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Volume 24 No. 4. October 1994 The Journal of Gemmology

The Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain President E.M. Bruton

Vice-Presidents A.E. Farn, D.G. Kent, RK. Mitchell

Honorary Fellows R.T. Liddicoat Jn1'., E. Miles, K. Nassau, E.!\. Thomson

Honorary Life Members D.J. Callaghan, E.A. Jobbins

Council of Management CR Cavey, T.J. Davidson, N.W. Decks, E.C Emrns, RR Harding, 1. Thomson, V.I'. Watson

Members' Council A.J. Allnutt, P.J.E. Daly, P. Dwyer-Hickey, R Fuller, B. Jackson, J. Kessler, C. Monnickendam, L. Music, J.B. Nelson, K. Penton, P.G. Read, 1. Roberts, R Shepherd, R Velden, CH. Winter

Branch Chairmen Midlands: J.W. Porter North West: 1. Knight

Examiners A.J. Allnutt, MSc., Ph.D., rCA L. Bartlett, BSc., M.Phil., FCA, DCA E.M. Bruton, FCA, DCA CR Cavey, FCA S. Coelho, BSc., rCA, DCA AT Collins, BSc., Ph.D. B. Jackson, FCA, E.A. [obbins, BSc., CEng., fIMM, FCA C.B. Jones, BSc., Ph.D., FCA D.C. Kent, FCA R.D. Ross, BSc., FCA P. Sadler, SSc., PGS, PCA, DCA E. Stern, rCA, DCA Prof. 1. Sunagawa, DSc. M. Tilley, GC, FCA C Woodward. BSc., FCA, DCA

The Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain 27 Greville Street, London ECIN 8SU Telephone: 071-404 3334 Fax: 071-404 8843 The Journal of Gemmology

VOLUME 24 NUMBER 4 OCTOBER 1994

Editor Dr R.R. Harding Production Editor M.A. Burland

Assistant Editors M.J. O'Donoghue P.G. Read

Associate Editors S.M. Anderson London Dr C.E.S. Arps Leiden G. Bosshart Zürich Dr A.T. Collins London Dr J.W. Harris Glasgow Prof. R.A. Howie Derbyshire Dr J.M. Ogden Cambridge Dr J.E. Shigley Santa Monica Prof. D.C. Smith Paris E. Stern London Prof. I. Sunagawa Tokyo Dr M. Superchi Milan CM. Woodward London

Any opinions expressed in The Journal of Gemmology are understood to be the views of the contributors and not necessarily of the publishers.

Cover Picture The Hope Pearl in its crown setting. Photograph: Mikimoto. (See The Hope Pearl p. 235)

ISSN: 1355-4565 234 J. Gemm., 1994, 24, 4

Editorial

The first two papers in this issue of the development. To date, however, their his Journal concern pearls. The Hope Pearl is torical background has been the result of famous through a connection with much speculation and a thorough Tavernier in 1669 and derives its name summary of the known records, long from being part of the Hope collection of overdue, is published in this issue. Some gems in the 1830s. famous gems in the world's regalia may Over time this collection has been dis well have their origins in northern persed but parts are still identifiable Afghanistan and the evidence is assessed. notably in the Smithsonian Institution and Papers on Burmese gems have been in the Natural History Museum, London. increasing in frequency in the past few This is the first modern professional gem- years and here the first of two accounts of mological description of the Hope Pearl to the jades of Myanmar by two authors on appear in print. the spot in Yangon deals with their compo The roots of gemmology lie in the appli sition. The constituent minerals and cation of mineralogical, physical or chemistry of a representative range of dif chemical techniques to the solution of gem ferent coloured jades are described and problems and the second pearl paper related to an extensive set of illustrations. extends this concept to the discipline of Two short papers complete the contents biomineralization. There is considerable of this issue: new dendritic opals are research today into how organic tissues described from Zambia and a new appear secrete and deposit solid matter and the ance in the trade of a star ruby imitation is application of some of these ideas has led reported by Dr Schmetzer. The latter mate the authors to conclusions of importance to rial is dyed star corundum and is plainly the future of the cultured pearl industry. being produced to tempt the unwary The third paper takes us from sea level public; however, advice on how to recog (or below) to high in the western nize these treated stones is clearly outlined. Himalayas where the gems of Afghanistan R.R.H. are the subject of renewed exploration and J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 235

The Hope Pearl

Stephen J. Kennedy*

Shigeru Akamatsu and Yasunori Iwahashi**

* Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain ** Pearl Research Laboratory, K. Mikimoto & Co. Ltd, Japan

Abstract Introduction The Hope Pearl and its crown setting In 1993 the London Laboratory was priv is described and the history of the item ileged to examine one of the larger pearls is reviewed. The pearl was examined by known to exist. The Hope Pearl was pur fluorescence emission spectrometry, chased by H.E. Mohammed Mahdi Al-Tajir reflection spectrophotometry, X-ray fluorescencein 197 4 from Gerards, the Paris jewellers analysis and X-ray (personal communication). The pearl radiography. Surface features and the formed part of the Christie's exhibition in X-ray radiograph proved it to be a 1989 called The glory of the goldsmith - natural blister pearl. A peak at 620nm magnificent gold and silver from the Al-Tajir in the fluorescence emission spectrum collection. Last year, under a loan agree indicates the presence of porphyrin in ment, the pearl was to be taken from the coloured base of the pearl. The London to Tokyo to be the centrepiece of reflection spectrum confirms the presence an exhibition arranged by K. Mikimoto & of porphyrin as well as displaying Company. The pearl was examined by X- a trough at 700nm characteristic for a ray radiography and its surface was closely black pigment found in Black-lip pearls inspected before departure, and the labora from the Pinctada margaritifera oyster. tory was asked to assess whether any

Fig. 1. The Hope Pearl, viewed from the front (left), from the right-hand side (centre) and from the back (right). Photos: Mikimoto.

damage had been suffered by the pearl jewel merchant, in the mid-seventeenth when it was returned to London. Once in century. The pearl is believed to have been Japan much more extensive research was sold to Louis XIV, possibly when the two carried out at the Mikimoto Pearl Research met in 1669 (Tavernier, J.B., English trans Laboratory at Toba, Toba-shi, Mie-ken. lation 1889). Henry Philip Hope died in 1839 and the Description and History pearl was passed down through the family. The Hope Pearl (Figure 1 and cover Mr A.J. Beresford-Hope loaned the pearl to picture) is roughly drop-shaped with irreg the South Kensington Museum (Streeter, ular channels on the surface around the 1886) at some stage subsequent to its base. The narrower top of the pearl is opening in 1881. The pearl was sold with white in colour with a bright orient other gemstones from the Hope collection whereas the broader base graduates to an in 1886 by the auctioneers Christie & iridescent greyish-purple. The narrow top Manson. Garrard & Co. of London pur end of the pearl is capped with a gem-set, chased the pearl and it is known that it was red-enamelled, gold-coloured metal arched being offered for sale in 1908 at £9000 crown pendant fitting. The item measures (Kunz and Stevenson, 1908). As men approximately 9cm in length from the top tioned above the pearl was purchased in of the crown fitting to the base of the pearl. 1974 for a figure that has been quoted at The broader base of the pearl varies in $200,000 (Newman, 1981). At some time width between approximately 3cm to 4cm prior to this the pearl had been exhibited at (Figure 2). The whole item of jewellery the Smithsonian Institution in Washington weighs 134.6 grams. (Taburiaux, 1985). The crown fitting has been set with 70 diamonds in the arches and the pendant Investigation methods ring part of the fitting, and three rectangu In addition to microscopic and fibre- lar natural emeralds, four round natural scope examination the following rubies and two blue lozenge-shaped pastes techniques were also used in examining are set in the front part of the band of the the pearl: crown fitting. The blue, orange, and green 'gem-shapes' on the reverse part of the Ultra-violet fluorescence crown band (Figure 3) are small enamelled The fluorescent colours emitted by a geometric shapes giving an appearance of pearl when irradiated by ultra-violet light set gems. In addition to these small areas may yield information concerning the of enamel there is also a large area of red species of the mother oyster (Sawada, 1958; enamel on the cap underneath the arches of Miyoshi et al, 1987 a and b). the crown. The pearl itself is reputed to weigh 450ct Fluorescence emission spectrometry or 1800 grains. As its name implies, the The different fluorescent colours emitted pearl formed part of the famed collection by pearls originating from certain oysters of the London banker Henry Philip Hope, can produce characteristic fluorescence which was assembled in the early 1800s. emission spectra. Black pearls from the The collection, which was catalogued by black-lipped Vinciada margaritifera (Miyoshi Bram Hertz in 1839, is probably best et al., 1987 a and b) and pearls from the known for the 45.52ct deep-blue Hope Mabe Pteria penguin can be distinguished Diamond. The previous history of the from other pearls by the presence of a peak pearl is sketchy but reference (Dickinson, at 620nm in their fluorescence emission 1968) is made to it having been purchased spectra (Figure 4), which is due to the pres in India by Jean Baptiste Tavernier, the ence of porphyrin. The fluorescent J. Cemm., 1994,24,4 237

P. marg,orltifcra r black white shell

'{ P. p enguin .,-... I '\ t 40 grey .. pearl o r:»: c I " I \ \ ~ ~- \ I i ~' /~ , - I \ Q; 20 \ <, -*------~ .1._ !, a: \ I ' --

"c c c bla ck shell en" ..<; 0 , I I I I ::0 400 bUU 800 ii: Wav elength (nm)

I r '-L. _.1 ~

- -- P. ma xima .,..-- <, Fig. 5. Op tica l reflection spectra of a pe arl an d the <, shells of Pinciada margaritijera(solid cur ves) <, - - P. lucata <, and the reddish-brown shell of Pteria penguin <, <, (dashed curve), wh ich can be differentiated on <, '- .... the basis of a trough at 700nm in the spectra for Pille/ada margariiifera.

