Kin Relations and Minority Behavior of Hungarians in Romania

CEU eTD Collection

Playing the ‘Hungarian Card’: Government restrictiveness, host restrictiveness, Government Card’: the ‘Hungarian Playing In requirements ofMaster fulfillmentoffor partial the thedegree of Arts kin relations and minority behavior of Hungarians in in ofHungarians behavior minority and kin relations Department of International Relations European and Studies Department of International Supervisor: ProfessorPéter Balázs Central European European UniversityCentral Romania and Slovakia and Romania Word Count:14,023 Word Budapest, Hungary Kristína Czuczová Submitted 2015 By

- CEU eTD Collection this study possible. Thankme. you. Balázs and colleagues, Bugár Béla myresearch, with for metheopportunity giving todiscussmy consultations, his and interviews insightful for me suggestions,FORUMINST helping inŠamorín ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Further, I wish to thank Marica Further, Marica I wish tothank tothank I like would my supervisorPéter Balázs for timefor Professor his valuable

Mami Kovács ď akujem

for with activism sharing hisinformation and views onminority , k Apu Verešová

öszönöm.

for for family herconstant making support and my i

thesis his himand with

CEU eTD Collection presenting my languageeffects minority use oneducation, activism. and toa I come Finally, conclusion differencesin the analyze Slovakia, and the status their and minoritiesinRomania ofHungarian specificfocusonlanguage(with a poli governments, relations intherespective developments thelegislative and situation Hungary with outlineofthe as an well current thehistorical context, situation taking countries, inboth ofthe HungarianThe two overview minorities firstan provides chapter The ofthethesis introduction brieflyoutlines also themethodology states and thehypothesis. minority Hungarian than the Romania. in restrictiveness theminorityisless mobilized participatory government, and ofSlovakia’s active, moreare restrictive thantheone thecountries’ developments policies, inSlovakia’stheconditions minority and laws activism useand language differencesinthe ofcomplexness and minorities. Despite the co research respectively. and ontheHungarianpolicies minorities Slovakia, inRomania The ofmy scope EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The ofThe thiseffects aim the ofpolitics, thesis toexamine host is

thesis opens with a briefintroduction ofla a onthethesis topic openswith ncentrates onthe ofobserving minorities, isby which analyzed behavior education,

findings and making suggestionsfindings making further and for research. s

of Romania. Myresearchof Romania. indicates that

cies) ofminorities I intoconsideration.Consequently, ii

nguage and governmentnguage and policies. - kin relations and language language kin relations and

in thepast20years,as regardless of

for minorities

the

CEU eTD Collection REFERENCE CHAPTER 3.3 3.2 3.1 CHAPTER 3 2.2.3 Language legislation and disputes 2.2.2 Kin 2.2.1 Historical context and political situation 2.2 2.1.3 Language legislation and disputes 2.1.2 Kin 2.1.1 Historical context and political situation 2.1 CHAPTER 2 1.2 1.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTI EXECUTIVE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE OFCONTENTS

MINORITY MINORITY OUTLINE LITERATURE MINORITY LANGUAGE EDUCATION - - state relations state relations

4 1

– –

SUMMARY – – OF LIST

TOPIC CONCLUSION ACTIVISM SITUATION SITUATION THE BEHAVIOR EFFECTS ON MINORITY SPECIFICS COUNTRY

USE

...... AND THE REVIEW

......

OVERVIEW CASES PARTICIPATION

......

...... IN ...... IN

......

SLOVAKIA ROMANIA AND ......

......

FINDINGS ......

......

...... iii ......

......

...

45 42 36 33 29 29 16 10 22 19 16 11

II 7 7 5 3 3 1

CEU eTD Collection Print. 2 Slovakia and Romania regarding minorities. minorities. labelThe ‘host’ state infers that the country receives a diaspora,which is thecasenot of it was theborders that moved and cau important to note that this interpretation could be misleading, astheHungarian population didnot move, 1 opportunities,jobs oreducation for example. have symbolicvalueonly a For country. individuals totheHungarianeach minority,however, belonging do language Despite this frequency, similarity desires, in the level, form intensity and of demandsdiffer in respective countries, inline with demandand inRomania augmentationHungarians ofthe in Slovakia thestatusHungarian of schools, in language hospitals, local andstate administrativeand authorities. buildings Ethnic for as themajority. theminority well as important assimilation of minority.to prevent hence complete a Theissuesuse are of language national The ofa the maintenance identity. purity theindividuals their national with linking ofanation Its homelands. is essential for preservation Roman oftherestrictive because cases mannersofthe ‘hosting’inthis country, Slovakia case and contested the For Hungarians beyond INTRODUCTION

Csergo, Zsuzsa. Although Slovakia and Romania are labeled as‘host’ countries inmost literature as well as this thesis, itis Language policies createLanguage inpubl rules for theuse oflanguage languages are National forthe most successful important reproduction, cultural tools national is oneofthe unityand basicLanguage drivingforcesa of national main nation. behind a pillar

ia. 1

–

partially becausepartially distance insome from and ofthesimple reasonthemotherland, of Talk theof Nation:

