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Digging Up the Past A historian is a person who studies and writes about the people and events of the past. What Do Archaeologists Study? Historians find out how people lived, what hap- • Human and animal bones, seeds, trees pened to them, and what happened around them. • Pottery, tools, weapons • Mounds, pits, canals They look for the reasons behind events. They also study the effects of events. Prehistoric pottery Have you ever wondered if you could be a historian? To answer that question, you will need How Do They Gather Data? • Surveys on foot to find out how history is researched and writ- • Photographs taken from airplanes or satellites ten. Historians use a number of tools to research • Ground-penetrating radar • Plot locations on maps and organize information. You can learn about • Dig for evidence with tools from these tools in the next few pages. As you study heavy equipment to shovels this textbook, you will see that these tools will • Sonar scanning to find underwater objects help you understand world history.

How Do They Interpret Findings?

▲ • Organize artifacts into groups based on Archaeologists similarities are scientists • Compare objects in relation to other objects who unearth • Look for evidence of changes the remains of over a period of time the past. • Date once-living objects by Historians measuring carbon-14 levels depend on • Use microscopic and biological their work. tests to date objects Carbon-14 dating Do Your Own Digging Research the library and Internet to find infor- mation on two archaeological diggings, one past and the other, very recent. Compare and con- trast the methods used in each digging. What changes do you notice in tools archaeologists have used over time?

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Measuring Time

The dates in this Historians rely on calendars and the dating of events book are based on to measure time. the Western calen- Reading Focus Have you ever thought about traveling dar. In the Western back in time to a place long ago? Historians do just that. calendar, the years Read to see how historians keep track of past events. before the birth of Jesus are known as About A.D. 500, a Christian monk, or Calendars Historians rely on calendars, or “B.C.,” or “before Christ.” The years religious person, dating systems, to measure time. Cultures developed the Western after are called throughout the world have developed dif- way of dating events. ferent calendars based on important events “A.D.,” or anno in their history. Western nations begin their domini. This phrase comes from the Latin lan- calendar on the year in which Jesus was guage and means “in the year of the Lord.” thought to have been born. The Jewish cal- Dating Events To date events before the birth endar begins about 3,760 years before the of Christ, or “B.C.,” historians count back- Christian calendar. This is the time when wards from A.D. 1. There is no year “0.” The Jewish tradition says the world was created. year before A.D. 1 is 1 B.C. (Notice that “A.D.” Muslims date their calendar from the time is written before the date, while “B.C.” is their first leader, Muhammad, left the city of written following the date.) Therefore, a date Makkah for Madinah. This was A.D. 622 in in the 100 years before the birth of Christ lies the Christian calendar. between 100 B.C. and A.D.1. To date events after the birth of Christ, A people called the or “A.D.,” historians count forward, start- Minoans made this ing at A.D. 1. A date in the first 100 years stone calendar. after the birth of Christ is between A.D.1 and A.D. 100.

Thinking Like a Historian

1. Identify What do “B.C.” and “A.D.” mean? How are they used? 2. Dating Events What year came after 184 B.C.? 3. Comparing and Contrasting As you read, use the Internet to find out the current year in the calendars mentioned in your text. Why are calendars different from culture to culture?

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Organizing Tools made by prehistoric Time people

Historians organize history by dividing it into blocks of time. Reading Focus Have you ever thought about the names given to a block of events, such as “summer vacation” or “the baseball season?” Read to see how historians use names to describe different stretches of time in history.

Periods of History Historians divide history into blocks of time known as periods, or eras. For example, a period of 10 years is called a decade. A period of 100 years is known as a century. Centuries are grouped into even A young couple longer time periods, which are given names. of ancient Rome The first of these long periods is called Prehistory. Prehistory refers to the time before people developed writing, about 5,500 years The Gui ▼ ago. This is followed by the period known as Ancient History, ending c. A.D. 500. (c., or circa, means “about”). Historians call the next thou- A woman of medieval Japan sand years the Middle Ages, or the medieval playing a musical period. From c. 1500, Modern History begins instrument

Educated Europeans of the early modern period discussing new ideas

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Three Ancient Civilizations A time line also 2500 B..C.. 1500 1500 B..C.. 800 800 B..C. 650 B.C. . 650 . . labels events. Each Ancient c. 1600 B.C. c. 776 B.C. Greece Minoan First event on the time line civilization Olympic Chapters 4 & 5 reaches Games appears beside the date height take place when the event took Ancient plate place. Sometimes events Early c. 2500 B.C. c. 1500 B.C. IndiaIndia Settlements Aryans arrive in and their dates are develop along Hindu temple Chapter 6 India Indus River shown on a single time line. In other cases, two or more time lines are

