Nematodes of medical importance pdf

Continue Trihuriasis of the United States: Recent estimates show that 2.2 million people in the United States are infected with Trihuris Trihiura (whip worm), mostly in rural areas of the southeast. Enterobiase: This is the most common of all helminth infections, with an estimated 42 million cases. Ascariaz: An estimated 4 million people, mostly in the southeast, are infected with ascaris species. Hookworm: This infection is still of low prevalence in the southeast. Strongyloidiasis: Prevalence of 0.4-4% was estimated in the southern states. Trichinosis: Prevalence is 4-20%. Anisakiasis: Less than 10 cases occur in the United States each year. Dirofilariasis: A total of 116 cases have been reported, mainly in the southeastern United States. Angiostrongyliasis (rat lung worm disease): This is a rare infection that has been reported in Hawaii and Louisiana. According to a WHO analysis, intestinal nematode infections are most common in Asia, where about 67% of cases have been reported. Trihuriase: Infection with T trichiura is one of the most common nematode infections worldwide; about 800 million people have trichurias worldwide, mostly in warm, humid regions. Infection rates of up to 75 per cent were found in young schoolchildren in Puerto Rico. Enterobiase: Pinworm is also widespread worldwide, especially in temperate countries. Children are most often infected. The estimated prevalence rate among children in different regions of the world is 4 to 28%. Ascariasis: Ascaris, or roundworm, infection is a common helminth infection in humans, with an estimated worldwide prevalence of 1 billion. The causal organism, lumbricoides, is cosmopolitan in distribution, being the most common in tropical countries. Hookworm: Human infection with 2 types of nematodes, duodenale and N americanus is estimated to affect about 550-750 million people. Strongiloidiosis: Infection is more common in tropical countries with poor sanitation, especially in southeast Asia and parts of Africa. Strongyloides stercoralis is also endemic in Jamaica and presumably in other parts of the Caribbean. An estimated 30-100 million people worldwide have syliloidosis. The prevalence of S stercoralis infection among people with HIV infection is 5.1%. Trichinosis: Trichinella species are common around the world and are widespread in nature among a large number of carnivorous animals, with humans acting as a random host. Trichinosis was a major public health problem and was reported in many Asian countries, including China, Japan, Korea and Thailand. Dracunculiasis: Estimates of the number of people infected with Dracunculus medinensis in Africa, on The east, India and other tropical areas range from 50-150 million. An An a campaign is underway to eliminate D medinensis, called guinea worm. Filariaz: An estimated 120 million people are infected with Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and Brugia timori. Loyasis: Loa Loa is distributed irregularly in Africa. It is estimated that between 3 and 13 million people in West and Central Africa are infected. Onhocercosis: Onhocerka volvulus infects 20 million people in West, Central and East Africa and another 1 million people in scattered hotbeds in Central America and South America. The disease caused by this filament worm is called river blindness. Anisakiasis: About 20,000 cases of anisakiasis are reported worldwide each year; more than 90% are from Japan and most others are from Spain, the Netherlands and Germany, depending on the habits of fish consumption. Dirofilariasis: The highest incidence of human beings was reported in the Mediterranean countries (Italy, southern France, Greece). Over the past two decades, dirofilariasis has been registered in some Eastern European countries, namely Ukraine, the Russian Federation and Belarus. Italy has the highest number of human cases of dirofilariasis. Angiostrongyliasis (rat pulmonary worm disease): This is an unusual infection that mainly affects the Pacific Basin and southeast Asia. Isolated cases have been reported in the Caribbean, Africa and Australia. Nematode infections are usually asymptomatic or subclinical. Strongyroidosis can be fatal in patients with weakened immunity and in newborns. Intestinal nematodes can cause some problems with the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. abdominal pain, diarrhea, anorexia, weight loss, malaise). Hookworms can cause serious anemia. Onhocercosis can lead to blindness (river blindness). Trichinosis can cause life-threatening manifestations, including myocarditis, CNS involvement, and pneumonitis. The larvae of the Anisakis species can be inserted into the stomach mucous membrane; endoscopy can reveal erythema, swelling, severe erosive gastritis, tumor nodules or ulcers. Anisakiasis has been reported to be associated with allergic reactions in some people. Patients with eye dirofilariasis often report discomfort, eye pain, sandiness and redness of the eyes. Angiostrongillase (rat lung worm disease) has an idea similar to bacterial meningitis. Rarely, neurological dysfunction or death can occur. Some of the more serious nematodes