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Home , Cosmopolitanism, Deglobalization, Global citizenship, World history

CONCEPTUAL PAPER

Evaluating

Samantha Wieske[1]

Abstract

As the international has become increasingly connected, cosmopolitanism has often been proposed as a means to reduce inequalities and maintain . Cosmopolitan scholars, like , hypothesize that this can be achieved through standardized, international education standards. While it is undeniable that the projects which cosmopolitans seek to solve are vital, this paper seeks to examine the plausibility and effectiveness of cosmopolitan theory, contending that modern cosmopolitan justifications only serve to further Western interests. It is imperative to examine the applicability of cosmopolitanism, because flawed theory produces flawed policy. Cosmopolitan scholars fail to recognize that one universalized standard of education creates a monolithic , without a capacity for innovation or ability to cultivate strong cultural identities. Furthermore, while cosmopolitans call for the disintegration of physical borders, past trends suggest that this free movement incites an agglomeration of wealth and capital. Historically, hasn’t been able to solve issues or economic inequalities because ’ political identities cannot extend to the capacity which cosmopolitan thinkers assume they can; Western leaders have instead used ‘’ and ‘economic equality’ as a justification to further their own ’ agendas. In sum, cosmopolitanism is a flawed and nations should focus on international cooperation, instead of and individuals’ economic and political agency, instead of cultural .

Keywords

Cosmopolitanism; Western interests; Global Citizenship; ; International Monetary Fund; Education.

[1]University of California, , CA, USA. Corresponding author: [email protected].

© 2018 Samantha Wieske. Some rights reserved, licensed under CC BY 4.0 Global Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 2