Early c. 1750 B.C. c. 1045 B.C. stacked one on top of China Shang dynasty Zhou establish Chapter 7 begins dynasty in China the other. These are called multilevel time Zhou dynasty bronze dragon lines. They help you to compare events in dif- ferent places at certain and continues to the present day. In this book, periods of time. For example, the multi- you will study the history of the world from level time line above shows events in three prehistory to the beginning of the modern ancient civilizations from 2500 B.C. to period. 650 B.C. The skill “Reading a Time Line” on page 711 will help you learn to work with What Is a Time Line? Which came first: the time lines. American Civil War or World War II? Did the train come before or after the invention of the airplane? In studying the past, histori- Thinking Like a Historian ans focus on chronology, or the order of dates in which events happened. 1. Reading a Time Line Look over the time You might be wondering how to make line above to get an idea of what a time line sense of the flow of dates and events. An shows. What is the title? When does it begin easy way is to use or make a time line. A time and end? What two features make this time line different from many other time lines? line is a diagram that shows the order of Why are they used? events within a period of time. Most time lines are divided into sections 2. Understanding a Time Line Why do you in which the years are evenly spaced. In some think the dates on the time line are marked cases, however, a spread of time may be too with a “c.”? long to show all of the years in even spaces. 3. Making a Time Line Create a time line using To save space, a period of time may be omit- the terms B.M.B. (before my birth) and A.M.B. ted from the time line. Where this happens, a (after my birth). Fill in the time line with five slanted or jagged line appears on the time line key events that happened before and after you to show a break in the even spacing of events. were born. Illustrate the time line with copies For example, the time line above shows a of photos from your family album. break between 1500 B.C. and 800 B.C.

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How Does a Historian Work?

Examining Sources Historians study a variety of sources to learn about Historians analyze, the past. or examine, pri- Reading Focus Have you ever searched for clues on a mary and second- treasure hunt? Read to find out how historians look for ary sources. First, clues to create a written record about the past. they determine Scientist studying Dead where and when a Sea Scrolls from south- source was created. west Asia Where Is the Evidence? Historians begin by Another important question historians con- asking questions, such as: Why did two par- sider is why a source was created. Was it a let- ticular countries go to war? What effect did ter meant to be kept secret? Was it a their fighting have on peoples’ lives? How government document published for all citi- does the conflict influence our world today? zens to read? Such questions help historians identify and focus on historical problems. Can the Sources Be Trusted? Historians Historians generally find evidence in examine sources for credibility, or truthful- primary sources and secondary sources. ness. This is because each source reflects a Primary sources are firsthand pieces of evi- point of view, or a general attitude about peo- dence from people who saw or experienced ple and life. The creator of a source uses his an event. They include written documents, or her point of view to decide what events such as letters, diaries, and official records. were important, which people were key They also include spoken interviews as players, and what details were worth well as objects, such as photos, paintings, recording. Sometimes point of view is clothing, and tools. The skill “Analyzing expressed as a bias, or an unreasoned, emo- Primary Source Documents” on page 716 tional judgment about people and events. will give you a chance to work with writ- Historians try to be aware of point of ten primary sources. view and bias both in their sources and in Secondary sources, on the other hand, are themselves. Therefore, they check new created after the events by people who played no part in them. Secondary sources are partially based on primary sources. They include biographies, encyclopedias, and his- tory books—even this textbook. Historians study secondary sources for background information and for a larger view of an event. However, to get new evi- dence that advances knowledge, historians must turn to the firsthand information found only in primary sources.

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TheThe DeclineDecline ofof RomeRome

Weak Roman Government Social Problems Declining Economy • Dishonest government officials • Famine and disease spread • Income and wages fall. provide poor leadership. throughout the empire. • Wealthy fail to pay taxes.

Reform Fails and Rome Divides in Two • Government fails to keep order. • Violence and tension increase. • Diocletian divides the empire.

Eastern Roman Empire Western Roman Empire • Constantinople becomes the new capital. • Numerous attacks threaten the empire. • The empire survives attacks and prospers. • Territory is slowly lost to invaders.

Byzantine Empire Rome Falls • This empire is created from the Eastern Roman Empire • The city of Rome falls in A.D. 476. and lasts nearly 1,000 years. • The Western Roman Empire is divided into Germanic kingdoms by A.D. 550.