X-ray fluorescence analysis The main inorgan ic component of pearl Fig. 4. Fluorescen ce emiss ion spectra of th e nacre from different types of oysters, showing how is calcium carbonate. The chemical com th e nacre from Pteria penguin and th e black position also includes some minor na cred Pinctada margaritifera differ from the elements, of which the relative amounts of nacre of o the r oysters by th e presence of a man ganese and strontium have been found peak at 620nm. to be an important indicator of the species emission characteristics of the coloured of the pea rl-producing mother oyster. base of the Hope Pearl were measu red Freshwa ter pearls can be differentiated with a Nihon Bunko spectrofluoropho from marine oyster pearls on the basis that tometer Model FP770 at an excitation the latter have lower concentrations of waveleng th of 400 nanometres. man ganese and higher concentrations of strontium (Wada and Fujinuki, 1988). Reflection spectrophotometry Amongs t seawater pearls strontium is The pigmentation of coloured pea rls can found in slightly greater concentrations in also give rise to speci fic reflection spectra Black-lip (Pinciada margaritifera) and White in the visible region for particular pearl lip (Pinctada maxima) pearls than in Akoya producing oysters (Wada, 1983). The (Pinciada[ucaia) pearls. The Hope Pearl reflection spectra for grey Pinctada margari was analysed for calcium, manganese and tifera pearls display a trough at 700nm strontium by Energy Dispersive X-ray whereas the spectra for Pteria penguin spectrome try using Seiko Model SEA 2001. pearls do not show the trough (Figure 5). A reflection spectrum was obtained from X-ray radiography the iridescent grey ish-purple base of the The internal structure of the Hope Pearl Hope Pearl using a CMS-35sp spectropho was revealed by X-ray radiography. In tometer from the Murakami Color Japan the radiographs were obtained using Research Laboratory. a SOFTEX CMB-2 set. In London the spe- 238 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

daily designed X-ray set uses a Machlett fine focus diffraction tube with a molybde num anode target.

Results and discussion Visual examination of the reverse side of the Hope Pearl reveals the growth lines that prove the pearl was attached to the shell (Figure 6) and should therefore be

Fig. 6. Surface growth lines on the back of the Hope Fig. 8. Positive photograph of the X-radiograph taken Pearl indicating its blister origin. 5x. of the Hope Pearl.

conchiolin is recorded on the radiograph negative (not shown) by a series of faint growth lines sweeping across the body of the pearl to its edge; this pattern is typical for a natural blister pearl which has grown away from the inner surface of the shell. The coloured base of the pearl fluoresces a reddish colour under ultra-violet light, and this suggests the presence of por phyrin pigment known to exist in Black-lip (Iwahashi and Akamatsu, 1994) and Mabe pearls (Comfort, 1949). surface of the riope Pearl typical of pearls from The fluorescence emission spectra nacreous bivalves. 25x. recorded under 400nm radiation contain a peak at 620nm (Figure 9), confirming that described as a natural blister pearl. At the pigment is porphyrin, which can be higher magnification the striped pattern of found in both Black-lip and Mabe pearls. overlapping platelets (Figure 7) character Porphyrin also gives rise to the troughs istic of nacreous bivalves can be seen. The at 400nm and 500nm in the reflection fact that light from the fibrescope could not spectra (Figure 10a and b). More impor penetrate very far through the surface of tantly the trough at 700nm (Figure 10c) is the pearl indicates that it consists mainly of characteristic for a black pigment con solid calcium carbonate, and this was con tained in the Black-lip pearl. firmed by the X-ray radiographs (Figure 8). The X-ray fluorescence analysis reveals The presence of the organic component concentrations (cation %) of 99.54% for J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 239

1.0 .r-.,------,

0 .8 25 .. r 20 ~ b 0.6 I >- 15 ~ c -.; .,c: <: 10 0.4 5

40 0 450 50 0 55 0 600 65 0 700 730 0.2 Wa ve length ( nm l

Fig. 10. Optical reflection spectrum of the Hope Pearl. The troughs at (a) and (b) relate to porphyrin, 450 50 0 550 600 650 the trough (c) at 700nm is typ ical for a black Wave length t nm ) pigment contained in Pi~ ctada margaritifera.

Fig. 9. Fluorescence emission spectru m of the Hope References Pea rl showing the p resence of the peak at Christie's, 1989. Theglory of thegoldsmith- magnificent gold and 620nm . silverfrom the AI-Tajir collection. Catalogue of exhibition in London Comfort, A., 1949. Acid soluble pigments of shells. The dis calcium, 0.42% for strontium, and 0.04% for tribution of porphyrin fluor escence in mollu scan shells. Biochemical jOll rnal, 44, 111-17 manganese. The relatively low concentra Dickinson, J.Y., 1968. Thebook of pearls. Crow n Publishers Inc., tion of manganese and high concentration NY of strontium point to a marine origin for Hert z, B., 1839. Catalogue of the collection of pearls and precious stonesformed by Hellry Philip Hope, Esq. William Clowes & the Hope Pearl. Sons, Lond on Iwah ashi, Y., Akama tsu, 5., 1994. Porphyrin pigment in Black Conclusions lip and its application to pearl id entificati on. Fisheries science, 60, 69-71 The Hope Pearl is a natural blister pearl Kunz, G.F.,Stevenson, C.H ., 1908. The book of the pearl. The of solid nacre. The pigments present in the Century Co., NY bronzed area indicate tha t the Black-lip Miyoshi, T., Matsud a, Y., Komatsu, H., 1987a. Fluorescence of pearls in distin guish ing mo ther oy st er s used in pearl oyster (Pinciada margdritifera) is the most culture. Japanesejournal ofapplied physics, 26, 4, 578-81 likely source of the pearl. Miyoshi, T., Matsud a, Y., Komatsu, B., 1987b. Fluorescence of pearls and shells from Black-lip oyster Pinctada margaritifera and its contribution to the distinction of moth er oys ters Acknow ledgements used in pearl culture. Japanese journat ofapplied physics, 26, The authors wish to convey their thanks 7, 1069-72 to the owner, H.E. Mahdi Mohammed Al Newman, H., 1981. An iIlustrateddictionary of jewelry. Thames & Hudson,London Tajir, for his permission to publish this Sawada,Y., 1958. Studies in the fluorescence of pearls. Bulletin article. ofthe national pearl researchlaboratory, 4, 340-6 Streeter, E.W., 1886. Pearlsand pearling life. Georgc Bcll & Son, SJKwould like to thank his colleague London Ana Isabel Castro who examined the pearl Taburiaux, J., 1985. Pearls, their origin, treatment and identifica with him . He would also like to acknowl tion. NAGPress, Ipswich Tavernier, J.B., 1889. Travels in India. Translated by v.Ball, edge all the assistance given by Mr Ryo Macmillan & Co., London . Yamaguchi. Further thanks from the Wada , K., 1983. Spectral characteristics of pearls. iournal ofthe London author go to Nick Silver, who Gemmological Society of japa n, 10, 4, 95-103 Wada, K., Fujinuki, T., 1988. Factors controlling the amount s of arranged for the London Laboratory's minor elements in pearls. JournaloftheGemmological Society involvement in the project. of/a pan, 13, 1-4, 3-12 240 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

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Structural and chemical investigations on shells and pearls of nacre forming salt- and fresh-water bivalve molluscs

W. Gutmannsbauer* and H.A. Hänni**, FGA

Institute of Physics, Klingelbergstr. 82, 4056 Basel, Switzerland

**Mineralogical Institute, Bernoullistr. 32, 4056 Basel, Switzerland

Abstract To investigate the shell structure of some pearl-forming bivalve molluscs the following techniques were used: light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), texture goniometry, scanning force microscopy (SFM), energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). X-ray diffractograms were taken to determine the identity of the minerals forming the shell. They were identified as aragonite in the mother-of-pearl layer and as calcite in the prismatic layer. The X-ray diffractograms also showed that the orientation of the crystallites forming the nacreous layer of freshwater mussels is different from those of saltwater oysters. In pictures taken by SEM the aragonite crystals of all the investigated mussels except Hyriopsis schlegeli show a pseudo-hexagonal shape. Investigations by texture goniometry indicate the crystals to be single crystals, so they are not twins like their inorganically grown counterparts. A theory of nacre growth is proposed and its application would help to decrease the amount of waste pearls. It was found to be possible to influence the colour of the pearls without using artificial treatment. Attempts were made to explain the crystal growth by means of high resolution scanning force microscopy (SFM) which enables examination of the surface of the aragonite microcrystals. The observed structures on top of these crystals could be the so-called organic matrix that strongly influences nacre growth. The chemical investigations showed that there is little difference in the amount of minor and trace elements in the nacre and pearls from different localities. However, it is possible to distinguish between the origins of freshwater mussels due to their contents of manganese and potassium. The strontium contents of some saltwater oysters are presented but are not a diagnostic feature.