1. Introduction nationally-based reforms, rather than pursuing a cosmopolitan fantasy. In his 1971 song, ‘Imagine,’ John Lennon implored the world to “Imagine there's no countries... Imagine all the people 2. Cosmopolitanism and sharing all the world” in true cosmopolitan fashion. A cosmopolitan is a ‘citizen of the While citizenship is typically defined world,’ an individual who sheds her national on the national scale, cosmopolitans propose attachments in favor of a loyalty to that one’s political community can be global, humankind. Some find inspiration for cross- encompassing all of humanity. Millenia ago, cultural cooperation from the maxims a myriad of classical thinkers concluded that reflective of a cosmopolitan ideology like national unity incentivizes the mobilization Ghandi’s desire to cultivate a “genuine of individuals for the public good. feeling of human oneness,” and the Baha’i Rousseau’s conception of a religion’s that, “The earth is but one describes how citizenship is a two-way street, country and mankind its citizens” (Heater, exchanging rights for obligations; for 2004: 148). instance, the state provides the individual While it is an appealing philosophy, with the ‘pursuit of happiness’ in the form of the controversy over whether public education, and in exchange, the citizen cosmopolitanism is pragmatic has drawn in pays into the national education system academics on each side. This debate revolves through taxation (Rousseau, 1913: 26-30). around questions like: ‘Can a farmer from Can this social-contract relationship North Dakota develop a genuine desire to extended beyond the state? In his book on prioritize the well-being of a total stranger in “Liberal Nationalism” Yael Tamir argues Brazil?’ and ‘To what extent can the that a meaningful political identity forms best axiomatic discourse of “cross-cultural unity” in a “small, relatively closed, and lead to practical policy?’ Today, many homogeneous framework,” not extending systems of international oversight and beyond the degree of a (Tamir, 1995: globalization are in place which reflect 151). Stretching an individual’s political cosmopolitan ideology: the , community to the extent of ‘humanity,’ as the , and the cosmopolitans would have one do, political International Monetary Fund. While not all obligations become too thin and feelings of cosmopolitan academics advocate for a total belonging fade. A strong disintegration of nationalities, this paper fortifies an individual’s personal identity, examines the teleological end of motivating her to carry out the duties of cosmopolitan theory: a borderless world. citizenship. Considering the way that elements of Global citizenship would not have the cosmopolitanism have manifested in the past, motivational potential that nation-states have it is clear that global citizenship education, cultivated through group competition. The the enforcement of human rights, free rationalism behind nationalism is that mobility across borders and economic members of a community are motivated to globalization would only serve to further work for the betterment of their community, ingrain systems of inequality and proliferate due to competition with outsiders. When Western values. Thus, international reflecting on examples such as the US/Soviet development efforts should focus on Space Race and pressure for American Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 3 lawmakers to improve the national education cosmopolitans that, one's loyalty to system due to competition with Singapore humankind must be cultivated and prioritized and Scandinavian countries, it is clear that above loyalties. In the eighteenth competition breeds innovation. Global century, Kant’s ideas established the basis of citizenship cannot replicate the same kind of cosmopolitan academia, stressing the group-based competition which nationalism importance of developing a common human inspires. morality but rejecting the feasibility of a Nationalists seek to instill citizens world state; Instead, Kant envisions a with a sense of pride based on their political of free states (Kemp, 2011: 25). community, but whether global citizenship While their beliefs about the importance of can replicate a sense of identity comparable local and national loyalties vary, the uniting to is questionable. In “Achieving belief of cosmopolitan thinkers is that Our Country,” Rorty laments the loss of individuals should prioritize humanity above national pride and the hopeful, liberal vision the State for the sake of the collective good. of America, now replaced by a disgust for Cosmopolitanism as a concept has American hypocrisy. While the ‘progressive’ existed since ancient times, but the modern Left is usually defined by forward-looking, academics associated with cosmopolitanism inventive policies, Rorty argues that since the include Martha Nussbaum, Kwame Anthony Vietnam , American revisionism has led Appiah, Peter Kemp, Daniel Archibugi, and to a self-destructive guilt. He analogizes , not to mention a number of other national pride to countries as what self- thinkers who incorporate cosmopolitan respect is to individuals, praising Walt assumptions into their theories. These Whitman and for promoting an thinkers vary in terms of how practical they idealized image of America. Essentially, believe cosmopolitan ideals are; Nonetheless, Rorty insists on the prioritization of pride cosmopolitan ideals of human unity remain