infections lead to symptoms of inflammatory reactions in vital organs and malnutrition. Nematod infections have no known racial bias. Nematod infections have no known sexual addiction. E vermicularis infection (pinworm) is more common in children than in adults. This article is about the body. For the infection, see Helminthosis. Filum worms with digestive system with holes at both ends of the NematodeTemporal range: Precambrian-Recent PreꞒ PreꞒ O S D C P T J K Pg N Caenorhabditis elegans, Model of the Species of RoundWorm Scientific Classification Kingdom: Animalia Subkingdom: Eumetazoa Clade: ParaHoxozoa Clade: Bilateria Clade: Nephrozoa (unrethed): Protostom Superfilum: Ecdysozoa Clade: Nematida Filum 1861 Classes Chromadorea Enoplea Secernentea Dorylaimea 1837 Nematoidea sensu stricto Cobb, 1919 Nemates Cobb, 1919 Nemata Cobb, 1919 emend. Nematodes (UK: /ˈnɛmətoʊdz/NEM-- -tohdz, USA: //ˈniːm-/ NEEM- Greek: Νηματώδη; Latin: Nematoda) or roundworms make up the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemat domini), with plant-parasitic nematodes known as e-ray. They are a variety of animals of the phylum inhabiting a wide range of environments. Taxonomicically, they are classified along with insects and other animal molting in the Ecdysozoa hoard, and unlike flatworms, have tubular digestive systems with holes at both ends. As tardigrades they have a reduced number of Hox genes, but as their sister Nematomorpha phylum kept the generic protostomy of the Hox genotype, it shows that the decrease occurred in the phylum nematode. Types of nematodes are difficult to distinguish from each other. Consequently, estimates of the number of nematodes described to date vary from author to author and can change rapidly over time. A study of animal biodiversity, published in 2013 in the mega-journal zootax, puts this figure at more than 25,000. Estimates of the total number of expectant species may be even more different. A widely referred article published in 1993 had estimated that there could be more than 1 million types of nematodes, and the claim has since been repeated in many publications. Since then, many other publications have strongly denied the allegation on the grounds that it is not supported by facts. Later, fact-based estimates brought the true figure closer to 40,000 species worldwide. Nematodes have successfully adapted to almost every ecosystem: from sea (salt) to fresh water, soils, from polar regions to the tropics, as well as the highest and lowest altitudes (including mountains). They are widespread in freshwater, marine and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species, and are found in such diverse locations as mountains, deserts and ocean trenches. They are found in every part of the Earth's lithosphere, even at great depths, 0.9-3.6 km (3,000-12,000 feet) below the Earth's surface in gold mines in southern Africa. They make up 90% of all animals on the ocean floor. A total of 4.4 × 1020 nematodes inhabit the topsoil of the Earth's soil, or about 60 billion per person, with the highest density observed in tundra and boreal forests. Their numerical dominance, often million individuals per square metre, which account for about 80% of all individual animals on earth, their life cycle diversity and their presence at various trophic levels indicate an important role in many ecosystems. They have been shown to play a crucial role in polar ecosystems. Approximately 2,271 birth therapy is available in 256 families. Many parasitic forms include pathogens in most plants and animals. One third of births occur as vertebrate parasites; about 35 types of nematodes are found in humans. Nathan Cobb, a nematologist, described the ubiquity of nematodes on Earth as such: In short, if all the matter in the universe, except nematodes, was swept away, our world would still be vaguely recognizable, and if, like disembodied spirits, we could explore it, we should find its mountains, hills, valleys, rivers, lakes and oceans represented by the film about the nemato. The location of the cities will be deciphered, as for each mass of the person will be appropriate massing of certain nematodes. Trees will continue to stand in ghostly rows representing our streets and highways. The location of various plants and animals would still be deciphered, and if we had enough knowledge, in many cases even their species could be determined by studying their former nematode parasites. Term from Greek (νηματώδης νηματώδεις), ntr. νηματῶδες (multiple νηματώδη); Latin: Nematoda. The etymology of the word nematode comes from the modern Latin compound nematha - a thread (from greek nema, genital nemato thread, from the stem nein to the back; see igloo) - odes like, nature (see - oid). Taxonomium and Systematics See also: List of families of nematodes Eophasma jurasicum, fossilized nematode Caenorhabditis elegans Rhabditia Nippostrongylus brasiliensis Unidentified Anisakidae (Ascaridina: Ascaridoidea) Oxyuridae Threadworm Spiruridae Dirofilaria immitis History In 1758 Linnaeus described some nematodes The name of the group Nematoda, unofficially called nematodes occurred from Neomatod. originally defined