– borders identity thisnational ofHungary, is unityand often

it greatly influences numberit greatly bythe theireveryday lives of available

Language and in Conflict Romania and Slovakia a desirea to“live their lives sed the‘displacement’ the of peoples and consequent emergence of

of is ofthe alanguage also one predispositions –

as fullyaspossible ic thatinclude areas street signs, . Cornell UP,2007. 145. –

in Hungarian. es not 2

CEU eTD Collection Slovak one, th hypothesis my However, that claims often are policies consideredand as triggers toincreasedminoritymobilizationparticipation. and Rest Romania. formationand language processes inSlovakia minority isliterature dynamic review, viewedconcept, regardmobilization a with as especially to forumsand theminorities established by inbothcountries. As thefollowing discussed in relations on behavior?” minority question arises that is domains official and minority. of activism in public and theHungarian theireffectsthesis education, language analyzes use through ofHungarian observingHungarian hostand The minoritiesis of through institutions, activism theHungarian studied several m In policies ofgovernment order to assess the importance - kin relations e Hungarian minority in Romania Slovakia. minorityismore in e Hungarian inRomania active than

“What “What in the specific cases of cases specific Hungarian this Slovakia, minoritiesinRomania and in the

are the effects of government restrictiveness, historical context and hostare theeffects ofrestrictiveness, and government context historical

in spite of spite opennessin the ofpolicies Romanian the comparisonthe with in 2

riction and moreriction and controlling laws combined with historical with combined context

The subsequent research ovements - kin CEU eTD Collection Cambridge UP,2012. 3. Print. 4 2.4. Print. 3 minority. Stroschein claims protests groups with thatregular the make familiar theirdemands and authorrole ofethniccontention also points outthe toachieve Hungarians policy resultsethnic of theirrepresentation. small inspite political restrictiveness host and is framework 3.3,discussing appliedtheoretical toSection theeffects ofgovernment ofV resembles a‘State risks inter In Jenne’s t thel is different. While minorityfinds ofOpportunity’.Hungarian itself ina‘State is as discussed rathersupportive, further this oninthe ofRoman thesis, thecase theoryfits relationship the minority. Since tothe ofHungary’s government Hun world, The Of Bargaining: Paradox Minority Empowerment TheLanguagein andSlovakiaTalk Of Nation: Conflict Romania And are of view 1.1 1 CHAPTER

Stroschein, Sherrill. Jenne, Erin K.

Stroschein’s text also focuses on the importance of protest and contention and the ability of Stroschein’s ofprotest theability ontheimportance textalsofocuses and andcontention toJenne’s theoryofethnicbargaining According LITERATURE REVIEW The major works dedicated tothis topicthat point The worksthe thesis major dedicated atheoretical focuses onfrom a non a

- ethnic conflict. ethnic heory, this would result in a ‘State ofC result ‘State ina thisheory, would Ethnic Struggle, Europe DemocratizationEastern Coexistence, in And - repressive majority results ina Ethnic Bargaining: The Paradox of Minority Empowerment Ethnic Struggle, Coexistence, an –

TOPIC OVERVIEW TOPIC

ulnerability’, where minority the accommodatessuffering repression. This obby is (Hungary) supportive actor is ratherrepressive. too,themajority - kin relations onminority activis kin 3

However, as the research in as theresearch However, this thesis indicates

‘State ofO ‘State d Democratization in Eastern Europe by Erin K.Jenne. 3

onflict’, minority the where and radicalizes,

in moderation thegradual of demands ofthe and minority behavior in minorityand behavior four statesthe of

pportunity or m. Nevertheless, the situation in Slovakia Nevertheless, thesituation inSlovakia

. Ithaca: Cornell UP,2007. 43, Figure by Zsuzsa by Zsuzsa Csergo and

‘State of P of ‘State garian minority in Romania garian minority Romania in by Sherill Stroschein, , S .

Cambridge: lovakia rather lovakia eace ’

of the Ethnic Ethnic 4

The ia: the ia: CEU eTD Collection Print. 6 5 is Most of thistoassessthe primaryaim data. research situation, using uptodate thecurrent focus istime frame also its language useminorities education, through observing their activism.The and particularit inwhich andthe the ways governmental policies environment the theminorities affect in live policies,language rather th shiftinginto consideration,while specificinfluences thefocusand of onminority behavior ofinternal democraticCsergo outlines thesignificance processes. This these debates takes thesis thereasons and mobilization em astrong itwith behind their debates of focus. center ontheimportance Jenne Stroschein mainly and minority Slovakia,thisRomania and because ofits oftheparticularity thedebate thesiscontribution a to is commongroundscreates onhighly contested even arguments. eliteshelps possibilities thepolitical tocreate for thatoverlooksand cooperation clashes cultural author comes toanoptimisticthe that conclusion strong commitmenttothe de therole Union, relationshipsThe actorsEuropean of external and Hungary. thestate, with kin the langua cultural integration, its reproductionand Thefollowsinternational usedomain. text theofficial in different forms ofmobilization. in assinceeducation Slovakia, theRomania as well i thatlanguage author believes of language presentsandcases and minorities. disputes The also examples several book over serve ascould basis the ofprovide a for interactions, commoninstitutions.creation allowing regular