Introduction ization process which is related to similar Investigating the shell and shell growth processes in the human body (skeleton) of nacre forming molluscs (e.g. bivalvia (Handschin and Stern, 1992). Compared to (mussels)) is not only of gemmological human bones, the shell of a mussel is a interest because of their capability to form simple model where mineralization pro pearls. The shell growth is a biomineral- cesses can easily be studied (see also

Caseiro,1993). The aim of this study was new results which should enable the to perform a structural and chemical com reader to understand the following text. parison of shells and pearls from different Figure 1d shows a schematic cross origins. In order that one may understand section through the type of shell used in the observed structures it is important to this study. The bottom of the sketch repre know how the mussel grows and to recog sents the outer surface of the shell. This is nize the main parts of the shell. a hydrophobic organic skin called the Because the growth process is essentially periostracum. It covers the hard parts of the same in shells and pearls, the results of the shell and serves as a defence against the shell investigations can be used to sup erosion and enemies. On the inside of the plement the knowledge of the process of periostracum is the prismatic layer, the pearl formation, but this work does not first inorganic part of the shell. It is formed attempt to explain the initiation of pearl by small prisms of calcite crystals (CaC03, growth. trigonal). The prismatic layer is followed by the mother-of-pearl layer, or nacreous layer, which is formed from tabular arago nite crystals (CaC03, orthorhombic). All these components of the shell are pro duced by a soft part called the mantle (Figure 1), the part of the animal next to the shell. On the opposite side of thehinge (that is where the two shells are connected) the mantle forms a fold (x in Figure 1a). The cells in this fold produce molecules which grow to form the periostracum (Lowenstam and Weiner, 1989)which is the first part of the shell that is formed. It builds the substrate on which the prismatic and mother-of-pearl layers grow. There is d also evidence for another organic phase edge of - lock besides the periostracum playing an the shell- important role in the formation of the shell. It is called an organic matrix (Weiner and mantle cells producing calcite Traub, 1984) and may influence strongly ~ mantle cells prod ucing aragonite the crystallization of the calcite and arago IIlIIIIl prisma tic layer (calcite) nite crystals. More details follow in the ~ mother of pearl layer (aragonite) section 'Morphological structures'. • periostracu m Figure 1 shows the growth stages of the type of shell investigated. The shell always grows from the centre towards the edge. Fig.1. Schematic cross-section through the shell, At the hinge the shell does not spread but showing the mineral components of the shell and the soft parts of the animal (mantle tissue, thickens with increasing age. The growth periostracum) that produces them. From a to of the shell is a consequence of the growth d the cross-sections represent increasing ages. of the inner soft parts, in other words of the animal itself whose growth centre is the mantle. There are two types of mantle cell 2 Background that secrete the Ca + and CO~-ions (1 and 2 This section includes not only the results in Figure 1). The formation of the crystals of earlier work but also some of our own as calcite or aragonite is determined by the J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 243

age of the cells. Young cells (1) near the choosing the mantle cells from the right border of the shell produce calcite and location in the bivalve sacrificed for its older cells (2) towards the inner part of the mantle tissue. shell form aragonite. This means that young cells situated on Material and methods the inner side of the shell always produce In this study the shells and pearls of the calcite (type 1 cells). These young cells are main pearl-forming oysters and mussels followed by older cells (type 2 cells), which were of interest. Cultured as well as were former type 1 cells. Because the cells natural pearls were investigated and a do not change their places relative to the main point for our sample acquisition was shell, but change the mineral phase they that the shells and pearls were not treated produce, there will be a certain time when in any way, so that there could be no falsi they deposit aragonite over calcite fication of the chemical and structural data. (Gutmannsbauer, 1992). This growth The examined shells and pearls are listed behaviour is summarized in Figure 1. with their origins in Table I. The knowledge of this theory could be of The following techniques were used to great importance for the cultured pearl investigate the structures of the shells: light industry. The production of large amounts microscopy (LM), scanning electron of reject cultured pearls, e.g. - pearls that microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction consist of, or are partly overgrown by, (XRD), texture goniometry and scanning calcite - could be prevented. Since cul force microscopy (SFM). tured pearls will have the same colour as Chemical analyses were carried out by the mother-of-pearl grown by the original energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED- mantle cells, pearl culturers can influence XRF). Fourier transform infrared the colour of the end product by carefully spectroscopy (FT-IR) was used for struc-

Table I. Shells and pearls examined in the present study.

Saltwater oysters Quantity Origin Pearls

Pinctada margaritifera 10 Tahiti yes Pinctada martensii 8 Japan yes Pinctada maxima goldlipped 3 Philippines no Pinctada maxima goldlipped 4 Australia no Pinctada maxima goldlipped 1 Thailand no Pinctada maxima silverlipped 1 Burma no Pinctada maxima silverlipped 12 Australia no Pteria penguin 2 Okinawa yes Pteria penguin 2 Philippines yes Pteria penguin 3 Australia yes Pteria penguin 3 Thailand yes

Freshwater mussels Quantity Origin Pearls

Anodonta plicata 5 China yes Hyriopsis schlegeli 6 Japan yes Unio margaritifera 1 USA yes 244 J. Gemm., 1994, 24, 4

us to the theory of shell growth outlined above in the 'Background7. The pictures were taken on polished cross-sections of shells and pearls, both natural and cul tured. Figure 2 shows a cross-section through the shell of the saltwater oyster Pinctada margaritifera from Tahiti. The layers seen compare favourably with those in Figure Id. The black colour is due to the organic phases, conchiolin and porphyrin (Miyoshi et al, 1987,1989). The difference of colour in the aragonite layer may be caused by either a seasonal change or vari ation in food availability. The influence of the age of the tissue causing the growth of a pearl is shown in Figure 3 (cf. Figure 1). The bead of the cul tivated Japanese saltwater pearl (the oyster Pinctada martensii) in Figure 3a is the nucleus for a deposit of a thin layer of calcite prisms. Figure 3b shows a large core of calcite prisms in a natural saltwater pearl. In both cases, the calcite layers are followed by aragonite layers. The identity of the calcite prisms was checked by FT-IR (Farmer, 1974). Fig. 2. Cross-section through the shell of the saltwater What do we learn from the structures of oyster Pinctada margaritifera (Tahiti). The com these pearls? ponents from the bottom to the top are: The piece of mantle that was inserted prismatic layer (calcite), mother-of-pearl layer (black-and-white, aragonite). 27x with the bead, to build up the tabular arag onite crystals (nacre) around it, was cut from a little too near the edge of the victim tural as well as chemical investigations. bivalve. It was not old enough to produce We will not give any technical details of aragonite from the beginning. After pro the well-established methods such as SEM, ducing calcite prisms for a while, it FT-IR, XRD and texture goniometry, (a switched to aragonite. This explains the further development of XRD), but a short calcite rim around the bead followed by introduction is given to the less well- the aragonite layer. known method of energy dispersive X-ray Initial growth of the natural pearl also fluorescence (EDXRF) and to scanning took place near the edge of the shell in very force microscopy (SFM), which is relatively young mantle cells which deposited calcite new. for a long time before changing to arago nite production. Like others (e.g. Scarratt, Morphological structures 1987), we also have observed both natural and cultivated pearls built totally out of Light microscopy (LM) calcite prisms. These pearls show none of the desired optical iridescence effects and The essential observations were made most are of no commercial value. with normal light microscopy, which led J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 245

Fig. 3a. Cross-section through a Japanese bead-nucle Fig. 3b. Cross-section through a natural saltwater pearl ated pearl cultured in saltwater (Akoya). The with a large core formed of calcite prisms. The bead (left) is followed by a small layer of calcite prismatic layer is followed by the mother-of- prisms that is followed by the mother-of-pearl pearl layers. 30x layers (aragonite). 40x

Fig. 4. SEM micrograph of the pseudo-hexagonal Fig. 5. SEM micrograph of the aragonite crystals aragonite crystals forming the mother-of-pearl forming the mother-of-pearl layer in the shell layer in the shell of the saltwater oyster of the freshwater mussel Hyriopsis schlegeli Pinctada maxima (Australia). Length of one (Japan, Lake Biwa). Nearly all crystals show white line segment: d = lOum. screw dislocations. Length of one white line segment: d = lOum.