by Carl Rudolph (1808), from the ancient Greek νῆμα (Nema, nematos, thread) and -eiδἠς (-Ades, kind). It was regarded by The Burmese as the Family Nematode (1837). In its origins Nematoid mistakenly included Nematode and Nematomora, attributed to von Sibold (1843). Along with Acanthocephala, Trematoda and Cestoidea, she formed the outdated band Entozoa, created by Rudolphi (1808). They were also classified together with Acantocephala in the outdated phytomeasts of Gegenbaur (1859). In 1861, K. M. Dising treated the group as the Order of the Nematode. In 1877, the Nematuida taxon was raised, including the Gordiyd family (horse worms). Ray Lankester. The first clear distinction between the Germans and the Gordians was realized by Weidovsky when he named the group in which the horse was led, the order of Nematomorpha. In 1919, Nathan Cobb proposed to recognize nematodes alone by the phylum. He argued that they should be called nema in English, not nematodes, and identified Nemata's taxon (later overshadowed as Nemata, the Latin plural nema), listing Nematoidea sensu as a synonym. However, in 1910 Grobben proposed the Filum Aschelminthes and Nematode were included as a class of Nematode along with the Class Rotifera, the class of the gastrotricica, the Class Kinorhyncha, the Class Priapulida, and the Class Nematomorpha (Filum later revived and modified Libby Henrietta in 1951, as Pseudocematoloa, but remained similar). In 1932, Potts raised the Nematod class to the level of a filum, leaving the name the same. Although the Potts classification is equivalent to Cobbs' classification, both names have been used (and have been used ever since), and Nematod has become a popular term in zoological science. Since Cobb was the first to include nematode in a certain filum separated from Nematomorpha, some researchers consider the name Nemata or Nemata to be a valid taxon, not Nematode, because of the zoological rule, which prioritizes the first term used in the case of synonyms. Phylogeny Phylogenetic relationships of nematodes and their close relatives among Metazoa protostoms are not resolved. Traditionally they were held to be pedigrees of their own, but in the 1990s, they were proposed to form the group Ecdysozoa along with molting animals such as arthropods. The identity of Nematoda's closest living relatives has always been considered well settled. Morphological characters and molecular phylognia agree with the placement of roundworms as a taxon sister of parasitic nematomorphs; together they make up Nematud. Along with Scalidofora (formerly Cephalohincha), Nematoids form the hoard of Cycloneuralium, but many disagreements arise between available morphological and molecular data, and between them. Cycloneuralium or introvert depending on the reality of the first is often ranked as superphylum. Nematode's systematics due to the lack of knowledge about many nematodes, their systematics is controversial. The earliest and most influential classification was proposed by Chitwood and Chitwood, later revised by Chitwood, who divided the filum into two parts- Afasmidia and Fazmdia. They were later renamed Adenophorea (iron carriers) and Secernentea (secretors), respectively. Secernentea have several characteristics including the presence of phasids, a pair of sensory organs located in the lateral back area, and this has been used as the basis for this separation. the scheme was observed in many later classifications, although Adenopolea was not in a single group. Initial studies of incomplete DNA sequences revealed the existence of five hoards: The Dorilaimide of Enopliya Spirin Tilenchin Rabditina As it seems, Sezertea is indeed a natural group of immediate relatives, but Adenopolore appears to be a paraphyletic assemblage of roundworms, simply retaining a large number of ancestral traits. The old Enoplia does not appear to be monoophytic, either, but does contain two different lines. The old group of Chromadoria seems to have another paraphylistic build, with Monhysterida representing a very ancient small group of nematodes. Among Sezernentei, Diplogasteria may have to be combined with Rabditia, while Tylenchia may be paraphylistic with Rabditia. Understanding the systemicity of the roundworm and phylogeny for 2002 is below: Phylum Nematoda Basal order Monhysterida Class Dorylaimida Class Enoplea Class Secernentea Subclass diplogasteria (controversial) Subclass Rhabditia (paraphyletics?) Subclass Spiruria Subclass Tylenchia (controversial) Chromadorea Secernentea is a group that includes almost all the large parasites of animals and plants nematodes that appear to have originated inside Adenoporeia. The main efforts to improve the system of this filum are currently organized by 959 Nematod Genomes. A complete list of nematodes species in the world can be found in the World Species Index: Nematode. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA shows that the following groups are valid subclass Dorylaimia orders Rhabditida, Trichinellida and Mermithida sub-order Rhabditina infraorders Spiruromorpha and Oxyuridomorpha Ascaridomorpha, Rhabditomorpha, and Diplogasmorphteroa appear to be related. The rechargings of Spirin and Tylenchina and the infracorders of Rabditomorph, Panagrolymomorpha and Tylenchomorpha are paraphytic. Monophilia of ascaridomorphs is unknown. The anatomy of the male's Internal Anatomy C. elegans nematode Nematodes are very small, slender worms: usually 5 to 100 microns thick and 0.5 mm long, some parasitic species are still larger, reaching more than 1 m (3 feet) long. The body is often decorated with ridges, rings, bristles or other distinctive structures. The head of the nematode is relatively different. While the rest of the body is two-sided symmetrical, the head is radially symmetrical, with sensory bristles and, in many cases, solid head shields emitting outwards around the mouth. The mouth has three or six lips that often carry a number of teeth on their inner edges. Clay 'caudal iron' often found at the tip of the tail. The epidermis is either a syncytia or a single layer of cell and is covered with a thick collagen cuticle. Cuticula often has a complex structure and can have two or three different layers. Under the epidermis lies a layer of longitudinal muscle cells. Relatively stiff cuticle works with muscles to create a hydroskeleton like a nematode lacking a circular muscle. Projections run from the inner surface of muscle cells to nerve cords; It is a unique location in the animal kingdom in which nerve cells usually expand the fibers into the muscles rather than the other way around. The digestive system of the oral cavity is lined with cuticle, which is often strengthened by structures such as ridges, especially in carnivorous species that can have a number of teeth. The mouth often includes a sharp style that an animal can shove into its prey. In some species, stylet is hollow and can be used to suck liquid from plants or animals. The mouth cavity opens into the muscular, sucking throat, also lined with cuticle. Digestive glands are found in this area of the intestine, producing enzymes that begin to break down food. In the style of carrier species, they can even be introduced into prey. There is no stomach, with a throat connecting directly to the muscular intestine, which forms the main length of the intestine. It produces additional enzymes and also absorbs nutrients through its single-celled thick lining. The last part of the intestine is lined with a cuticle, forming a rectum that expels waste through the anus just below and in front of the tip of the tail. The movement of food through the digestive system is the result of the movements of the worm's body. The intestine has valves or sphincters at both ends to help control the movement of food through the body. The excremental system of nitrogen waste is excreted in the form of ammonia through the body wall and is not connected to any specific organs. However, the structures for the release of salt to maintain osmolation tend to be more complex. In many marine nematodes, one or two single-celled renet glands release salt through the pores on the underside of the animal, close to the throat. In most other nematodes, these specialized cells were replaced by an organ consisting of two parallel ducts connected by one transverse duct. This transverse duct opens into a common channel that runs to the excretion pore. Nervous System See also: Muscle arms Four peripheral nerves pass along the length of the body on the dorsal, abdominal and lateral surfaces. Each nerve is in the cord of connective tissue lying under the cuticle and between the muscle cells. The abdominal nerve is the largest, and has a double structure forward of the excretion pore. The spinal nerve is responsible for motor control, while the nerves are sensory, and the abdominal combines both functions. The nervous system is also the only place in the body of nematode that contains cilia that are all inmothic and with sensory function. At the front of the animal, nerves branch out of the dense circular nerve (nerve ring) around the throat and serve as the brain. Smaller nerves run forward from the ring to supply the senses of the head. The bodies of the nematodes are covered with numerous sensory bristles and nipples, which together provide a sense of touch. Behind the sensory bristles on the head are two small pits, or amfids. They come well with nerve cells and probably chemoreception organs. Several aquatic nematodes possess what appears to be pigmented spots for the eyes, but whether they are actually sensory in nature is unclear. Extreme male nematode showing the spice used for copulation, bar No 100 microns ( 47) Most types of nematodes are dioecious, with individual males and females, although some, such as Caenorhabd eleganitiss, are androdid, consisting of hermaphrodites and rare males. Both sexes have one or two tubular gonads. In men, sperm is produced at the end of the gonad and migrate along its length as they mature. The testicles open in a relatively wide seminal bubble and then during intercourse in the glandular and muscular ejaculation duct associated with vases deferens and cloaca. In females ovaries each of them opens into the egg (with hermaphrodites of the egg first get into the spermate), and then in the glandular