I N T R O D U C T I O N : T H E M E S... Themes of World History

What are the themes of world history?

Introduction

In History Alive! The Ancient World, you will learn about various peoples, cultures, and civilizations that existed thousands of years ago and in unique locations all across the globe. Each of these groups arose in different places and at different times. But there are many common themes among them.

These similarities include the settlement of people based on geography and climate as well as the development of social structures. Also, you'll learn about the birth of arts, architecture, writing, government, politics, and religion within these civilizations. You will also read about how webs of trade routes connected these ancient peoples and brought them new ideas and products. Finally, you'll discover how huge empires rose from rural and urban societies as well as why they failed.

Throughout this program, you'll learn about each of these ancient civilizations based on their location in the world. But first, let's explore them based on their common themes. Keep these patterns in mind as you explore the wonders of the ancient world.

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Social Studies Vocabulary

gender roles

kinship

pastoral nomad

1. Thematic Approach

Historians use themes to identify patterns in history. Many possible themes can apply to historical events. Two broad themes are continuity and change, that is, the way things have stayed the same or changed over time. Two other broad themes are integration and difference.

Level: A 2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute I N T R O D U C T I O N : T H E M E S... Integration refers to ways in which the peoples of the world have been drawn together by historical factors. Difference concerns how they have remained distinct and diverse.

History Alive! The Ancient World highlights six themes in world history: human-environment interaction, rise of civilizations, growth and changes in societies, development of political institutions and ideas, belief systems, and interconnectedness of societies. Studying history with these themes in mind will help you make connections among events and interpret the past.

Human-Environment Interaction The interaction between humans and the environment is the first theme. The environment has been a key factor in human activity throughout history. The fact that people have to operate within the limits of the natural world has helped shape their actions. It has affected how and where people live and how they support themselves. At the same time, human actions have also changed the environment in many ways.

This theme covers topics such as:

• disease • population growth • migration • patterns of human settlement

These factors can reflect or influence conditions in the environment. Another topic is the environmental impact of technology, a major concern today because of energy use and climate change. Throughout history, however—from the birth of farming to the creation of factories —the use of technology has affected the environment. By changing how we interact with the natural world, technology has had a major impact on the course of history. As humans have created new and more advanced technologies, they've found that they must be aware of how they will affect the environment.

Rise of Civilizations The way in which civilizations arose is another important theme. As early humans learned the advantages of cooperating with one another, they began to form communities and societies across the ancient world. Many of these communities developed into early cities called city-states, and eventually formed civilizations. Today, evidence of the success of these powerful civilizations still remains.

This theme covers a wide range of topics. Some examples are:

2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A I N T R O D U C T I O N : T H E M E S... • the development of trade networks • the improvement of the written language • artistic and architectural advancements • the unification of smaller states • the prominence of patriarchal societies

Growth and Changes in Societies The organization of societies is also a key theme. In prehistoric times, people formed social groups to meet their need for food, shelter, and security. Over time, social groups banded together to form societies. Each society developed its own rules and customs to govern behavior and help it function. Although these structures varied from culture to culture, they also had many things in common. By examining and comparing social structures throughout history, we can get a better understanding of human life.

Among the topics covered by this theme are:

• gender roles and relations, including the place of women in society • customs relating to family and kinship • racial and ethnic differences and their impact on society • division of society into social and economic classes

Development of Political Institutions and Ideas Another key theme is the creation of political systems and forms of government. World history has often been presented as a series of one ruler or government after another. It is much more than that. Nevertheless, political structures are an important aspect of history and a key element in the growth of civilization. The way in which people have organized and governed themselves says a great deal about human society.

Various topics fall under the theme of development of political institutions and ideas. Here are some examples:

• forms of government • the nature and growth of city-states and civilizations • political revolts and revolutions

Belief Systems An additional key theme is the creation and development of belief systems. As ideas continued to develop throughout the ancient world, new philosophies and religions began to emerge. These belief systems often brought great social and political change to both the regions they originated in as well as those they eventually spread to.