Fig. 6. SEM micrograph of the pseudo-hexagonal Fig. 7. SEM micrograph of a spiral formed by many aragonite crystals forming the mother-of-pearl aragonite crystals in the mother-of-pearl layer layer in the shell of the saltwater oyster of the saltwater oyster Pinctada margaritifera Pinctada margaritifera. The crystals show (Tahiti). Length of one white line segment: d = hillocks on their surfaces. Length of one 0.1mm white line segment: d = lOum 246 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) nearly all shells, but to a much lesser extent than in the Hyriopsis schlegeli. Only a few The aim of the SEM investigation was to crystals in the whole of the Pinctada margar characterize the aragonite and calcite crys itifera (Tahiti) shell have such dislocations, tals and perhaps some organic relics such but these are transmitted to the overlying as the organic matrix mentioned in the crystals, giving rise to a large spiral involv introduction (for a short review of SEM see ing many single aragonite crystals without Postek et al, 1980). dislocations (Figure 7). The reason why For the SEM investigations three speci the aragonite crystals of some shells have mens of each species were chosen. At least many dislocations while others have very three samples were taken from every single few is not yet clear, but it will be an inter shell. In this way, we hoped to gain an esting subject for our further investigation. overview of the internal diversity of the The calcite crystals of the prismatic layer shell. Indeed, we observed that the habits in the shells are quite uniform in shape of the aragonite crystals vary between the through all the investigated species. They different species and in the shells them only vary in size. For SEM images of the selves. However, there is one particular prismatic layer see Doumenge et al. (1991). habit of the aragonite crystals that can be found in every species. These are tabular X-Ray diffraction (XRD) and texture goniome crystals with a thickness of 400 nm to 1500 try nm that have a pseudo-hexagonal shape (see also Mutvei, 1980, and Erben, 1970). Shell material of every species was inves Figure 4 shows a top view on the mother- tigated by XRD. It confirmed that the of-pearl layer which is built of these nacreous layer of every shell consisted of pseudo-hexagonal aragonite crystals, from aragonite and the prismatic layer of calcite. the shell of the saltwater oyster Pinctada Fibrous aragonite as described by Caseiro maxima (Australia). (1993) was not found in our samples. The nacreous layers from the shell of the More astonishing was the fact that the freshwater mussel Hyriopsis schlegeli (Biwa diffractograms of the nacreous layer of salt pearls, Japan) and the saltwater oyster water oysters looked different from those Pinctada margaritifera (Polynesian black of freshwater mussels. The diffractograms pearls, Tahiti) show some features that dis of the aragonitic layers in freshwater tinguish them from the other shells. mussels had some reflections that did not Figures 5 and 6 show SEM micrographs appear, or only to a much lesser extent, in which exhibit two totally different kinds of those of saltwater oysters. We concluded growth. The Hyriopsis schlegeli grows by that the orientations of the aragonite crys adding carbonate in spirals initiated by tals in the nacreous layer of saltwater structural dislocations. The term disloca oysters are slightly different from those in tions describes changes in the symmetry of the nacreous layer of freshwater mussels. the array of atoms as they adhere to a To confirm this theory, we used the crystal at its growing surface. Nearly every method of texture goniometry, with which aragonite crystal in the nacreous layer it is possible to determine the orientations shows this phenomenon. In contrast, the of the crystal axes in a polycrystalline aragonite crystals of the Pinctada margari material. This very useful method works tifera (Figure 6) exhibit a kind of hillock on on the basis of X-ray diffraction, and a every crystal. We think that these 'growth detailed description is given by Wenk hills' could be the initial stages of the crys (1985). These investigations snowed that tals forming the next nacreous layer. the c-axes of all aragonite crystals forming Screw dislocations can be observed in the nacreous layer are aligned perfectly J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 247

parallel to each other, and perpendicular to Scanning force microscopy (SFM) the inner surface. But the lateral axes of the With scanning force microscopy (SFM), aragonite crystals of the saltwater oysters whose lateral and vertical resolution is were better aligned than those of the fresh high enough to distinguish atoms, we were water mussels. The reason for these able to depict the surface of single arago different orientations are not known, but nite crystals forming the nacreous layer in the factors of water temperature and con the shell of the Australian oyster Pinctada centrations of dissolved elements (which maxima. for freshwater mussels are usually lower Scanning force microscopy is essentially than for saltwater oysters) may play a role. a further development of the scanning tun Studies carried out by texture goniome- nelling microscope (STM) invented by try revealed other even more interesting Binnig et al (1982). In contrast to the STM, results. It was clearly shown that the arag which senses a tunnelling current, the force onite crystals forming the mother-of-pearl microscope senses forces between the layer in all our investigated shells are probing tip and the sample surface. With single crystals. This is in agreement with the SFM it is possible to study surfaces of some earlier studies (Towe and Hamilton, insulators as well as conductors, whereas 1968; Wise 1970). However, it contradicts the STM is restricted to conducting the findings of other authors who postu samples. Figure 8 shows a scheme for a lated that the pseudo-hexagonal habit of scanning force microscope that is based on the aragonite crystals, arose as a result of a force sensor, a displacement sensor, a twinning (Mutvei, 1970; Hänni, 1982). feedback system which monitors and regu Although one query has been solved a lates the deflection of the cantilever, a new one arises: how can an aragonite mechanical scanning system and a com crystal with orthorhombic crystal symme puter system for acquisition of data and try have a hexagonal shape? The image processing. For recent reviews see hexagonal shape and the spatial arrange Rugar and Hansma (1990) and Meyer ment of the aragonite crystals in nacre has (1992). been described by Erben (1970) and Mutvei Two general modes of operation have (1970) using SEM. Theoretically it is possi been developed for SFM to sense short- ble to have aragonite single crystals with range forces as well as long-range forces: orthorhombic crystal symmetry displaying the contact mode and the non-contact a 'pseudo-hexagonal' habit (Graeser, 1992), mode. and the question of whether these crystals In this study only the contact mode was are twins can possibly be answered by applied; therefore the description is another result of the texture goniometry restricted to this method. Using the study. We detected a highly ordered phase contact mode, the probing tip (2) is brought in the mother-of-pearl layer that could not close to the repulsive force range of the be correlated with any of the modifications sample surface (3) (tenths of nanometers). of CaC0 , (calcite, aragonite or vaterite) or 3 In response to the repulsive short-range with strontianite. This highly ordered interatomic forces, which act on the phase may not be crystalline at all and the probing tip, the cantilever (1) is bent. reflection could come from the organic While scanning the sample surface with matrix (Weiner and Traub, 1984) men piezoelectric transducers, the deflection of tioned in the 'Background'. The exact the cantilever is kept constant by a feed nature of the organic matrix, which pre back loop that adjusts the relative distance sumably covers every single crystal in the between sample surface and probing tip. shell, could not be observed on the SEM. The feedback signal is monitored as a func- 248 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

Feedback Displacement Loop Sensor (PSD) Laser Source

Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of a scanning force microscope (SFM). (1) Cantilever, (2) probing tip, (3) sample surface. tion of the lateral position of the probe and angles as twins sometimes do (Hurlbut, the image of equiforce contours (termed 1977). It has a thickness of about 600 nm force micrograph) is obtained. This relief is and a diameter of about 5000 nm (5um). interpreted as the topography of the According to Weiner and Traub (1984), the sample surface. growth of these aragonite hexagons is In this study a commercially available strongly influenced by an organic matrix scanning force microscope, equipped with covering every single crystal. In confirma a beam deflection system for measuring tion of this theory, the crystals of the the cantilever displacement was used. This mother-of-pearl layer all look as if they are system is widely used in commercially covered with organic matter. Figure 10 is a available microscopes because of its sim top view of the crystal in Figure 9. plicity. A laser beam is collimated and Particles with diameters of 80 to 100 nm focused on the rear side of the cantilever can be seen. These particles probably form and there reflected off to a segment photo the organic matrix. They also often show diode acting as a position sensitive detector hexagonal shapes which are taken on by (PSD). Due to the interaction between the subsequent growth of aragonite crys probing tip and sample surface, the can tals (Gutmannsbauer, 1993). It is also tilever is deflected elastically and thereby known that organic compounds can influ changes the reflection angle of the laser ence the shape of inorganic crystals. Uric beam detected by the PSD (Figure 8). acid causes NaCl crystals to crystallize as Figure 9 shows a force micrograph of a octahedra instead of the cubes usually single aragonite crystal from the nacreous seen. It is possible that a similar process layer. The crystal shows no re-entrant between the organic matter and the arago- J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 249

Fig. 9. Scanning force micrograph of an aragonite crystal forming the mother-of-pearl layer in the shell of the salt water oyster Pinctada maxima (Australia). Diameter of the crystal: d~5um

Fig. 10. Scanning force micrograph of the top of the crystal in Figure 9. This is probably the organic matrix that covers every crystal in the shell. Diameter of the polygonal domed areas forming the matrix: d=80 nm. 250 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

carried out by EDXRF. This is a spectro metry analysis method for the determin ation of the chemical composition of usually solid matter. The sample is sup plied with radiation energy from an X-ray tube. Due to this irradiation the atoms in the sample also emit X-rays of characteris tic wavelength (line spectra) that are typical for every element. The fluorescence or energy is registered by a detector. The detection records simultaneously all major and minor elements with the atomic numbers from Z=ll (Na) to Z=92 (U). Fig. 11. EDXRF analysis of the Mn and Sr contents in Because the power of the X-ray tube is not the mother-of-pearl layers of saltwater and very high, no radiation damage is caused. freshwater shells. For a detailed description see Hahn- Weinheimer et al (1984). 1 With EDXRF we studied the chemical 0.14 0 Hyriopsis schlegeli 0.12- El * Anodonta plicata composition of the periostracum, the mother-of-pearl layers and the pearls of the o.io- B B PQ different species that were available. CÄ 0.08- B B The results showed that the composition $ *i 0.06- a m of the periostracum of all shell material • El B B contains a greater number of different ele 0.04- • « 0 a • • B ments and in higher concentrations than 0.02- • the corresponding mother-of-pearl layers • • and pearls. Among the elements found o.oo-i 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 were Na, Mg, S, Cl, K and P. We suggest wt-% MnO that these elements give some indication of the composition of the water the animals Fig. 12. EDXRF analysis of the Mn and Sr contents in lived in, but because there is no gemmolog- the mother-of-pearl layers of the shells of the freshwater mussels Hyriopsis schlegeli and ical relevance for these elements in the Anodonta plicata. periostracum, we will not go into further details. nite crystals influences the growth of the As earlier investigations have already aragonite crystals. According to shown (Farn, 1986), saltwater shells and Lowenstam and Weiner (1989), there is evi pearls contain significant lower Mn than dence of organic matter inside the crystals. those from freshwater. Sr can easily be The thicknesses of these aragonite micro- incorporated in the structure of aragonite crystals are within the range of instead of Ca, and all of the investigated wavelengths of visible light, which sug mussels do incorporate Sr in their shell but gests that the rainbow colours seen on not enough for the formation of the nacre are due to interference. mineral strontianite. However, there is no significant difference in the concentration Chemistry of Sr between salt- and fresh-water shells (Figure 11). The concentration of Mn Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) differs even among the freshwater mussels themselves. The mother-of-pearl layer and The chemical analyses of the shells were pearls of the mussel Anodonta plicata J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 251