uterus. The loss is both opened in the common vulva/vagina, usually located in the middle of the morphologically abdominal surface. Reproduction is usually sexy, although hermaphrodites are capable of self-enrichment. Males tend to be smaller than females or hermaphrodites (often much smaller) and often have a characteristically curved or fan-shaped tail. During copulation, one or more chitinized spicules emerge from the cloaca and are inserted into the woman's pores. Ameboid sperm crawls through the worm, which is spicy. Sperm nematode is considered to be the only eukaryotic cell without G-actin ball protein. Eggs can be embryonic or unkilled when the female is driven, meaning their fertilized eggs cannot yet be developed. Some species are known to be ovoviviparous. Eggs are protected by the outer shell, released by the uterus. In free-living roundworms, eggs hatch into larvae that are essentially identical to adults, except for an underdeveloped reproductive system; In parasitic roundworms, the life cycle is often much more complex. Nematodes generally have a wide range of breeding methods. Some nematodes, such as heterorhabdit spp., undergo a process called endotocy matricida: intrauterine birth maternal death. Some nematodes are hermaphrodite and hold their fertilized eggs inside the uterus until they hatch. Juvenile nematodes then swallow the parental nematode. This process is greatly encouraged in the context of low food supply. The nematode models of the species C. elegans and C. briggsae exhibit androdioecy, which is very rare among animals. The single genus Meloidogyne (the root node nematode) demonstrates a number of reproductive regimes, including sexual reproduction, professorial sexuality (in which most, but not all, generations reproduce asexually), and both meyotic and mitotic parthenogenesis. The genus Mesorabdit has an unusual form of parthenogenesis, in which male sperm are copulated with females, but sperm do not merge with the egg. Contact with sperm is important for the egg to begin dividing, but because there is no merging of cells, the male does not promote genetic material for offspring, which are essentially clones of a woman. Freely living species Various free living species feed on such diverse materials as bacteria, algae, fungi, small animals, faeces, dead organisms and living tissues. Free-living marine nematodes are important and abundant members of meiobenthos. They play an important role in the decomposition process, help in the processing of nutrients in the marine environment and are sensitive to changes in the environment caused by pollution. One round worm note, C. elegans, lives in the soil and has found many uses as a model of the organism. C. elegans has its entire genome sequenced, the development of the fate of each cell is determined, and every neuron on the map. Parasitic egg species (mostly nematodes) from the stool wild nematode primates that usually parasitize humans include ascarids (Ascaris), filaria, nematode, pinworm (Enterobius), and whipworms (Trichuris trichiura). The species Trichinella spiralis, commonly known as trichin worm, occurs in rats, pigs, bears and humans, and is responsible for trichinosis disease. Baylisascaris usually infects wild animals, but can be deadly to humans as well. Dirophilia imitation is known for causing heart worm disease by inhabiting the hearts, arteries and lungs of dogs and some cats. Hemonchus curvature is one of the most common infectious agents in sheep worldwide, inflicted great economic damage on sheep. In contrast, entmopathogenic nematodes parasitize on insects and are generally considered beneficial to humans, but some attack beneficial insects. One form of nematodes is entirely dependent on fig wasps, which are the only source of extra-fertilization. They prey on wasps, riding them from ripe figs of wasp birth to flower of his death where they kill the wasp, and their offspring awaits the birth of the next generation of wasps as the figs mature. Colored electronic micrograph micrograph The nematode cyst (Heterodera sp.) and the egg of the newly discovered parasitic tetradontide nematode, Myrmeconema neotropicum, appear to cause fruity miki in tropical ant Cephalotes atratus. Infected ants develop bright red gassers (abdominal cavities), usually more sluggish, and walk with their gases in a markedly elevated position. These changes are likely to cause frugivorous birds to confuse infected ants for berries, and eat them. Parasite eggs, having passed in the feces of the bird, are subsequently collected by feeding C. atratus and feed on their larvae, thus completing the life cycle of M. neotropicum. Similarly, several varieties of nematodes have been found in the abdominal cavity of a primitive social sweat bee, Lasioglossum zephyrus. Inside the female body, nematodes inhibit the development of the ovaries and make the bee less active, thus less effective in collecting pollen. Plant-parasitic nematodes include several groups causing serious crop losses. The most common births are Aphelenchoides (fliar nematodes), Ditylenchus, Globodera (potato nematode cyst), Heterodera (soy nematode