over truth, in order to create a hopeful, in the background of many theories and motivated population (Rorty, 2003:11-35). policies. Throughout this article, when I use This means focusing on a better future and the term ‘cosmopolitan’ I am using it to imply celebrating American achievements and the ideas if they were to be carried out at the values instead of agonizing over the past and fullest extent, with the end of a cohesive, breeding and shame. On the other global state without nations. For the purpose hand, Nussbaum believes that progress, of this paper, the term ‘cosmopolitan thinker’ and equality can only truly be refers to academics whose theories are rooted achieved through the development of a in this cosmopolitan ideology, whether human community. defined as so or not. For instance, while Most cosmopolitan thinkers, base Joseph Carens doesn’t advocate for their beliefs in the ancient Stoic philosophy, ‘cosmopolitanism’ per se, his promotion for which proposed a devotion to a single moral open borders is deeply ‘cosmopolitan.’ collective, to humanity, envisioning a world According to cosmopolitan thinkers, with “no , no compulsion, no currency, no global citizenship and unity is the vehicle temple” (Vertovec and Cohen, 2002: 138). In through which humanity can establish a the classical model described by “The lasting peace, decrease social and economic ,” posits that our primary injustices, and promote environmental loyalty should be to the State, which will in . Firstly, cosmopolitans believe turn serve our individual interests. However, that cultivating a mutual respect across Nussbaum, the Stoics and other will reinforce the shared right of all Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 4 humans to the earth and its resources. Shared contrary, Nussbaum recognizes the weight territories and resources unify local and national attachments realistically and prompt the establishment of a have in our lives. Rather, she hopes we can , thus a mutual commitment to eventually supplant identity politics and the Earth’s preservation could be both a cultural relativism with a global view of means and an ends to global citizenship. morality. Furthermore, Kantian philosophy posits that mobilizing the political, economic and social forces of a to serve the interests of 3. Culture and Education humankind will facilitate the establishment of perpetual peace. He argues that lasting An important element of the classical peace can result from an understanding and philosophies of Aristotle was that a regime’s cooperation between states with the goal of effectiveness relies on the coincidence protecting the inherent rights of all human between a state’s constitution and the cultural beings.(Kemp, 2011: 136) Lastly, the values of the citizenry. The defined recognition of an undeniable trend towards culture as the intellectual and aesthetic globalization defines modern cosmopolitan achievements of a race, which create a thought, thereby acknowledging that since common bond amongst a citizenry, thereby individuals from different countries are constructing diverse societies which make up becoming increasingly connected, economic human (Jaeger, 1986: xvii). A and political inequalities have arisen. foundational belief of cosmopolitanism is Cosmopolitans postulate that only through that in order to make global governance common understanding and concern can work, the state needs to mold individuals to these disparities be bridged. have globalized values through education. Cosmopolitanism received a renewed Cosmopolitan thinkers reject the academic consideration due to Martha notion that a political identity cannot extend Nussbaum’s essay, “Patriotism and beyond the ‘national’ level, suggesting the Cosmopolitanism,” written in response to formation of a global culture through ’s Times article. In education. Derek Heater theorizes that “Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism,” education can mold our values, creating civic Nussbaum’s theorizes that through virtues which match the governmentality of cosmopolitan education, the world can the state, might it be democratic, totalitarian become borderless with a system of global or dictatorial (Heater, 2004: 110-115). The governance, thus solving environmental education a generation dictates their culture, degradation, reducing inequalities and may that culture be rooted in a nation, a local establishing . (Nussbaum, 1994: community, the global community, etc. 155-162.) An effective global education, as National education in the described by Nussbaum, is one which teaches the intellectual and aesthetic cultivates a global identity, inspires cross- achievements of Americans to replicate cultural sympathies and prompts self- American cultural values in the next examination in the local, national and global generation. For instance, learning about the domain (Nussbaum, 2002: 295-299). Rorty Revolutionary War imbues students with a and other nationalists critique Nussbaum’s pride for American liberty, in a way that failure to recognize how an individual’s learning about the genocide of the Native cultures and communities deeply shape her Americans does not. Thus, American moral life, priorities and motivations. On the teachers might focus on the Boston Tea Party Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 5 and skim over the Trail of Tears. In a more cosmopolitans seek to promote would prompt extreme example, the