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Evaluating Cosmopolitanism CONCEPTUAL PAPER Evaluating Cosmopolitanism Samantha Wieske[1] Abstract As the international community has become increasingly connected, cosmopolitanism has often been proposed as a means to reduce inequalities and maintain peace. Cosmopolitan scholars, like Martha Nussbaum, hypothesize that this citizenship can be achieved through standardized, international education standards. While it is undeniable that the projects which cosmopolitans seek to solve are vital, this paper seeks to examine the plausibility and effectiveness of cosmopolitan theory, contending that modern cosmopolitan justifications only serve to further Western interests. It is imperative to examine the applicability of cosmopolitanism, because flawed theory produces flawed policy. Cosmopolitan scholars fail to recognize that one universalized standard of education creates a monolithic culture, without a capacity for innovation or ability to cultivate strong cultural identities. Furthermore, while cosmopolitans call for the disintegration of physical borders, past trends suggest that this free movement incites an agglomeration of wealth and capital. Historically, global citizenship hasn’t been able to solve human rights issues or economic inequalities because humans’ political identities cannot extend to the capacity which cosmopolitan thinkers assume they can; Western leaders have instead used ‘human rights’ and ‘economic equality’ as a justification to further their own nations’ agendas. In sum, cosmopolitanism is a flawed ideology and nations should focus on international cooperation, instead of global governance and individuals’ economic and political agency, instead of cultural conformity. Keywords Cosmopolitanism; Western interests; Global Citizenship; Globalization; International Monetary Fund; Education. [1]University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. Corresponding author: [email protected]. © 2018 Samantha Wieske. Some rights reserved, licensed under CC BY 4.0 Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 2 1. Introduction nationally-based reforms, rather than pursuing a cosmopolitan fantasy. In his 1971 song, ‘Imagine,’ John Lennon implored the world to “Imagine there's no countries... Imagine all the people 2. Cosmopolitanism and Nationalism sharing all the world” in true cosmopolitan fashion. A cosmopolitan is a ‘citizen of the While citizenship is typically defined world,’ an individual who sheds her national on the national scale, cosmopolitans propose attachments in favor of a loyalty to that one’s political community can be global, humankind. Some find inspiration for cross- encompassing all of humanity. Millenia ago, cultural cooperation from the maxims a myriad of classical thinkers concluded that reflective of a cosmopolitan ideology like national unity incentivizes the mobilization Ghandi’s desire to cultivate a “genuine of individuals for the public good. feeling of human oneness,” and the Baha’i Rousseau’s conception of a social contract religion’s belief that, “The earth is but one describes how citizenship is a two-way street, country and mankind its citizens” (Heater, exchanging rights for obligations; for 2004: 148). instance, the state provides the individual While it is an appealing philosophy, with the ‘pursuit of happiness’ in the form of the controversy over whether public education, and in exchange, the citizen cosmopolitanism is pragmatic has drawn in pays into the national education system academics on each side. This debate revolves through taxation (Rousseau, 1913: 26-30). around questions like: ‘Can a farmer from Can this social-contract relationship North Dakota develop a genuine desire to extended beyond the state? In his book on prioritize the well-being of a total stranger in “Liberal Nationalism” Yael Tamir argues Brazil?’ and ‘To what extent can the that a meaningful political identity forms best axiomatic discourse of “cross-cultural unity” in a “small, relatively closed, and lead to practical policy?’ Today, many homogeneous framework,” not extending systems of international oversight and beyond the degree of a nation (Tamir, 1995: globalization are in place which reflect 151). Stretching an individual’s political cosmopolitan ideology: the United Nations, community to the extent of ‘humanity,’ as the World Trade Organization, and the cosmopolitans would have one do, political International Monetary Fund. While not all obligations become too thin and feelings of cosmopolitan academics advocate for a total belonging fade. A strong cultural identity disintegration of nationalities, this paper fortifies an individual’s personal identity, examines the teleological end of motivating her to carry out the duties of cosmopolitan theory: a borderless world. citizenship. Considering the way that