Csergo, Zsuzsa. Ibid. Finally, Csergo’s work Finally, provides in an Although all three above texts three mentioned concentrate all Although ontheHungarian m

ge through Slovakia debate Romania and in democratization, their intothe accession a partial explanation partial a of policies thediffering effects oflanguage onthetwo Talk theof Nation: Language and in Conflict Romania and Slovakia

an concentrating solely concentrating an on processes. orexternal internal It highlights –

although theinformationalthough developments includes inthelast20years,

- depth study of language with regards with oflanguage depth study tosovereignty, 4

phasis on external influence, phasis influence, while onexternal 6

. Cornell UP,2007. 22. inorities in mocratic processmocratic s trigger for a 5

This view y ofits CEU eTD Collection

"Treaty of Peace Between The Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary." After theTreaty ofTrianon Romania Slovakia and comparativeserve as ideal studies case for various The reasons. first relevance The has ofthisglobal as scope research well

OUTLINE OF THE CASES 7

Slovak Hungarians experienced what is experiencedwhat while Hungarians as “Slovakization”, known Slovak now ill present, even with even functi ill present, lation suddenlyfound from itself itsbecame landlocked a homeand own

in 1920 at matter) are members of the European Union and are are matter) and at Union aremembers ofthe European

economic development, ofshiftingeconomic thelegacy from , which defined borders, part Hungary’s significant of a -

or pos - present/ww1/1920_treaty onal supranational legisla supranational onal 5 t -

EU accession periods of time, indicating accession clear EU indicating a periods oftime, - - mentioned authors.mentioned

minority issues are a phenomenon phenomenon minority a issues are - hungary.pdf>. ority plays a political role ority plays apolitical at ture. Istrianet . Web. 26 2015. Apr.

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"Census: Fewer Hungarians, Catholics Ibid. The minority in both countries faces various challenges, ranging fromThe ranging still bothcountries minorityin various present faces challenges, forms of is minorityinRomania The the Hungarian

18.9 percent of percent 18.9

Almost a century after the Treaty of Trianon, the consequences are still are theconsequences afterAlmost theTreaty ofTrianon, acentury present

political parties

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up to 9.4 percent of the population (509,714 oftheup to9.4percent population Specta e a political representatione a intheform of s directed consideredtobe against the tor.sme.sk - catholics . Web. 28 Apr. 2015.

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CEU eTD Collection Euro 13 Watch. p.17. Web. 27 Apr. 2015. . 12 Euro 11 Print. 10 mother oneoftheirmost tongue, demands. important positive inminorityissues, developments st but Hungarians The that tooksomethe clashes constitution inRomania. Romanian place of1991indicated secessionist. consequent established. was government regardless population, A oftheir ethnicity. cl in these times as wascrucial itprovidedfinancialfor and tothe Romania, diplomatic help entire celebrated was as regime thevictoryoftoppling ofHungary throughout role The thecountry. Ministry a and for waspromised. minorities the Theofunityamongst populat sense part ofthis a were too. movement righ individual became(NSF) and the government that set toensure new leader, vowed upa and “collective Historical2.1.1 and contextpolitical situation 2.1 MINORITY SITUATION IN 2 CHAPTER

Milenkovic, Milan "Struggling For Ethnic Identity Milenkovic, Milan. Jenne, Erin K. In the immediately theyears following were and afterIssueseducation broughtupalmost immediately of language the After ofthe Romania thefall Ceausescuin regime - - Atlantic Integration: Comparative Analysis." Atlantic Integration: Comparative Analysis."

clashes occurred,clashes Hungarians as byethnic somewere made demands 12

A violent conflict violent cityA inthe in1990 of ts freedom and for ethnicminorities.” Ethnic Bargaining: TheParadox of Minority Empowerment . "Question Hungarian of Minor "Que –

COUNTRY SPECIFICS COUNTRY stion Hungarian of Minority in Post -

Ethnic Hungarians inPost

Ceausescu’s attitudesCeausescu’s towards minoritiescondemned were

Milan D Milenkovic Blog Milan D Milenkovic Blog coup d’état ROMANIA ose relationshipNSF the between theHungarian and ity in Post 7

- Ceausescu Romania." 10 - -

, Romania experienced an experienced rise, Romania increasing of communist Slovakia and Romania in the Light of communist Slovakia and Romania in the Light of Târgu Mure

in 1989 13 It is important to note that 14 Hungarians 14Hungarians It istonote that important

ill lacked a law on a intheir education ill lacked , theNational SalvationFront . Ithaca: Cornell UP,2007. 109. . 3 May 2013. Web. 4May 2015. . 3 May 2013. Web. 4May 2015. ş

is only one of the examples of is oneoftheexamples only Human Rights Watch

deemed deemed coup ion was high high ion was

. Helsinki and the

CEU eTD Collection Print. 17 16 Watch. p.49. Web. 27 Apr. 2015. . 15 14 from turned autonomy(RMDSZ) demands away focused their improvementof and moreonthe compromise. theleaders Subsequently, Allians ofthe ofHungarians Democratic inRomani NATO pressure andthe ona thatthetwoparties these managed toagree organizations from It was mainl untilthemuch change CouncilofEuropeinsisted settlement between ona twogovernments. the theterritoryin orderto regain ofTransylvania. In ofEurope. Council to threatened side onminorityand treaty protection the veto admission ofRomani state’s became moreaggressive intervening demandsand and education completely abolished some subjectsinHungarian. previouslytaught disagreements and onEducation Law In a inscription 1995, caused passed, inHungarian. was which further prefects or Romanian altering population statue’s inregionsamostlya with Hungarian newspapers, allowing archeo forbidding openly nationalistic advertisements language, exposing in inHungarian views reportedinstances several Watch ofgovernment, bythe repressivetaken like measures minority often more asthey faced even Social LaborParty. and Unity byopenly nationalisticgained parties inthepolitical,sphere.nationalism butalso Almost public 20%