contain significantly less Mn than the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy mother-of-pearl layer and pearls of the (FT-IR) mussel Hyriopsis schlegeli (Figure 12). All the shells and pearls we received There is no statistically demonstrable dif were described as untreated. However, ference between these two species with nearly all Japanese saltwater grey to black regard to Sr content. cultured pearls contained beads coloured The mother-of-pearl layer and the pearls with an organic dye. Figure 13 shows an of the freshwater mussel Hyriopsis schlegeli Akoya cultured pearl of this kind. The dye are the only freshwater mussels that causes a series of peaks in the infrared contain no K. range between 2000 and 1300cm1. The chemical analyses of mother-of-pearl All our samples were tested using FT-IR and pearls of the freshwater mussels origi to determine the presence of calcite or nating from the Mississippi (Unio aragonite. A quick identification is possi margaritifera) showed that it is not possible ble (Speer, 1983) by checking the spectrum to characterize these in terms of their trace for peaks either at 1492-1432,879 and elements. The values of the element con 706cm1 (calcite) or 1504,1492,1080,866, centrations overlap the values found from 711 and 706cm1 (aragonite). all other investigated species. This can be explained by considering the vast extent of Conclusions the Mississippi river system. The river This study shows that formation of passes through many different geological mother-of-pearl and pearl is complex and environments and the element concentra can only be investigated with the use of tions of the water will vary to a large specialized instruments. Although this degree. study took one year of research for one of It was not possible to find any difference the authors (W.G.), many unsolved prob between the element concentrations in the lems remain and some new questions have mother-of-pearl layers in shells from differ arisen. ent saltwater oysters. However, the pearls The study showed that it is not possible of the saltwater oyster Pinctada martensii to identify shell species and pearls using have lower Sr concentrations than the only one method. On the contrary, only a other saltwater pearls. combination of techniques can lead to real istic interpretations. For example, the determination of the bivalve that formed a pearl is only possible by a combination of results gained from structural and chemi cal investigations. To detect and confirm any treatments (e.g. dyeing) even more techniques are required (e.g. FT-IR). The investigation of mother-of-pearl is not only of gemmological interest: the growth process itself, including biomineralization is also of great importance in medical research. The nacreous layer of the bivalve molluscs makes available a rel atively simple model in which bio- Fig. 13. Akoya cultured pearl with a bead that is mineralization processes can be studied. treated with an organic dye. 30x 252 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

Acknowledgements Farmer, V.C., 1974. The infrared spectra of minerals. Mineralogical Society Monograph 4, London The large amount of data and the many Farn, A.E., 1991. Pearls. Butterworth-Heinemann, London different analytical methods used mean Graeser, S., 1992. pers.com. that this work could not have been done by Gutmannsbauer, W., 1992. Morphlogische, structurelle und chemische Untersuchungen an Perlmutter und Perlen one single person. einiger Perlenbildender Muscheln. Diploma Thesis, Grateful thanks are extended to Prof. Dr Mineralogisch Petrographisches Institut der Universität W.B. Stern for supporting this work with Basel, Switzerland Gutmannsbauer, W., 1993. AFM provides new insights into his great experience using the XRD and biomineralization processes. Topometrix Applications EDXRF, Prof. Dr R. Guggenheim, D. Newsletter, 93, 2, 5 Mathys and M. Düggelin for the profes Handschin, R., Stern, W.B., 1992. Crystallographic lattice refinement of human bone. Calcif Tissue Int, 51, 111-20 sional work on the SEM and Dr H. Stünitz Hänni, H.A., 1982. Perlendiagnose mit Laue-Aufnahmen. Z. for the investigations with the texture Dt. Gemmol. Ges., 3, 131-42 goniometer. Further thanks are extended Hahn-Weinheimer, P., Hirner, A., Weber-Diefenbach, K., 1984. Grundlagen und praktische Anwendung der to Prof. Dr H.- J. Güntherodt and to Dr P. Röntgenfluoreszenzanalyse (RFA). Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn Reimann who enabled the SFM investiga Braunschweig / Wiesbaden Hurlbut, JR., C.S., 1977. Dana's manual of mineralogy. Wiley & tions. For fruitful discussions we want to Sons, Inc., New York thank Prof. Dr S. Graeser, Dr R. Handschin Lowenstam, H.A., Weiner, S., 1989. On biomineralization. and R. Lüthi. Oxford University Press, Oxford Meyer, E., 1992. Atomic force microscopy. Progr. Surf. Sci. 41, The authors are grateful to all persons 1, 3-49 and firms who supplied samples for the Miyoshi, T., Matsuda, Y., Komatsu, H., 1987. Fluorescence study; in particular we would like to thank from pearls to distinguish mother oysters used in pearl culture. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, 26, 4, 578-81 A. Müller (Golay-Buchel), C. Rosenthal Miyoshi, T., Matsuda, Y., Akamatsu, S., 1989. Laser-induced (Société Perrière de Manihi), L. Joli fluorescence of pearls and shells of genus haliotis and their (Western Australian Marine Research comparison to other species used in pearl culturing. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, 28, 1, 132-4 Laboratories). Mutvei, H., 1970. Ultrastrukture of the mineral and organic The Swiss Gemmological Institute (SSEF) components of molluscan nacreous layers. is acknowledged for its support with FT-IR Biomineralization, 2, 48-72 Postek, M.T., Howard, K.S., Johnson, A.H., McMichel, K.L., spectrometer and photomicrograph equip 1980. A students handbook. Ladd Research Industries, Inc., ment. Baton Rouge. One of the authors (W.G.) wants to thank Rugar, D., Hansma, P., 1990. Atomic force microscopy. Physics Today, 43, 23 his co-author and 'diploma father' for Scarratt, K., 1987. Notes from the Laboratory. Journal of guiding him so well during his diploma Gemmology, 20, 5, 287-8 Speer, J.A., 1983. Crystal chemistry and phase relations of thesis; and last but not least his fiancée orthorhombic carbonates. Reviews in Mineralogy, Carmen for bearing with him during this Mineralogical Society of America, Washington year of research. Towe, K.M. Hamilton, G.H., 1968. Ultrastructure and inferred calcification of the mature and developing nacre in bivalve molluscs. Calc. Tiss. Res., 1, 306-18 References Weiner, T., Traub, W., 1984. Macromolecules in mollusc shells Binnig,G., Rohrer, H., Gerber, C., Weibel, E., 1982. Phys. Rev. and their function in biomineralization. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lett. 49, 57 Lond., 304, 425-34 Caseiro, J., 1993. La nacre noir de Polynésie. Biomineralisation, Wenk, H.-R., 1985. Preferred orientation in deformed metals and parametre et processus de croissance, effets chromatiques rocks: an introduction to modern texture analysis. Academic dans la coquille et la perle de Pinctada margaritifera. Thesis Press, Inc., London at Université Claude Bernard Lyon, France Wise JR., SH., W., 1970. Microarchitecture and mode of formation Doumenge, F., Toulemont, A., Branellec, J., 1991. Les Perles des of nacre (mother-of-pearl) in pelecypods, gastropods Mers du Sud. Monaco Musée Océanographique, Monaco and cephalopods. Eclogae Geol. Helvetiae, 63, 775-97. Erben, H.K., 1970. Über die Bildung und das Wachstum von Perlmutt. Biomineralization, 2, 15-46 [Manuscript received 4 February 1994] J. Gemm., 1994, 24, 4 253

Dyed natural star corundum as a ruby imitation

Dr Karl Schmetzer* and Frank-J. Schupp**

*Marbacher Str. 22b, D-85238 Petershausen, Germany

**Friedenstr. 127, D-75173 Pforzheim, Germany

Fig. 1. Dyed natural star corundums; the middle cabochon in the front measures 11.4mm in diameter. (Photo by H.A. Hänni, Basel) Introduction Abstract Dyed natural corundum as a ruby imita Natural star corundum which is tion was recently described by several treated with a red dye, most probably in authors (Schmetzer et al., 1992; Schmetzer India, is described. The star ruby imitation and Schupp, 1992; Crowningshield and is easily identified by an uneven Reinitz, 1992). For the dyeing procedure colour concentration in fissures or yellowish or nearly colourless corundum cracks, which irregularly traverse the crystals, probably from East Africa, were corundum cabochons. The asterism is used. Microscopic examination of dyed caused by orientated inclusions of rutile beads as well as cabochon-cut and faceted needles. specimens revealed various natural inclu sions and an uneven colour distribution within the samples. The red dye was con-

fined only to irregular fissures and cracks, which showed an extraordinarily intense yellow-orange fluorescence under long wave ultraviolet radiation. Similar dyed specimens were mentioned by Barot and Harding (1993,1994), who quoted Kitui in southern Kenya, a new locality for mostly pale-coloured stones, as a possible source for material dyed in India as a ruby imita tion.