sources and their own ideas against sources effect links form what is called a cause-and- already known to be trustworthy. They also effect chain. Because so many historical events examine many sources that express different are related, cause-and-effect chains can points of view about an event. In this way, become very long and can include events historians try to get a clear, well-rounded that occur over a long period of time. The view of what happened. chart above shows such a chain of events. Historians piece together the credible evidence and draw conclusions. In drawing conclusions, they use their own thinking Thinking Like a Historian and knowledge of the past to interpret, or 1. Understanding Evidence Suppose a friend explain, the meaning of the events. wanted to write a history of your life so far. What primary sources might he or she use to Cause and Effect find evidence of your daily activities? 2. Analyzing Sources Find two written Historical events are linked by cause and accounts of a recent event in your town. effect. A cause is what makes an event hap- Which of the two accounts do you think is pen. The event that happens as a result of the most credible? Why? the cause is known as an effect. Historians 3. Recognizing Cause and Effect Study the look for cause-and-effect links to explain cause-and-effect chart on this page. What why events happen. were three major causes of Rome’s decline? Usually, one event is produced by many What were two important effects of Rome’s causes. Similarly, one event often produces decline upon history? several different effects. These cause-and-

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History and Geography

Historians try to understand how climate, landforms, and human activities have shaped past events. Growing rice in China Reading Focus Have you ever had a party or sports event cancelled because of bad weather? Read to find out how historians study the effects of the natural world on history. The Acropolis, Geography is the study of the earth’s phys- Athens, Greece ical and human features. In this text, you will discover how geography has shaped the course of events in world history. Sometimes the study of geography is broken down into five themes. The Five Themes of Geography are: • location (Where is it?) • place (What is it like?) Place • human/environment interaction (What is the relationship between people and their “What is it like?” Place describes all of the surroundings?) characteristics that give an area its own spe- • movement (How do people in one area cial quality. These can be physical features, relate to people in other areas?) such as mountains, waterways, climate, and • region (What common features bring plant or animal life. Places can also be geographical areas together?) described by human characteristics, such as language, religion, and architecture. Location

“Where is it?” In using geography, histori- Human/Environment ans first look at where a place is located. Interaction Every place has an absolute location and a relative location. Absolute location refers to “What is the relationship between people the exact spot of a place on the earth’s sur- and their surroundings?” Landforms, face. For example, the city of Atlanta, waterways, climate, and natural resources all Georgia, is located at one place and one have helped or hindered human activities. place only. No other place on Earth has People in turn have responded to their envi- exactly the same location. Relative location ronment, or natural surroundings, in differ- tells where a place is, compared with one or ent ways. Sometimes they have adjusted to more other places. Atlanta is northwest of it. At other times, people have changed their Miami and southwest of New York City. environment to meet their needs.

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Settlement in Mongolia

Camel caravan in North Africa

Wall painting showing life in ancient Egypt Movement Six Essential Elements

“How do people in one area relate to people Recently the study of geography has been in other areas?” Historians answer this broken down into Six Essential Elements: question within the theme of movement. • The World in Spatial Terms Throughout history, people, ideas, goods, and • Places and Regions information have moved from place to place. • Physical Systems Movement has brought the world’s people • Human Systems closer together. Transportation—the move- • Environment and Society ment of people and goods—has increased • The Uses of Geography the exchange of ideas and cultures. You will learn about the Six Essential Communication—the movement of ideas and Elements in the Geography Handbook on information—has allowed people to find out pages GH2–GH3. Knowing these elements what is happening in other parts of the world. will help you in your study of history. Region Thinking Like a Historian 1. Identify How are absolute location and “What common features bring geographical relative location different? areas together?” To make sense of all the complex things in the world, historians 2. Analyzing Themes What characteristics do often view places or areas as regions. A geographers use to describe a place? region is an area that is defined by common 3. Linking History and Geography Make a list features. Regions can be defined by physical of the Five Themes of Geography. Under each features, such mountains and rivers, or by theme, explain how you think geography has human features, such as religion, language, shaped the history of your community. or livelihood.

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What Is a Historical Atlas?

time. Below are two maps. One map shows Maps give information about areas of the world at the areas of Europe, Asia, and Africa that were different periods of history. ruled by Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. The Reading Focus Have you used a map to go from one other map shows the same region as it looks place to another? Read to find out how you can rely on today. Placed next to each other, the maps maps for clues about the past. help you compare historical changes in the region from ancient times to today. Historical Maps An atlas is a book of maps In the larger map, Alexander’s empire showing different parts of the world. A histor- stretches from the eastern Mediterranean ical atlas has maps showing different parts of Sea in the west to the Indus River in the east. the world at different periods of history. There are no political borders. Instead, other Maps that show political events, such as things are shown. For example, the arrows invasions, battles, and boundary changes, are on the map represent the movement of called historical maps. Alexander’s armies as they conquered new Some historical maps show how territories lands. On the smaller map, lines show mod- in a certain part of the world changed over ern political boundaries in the region today.

Alexander’s Empire 323 B.C.