Jenne, Erin K. Carey, Henry F. " Ibid. Struggling Struggling For Ethnic Identity During this period of time, Hungary’s bilateralDuring Hungary’s intensified thistalks periodoftime, thekin Romania with and

y due toRomania’s y due eagerness ofEurope, and Union tojointheCouncil European Ethnic Romania since1989: Politics, Economics, and Society

disappointment, as it restricted the usage of Hungarian in in ofHungarian disappointment, as usage various itrestricted fields of the

Bargaining: TheParadox of Minority Empowermen

response, Romania response, Romania -

logical diggings beneathmonuments,logical diggings national Hungarian Ethnic Hungarians inPost 14

Nationalist politicians created dissatisfaction created politicians amongstNationalist the –

Greater Romania Party, RomanianParty Romania Greater ofNational repression during thepreviousregime. than blamed 17

8 The yearswithout disputes inthenext continued

- Hungary of interfering itsHungary with domestic affairs Ceausescu Romania." –

it refusedtreaties without a tosign . Lanham: Lexington, 2004. 249. Print. t

. Ithaca: Cornell UP,2007. 113 of all votes in the elections were elections votesof all inthe

Hum an Rights Watch 16 a tothea 15

Helsinki assigning . Helsinki a -

114.

CEU eTD Collection 22 21 Lines? Hungarian Minority Parties inCompetition." 20 Print. 19 18 groupsbeen Working formed have the parties, fellow with focusing onspecificissuesHungarian beenprevious for terms, minorityhave developments nevertheless. theHungarian positive made w now of the was theposition opposition. Although ofthe party Hungarian. population belowregions 20% Hungarian even with language theirofficial tokeep as of RMDSZ participation ofalaw on was thealtering public governanc local notestablished was Bolyai The either. achievement only ofgovernment thethird round of nev agreementwas signed,of minorities. coalition a thelaw Although providingsuchautonomywas onthetable brought for back in2004, autonomytalks RMDSZ aiming again autonomy cultural o territorial and autonomy ofTransylvania Council organizations rivaling minority.New of theNational established Hungarian were (Hungarian thewith constantpolitical compromises the educational linguistic and laws. startCluj, the talks about establishment ofHungaria a ahigh toreopen at Hungarians was government point during which in managed theirconsulate NATOissues, integration. and privatization EU and taxation, policies minority adopted only rightsl agenda and array, inits onawider minority language regarding education.laws and

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Bochsler, Daniel, and Edina Szöcsik. " Jenne, Erin K. Culic, Irina In 2000, the first splits in RMDSZ startedIn first the 2000, inRMDSZ tooccur, splitsdissatisfied asmembers its became radical er adopted.

22 . "Dilemmas of Belonging: Hungarians from Romania."

A turning point came in 2009, 2009, in turningA which pointcame was part became thefirsta RMDSZ when year 21 Ethnic Bargaining: TheParadox of Minority

A HungarianA university an separate ora at faculty existinguniversity at

CMNT, Szekler National National turning backCMNT,Council), topushing Szekler for ther harsh demands.

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Nationalities Papers y were forced to take with the with government totake forced y were onbehalf 20 18 9 - Most of the radical goals were goals ofthe radical achieved. Most never ethnic Bridges or Promoting Ethno

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Nationalities Papers

19 (2013): 761

Cooperation withinCooperation the . Ithaca: Cornell UP,2007. 117. eakened compared tothe - ike monetary and fiscal 79. Print. : 175 e, allowed which - territorial Demarcation - 200. Print.

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"Kin Bartunek, Istav. " Ibid. Due to the resentment and feeling ofsentimentDue totheresentmentfeeling and due tothelostthe Treaty of territory in lessAs RMDSZ, Hungarians inRomania, the demandsoftherepresentativeor became main -

State Politics in andCentral Eastern Europe: The Case of Hungary."

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parties, as noted in the next sections.parties, next RMDSZ as notedinthe Currently, remains tobethe

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- "Romania Backs Hungarian Citizenship Law "Ethnic Hungarians in Romania Keen Get to Hungarian Passport." Web. 2May 2015. Kovacs, Maria, and Judit Toth. "Romania’s Exports to Hungary Doubled in Four Years.” (Romanian). ultimii The official language status isThe language regulated official ofRomania thecountry’s in constitution,was which After with most signing thebilateralin1996 Hungary, treaty

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- In October that year, theIn thatpresident October year, of Romania, hungary.6kp>. 11 y wasdefeatedaRMDSZ at referendum.