Level: A 2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute I N T R O D U C T I O N : T H E M E S... Various topics fall under the theme of belief systems. Here are some examples:

• the perseverance of Jews under Roman persecution • the many social changes that occurred in India as Hinduism gained followers • the cultural impact Buddhism had on Indian empires • the impact of three philosophies on ancient Chinese societies and order • the birth of Jesus Christ and his effect on ancient cultures • the spread of Islam and its impact on the world

Interconnectedness of Societies The last theme you'll learn about is the interconnectedness of societies. All of the new ideas, products, and advancements that were developed in the ancient world eventually reached other parts of it. Large networks of trade routes throughout the world connected the groups you'll learn about, resulting in the combining of cultures.

Various topics fall under the theme of interconnectedness of societies. Some examples are:

• the exchange of inventions and products • the spread of religions and arts • the migration of people to new locations • the practice of diplomacy among societies

Keep these six themes in mind as you read through the rest of this lesson and the rest of History Alive! The Ancient World.

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2. Beginnings to 4000 B.C.E.

About 25 million years ago, a primate group called the Great Ape family split into apes and monkeys. Both groups thrived in trees, but they had some differences between them. While apes used their arms for locomotion by swinging in trees, monkeys primarily used their four legs for travel. As apes developed strong vision, monkeys developed a better sense of smell. Apes later split up into two other groups: today's apes (chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas) and hominins. Some of these hominins went on to become modern humans.

Even though there are many ideas regarding the evolution of these hominins, many scholars agree that hominins of the Homo genus developed about 2.5 million years ago. Like our closest non-hominin relative the chimpanzees, Homo sapiens, were partially bi-pedal and appeared around 6 million years ago. Eventually they evolved and could walk upright. Homo sapiens co-existed with other members of the Homo genus including Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, and Denisovans. Homo sapiens were lighter, less muscled, and more adaptable than these other hominin groups.

Level: A 2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute I N T R O D U C T I O N : T H E M E S... Evolution of Homo sapiens outpaced the other hominin groups about 70,000 years ago as its brain growth continued, which required larger food intake. These larger brains were making great social and technological advances such as pair-bonding, sharing of knowledge and technical skill, the ability to imagine and plan, and the creation of cultures and myths. Pair-bonding, which means having a single mate, allowed for more extensive child rearing and contributed to survival success.

The ability of early humans to adapt to their environments proved crucial to their survival when Africa's climate got worse about 160,000 years ago, making it unlivable. Many of our early ancestors died during this time, but others migrated to the southern coast where they found food and resources. The still larger brains of these early humans let them talk to and work with one another to defend themselves. They soon became more inventive, creating useful objects such as projectiles coated with poison. The cognitive, social, and technological advances of these early humans allowed them to better exploit and defend their territories. For these early humans, territory that was rich in natural resources was worth defending from invaders because access to resources led to increased probability of survival.

Early humans moved across the Earth and most continents about 2 million years ago, driven by population gains and increased competition for food. Additionally, they evolved from simple hunter-gatherers to farmers, which led to new inventions and innovations. These included the herding of animals, smelting of metals, the plough, twisted rope, musical instruments, alcohol, religious worship, and complex boats. Other breakthroughs were the discovery of fire, cooking, and development of tools. All of these discoveries made the standard of living for early humans much better. Soon, larger communities and civilizations (complex urban societies) grew around these farms.

As you read on, consider these questions:

Why did some humans start to plan and harvest crops? Why did some humans live in crowded villages and later build cities? Why did later humans accept the rule of monarchs and pay taxes? Why did the pace of historical change in certain parts of the world begin to speed up?

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3. Kingdoms and Innovations: 4000–1000 B.C.E.

As civilizations rose and interacted, technical and intellectual innovations occurred. Many of these advances appeared in dense agricultural areas like the Nile River valley of Africa, Indus River Valley civilizations of India, the lands around the Aegean Sea, and China. Advances also occurred in rural areas of the Middle East like Mesopotamia, Syria, Anatolia, and Persia. Around 2000 B.C.E., civilizations that rose in the Americas like the Olmec in Mesoamerica and the Chavín in South America also added to this kind of progress.