20°E 40°E 60°E KEY N Extent of empire . D e R E Alexander’s routes anub W 40°N Black Sea of conquest S Major battle MACEDONIA Granicus Aegean 334 B.C. Caspian Chaeronea Sea ASIA 338 B.C. MINOR Issus Sea Athens 333 B.C. Gaugamela T 331 B.C. i g r i s E u R Mediterranean Sea ph . Babylon PERSIA rat Tyre SYRIA es R. Susa . Persepolis R Alexandria s u P d e n EGYPT rs I N ia i n l The Region Today e G 0 500 mi. R u . lf UZBEKISTAN BULGARIA Arabian 0 500 km TURKMENISTAN Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection GREECE TURKEY Sea AFGHANISTAN SYRIA IRAN LEBANON IRAQ ISRAEL KUWAIT JORDAN PAKISTAN

SAUDI LIBYA EGYPT ARABIA

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Trading in the Ancient World °N 40

20°E 60°E 100°E 0 1,000 mi. N

e 0 1,000 km GOBI H g

WE n Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection a u S H Luoyang C Hangzhou a Changan Black Sea s Aral p g i Sea a n a CHINA Constantinople n i J

S g e n a TIBET a Antioch T h Guangzhou T i C o Eur g ope E r up i h s SPICES Damascus ra R H te . PERSIA I A s M A L A Y SPICES R .

Alexandria R . G s a u ng d e SPICES M South n s R Pataliputra I . ek o n China INDIA SPICES g Sea EGYPT R ARABIA . R. le i Red N Sea SPICES Arabian Sea Bay of Mero¨e Bengal

EAST SPICES SPICES SPICES SPICES SPICES AFRICA 0° Borneo

R SPICES ATO EQU Sumatra INDIAN OCEAN Java KEY

Silk Road SPICES Cloves Grains Pearls Other trade Copper Horns/Tusks Sandalwood routes Cotton cloth Leopard skins Semiprecious

SPICES Black pepper stones SPICES Frankincense/Myrrh SPICES Nutmeg

SPICES Cardamom Silk Gold Oils Thinking Like a Historian

SPICES Cinnamon Teakwood SPICES Ginger Papyrus 1. Comparing Maps Alexander’s empire included many different territories. In what ter- ritory was the city of Persepolis located? What present-day country covers this area today? Historical Routes On some maps, lines may show historical routes. These are roads 2. Reading a Map Legend Look at the map of or courses over which people or goods have ancient trade routes. What goods came from traveled all through history. Such routes are southern India? How were goods carried often colored. On the map above, the purple from place to place in ancient times? line shows the Silk Road, the ancient trad- 3. Analyzing Maps Select any chapter in your ing route between Asia and Europe. textbook. List the titles of the maps found in On maps of historical routes, the key that chapter. Beside each map’s title, state gives clues to what is shown on the maps. what kind of symbols are used in each map This map’s key shows the different goods key and what they represent. traded throughout the ancient world.

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Links Across Time

Unit 2 The Ancient World The people and events of the past have left their mark on our world today. People in ancient civilizations Reading Focus How have older family members admired the deeds of their heroes. The affected your life today? In the same way, many things ancient Greeks held the first Olympic link past to present in world history. Read about examples games about 776 B.C. Today the modern of past-and-present links for each of the units you will be Olympics draw athletes from all over studying in your text. the world. Ancient Greek athletes Unit 1 Early Civilizations For centuries, people in southwest Asia have fought over scarce land and water. Religious and ethnic differences also have led to wars. Today, one of the fiercest and longest conflicts has been between Palestinian Arabs and Israelis. Ancient warriors attack walled city

Racers in modern Olympics

Fighting today between Palestinians and Israelis

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New Empires Unit 3 and New Faiths

After 500 B.C., strong governments and new religions arose in many parts of the world. The Romans believed that Unit 4 The Middle Ages laws apply equally to all citizens. Today, the U.S. Congress is the part of our The period from about A.D. 500 to national government that makes laws. A.D. 1500 is known as the Middle Ages. Its upper body—the U.S. Senate—is During this time, trade routes named after the Senate of ancient Rome. expanded, and ideas and goods spread. In medieval China, the Grand Canal increased trade and prosperity. Today, modern China is building the Three Gorges Dam to provide electric power for its growing cities.

Three Gorges Dam

Roman Senate U.S. Congress

Unit 5 A Changing World Grand Canal Beginning about A.D. 1500, thinkers developed new ideas about govern- ment and began to use scientific ideas to explore nature. One discovery or invention led to another, creating an explosion of knowledge. Advances in science continue today. Thinking Like a Historian As you read Journey Across Time: The Early Ages, notice how the past affects the present. When you begin each unit, collect newspaper or maga- zine articles about a current event from the area you are studying. Then, after completing each unit, write down how you think a past event in that region is related to the current event.

International Space Station

Early telescope, A.D. 1600s

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