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- CEU eTD Collection Cambridge UP,2012. 161. Print. 35 Perspectives Of EU 34 Romanians someand in1999, streetpu and domains. violent Afterpublic a ethnicclashesHungarians that occurredinTargu Mures between theofDisputes around oftenlanguage signs revolved public have language theofficial and in thatpreserving theirbelieves language is essentialthe for maintaining upuntil legislature oftheRomanian is intheweb today. held the toenforce notintheand competenceoftheEU implementatio Parliament’s resolutions.European accession constantlystressedof EU recommended has been the and and and theEU in Its to isproposed ofthe wasalso beimplemented. one and yet adoption 1993 soft in condi partiesorganizations. regards and specifically,political With tolanguage Minority a was Act prohibited”. shall be inpublic inviolable.Inare soundscommunication addition, censorship means ofany orother freedomthoughts, of cre and any opinions, orbeliefs, is Romanian.” legislation a tois for enact yet minority specifically languages: “ sole identity preservation, development recognizes minorities, andguaranteesState therightoftonational personsbelonging tothe

Stroschein, Sherrill. Eplenyi, Kata. "Council ofEurope Parliamentary Assembly Ibid. Ibid. Constitution Romania,of 1991 Language disputes Hungarians and ofRomanians Language as theminority commoninRomania, are

official language, language, official

.” 30

Article 13 talks specifically about language 13talksspecificallyArticle about explicitly statesand is thatRomanian the 31

The Language Of Rights Hungarian Communities Slovakia In And Romania: - Article 30, 30, ensuresArticle tolanguage, also linked the:of “Freedom expression of Membership. 32 Ethnic Struggle, Coexistence, and Democratization in Eastern Europe

raising The constitution’sThe 37alsoArticle into contents thefreeassociation

MA Thesis. Central European University, Budapest, 2009. . 2nd ed. Bucharest: "Monitorul Oficial", 1995. Print. and expressionand linguistic oftheir ethnic,cultural, and religious

it above Hungarian orotherit above minority languages, as thego

Nevertheless, parties itis the of political uptothe ruling will Council Eur of - blic signs in Hungarian have disappeared. signsThe have blic inHungarian

Opinion No. 176 (1993) on the Application by Romania 12

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In Romania, the In language Romania, official n ofthe Minority which Act, ir culture identity. and . Web. 2May 2015.

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CEU eTD Collection Perspectives Of EU 40 39 38 37 36 language by created and foreducation experts, approved buthasbeen notyet by implementation well as language as thesubject. skills,attempt toimprove thestudents’ which affects language thestudents’ knowled thisCurrently, isbyteachingsubjects solved being like history in orgeography Romanian as an mostly po Hungarian home,which possibilitystudent at likely in doesRomanian is a notspeak any regions a with schools, difficultHungarian which it makes extremely for the as well teachers as students. a If law A is lackingforwell. thepermission given thelanguage, that minority makesup20%of thepopulation. minoritieswas passed allowed that tocommu exam.language that of Cluj themayor employeesaddition, declared all oftheshould pass city Romanian a tobeinstalled signstime. Some managed across thathad Ro thecity todelay managed process ofCluj council, the signs ofinstalling bilingual for quitesome over20%. population allowingfor thepresidentissued1997, ordinance signs an bilingual inregionsaminori with signs, onpublic language including signs signs. festivals various intheOpera, and location In trying toupholdthela he schools, signs off middle ordered from claiming tobetaken was Hungarian even Hungarian where situation ofCluj, intensifiedthecity a in Romanian nationalist mayor Funar and became 163.Ibid, Eplenyi, Kata. 164.Ibid, Ibi Ibid,162. Minority education and is pointofMinority a education its as language controversy for inRomania Hungarians d.

38 The Language Of Rights Hungarian Communities Slovakia In And Romania: - Membership.

Although the ordinance was the theordinance defeatedSenate a Although bythe following year, law pulation, tothem first as teaching Romanian a isnot effective. language 37 w ofw language. the national

Although notrequire for this did confirmationbythelocal ordinance a MA Thesis. 57. Central European University, Budapest, 2009. 40

An alternative curriculum alternative An to truly solve this been issuehas

of teaching Romanian in foreignas Romanian a language of teaching nicate nicate local with authorities intheirmother 13 36

Funar continued to repress Hungarian Funar continuedtorepressHungarian mania had been vandalized. In vandalized. been had mania 39

The Impacts And

ge inthege ty CEU eTD Collection 46 45 Print. Implementation of Language Rights in Romania." 44 43 e% 20maghiari EN.pdf>.

"Article 76 p117Ibid. Schwellnuss, Guido, and Lilla Balazs. "Decoupled Em Ibid. "Declaration of Hungary.” (Romanian). 58. Ibid, Analyzing language rights positive language Analyzing developments local overall, and domain, had inthepublic problemminorityAnother with ed

tuations in public and local domain under localunder domain tuations members and minority inpublic which ofthe national Consequently, the state had a dutytoprotect a thestate had Consequently, minorityand languages their culture and t the meets operation university in currently requirements themulticultural all thus and -

5." Constitution of Romania, 1991 41

ucation yetucation is tobesolved theestablishment ofstate a her education. her education. European Commission 46 . 2nd ed. Bucharest: "Monitorul Ofici

45 Furthermore, public signs public authorities oflocal Furthermore, and

With regards to local public administration, regardspublic With tolocal se toa more conception of protective language Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues inEurope 14

powerment: Minority Representation and the

. Web. 1May 2015. 42 he reestablishment of al", 1995. Print.

The Romanian side Romanian The 43

On the both in

: 117.

CEU eTD Collection 51 50

"Seminar National Specialised Bodies 2003." Ibid. "Refworld | Romania: Ethnic Hungarians (Janua Schwellnuss, Guido, and Lilla Balazs. "Decoupled Empowerment: Minority Representation and the "Article 76 In Minority the Protection 2002, ."