Gemmology Fig. 2. Treated natural star corundum cabochon Recently 16 cabochon-cut asteriated gem- revealing growth zoning confined to prism stones were purchased by one of the faces or hexagonal dipyramids; the sample authors from a dealer in Germany as measures 10 x 12mm. (Photo by H.A. Hänni, Basel) natural star rubies. The samples ranging from about 7mm to 12mm in size (Figures 1,2) revealed an intense red body colour and possessed sharp six-rayed stars. From information given by the supplier, these samples were probably imported from India. Standard gemmological tests identified the cabochon-cut stones as corundum. In several samples the rays of the stars were found to run perpendicular to traces of growth planes parallel to{1120} prism faces and/or parallel to hexagonal dipyra mids (Figures 2,3). This orientation of the six-rayed star is typical for Indian star Fig. 3. Growth zoning and concentration of red dye in corundum, the asterism of which is caused fissures of treated natural star corundum; the by inclusion of rutile needles (cf. Weibel, figure represents an area of about 0.4 x 0.6mm. 1985). The concentration of rutile needles in different growth sectors of the cabo chons described in this paper is sometimes variable, which is indicated by different intensities of the milky-white appearance of various growth zones in reflected light (Figure 3). The characteristic features mentioned above in addition to the observation of natural inclusions and parting planes par allel to the positive rhombohedron (10Î1), which were also present in some of the samples, indicate a natural origin for the cabochons. During microscopic examination, Fig. 4. Concentration of red dye in fissures of treated however, it was observed that the colour of natural star corundum; the figure represents an area of about 0.4 x 0.6mm. the samples was concentrated in fissures J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 255

or cracks, which irregularly traversed the this locality was mentioned by Hughes corundum crystals (Figures 3,4). Under (1990), although material similar to the star long- or short-wave ultraviolet radiation ruby imitation described in this paper has' no fluorescence was observed, neither not previously been observed in the trade from the corundum cabochons themselves by the present authors. nor from the dye concentrated in fissures. Treated star corundum cabochons can be When a stone was immersed in acetone, identified by microscopic examination or part of the red coloration was removed even with a hand lens by observation of and, subsequent to this test, red spots were the uneven colour concentration in fissures visible even on the wrapping material of or cracks. the stone. Consequently, the samples were identi References fied as artificially dyed natural star Barot, N.R., Harding, R.R., 1993. Pink corundum from Kitui, Kenya. Abstracts of the XXIV International Gemmological corundum. The lack of a pronounced Conference, Paris 2-15 October 1993 yellow fluorescence of the red colouring Barot, N.R., Harding, R.R., 1994. Pink corundum from Kitui, agent in fissures and cracks indicated a Kenya. Journal of Gemmology, 24, 3, 165-72 Crowningshield, R., Reinitz, I., 1992. Dyed sapphire as a ruby different dye compared with the beads and imitation. Gems & Gemology, 28, 3, 196-7 faceted stones described recently in gem- Hughes, R.W., 1990. Corundum. Butterworth-Heinemann, mological literature. London, pp 288-9 Schmetzer, K., Hänni, H.A., Jegge, E.P., Schupp, F.-J., 1992. Dyed natural corundum as a ruby imitation. Gems & Discussion Gemology, 28, 2, 112-15 Schmetzer, K., Schupp, F.-J., 1992. Gefärbter natürlicher Â possible source of the natural corun Korund als Rubinimitation. Goldschmiede und Uhrmacher dum specimens used for the dyeing Zeitung, 90, 11, 111-12 process is the Mysore-Karnataka area in Weibel, M., 1985. Edelsteine und ihre Mineraleinschlüsse. ABC southern India, which supplied a great Verlag, Zürich, pp 91-8 quantity of pale-coloured star corundum in the past. Artificially dyed material from [Manuscript received 31 May 1994] 256 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

The rubies and spinels of Afghanistan a brief history Richard W. Hughes

4894 Briar Ridge Ct. Boulder, CO 80301-3980, USA

process, claiming it as his own), the author Abstract believes that history is better served by While ruby is one of the most important repeating their words exactly. Hence the gems, in the twentieth century little extensive use of quotations from the has been written about one of the primary literature (including the original premier sources of antiquity— footnotes). In so doing, the danger of mis Afghanistan. The following article is interpretation is lessened. My own divided into two parts. The first thoughts on the meaning of such quotes describes the history of Afghanistan's follow. This approach allows readers reach ruby/spinel deposits. Important mines their own conclusions on the original are located near Jagdalek and Gharan authors' intent. (Badakhshan). The latter is believed to Some may question the need for such be the original source of the balas ruby extensive historical detail. I include it in an (spinel); many of the most famous attempt to show the threads of wisdom spinels, such as the Timur Ruby and connecting us with our past. In today's Black Prince's Ruby, possibly originated modern world it is easy to believe that any there. The second part deals with the thing worth knowing has resulted from gemmological characteristics of recent study. Such is not the case and I Jagdalek rubies. hope that this article can open readers' eyes to the glories (and excesses) of human tradition and history. Keywords Afghanistan, Tajikistan, ruby, spinel, The great enigma: Afghanistan's gems, history ruby/spinel mines Afghanistan's ruby/spinel mines are one Notes on methodology of the great mysteries of gemmology. Whenever possible, quotations found Historically, rubies and red spinels have throughout this article have been faithfully been produced from four areas: Myanmar transcribed from the original source. The (Burma), Sri Lanka, the Thai/Cambodian only corrections made have been minor border (ruby only; no red spinel) and changes in punctuation. As a result, Afghanistan. While extensive accounts readers may encounter inconsistencies in exist regarding the other deposits, in the spelling, etc. My approach has been that, twentieth century little has been written when doubt existed, the original would about the rubies/spinels of Afghanistan. stand as printed. Indeed, many are totally unaware of the Certain quotations are quite lengthy. Afghan occurrences. Rather than rewriting or paraphrasing While I have visited Afghanistan and what others have found (and, in the have personally examined many rubies

from Jagdalek, I have not visited either of forms a very great kingdom, and the royalty is heredi the two major deposits described. Thus the tary...... It is in this province that those fine and valuable following has been assembled from a gems the Balas Rubies are found. They are got in number of historical sources, with much of certain rocks among the mountains, and in the search for them the people dig great caves underground, just the primary research on inclusions in as is done by miners for silver. There is but one Jagdalek stones coming from the author's special mountain that produces them, and it is called own research. SYGHINAN. The stones are dug on the king's account, and no one else dares dig in that mountain on pain of In terms of historical data, rather than forfeiture of life as well as goods; nor may any one rewriting or paraphrasing what others carry the stones out of the kingdom. But the king have found and, in the process, claiming it amasses them all, and sends them to other kings when he has tribute to render, or when he desires to offer a as his own, the author believes history is friendly present; and such only as he pleases he better served by repeating their words causes to be sold. Thus he acts in order to keep the exactly, warts and all. Hence the extensive Balas at a high value; for if he were to allow every body to dig, they would extract so many that the use of quotations from primary literature world would be glutted with them, and they would (including the original footnotes from cease to bear any value. Hence it is that he allows so those sources).1 few to be taken out, and is so strict in the matter.* Yule's annotation Early history: ADIOOO-1895 * I have adopted in the text for the name of the country that one of the several forms in the G. Text Afghanistan's ruby/spinel mines were which comes nearest to the correct name, viz. mentioned in the Arabic writings of many Badascian. But Balacian also appears both in that and in early travellers, including al-Muqaddasi (c. Pauthier's text. This represents Balakhshân, a form also sometimes used in the East. Hayton has Balaxcen, tenth century), al-Biruni (b. 973; d. c. Clavijo Balaxia, the Catalan Map Baldassia. From the AD1050 ), Teifaschi (AD1240 ), and Ibn form Balakhsh the Balas Ruby got its name. As Ibn Battuta (AD1325-1354 ). Batuta says: 'The Mountains of Badakhshan have given their name to the Badakhshi Ruby, vulgarly Mohammed Ben Mansur, writing in the called AI Balaksh.' Albertus Magnus says the Balagius twelfth century, stated during the time of is the female of the Carbuncle or Ruby Proper, 'and Abbaside (caliphs who ruled from AD750 to some say it is his house, and hath thereby got the name, quasi Palatium Carbunculi!' The Balais or Balas AD1258 ), a hill at Chatlan was broken open Ruby is, like the Spinel, a kind inferior to the real by an earthquake and within a white rock Ruby of Ava. The author of the Masâlak al Absâr says in the fracture was found the 'Laal- the finest Balas ever seen in the Arab countries was one presented to Malek 'Adil Ketboga, at Damascus; it Bedaschan' (balas ruby). Women of the was of a triangular form and weighed 50 drachms. neighbourhood apparently tried to extract The prices of Balasci in Europe in that age may be dye2 from the red stones and, failing, threw found in Pegolotti, but the needful problems are hard to solve. them away. Later a jeweller recognized their value (Ball, 1931). No sapphire in Inde, no Rubie rich of price, There lacked than, nor Emeraud so grene, Although Marco Polo (c. AD1254-1324 ) Bales, Turkès, ne thing to my device. apparently did not visit the mines, he (Chaucer, 'Court of Love.') passed nearby. In Henry Yule's definitive L'altra letizia, che m'era già nota, version (1920) of Marco Polo's travels is the Preclara cosa me si fece in vista, following (with Yule's and Henri Cordier's Quai fin balascio in che lo Sol percuoto. notes following a translation of Polo's text): (Paradiso, ix. 67)

Polo's text BADASHAN is a Province inhabited by people who worship Mahommet, and have a peculiar language. It 2. Lapis lazuli, also from Badakshan, was an impor tant source of pigment in ancient times (viz. ultramarine, which is made by crushing lapis). Thus 1. All footnotes attached to quotations are those of the actions of these women are understandable. the original authors and are indicated with symbols However, corundum and spinel, unlike lapis, are (*, t, etc.). My own footnotes are at the bottom of the coloured by impurities. Thus their streak, and their page and are numbered - RWH. colour when crushed, is colourless. 258 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