cyst), Longidorus, Meloidogyne (root node nematode), Nacobbus, Pratylenchus (defeat nematode), Trichodorus Some phytopathic nematodes cause histological damage to the roots, including the formation of visible bile (e.g. nematode root nodes), which are useful symbols for their diagnosis in the field. Some types of nematodes transmit plant viruses through their feed activity on the roots. One is the Xiphinema index, the vector of the vine fanliph virus, an important disease of grapes, the other being Xiphinema diversicaudatum, a vector of the mosaic virus arabis. Other nematodes attack bark and forest trees. The most important representative of this group is Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, a pine tree nematode present in Asia and America and recently discovered in Europe. Agriculture and horticulture Depending on the species, nematodes can be beneficial or harmful to plant health. In terms of agriculture and horticulture, the two categories of nematodes are predatory ones that kill garden pests such as cutworms and corn-eared moth worms, and nematode pests such as the nematode root node that attack plants, and those that act as vectors of plant spread between agricultural plants. Plant-parasitic nematodes are often called eels and attack leaves and kidneys. Predatory nematodes can be bred by soaking a specific recipe of leaves and other detritus in water, in a dark, cool place, and can even be purchased as an organic form of pest control. (quote is necessary) Rotation of plants with non- sufficient species or varieties is one means of controlling parasitic nematode infestation. For example, marigolds grown over one or more seasons (cumulative effect) can be used to control control Another is the treatment with natural antagonists, such as the fungus gliocads roses. Chitosan, a natural biocontrol, causes a reaction of plant protection to destroy parasitic nematode cysts on the roots of soybeans, corn, sugar beets, potatoes and tomato crops without harming the beneficial nematode in the soil. Steamed soil is an effective method of destroying nematodes before planting crops, but indiscriminately eliminates both harmful and useful soil. The golden nematode Globodera rostochiensis is a particularly harmful variety of nematodes pests, leading to quarantines and crop failures around the world. The CSIRO found a 13-14-fold reduction in the density of the nematode population in areas with Indian brassica juncea mustard green manure or seed flour in the soil. The epidemiological year of life for people with disabilities for intestinal nematode infections per 100,000 in 2002. 25-50 50-75 75-100 100-120 120-140 140-160 160-180 180-180-180-180200 200-220 220-240 qgt; 240 No data Play MEDIA Anthelmintic effect of papain on Heligmosomoides bakeri A number of intestinal nematodes cause diseases affecting humans, including ascariase, trihuriase, and nematode disease. Filaryl nematodes cause filariasis. Soil ecosystems About 90% of nematodes are found in the upper 15 cm (6) soil. Nematodes do not decompose organic matter, but, on the contrary, are parasitic and freely living organisms that feed on living material. Nematodes can effectively regulate bacterial populations and community composition - they can eat up to 5,000 bacteria per minute. In addition, nematodes can play an important role in the nitrogen cycle by mineralizing nitrogen. One group of carnivorous fungi, nematophic fungi, are predators of nematodes of soil. They establish temptations for nematodes in the form of lasso or adhesive structures. The Society and The Culture of Nematode Worms (C. elegans), part of an ongoing research project conducted in 2003 by the Space Shuttle Colombia mission STS-107, has experienced a re-entry of decay. It is believed to be the first known form of life experienced by a virtually unprotected atmospheric descent to the Earth's surface. See also Biological Pest Control - Pest Control Method using other living organisms Capillaria List of Organic Gardening and Agriculture Topics List of Human Parasites - Wikipedia list of articles Toxocariasis - Human disease, Caused by dog larvae, cat or fox roundworm: Helminth infection of people caused by a dog or cat roundworm, Toxocara canis or Toxocara katie worm bags - a process where nematodes of eggs hatch within parents and larvae begin to consume and come out of the parental Links Nematode Fossil-Nematode. Virtual Fossil Museum. 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Harper Adams University College of Nematoology Research Nematode/RoundWorm Human the European Society of Nematologs Nematode.net: A Repository of Parasitic Nematodes Sequences. //www.nematodes.org/ NeMys World Free Living Marine Nematode Database Nematode Virtual Library International Federation of Nematolog Societies society of nematologs Australian Association of Nematologs Research nematodes and longevity Nematode at BBC Nematode worms in the Aquarium Of Phytoma as Nematode - nematode on the UF/mFAS Featured Creatures website, extracted from the tissue nematodes of medical importance. medical and agricultural importance of nematodes

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