A National Council National A forDiscriminationwasalso set Combating up,which reports tothe - 3." 48

, thecommitment such varies toimplementing strategieson greatly depending Constitution of Romania, 1991 and petitionsand received. were

50 s initiated by s by initiated RMDSZ wasformallypassed thegovernment and by -

bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=47de378f1a>. After year of a its establishment35cases in2003, of discrimination

any person ofany form any of victim isdiscriminationcan who the office the European orMinority Languages forCharter Regional . 2nd ed. Bucharest: "Monitorul Oficial", 1995. Print. was set up in Romania, was setwhich up inRomania, Council Europe of 51

The same year, year, Report onRegular The same Romania’s Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues inEurope ry 2001 15 blishing assessing and studies onthesubject;

47 -

January 2006)." This framework legislative is also

. Web. 3May 2015. - governmental governmental organizations tion of 20%, over some ofthe

Refworld serves d endorsing equal . Web. 6May 2015.

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: 117. - rights CEU eTD Collection 56 Lines? Hungarian Minority Parties inCompetition." 55 Nation 54 . 53 .

tly in theelectionstly in became members of1990and ofthe opposition. MINORITY SITUATION INSLOVAKIA . New York: New York UP, 2005. 216. Print.

ust theSlovakThree like majority. major political parties Hungarian twominor and 54 – ldest organizationsinSlovakia

Czechoslovak Hungarian dealt Association,Worker’s which Cultural mainly Modern Romania: TheEnd of Communism, the Failure Democraticof Reform, and the The

- bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=47de378f1a>.

56 1989 ‘Velvet1989 R

As soon as the Communist regime fell, the Hungarian minority theHungarian As regime soonfell, as theCommunist Building Inter 52 k Hungarians communism theCzechoslovak against grew,

Nationalities Papers activities/07 ž

itie), emergedwhich from CSEMADOK, ran representing minority theHungarian was

16 evolution - ethnic Bridges or Promoting Ethno

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January 2006)." - January 2006)."

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Ethnic Struggle, Coexistence, and Democratization in Eastern Europe

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it - mieste - - CEU eTD Collection Economic Research (2011). Web. 96 Perspectives Of EU 95 b Romania the question of divided intotwogroups. recognizing Kosovo,the EU and Slovakia which issues, anti but theoverall minorities. Initis someeven cases, butgovernments theatmosphere inthecountriestobeeverything for and seems favorable favorable a environment create for theirculture. theand language minority,their Moreover, the itappearstolerance, inorderto thatminimumis done trul being afterdeteriorated theaccession period. rights. additional with stall inthis afteraccession direction EU neither and intendstogovernment minority providethe have Slovakia accession.to and countries during EU seemed before However,both and Romania draws conclusions. several section attempts summarizedifferences tooutlineand the between Romania Slovakiaand and thewith kin theprove this inthegovernmentpast, developments byexplaining recent inthe the relations Sectionsrestrictive minoritiesthan theonesand ofRomania. 2.1 Hungarian to have on 2.2 aimed 2.3 COMPARING ROMANIA AND SLOVAKIA southern offorcingin Hungarians regions themtospeak Hungarian ofSlovakia. them bydecreas

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THE EFFECTS ON MINORITY BEHAVIOR ON MINORITY EFFECTS THE

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CEU eTD Collection Minority Education in Romania 116 2015. < 115 2015.

Andreescu, Gabriel. "Analytical Report Minority Education National Focal Point Romania." "Eurofunding for Education Unsatisfactory, is Only Half Used.” (Slovak). "SMK Wants To Include More Hungarian "Hungarian Teachers Will Return Textbooks Missing Hungarian Names.” (Slovak). "Minority Report 02.08." In Romania, most ofIn Romania, theabove Eplenyi, Kata. http://www.teraz.sk/slovensko/cerpanie - nazvy>. - Membership.

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Ibid, Ibid, Ibid. Mrva, Marianna, and Timea Szilvassy. "Bilingualism in the Counties of Southern Slovakia.” (Slovak). Ibid. "Minority Rights: International Standards and Guidance for Implementation." Should a minorityreach Slovakia in Should a a

120 (2010). Web. 33. 7 May 2015.

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Ibid,189. Horvath, Istvan. "Romania: Justice in Minority Linguistic Rights and their Institutional Validation.” Mrva, Marianna, and Timea Szilvassy. 43 Ibid, As statistics, perthelatest 75% ofRomanian to regard doma theofficial With