Cordier's annotations worked up, but owing to their softness the workmen ['...d'Ohsson translates a short account of could not at first polish them, until they found out the Badakhshan by Yakut (+1229), stating that this moun method of doing so with mark-i-shisa, marcasite or tainous country is famed for its precious stones, and iron pyrites. This gem was first esteemed more than especially rubies, called Balakhsh. ' (Bretschneider, the yaqut? but as its colour and hardness were found Med. Res. II. p. 66.)—H.C.] to be inferior to the latter, it became less prized. The account of the royal monopoly in working the In a manuscript history of Cashmfr and the coun mines, etc., has continued accurate down to our day. tries adjacent, by Abdul Qâdir Khan, Benares, 1830, is When Murad Beg of Kunduz conquered Badakhshan the following description of the manner of extracting some forty years ago, in disgust at the small produce rubies from the Badakshan mines: it professes to be of the mines, he abandoned working them, and sold taken from an oral account by Mirza Nazar Bâki Bég nearly all the population into slavery! They continue Khan, a native of Badakshan, settled at Benares. to remain unworked, unless clandestinely. In 1866 the Having collected a party of miners, a spot is reigning Mir had one of them opened at the request of pointed out by experienced workmen, where an adit Pandit Manphul, but without much result. is commenced. The aperture is cut in the rock large The locality of the mines is on the right bank of the enough to admit a man upright: the passage is lighted Oxus, in the district of Ish Kashrn and on the borders at intervals by cotton mashüls placed in niches; as of SHIGNAN, the Syghinan of the text. (P. Manph.; Wood, they proceed with the excavation, the rock is exam 206; N. Ann. des. V. xxvi. 300.) ined until a vein of reddish appearance is discovered, [The ruby mines are really in the Ghâran country, which is recognized as the matrix of the precious gem. which extends along both banks of the Oxus. Barshar This red coloured rock or vein is called rag-i-lal, or, the is one of the deserted villages; the boundary between vein of rubies; the miners set to work upon this with Ghâran and Shignân is the Kuguz Parin (in Shighai much art, following all its ramifications through the dialect means 'holes in the rock'); the Persian equiva parent rock. The first rubies that present themselves lent is 'Rafak-i-Soumakh.' (Cf. Captain Trotter, are small, and of bad colour: these the miners called Forsyth's Mission, p. 277.)—H.C.] piadehs (foot soldiers): further on some larger and of Henry Yule, 1920, better colour are found, which are called sawars (horse The Book ofSer Marco Polo soldiers); the next, as they still progress in improve ment, are called amirs, bakshis, and vazirs, until at last The famous Moorish traveller, Ibn they come to the king jewel, after finding which, they give up working the vein: and this is always polished Battuta (Batuta) (AD1325-1354), mentioned and presented to the king. The author proceeds to the following: describe the finest ruby of this kind that had ever fallen under his observation. It belonged to the Oude People generally attribute the lapis-stone [lapis lazuli; family, and was carried off by Vizir Ali; he was after Arabic lazward] to Khurasan, but in reality it is wards employed in recovering it from the latter: it imported from the mountains of [the province of] was of the size of a pigeon's egg, and the colour very Badakhshan, which has given its name also to the brilliant; weight, about two tolas; there was a flaw in ruby called badakhshi (pronounced by the vulgar bal- it, and to hide it, the name of Julal-ud-din was akhshi)... engraved over the part; hence the jewel was called the H.A.R. Gibb, lâl-i-jalâli. A similar ruby to this, but considerably The Travels of Ibn Battuta, Vol. 3,1971 larger, is in the possession of Runjit Sinh, and has the names of five emperors engraved upon it. James Prinsep and Raja Kalikishen, 1832 In 1832, James Prinsep published a fasci nating paper in the Journal of the Asiatic *The Manaif-ul-ahjar dates this occurrence '350 years 7 Society of Bengal This contained abstracts of ago , but the date of the work is not given: the lâl is not mentioned by Zakarya. Since the above was three different oriental works, translated written, Mr. H.H. Wilson has favoured me with a into English by Raja Kalikishen3, some of sight of another work on jewels, entitled Khazvas-ul- which covered the ruby/spinel deposit of 3The information was extracted from three books, of Badakhshan: different eras: 1, the Ajâib-ul-makhlukât o Gharaib-ul- moujudât,.an ancient Persion work on natural history, DODECAHEDRAL CORUNDUM written by Zakaya, a native of Kufa, date unknown; 2, OR SPINELLE RUBY the Aqul-i-ashreh, a work on science, by Mahomed of Persian: lot; HINDU: manik? or lal. Berar, An Hej. 1084 (AD1673;) and 3, the Jawahir- The mine of this gem was not discovered until nâmeh, a modern anonymous compilation, containing after a sudden shock of an earthquake, in Badakshan*, much useful matter in a condensed form: it was prob had rent asunder a mountain in that country, which ably written at one of the native courts, either Delhi or exhibited to the astonished spectators a number of Hyderabad, since it mentions the opening of [then] sparkling pink gems of the size of eggs. The women of recent mines in India (Prinsep and Kalikishen, 1832). the neighbourhood thought them to possess a tingent quality, but finding they yielded no colouring matter, 4 Yaqut is a Persian-Arabic term for corundum. they threw them away. Some jewellers, discovering Ancient Arab minerologists placed all colours of their worth, delivered them to the lapidaries to be ruby-sapphire under yaqut (Princep, 1832). J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 259

Famous balas rubies— blood-red souvenirs of conquest

Among the most storied stones of history are the large balas rubies found in museums and gem, collections throughout the world. The Diamond Fund in Russia has a number of representa tive examples. Noted Russian gemmologist/mineralogist, Alexander Fersman, remarked '.. .in the Diamond Fund these spinels have a significant place. One of such stones, weighing 100 carats, speaks to us of the sands of Ceylon, but the majority of them come from Afghanistan, from the mountains of the province of Badakhshan. In old Russian manuscripts it was called "ial Badakhshan" (Fersman, 1946, p. 374). Prominent among spinels in the Diamond Fund is the massive red orb atop the Imperial Russian Crown. This crimson colossus tips the scales at 414.30 ct (Twining, 1960). A rather fanci ful description of this stone's history has been given by Yevdokimov (1991). It was said to have been found by Chun Li, a Chinese-mercenary member of Timur's army that looted Samarkand. Unfortunately for Chun Li, he failed to turn in some of the booty, and so was exiled in slavery to the ruby mines of Badakhshan. Finding the stone, he crept away in the night and made his escape. But his attempt to present it to the Chinese emperor was thwarted when a palace guard found the stone and killed him for it. This guard was similarly killed when a jeweller he tried to sell the stone to, informed on him. Thus the gem passed to the emperors. In 1676, the ruby was purchased 'at a pretty price' from emperor Kon Khan by Nikolai Spafari, at the behest of Alexei Mikhailovich, second tsar of the Romanov dynasty. Upon the ascendancy of Catherine II ('the great') to the throne in 1762, she had the stone mounted on the top of her crown, where it remains today (Yevdokimov, 1991). The Black Prince's Ruby is perhaps the most famous balas ruby in existence (Figure 4). Since its story has been told so many times before (see Hughes, 1990) I will not tell it again. Less well- known among spinels, but no less interesting, is the Timur Ruby, or Khiraj-i-alam (Tribute to the World'). The last of the great nomad kings to overrun the world, when not conquering far-off lands, Timur [also known as Shah Qiran; b. 1336?; d. 1405] made his base at Samarkand, where legendary feasts and orgies were held (Collins, 1968). The Timur Ruby weighs 352.50 ct and is cur rently in the collection of HM Queen Elizabeth II. The stone carries several Persian inscriptions written in Arabic, the longest of which reads: 'This is the ruby among the twenty-five thou sand jewels of the King of Kings, the Sultan Sahib Qiran/ The Ruby is said to have passed into his hands when he sacked Delhi in 1398 . and, after the usual pillage and extortion, was later obtained by Ranjit Singh, the 'Lion of the Fig. 4. The Black Prince's Ruby, a historic red Punjab'. The British annexed the Punjab in 1849. spinel set in the Imperial State Crown and displayed in the Tower of London. A ruby, Along with the province, they also 'annexed' set in gold, is secured to the top of the both the Koh-i-Nur diamond and the Timur spinel. (Photo by F. Greenaway, by kind per Ruby, which were later presented to Queen mission ofHM. The Queen. Crown copyright Victoria (Twining, 1960). reserved) 260 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