Chinese Communist a distillation of traditional cultural values and Party restricts historical information about the adoption of a monolithic, Western- the thirty-six million Chinese who died influenced culture. Not all ‘culture’ is equal. during the Great Famine from being taught in Anti-cosmopolitans speculate that modern Chinese schools (Jisheng, 1958:1-5). transformation into a singular, global culture It is true that modern China extreme would lead to a culture which is indistinctive compared to the United States yet and commercialized, incapable of the same principles apply--national education undergirding strong individual identities. If standards are fitted to encourage patriotism. effective, the conformity of educational While this biased way of teaching might standards internationally would mean seem immoral, all countries dapple in myth- cultural conformity (Popkewitz, 2008). making, in hopes of creating strong cultural While the implementation of global values to motivate the next generation (Rorty, education under realistic and modern 2003: 11-22). Hence, a standardized system conditions presents many obstacles, Heater of international education for all countries correctly assess that education has a would require a loss of cultural diversity. formative and galvanizing potential. The Anti-cosmopolitan educational theorists urge future of educational reform lies not in us to ask; who will decide these educational creating a global citizenship, rather, a system standards? focused on preserving cultural values while Daniel Archibugi perfectly sums up solving global issues at the same time. The one of the key predicaments of a realistic problems which cosmopolitanism seeks to cosmopolitanism: the imposition of Western address are alive and escalating daily. Thus, values. Considering the West’s social, instead of motivating students’ to shed cultural, economic and most of all, military national attachments in favor of large-scale, dominance, Archibugi fears that the project global undertakings, educational reforms of cosmopolitanism has the potential to be should be aim to promote the projects of implemented by force, rather than peace, environmental sustainability and a persuasion; As in the past, this ideology commitment to reducing economic could serve as a moral justification to impose inequalities while at the same time, the West’s will (Croce, 2010). A compulsory promoting respective cultural sentiments. universal education could become a form of Introducing curricula topics which convince Western coercion. Thomas Popkewitz argues students of the economic and social utility of that while cosmopolitanism thinkers claim peace and outline the realities of climate that it embodies universalism, change mobilizes them to fight for cosmopolitanism still is a system of inclusion international peace and environmentalism and exclusion, excluding those who fail to respectively. ‘embody principles of cosmopolitan civility.’ Similar to the imposition of ‘Enlightenment ’ by Europeans on colonized countries, 4. Human Rights a system of global education would create categories of the “enlightened” and A much-touted virtue of a “unenlightened” groups and seek to cosmopolitan world is its ability to promote ‘enlighten’ the latter. human rights. But what do human rights Furthermore, the effect of conformity entail in a world of diverse social rights? to the liberal educational standards which Nussbaum argues that we need to develop a Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 6 global commitment to human rights through Take for instance the case of the widely-accepted education standards, since offensive Charlie Hebdou cartoon which nations constantly work together satirized respected Islamic figures like the economically and politically. The concept of Prophet , sparking a worldwide ‘human rights’ presupposes that there are debate over the extents of free speech (New fundamental truths of justice, and that York Times, 2015). While some will jump to sufficient deliberation will cause all rational defend unrestricted free speech, others might humans to reach an agreement on what is prefer to put limits on the dispersion of ‘right’ and ‘wrong.’ When pondering the offensive and provocative anti-religious gross amount of extrajudicial killings, material. Thus, calling unhampered ‘freedom beheadings, religious persecutions and more of expression’ a ‘human right,’ excludes which occur daily, it seems undeniable that individuals whose religious and cultural these situations violate human rights and beliefs conflict with unrestricted free speech. require justice. In principle, who would deny While the West might label ‘good Muslims’ that all humans deserve respect, fairness and as those who conform to Western standards justice? However, when it comes to of justice, it isn’t a Westerner’s place to enforcement of these principles and an determine what constitutes ‘right’ and elucidation of what constitutes fundamental ‘wrong’ for non-Westerners. Cosmopolitan ‘human rights,’ complications arise. There is thinkers fail to recognize that as long as an undeniable utility for international cultural and religious diversity persists, there accountability in certain cases, like is no singular standard of justice suited to genocides. However, rights like free speech, every human beings’ ethical makeup. Since secular education, and voting rights blur the different religious and cultural