. as the mostAlthough understandand people Hungarian. bothSlovak of percentage

Gyakorlatok Az Európai únión Belül 128

In Hungarian households, theuse ofthemother tongueoftheIn minorityis Hungarian

ty also uses also itsty for rights double

in in the studiedin the Hungarianregions ahigh population with 127 "Dvojjazy

Compared to Compared usesRomania Slovakia, morein Hungarian . 188. Print. 126

č 35 nos Hungarians counties in live Hungarian witha

v Obciach Ju

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135 č né Ju

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- - CEU eTD Collection 138 romania Hungarian Free Press 137 136 posters, with provided are they ‘igen the with materials slogan otherpromotional and stickers service providersthemtojointhe‘igen asking and The projectRomania. is multicultu supporting public. discussion multiculturalism. Thesaid tobepopular concerning are issues meetings amongst the amultilingual debatefororganizes open everyone, instigating inter toattract events aiming public include and as many possible. as people Each month, thegroup toa campaigning ofamulticultural idea city as well. Hungarians, are of ethnic who group are number thereisgrowing Romanians a supporting the three with names the changing welcome sign iftheir initiative oftheand city is successful, its Cluj greet visitorswill for tobetrilingual thecity part events citizens take upcoming situation can in. ofminorities and education ofHungarian quality inRomania. thefaults gaps and indicate legislation, out inimplementing orcarrying theHungarian ones, adding and letters namestothe writingopen Romanian tocouncils fre implementing createddocumentation rights,language faultsa and pointsof inlegislation out the faults in

Ibid. Ibid. "Multicultural Romania: Young Hungarians Use Creative Protests toCall for Trilingua "Bilingualism 2012." quently takes action in action regions takes bymonitoringquently Hungarian street of thenumber signs bilingual Lastly, ‘igen ‘Musai 138 -

young

- Muszály’ is a group of Hungarians originating from isgroupofMuszály’ originating a Cluj Hungarians - European orMinorityBilingualism inRomania. European Languages forCharter Regional hungarians - tessék! ppeal to audienceppeal wider a flashwith campaigns mobs,various and media social . Web. 17 May 2015.

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CEU eTD Collection 141 140 opportunity to choose which language tocommunicate in. by staff when acustomer enters a store. By approaching the customers intwolanguage, he she or has the 139 studyminorities. conducted Nonetheless, sociological demonstrates in2008 a in thatHungarians more radicalsteps take would means bymoreextreme inorderto improve the it tothe beexpected situationinRomania, could compared Slovakia’s that Hungarian minority successfu demonstrates certain a to m forthe legislation minorities, ofactivists. regardless comes it ofthe when campaigning However, minority thethis Hungarian does inSlovakia thesis, especially commonthat not itis from benefit responsibility rights the enjoy tofully availa faulty or about awareness legislation implementation and oflacking directives, itis thecitizens’ their goals,groupofpeople.to achieve Despite nota importance initiative their raising in improve theminority is situations endit inthe uptothe as muchaspossible, minor of the minority communities.” “ using culture provides,frommovement while the demonstrating promotion awareness theircultural the and boardson notice across centers. and ininformational citiesand call firms become part list movement ofthea inthe online, thatappears organization’s participating tessék! undoubtedly contribute toundoubtedly co betterinterethnic

Ibid. Ibid. "Rolunk." ‘ igen It is not applicable to draw a comparison and determine comparison and minority todrawa It organizationis which is more notapplicable bothminoritiesAlthough movementsrepresenting have attempting theirintereststo and inority activism as such, the mere existence of these initiatives in Romania and Slovakia themereexistence inRomaniaand ofthese assuch, inority activism initiatives - da, poft da,

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i! level ofactivism inthecountries. Web. 17 May ’ means ‘yes, please!’ 141

2015. . -

tessék! in Romanian andHungarian. isIt a phrase commonly used ble tothem.As discussed sections theprevious of in 40 existence toanincreased and ofcomfortdegree da, poftida,

ţ i! ’ notes, themovements objectives 140

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ity as a whole whole ity asa 139

The CEU eTD Collection 146 145 Print. 144 143 ciernavy Slovensko 142 events theparticipation thewidergroup, outweighing publicand thatinclude of citizens. discussions, theSlovak igen and organizations past eventsand ofthe abovementioned surroundingcontroversy campaigning thec and participation muchhigher wasexpected,as onlythat a hundred few people a despite the attended Kerekasztal. thedemonstrationby recalls initiated to notes support Malinová Kovács Hedviga inmovements part orproteststake inRomania toHungarians compared muchare ofare inSlovakia to tomember Hungarians and notas harder KDSZ, willing mobilize Slovakia.Inaccording major arewithout and fact, inRomania objectives divergences toa theboth countries,beconcluded that methods itcan t intensity and used toachieve result radicalizedwould ina minority. the supportive, while tocurrently beSlovakia in state as a ofconflict, thelobby Hungary, can actor, as be considered chapterin theopening of this ethnicbargaining thesis, of Jenne’s expect Erin theory would Bugár notesamongst the thatminority thisnoticeable is list minority problems sixthSlovakia asthe merely most important other issueamongst ones.

Ibid. Ibid. Kovács Jenne, Erin K. Bugár "Trochu Svetla Do

- , B slovensko ma - tessék! , Balázs é ď la. Personal interview. 26 Apr. 2015 arských Vz

da, poftida, . Personal interview. 29 Apr. 2015. Ethnic Bargaining: The Paradox of Minority Empowerment - madarskych č ť host is government, Slovakia, ratherrestrictive. Asthis stated byJenne, ier ahov!

organizations tendtofocus withinthe more onactivities organizations structure ofthe ň ţ avy Slovensko i! spontaneous frequentlyorganize protests, open and demonstrations

Web. 13 May 2015. < - vztahov

- 144 .htm>. - ma

Nevertheless, by looking at minority activist at Nevertheless, looking by groups in ď arských Vz

http://www.pramen.info/c/1756/trochu 41 ase.