The inventions and ideas created between 4000 and 1000 B.C.E. were very important. These included the wheel, writing, complex metallurgy (metal working), codes of law, mathematics, and astronomy.

New ideas about social structures also occurred during this time. As the global population grew, powerful leaders rose up and combined smaller tribes into larger city-states with governments. These city-states were often ruled by kings, and sometimes queens, who said gods gave them power that could be passed down throughout their family.

With the support of political elites, these rulers taxed people from both

Level: A 2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute I N T R O D U C T I O N : T H E M E S... cities and rural areas to pay for bureaucracies, armies, irrigation works, and architecture. Writing was further improved to record the actions of these governments and leaders. This allowed for ideas about governments, religion, science, and literature to be shared with others. Early writings from Hinduism and Judaism set the stage for later religions.

As these city-states kept growing, some farmers migrated into more rural areas of Africa, Southeast Asia, North and South America, and Europe. They also moved to the steppes of Central Asia to start a new way of farm life. There, people called pastoral nomads lived off of the livestock they herded and often came into their local city-state to trade. Pastoral nomadism allowed humans to adapt to climate in large numbers by relocating when farmland was poor and to graze their herds over vast areas.

Sometimes wars broke out between urban and rural societies, which often gave the city-states power over farmers. These warring societies were sometimes ruled by monarchies which had vastly expanded their control over agricultural regions. Those who were not ruled by these monarchies may have remained in small villages or lived as hunter- gatherers or pastoral nomads.

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4. An Age of Empires and Interactions: 1000 B.C.E–300 C.E.

As the number of cities grew, a new and larger form of state developed: the empire. During this age of empires, the same patterns of change from the previous era continued—but at an accelerated rate. These complex new empires became much more efficient at coercing people and gathering taxes.

There were many large empires in the ancient world. In Mesopotamia, the Assyrian and Babylonian empires thrived. Persia was home to the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian empires. The Kushan Empire in Central Asia, the Maurya Empire in India, and the kingdom of Kush in the upper Nile River valley each made unique contributions to the ancient world and its people.

The largest empires were the Roman Empire and the Chinese Han Empire. At one point, the Romans controlled the entire Mediterranean Sea area and much of Europe. While they did not rule a large part of the Earth's land, these two empires ruled about half of the world's people.

Level: A 2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute I N T R O D U C T I O N : T H E M E S... The goods and ideas that were created within all of these empires soon interacted. The Silk Road's land and sea routes created a huge web of trade routes that connected empires across the Eastern Hemisphere. Similar routes existed in Mesoamerica and along South America's Andean mountain range in the Western Hemisphere.

Along the Silk Road merchants traveled long distances to get to their rural and urban destinations. The Silk Road allowed the trade of goods and ideas, which is how religions from across the globe were able to reach different peoples. Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, Greek thought, and the philosophy of Confucianism were all spread along this route and changed based on the social orders within each society.

The creation of metal money also helped interactions among ancient peoples. After spreading throughout the ancient world around the 6th or 5th century B.C.E., metal money was used in Greece, Egypt, Persia, Phoenicia, Carthage, India, China, and Rome.

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Lesson Summary

Thematic Approach

The six themes for analyzing world history are as follows: human- environment interaction, rise of civilizations, growth and changes in societies, development of political institutions and ideas, belief systems, interconnectedness of societies.

Beginnings to 4000 B.C.E.

Modern humans evolved from a hominin group called Homo sapiens. Hominins had to adapt to their environments and create inventions that would help them survive. After they discovered how to farm, communities and civilizations began to emerge.

Kingdoms and Innovations: 4000 B.C.E. – 1000 B.C.E.

As cities grew, kings took power and taxed the kingdom's people to pay for certain public works. During this time, many important inventions

Level: A 2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute I N T R O D U C T I O N : T H E M E S... were created and writing was heavily improved.

An Age of Empires and Interactions: 1000 B.C.E. – 300 B.C.E.

All across the ancient world, powerful empires rose from cities. These empires interacted along a web of trade routes. Both goods and ideas were shared along these trade routes.

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