beliefs lead to line between moral and immoral actions in diverging standards of between certain situations. Examining the efficacy of nations, institutions of justice should be state- human rights policies, we must consider led, not globally directed. whether interferences and interventions Human rights violations are a occur due to an altruistic desire to help common justification for military humankind or whether national interests are interventions, which in many instances, have at play. induced more harm than good. Former US- A hypothetical future where one mold President Ronald Reagan famously said, “It of justice, in terms of human rights, could be is the Soviet Union that runs against the tide congruent with all individuals’ systems of history by denying human freedom and would require a complete acculturating of the human dignity to its citizens,” in a speech to world. In “Vulnerability and Human Rights,” the British House of Commons, to mobilize Brian Turner takes issue with the human support and spread anti-Communist rights discourse as an alternative to ideology. (Reagan, 1982) Claiming that Cold nationalism. He argues that modern human War interventions are for the sake of ‘human rights derive from Western origins which freedom and human dignity,’ Reagan don’t always coincide with the social rights employs a cosmopolitan rationale, essentially of other countries. Consequently, Turner painting the conflict as American sacrifice claims that the international community for the sake of the human good. should not have a right to enforce a policy of For the last fifty years, the United human rights which conflicts with a society’s States has painted itself as the world’s police, cultural practices (Turner, 2006: 61-67). giving them the pretext to get involved in the affairs of developing countries, thereby Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 7 providing favorable conditions for economic cosmopolitan vision idealizes the expansion. There are numerous examples of unrestricted movement from place to place, US involvement in Latin America, when but when examining the modern trends of American leaders condoned CIA coups of migration, it’s clear that a borderless world democratically-elected presidents, in order to will only further ingrain a systemic hierarchy protect human rights and ‘preserve freedom’ of . (TeleSUR, 2016). In Guatemala, Proponents of open borders argue that democratically-elected leader Jacobo Árbenz removing restrictions on migration will mean was instituting agrarian reforms which that poor world citizens will have access to helped Guatemalan citizens, but threatened jobs, capital and security in richer nations. the American-run United Fruit Company. Joseph Carens claims that by restricting Naturally, his policies were branded as mobility across borders, are ‘communist’ to justify American military denying certain individuals access to equal intervention, exhibited by Wisconsin Senator opportunity, even going to far as to argue that Alexander Wiley of Wisconsin’s statement, border enforcement denies some human "It seems to me that Guatemala is going to be beings the access to resources which others a source of Red infection throughout Central enjoy (Tan, 2004: 125). However, Roy Beck America, and the sooner we help sterilize that makes the argument that while low-wage source, the better.”The result was a immigration into America is often framed as repressive military junta led by Carlos morally righteous, the most favorable Castillo Armas which lasted for three outcome of immigration is relieving only a decades and led to nearly two hundred couple million out of three billion individuals thousand Guatemalans’ deaths (Central from poverty. (Beck, 2010) He estimates that Intelligence Agency, 2011). the United States can only permit about 1 The United States’ policies in Latin million immigrants a year before America prove that if cosmopolitanism isn’t overwhelming our social and economic rooted in a ‘genuine feeling of human infrastructure, due to a limit on the number of oneness,’ pursuing the ideology will lead to jobs, housing and resources. Furthermore, an empty claim of global concern. This this restrictive immigration can be empty claim masquerades as a wealthy destructive to emigrant countries. Since nations’ desire for international development, wealthy countries are so selective, privileged but only serves to promote national interests migration means movement of the most abroad. educated, fervent, wealthy individuals from developing to developed countries. The countries lose the educated individuals who have the best chance of being industry 5. The Disintegration of Borders innovators or government leaders through a phenomenon commonly referred to as ‘brain Another integral part of the drain.’ cosmopolitan utopia is the physical Conversely, privileged migration disintegration of national borders. Nussbaum leads to elite, cosmopolitan travelers from the argues that borders are morally arbitrary, and Global North ending up in jobs which spread that our values shouldn’t be limited by where their language and culture, instead of we live, since cross-cultural differences are assimilating. In “Migration, Whiteness, and minimal and menial (Nussbaum, 1994: 161). Cosmopolitanism: Europeans in Japan,” In this section, I will argue that the Debar examines the reality of first-generation Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 8