146 ť

– This theagendas also beobservedin can ahov!"

while Romanian CEMO, Romanian while in present times as well. Prame . Ithaca: Cornell UP,2007. 43. ň

: Trochu Svetla Do . 145

As an example, heAs example, an 143 Musai

A heir heir č ier s described - svetla ň avy avy - Muszály Muszály

- do 142 -

CEU eTD Collection mobilization? regarding and minority behavior, participation Hungari is an minority in factors, at various complex theHungarian advantageRomania tothe compared ofminorities.part ofthe thatoverallto beconcluded due simply Thus, welfare put,itcan and exploration. reasons the depthcould Analyzing this behind relationship inmore situation, political internal as itcr situation aswell. Chapteras in 2, analyzed amore Romania enjoys peace at considered tobe Orbán’sand does government support the minorit currently are important minorities.Hungary therelations the with roleinsupporting Although limitation. be occurrencescould thefocusperceptions and ofthis onratherrecent thesis viewed as a seats with. that RMDSZ thefact and remains tobeinthegovernment, regardless ofthe parties itshares its countries key Another identity. point development isparties intherespe ofHungarian thepolitical asin thecountry, its citizensacquired independent theirSlovak toprotect newly feltthe need inde the emergence ofan countries, itis By and situation theSlovakia. analyzing ofRomania political historicalcontext and ofthe 4 CHAPTER Moreover, Romania’s Moreover, Romania’s differing Slovakiahave and Furthermore, Hungary,plays relations with an which Romania This di ofthe highlights thesis crucial some an minority Slovakia. an in – Additional exploration ofhistoricalAdditional p and

it is

apparent evident

By comparing thetwocountries, this thesis determines –

CONCLUSION AND FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

that the Hungarian minoritythat theHungarian benefits inRomania fromunity the political that there are major disparities thetwo. major that thereare importantAn between factoris pendent Slovak state caused in1993, Slovak newpendent which wave a ofnationalism Hungarians also Hungarians The pivotal question of this th ucially ucially affects ofthekin thepotency

benefit frombenefit policies, morelanguage integra an open fferences the between Hungarian minority 42

direct

olitical developmentsolitical could new provide

relationship reflects that ontheminority

esis remains esis

lay lay ground for further - state relationship.

the importance ofthe the importance

– ies in certain aspects,ies incertain

how doesthishow affect ctive ctive l CEU eTD Collection severe impact a ontherevolutions Hungarian minorities have as well. thelastapproximately twenty but the years, historical bef developments of the mobilization lives and minorities. education. citizens reasons the clarify for speaking could Hungarian for oflanguage thechoice behind for explanation levelsofthe the as an lower useofthe while opportunities mothertongue, work by discrimination,explained thescope is beyond which could ofthis thesis. Discrimination thereason behinddiscussed behavior of example, certain be this theminority in could For thesis. support state. fromlobby it receives the minority, Hungarian underlyi butnot Slovakia.Romania, the bargainingexplained ethnic theoryofErinJenne, has proventomatch which of case the minorities is various by affected Slovakiais more in active than of opennessthe incomparisonwith the ofpolicies Romanian Slovak the one, HungarianRomania minority in the fromderived these analyses? ones. be similarity ofcan groups Hence are great totheRomanian organizations what and showsactivism assu the thatdespite indicate apathyaddressed and towards to theirminority The theuse study ofHungarian. of of theHungariansparticipation orimplement often toenjoy who fail inSlovakia, thelegislation and The activism. ofuse examination education languag and Another factorAnother is the I The hypothesis as ofthisthesistothe beaccepted, research can according c 3,thisAs seen inchapter through question language is observing analyzed minority education, t istocon important ng reasons it,suggesting behind that

The attitudes of thetowards theminorit majority

a restrictivea lead host toanapathetic countrydespite minority, the can

sider the factors affecting minority behavior otherthan thefactors theones minoritysider affecting behavior historical context .

This provides a new perspective on minority on behaviorThis perspective andthe providesnew a The of findings ofthis the that behavior demonstrate thesis

factors in different ways. Thefactorsways. introductory chapter indifferent of this thesis mption of Hungarian Slovaks toradicalize,mption Slovaks ofHungarian theminority

–

although instead of an expected radicalized,instead ofanexpected risking conflict 43

described in thisdescribed in thesis y have a potential a they have affect to greatly e usedemonstrates of thelack

The past rooted is deeply ore the respective ,

it it onducted, onducted, only includes includes only in spitein

serve CEU eTD Collection thatas there itis isobserved muchtobe inthis clear field. Analyzing Hungary. with have more inRomania Hungarians a centralHungary, location, without much border contact that important Hungarians torealize dispersed thewhile are inSlovakia along northern border of also economic, otherfactors political overall the like situation social and inthe country.It assimilation i of theminority still ethnically has lastingeffects,moremixed several common like that marriages the accelerate mostly Hungarians their Orthodoxand Slovaks religion, This sharethesame religion. and had alwaysbeenexample, while had Romanian Hungarians di accountedin bothminoritiesbe tothedifferences andcould observed between For them. Additionally , itis notonly directly thelegislation minoritiesaimed at thataffects them,but this n Slovakia, and increasedn Slovakia,and inRomania. segmentation social information could provide basis information provide could

stinguished dueto from Romanians

for further research of thisfor topic research further

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