 1. Barber, James David. The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House, 4th. ed. Ford, in turn, saw to the enactment of only one term. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, the Freedom of Information Act. 1992. 2. Lowi, Theodore. The Personal President: Power “Whip Inflation Now” (“W.I.N.”) Class Activity Invested, Promise Unfulfilled. Ithaca & London: was President Ford’s economic policy To evaluate President Ford according to Cornell Univ. Press, 1985. program for bringing hyperinflation Stephen Skowronek’s theory, students 3. Neustadt, Richard. Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents: The Politics of Leadership from during the 1970s under control. W.I.N., can make a T-square chart with “Ford” Roosevelt to Reagan. New York: Simon & Schuster in fact, was to include a balanced fed- and “Hayes” at the top—and then break Inc., 1990. eral budget had Ford won the election of down, with teacher guidance, the histori- 4. Skowronek, Stephen. The Politics Presidents Make: Leadership from John Adams to Bill Clinton. 1976. Hayes, dealing with the financial cal similarities and presidential outcomes Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1997. fallout of a fluctuating economy due to of the two presidents. Students could then the Panic of 1873, fought vigorously for be asked to look ahead to the 2008 elec- the gold standard in order to stabilize the tion, at some of the leading candidates at nation’s currency and economy. The gold this time, and to make their own predic- standard debate raged on throughout the tions as to who would be the best presi- John A. Donnangelo is a history and social studies teacher at Fort Lee High School in New late 1800s, much as the issue of inflation dential choice by applying one or more of Jersey. He is also a former adjunct instructor of his- plagued the nation throughout the end of the presidential power theories. Students tory at Ramapo College of New Jersey and a former the 1970s and into the early 1980s. may then track their candidates over adjunct instructor of political science at Fairleigh Although the divisive wars of their time in debates and primaries and see Dickinson University in Madison, New Jersey. times were supposed to be over when if their evaluations appear accurate and

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