European immigration in Japan. He finds that vital, so that Americans will realize the effect instead of integrating into Japanese culture, of their high standards of living on immigrants tend to socialize together. developing nations. Cosmopolitans reason Despite embarking on a cosmopolitan way- that we live in a different world than classic of-life by moving from their nations to Japan, philosophers did, ergo we need a philosophy these immigrants cannot shed their cultural compatible with this new reality. Aristotle’s identities. Debar also notices that European robe was not made in China, so the way he immigrants will filter into ‘cultural spent his Drachmas affected only those ambassador’ sectors, like teaching their Athenians he interacted with daily, but our native language, thereby spreading Western tea comes from India, our cotton shirts were culture into non-Western places (Debnar, manufactured in Thailand, and our laptops 2017) . Ulf Hannerz points out that when the were made in China. With this said, it's clear traveler travels, she does not accept their new that ones’ consumer decisions affect more location as a whole, rather, she seeks out the than just the workers in our immediate city, best parts of a place, or the parts which most state and nation. Thus, cosmopolitans believe resemble home (Hannerz, 1990: 242). Even that a realization of global governance would with the increase in tourism that trending act as a buffer against the effects of the globalization has brought on, there isn’t market, suggesting international systems of necessarily cultural exchange going on. distributive justice. However, these systems When Westerners travel, they spread their of distributive justice haven’t had the fashion, language, culture and language, anticipated positive effects which they claim taking back the best of a place as souvenirs, to be working towards. resulting in these customs to become The desire to create global systems of westernized and commercialized, in a distributive justice were realized in the phenomenon known as cultural creation of the International Monetary Fund, appropriation. Carrying the theory of free the World Bank and the World Trade mobility to its teleological end, unrestricted Organization. All three institutions have migration would result in the congregation of stated similar goals, as exampled by the resources and human capital in the most International Monetary Fund (IMF)’s habitable parts of the world. In poorer mission statement: “to foster global monetary countries, the societies would be cooperation, secure financial stability, overwhelmed by an influx of Western facilitate , promote high culture, thereby displacing historical cultural employment and sustainable economic . growth, and reduce poverty around the world” (IMF, 2018). However, according to the Meltzer Report which assesses the effectiveness of international aid systems, the 5. The International Market IMF promotes economic stagnation rather than growth and the World Bank hasn't made Lastly, a key claim for the necessity any significant impact on reducing global of cosmopolitanism and its tenants is the poverty (Bello, 2008: 92-93). Firstly, to call regulation of the international market by an these institutions “global” implies equal international state, in order to provide a representation for all nations; In reality, cushion against the naturally polarizing decision-making power is concentrated in the effects of global . Nussbaum hands of wealthy nations who are financing argues that global civic education is morally the international aid systems. Furthermore, Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 9 the hypocrisy of humanitarian aid is that In “Introducing Globalization: Ties, when rich countries give free food and Tensions, and Uneven Integration,” Matthew resources to citizens, local farmers struggle to Sparke argues that is compete, thereby furthering the reliance of often painted as unavoidable, but that the poor countries on rich ones. A more paradoxical need for politicians to convince constructive form of charity by rich countries citizens of the globalization’s inevitability would be recognizing the agency of citizens proves the preventable nature of the and buying commodities from local phenomenon. To bolster his point, he suppliers, thus investing money into the references claiming that, “We economy. So why don’t rich countries don’t really have an option. Globalization is implement the latter solution? As is true in with us.” while trying to convince Americans the case of human rights policy, national to implement pro-immigration, pro- interests are strongly at play and the former policies that would further entrench the ‘solution,’ better serves their own economies. globalized economic system (Sparke, 2012: During the late 20th century, the 10). Judging from the past blunders of global United States and Europe claimed that the aid institutions, it is clear that Western goal of the IMF was to secure financial leaders have been disingenuously claiming to stability, yet the overall effect in many be working for the good of humanity, while countries was financial dependence and keeping national and sub-national interests as peripheralization. Foreign aid often comes the top priority--they are disguising their with strings attached, stipulating the creation national agendas with cosmopolitan ideals. of a favorable investment environment which tend to disadvantage the recipient country. More than other countries, Argentina fully embraced the management of the US and the 6. Another World is Possible IMF. Heeding their advice, the government adopted a free-market economic model, While cosmopolitanism is a flawed lifting trade barriers and privatizing ideology, the global problems which everything from railroads to cosmopolitans identify are imperative. Due telecommunication, thus making itself as to economic globalization, an established attractive as possible for foreign investment. system of uneven development has formed, While these policies were initially successful, benefiting developed nations at the expense the lack of state control and constant of developing ones. Over 70% of all wealth borrowing lead Argentina’s inflation rates is concentrated in the hands of the top 1% of and debt to rise. Even though it was IMF the global population, leaving hundreds of policies which ushered Argentina into millions of individuals malnourished, despite economic ruin, the organization denied sufficient food production (Guardian, 2017). accountability, blaming the resulting crisis on Instead of continuing to rely on the superfluous public spending and the currency economic, social and political peg. Unfortunately, Argentina’s financial ‘Globalization’ which led to this inequality in collapse wasn’t an isolated incident. Many the first place for redistributive policies, poor other countries adhered to IMF and World countries have held gatherings like the World Bank policies, due to the promise of aid, and Social Forum and the International Forum on like in Argentina, the result was debt, Globalization have to discuss alternatives to peripheralization and economic reliance on corporate, capitalist globalization altogether. these institutions. (Cavanagh, 2002: 43) Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 10