elements of Global citizenship would not have the cosmopolitanism have manifested in the past, motivational potential that nation-states have it is clear that global citizenship education, cultivated through group competition. The the enforcement of human rights, free rationalism behind nationalism is that mobility across borders and economic members of a community are motivated to globalization would only serve to further work for the betterment of their community, ingrain systems of inequality and proliferate due to competition with outsiders. When Western values. Thus, international reflecting on examples such as the US/Soviet development efforts should focus on Space Race and pressure for American Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 3 lawmakers to improve the national education cosmopolitans believes that, one's loyalty to system due to competition with Singapore humankind must be cultivated and prioritized and Scandinavian countries, it is clear that above other loyalties. In the eighteenth competition breeds innovation. Global century, Kant’s ideas established the basis of citizenship cannot replicate the same kind of cosmopolitan academia, stressing the group-based competition which nationalism importance of developing a common human inspires. morality but rejecting the feasibility of a Nationalists seek to instill citizens world state; Instead, Kant envisions a with a sense of pride based on their political federation of free states (Kemp, 2011: 25). community, but whether global citizenship While their beliefs about the importance of can replicate a sense of identity comparable local and national loyalties vary, the uniting to patriotism is questionable. In “Achieving belief of cosmopolitan thinkers is that Our Country,” Rorty laments the loss of individuals should prioritize humanity above national pride and the hopeful, liberal vision the State for the sake of the collective good. of America, now replaced by a disgust for Cosmopolitanism as a concept has American hypocrisy. While the ‘progressive’ existed since ancient times, but the modern Left is usually defined by forward-looking, academics associated with cosmopolitanism inventive policies, Rorty argues that since the include Martha Nussbaum, Kwame Anthony Vietnam war, American revisionism has led Appiah, Peter Kemp, Daniel Archibugi, and to a self-destructive guilt. He analogizes David Held, not to mention a number of other national pride to countries as what self- thinkers who incorporate cosmopolitan respect is to individuals, praising Walt assumptions into their theories. These Whitman and John Dewey for promoting an thinkers vary in terms of how practical they idealized image of America. Essentially, believe cosmopolitan ideals are; Nonetheless, Rorty insists on the prioritization of pride cosmopolitan ideals of human unity remain over truth, in order to create a hopeful, in the background of many theories and motivated population (Rorty, 2003:11-35). policies. Throughout this article, when I use This means focusing on a better future and the term ‘cosmopolitan’ I am using it to imply celebrating American achievements and the ideas if they were to be carried out at the values instead of agonizing over the past and fullest extent, with the end of a cohesive, breeding cynicism and shame. On the other global state without nations. For the purpose hand, Nussbaum believes that progress, of this paper, the term ‘cosmopolitan thinker’ justice and equality can only truly be refers to academics whose theories are rooted achieved through the development of a in this cosmopolitan ideology, whether human community. defined as so or not. For instance, while Most cosmopolitan thinkers, base Joseph Carens doesn’t advocate for their beliefs in the ancient Stoic philosophy, ‘cosmopolitanism’ per se, his promotion for which proposed a devotion to a single moral open borders is deeply ‘cosmopolitan.’ collective, to humanity, envisioning a world According to cosmopolitan thinkers, with “no law, no compulsion, no currency, no global citizenship and unity is the vehicle temple” (Vertovec and Cohen, 2002: 138). In through which humanity can establish a the classical model described by “The lasting peace, decrease social and economic Politics,” Aristotle posits that our primary injustices, and promote environmental loyalty should be to the State, which will in sustainability. Firstly, cosmopolitans believe turn serve our individual interests. However, that cultivating a mutual respect across Nussbaum, the Stoics and other cultures will reinforce the shared right of all Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 4 humans to the earth and its resources. Shared contrary, Nussbaum recognizes the weight territories and resources unify communities local and national attachments realistically
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