Instead of attempting to fix 7. Conclusion inequalities by employing cosmopolitan and economic globalization Effective policy requires a realistic policies, in the future, there needs to be a shift , recognizing the limits of human from the highly interconnected economic compassion and understanding that genuine system of today to a more decentralized political loyalties develop naturally from system which focuses on economic physical proximity and repeated interactions. development on a national scales. In “De- Claiming and believing that individuals are globalization,” Walden Bello provides an capable of cosmopolitan devotion, while in alternative to neoliberal capitalism, arguing truth, they still prioritize local, regional and that the genuine empowerment of local and national interests, tends to justify invasive national actors can only take place as a result international policies which promote of a restructured global economic system. As Western interests and disadvantage non- an alternative to relying on international aid Westerners due to the global power structure. systems, Bello suggests drawing funds for Evaluating the realities of a development from within a state, to reduce cosmopolitan world by looking at the effects dependence on foreign aid and investment. of the modern institutions which are Also, he recommends that developing supported by a cosmopolitan ideology, nations imbue citizens with the democratic demonstrates that the teleologic end of right to establish their own economic cosmopolitanism is a monolithic, Western- priorities rather than allowing policies to be led culture. A standardized system of human market-determined (Bello, 2002: 84). To rights would require cross-cultural achieve a future of international economic compromise on what constitutes fundamental equality, Bello proposes state-based efforts to rights; The present- day controversy over refocus domestic economic priorities from a what constitutes ‘human rights’ results due to ‘production for export’ to a ‘production for differing religions, social practices and the local market’ strategy (Bello, 2002: 107- customs and might never be resolved as long 118). Currently, developing nations operate as cultural diversity persists. Accordingly, as economic peripheries, either producing utilitarian cosmopolitanism demands a raw materials and carrying out basic single, monolithic culture to permeate manufacturing to be marketed and sold in the throughout all countries. Likewise, while economic core. Wage inequalities are cosmopolitans claim that education would solidified through this system; In the case of create mutual understanding and respect, this an iPhone, the Chinese Foxconn employees would come at the cost of cultural diversity. receive less than $1/hour whereas American Bearing in mind the Western economic and salespeople are paid a minimum of $15/hour. political hierarchy which exists, these In Bello’s reimagined economic structure, cultural standards would likely derive from Chinese workers would focus on ‘production Western values. A lack of culture and for the local market’ instead of being a part diversity around the world would stifle of the prevailing corporate system which progress. Moreover, a borderless world disadvantages them. Instead of having would mean an outflow of talented economic activities in Argentina and Brazil individuals from poorer countries and the directed by Washington, he recommends that further imposition of Western culture. developing countries break away from the There is a place for certain current paradigm of globalization. institutions of international cooperation, but that cooperation does not necessitate a global Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 11 culture, citizenship or government. In order cooperation that permits the of to refine modern institutions and policies so nations to fix their domestic problems and that they no longer disadvantage developing sustain cultural diversity. countries, a reimagined economic structure which empowers their citizens is essential. Recognizing the agency of non-Westerners is an important step towards global cooperation; For instance, a nation’s unwillingness to conform to Western values like does not mean that their leaders are incapable of implementing successful social and political policy. Those individuals living in a country are the best suited to develop and implement solutions which will benefit its citizenry. Nonetheless, cooperation can be ‘international,’ between two or more nations, rather than ‘global,’ Conflict of Interest Statement including all nations of the world. Despite the impracticalities of full-fledged global The author declares no conflict of interest citizenship, the formation of strong national with respect to the research, authorship, identities does not preclude a future of and/or publication of this article.

Global Societies Journal Vol. 6 (2018) 12

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