hejâr, translated by himself, in which the lâl is treated who had one of the mines worked last year (AD1866), of under the name of balaksh (Balakshan being synony at my request, made over to me some of the best spec mous with Badakshan). This leaves no doubt as to the imens brought to him. They are not the best of their origin of the word Balas... kinds, unless the one encased in a nodule turn out to be so. The Mir, depreciating the skill of the present workers, who are natives of the country, and, accord The inscriptions mentioned on the ruby ing to an established usage, labour for nothing, is owned by Ranjit Singh ('Runjit Sinn') anxious to secure the services of competent miners... suggest that this was the Timur Ruby now It is believed that the mines are still stealthily worked by the people living near them, with, or without the in the collection of the British monarch (see countenance and connivance of the servants of the p.259). Mir charged with their management. The mines are In 1836, Captain John Wood began an known to have yielded rubies of six different colours, viz. red, green, white, yellow, violet, and rosy. The epic journey to trace the headwaters of the specimens with me are white, violet, and rosy. The Oxus river. He did attempt to visit the ruby ruby (lâl) has given Badakhshan a lasting celebrity in the world of Oriental poetry. The Sohanmakkhi* also mines in Badakhshan, but due to inclement comes out of the Ruby Mines. weather was unsuccessful. The following is his account: ""Corundum? Pandit Manphül, Badakhshan and the Countries around it The ruby mines are within twenty miles of Ish- (see Yule, 1872) kashm, in a district called Gharan, which word signifies caves or mines, and on the right bank of the river Oxus. They face the stream, and their entrance is Valentine Ball (1881), Irishman extraordi said to be 1200 feet [366 m] above its level. The forma tion of the mountain is either red sandstone or naire, former head of the Geological Survey limestone largely impregnated with magnesia. The of India and author of Tavernier's Travels in mines are easily worked, the operation being more India, also remarked on the mines, under like digging a hole in sand, than quarrying rocks.... The galleries are described as being numerous, and the topic of spinel: running directly in from the river. The labourers are greatly incommoded by water filtering into the mine Afghanistan —In the year 1879 the so-called ruby from above, and by the smoke from their lamps, for mines of the late Amir of Afghanistan, Shir Ali, which which there is no exit. Wherever a seam or whitish are situated near the village of Jagdalak in Kabul, blotch is discovered, the miners set to work; and were visited by Major Stewart of the Guides. Two when a ruby is found it is always encased in a round specimens of stones, called yakut by the natives, and nodule of considerable size. The mines have not been samples of the matrix, were forwarded to the office of worked since Badakhshan fell into the hands of the the Geological Survey for examination. The stones Kunduz chief, who, irritated, it is supposed, at the proved to be spinel, and the matrix a crystalline mica small profit they yielded, marched the inhabitants of ceous limestone. Major Stewart* states that the Amir the district, then numbering about five hundred fami kept a strict guard over the mines and only allowed lies, to Kunduz, and disposed of them in the slave particular friends of his own to work them. market. The inhabitants of Gharan were Rafizies, or Badakshan —The balas ruby mines of Badakshan are Shiah Mohamedans, and so are the few families situated on the banks of the Shighnan, a tributary of which still remain there. the Oxus. They have been known by reputation for John Wood, 1841 very many centuries, and the name balas is derived A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus from Balakshan, another form of writing the name of the country or from Balkh the capital town.+ This may possibly be the origin of the common mistake made in A mention of the Badakhshan mines was English works on precious stones, namely, that these made by Pandit Manphül, in a report dated mines are situated in Balochistan! ... 1867. His report is important for, unlike *Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, 1880, p. 4. most others, he seems to have examined Trinsep J. Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, Vol. I, p. 359 actual specimens. Manphül said: Valentine Ball, 1881 A Manual of the Geology of India, Part 111: The Ruby Mines are situated in Ishkâsham, border Economic Geology, pp 429-30 ing on Shighnân.... The Ruby mines have not been worked for the last twenty years and upwards. They were then given up in consequence of the labour Ball claimed that the Jagdalek stones spent on them not having been sufficiently rewarded; whether the mines had been exhausted, or whether were spinel. While spinel could possibly the workers were unskilful, or managed to steal the also occur there, a later analysis reported more precious stones, is not certain. The present Mir, by F.R. Mallet (1887) proved that the two J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 261

TURKMENISTAN

Mashhad ...... Fig. 1. Major gem deposits (T... ~) of central Asia. • Horal Kabul e :&~ • Peshewar e S rill.l1lJ·H Corundum is found AFGHANISTAN at Sumjum (India), 41 :::;~~ ) Hunza (Pakistan), IRAN ( PAKISTAN INDIA Jagdalek ~ (Afghanistan) and Oando1har . Gharan (Afghanistan/Tajikis tan), as well as along the China/Tajikistan New Delhi. border. specimens collected were, in fact, rubies. Bauer said: An early mention of the rubies of Badakhshan is found in the writings of the The ruby mines of Badakshan were famous in olden times, and they supplied some of the vast store Spaniard, Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, who of treasure amassed by the Great Mogul. They are sit visited the court of Timur", at Samarkand uated in Shignan, on the bend of the Oxus river, in the years AD1403-06. which is directed to the south-west, in latitude about 37°N. and longitude 71SE. They lie between the upper course of the Oxus and its right tributary the The lord [Timour] caused all the Meerzas and Turt, near Gharan, a place the name of which is said nobles in the land of Samarcand to come to this festi to signify 'mine: sixteen miles [26 km] below the val; amongst whom was the lord of Balaxia, which is a town of Barshar, in the lower, not the higher, moun great city, where rubies are procured; and he came tain ranges... with a large troop of knights and followers. It is possible that the rubies and spinels which have The ambassadors went to this lord of Balaxia, and recently come into the market through Tashkent, and asked him how he got the rubies; and he replied that which, according to the merchants, were mined in the near the city, there was a mountain whence they Tian-Shan Mountains, are in reality from these same brought them, and that every day they broke up a mines. There is no reliable information as to the exis rock in search of them. He said that when they found tence of ruby mines in the Tian-Shan Mountains or in a vein, they got out the rubies skilfully, by breaking Tibet, so that the 2000 carat ruby recently received by the rock all round with chisels. During the work, a Streeter, and said to come from Tibet, may also have great guard was set by order of Timour Beg; and been found in these mines on the Oxus. Balaxia is ten days journey from Samarcand, in the Max Bauer, 1904 direction of India. Precious Stones C.R. Markham, 1859 Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez deClavijo to theCourtof Timour, at Samarcand, AD 1403-6 There is little mention of the Badakhshan mines after Bauer, possibly because they lie Bauer (1904) describes both the Jagdalek on the border of, or inside, Tajikistan, a and Badakhshan deposits. Of the latter, region of the former USSR little visited by foreigners. Barthoux (1933) discussed the 5. Tamerlane is an English corruption of Timur i mines, stating that they lay near the village leng('Timur the lame'), as Timur was crippled in of Siz, in the area of Gharan, on the right battle when about 27 years old (Collins, 1968). 262 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

Fig. 2. View overlooking the Jagdalek ruby mines, Afghanistan. The mines are located in a limestone band which appears as a thin white line on the most distant hills at the rear of the picture. (Photo by Gary Bowersox) bank of the Oxus. He reported that huge, translucent, purplish pink octahedrons ('le rubis balais') over 20 cm in size were extracted at that locality. Almandine garnet was said to occur on the left bank. Barthoux also stated that a more important occurrence of ruby was at Jagdalek ('Djagdalik'). The larger pieces were mostly massive, but smaller pieces showed traces of 'p {1011}, a {0001}, d {1120} and e {2243}'. They were found with spinel and most were pink in colour. Also occurring with the rubies were humite, chondrodite, phlogopite, fuchsite, rutile, sphene, hematite and pyrite (Barthoux, 1933; trans, for the author by Olivier Galibert, 3 June 1994). After Barthoux, discussion of Afghan rubies was restricted to the Jagdalek mines. During the Soviet occupation, mining of all Afghan gem and mineral deposits was con trolled by the state (Boa, 1987). However, since many mines lay in inaccessible areas, Fig. 3. Afghan miners drilling the limestone for rubies such mining became an important source at Jagdalek, Afghanistan. (Photo by Gary of income for the rebels. With the Soviet Bowersox) withdrawal, modern exploration and J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 263

Badakhshan ruby/spinel: myth or reality?

From the historical record, it is clear that the Badakhshan mines were of great importance during the period from ADIOOQ-1900 . While it is impossible to speculate about ruby, it is safe to say that, based on the numerous historical accounts, the Badakhshan mines were the source of many of the finest early red spinels in gem col lections around the world, such as those in the crown jewels of Iran, the collection in Istanbul's Topkapi, Russia's Kremlin and Diamond Fund, and England's Tower of London. Unfortunately, in modern times, such mines are largely overlooked. Twentieth- century gemmologists persist in the belief that the only source of big red spinels is Myanmar (Kammerling, et al, 1994). This is not based upon any particular evidence, such as inclusion studies; for these studies do not exist, either for Myanma spinels or for those from Badakhshan.* Instead, it simply rests upon the belief that what is today, has always been. While evidence for the existence of the Badakhshan mines is not direct, it is substan tial. We have the name balas ruby, which is apparently derived from an ancient word for Badakhshan, we have numerous detailed accounts of the mining, we have spinels with Arabic inscriptions and we have historical names, such as the Timur ruby. Circumstantial? Indeed. But if circumstantial evidence was of no value, the world's jails would be empty.

*Occasional photos of inclusions in Burmese and Sri Lankan spinel have been published. But since no in situ collecting has been done at the Badakhshan mine, and little in Burma, it is impossible to say whether similar inclusions will be found at each deposit. Remember, rutile silk has been found in rubies from virtually every deposit except Thailand/Cambodia. Similar inclusions are often found in stones from different mines. exploitation might become possible, thus Tajikistan increasing the output from Afghanistan. In the late 1980s, large reddish spinels were reported from the Pamir mountains Other Afghanistan localities of what is now Tajikistan. One 532 ct rough Streeter (1892) did mention a ruby of yielded cut gems of 146.43 and 27.81 ct 10.50 ct brought to England from mines at (Bancroft, 1989,1990). It is not known if the Gandamak, about 20 miles (32 km) from mine that produced these specimens is the Jagdalek. Due to the proximity of these same as the Badakhshan mine described localities, it is possible that the stone actu above (Peter Bancroft, pers. comm., June ally came from Jagdalek. Griesbach (1892) 1994). Ruby was also reported in eastern reported rubies 20 miles (32 km) west of Tajikistan, near the border with China, in Tatang in a coarse, micaceous marble. the early 1980s (Bank and Henn, 1990; Gary Bowersox reported that gem- Henn, et ah, 1990). The mine is said to be quality ruby had been found north-east of located at Turakuloma, some 40 km north Kabul (Koivula, 1987). No further details west of Murgap, at 4500 m above sea level, are available. Ghaggi has also been in a mineralized zone of marbles. reported as a source of ruby. About 1986, However, this deposit is far from the American dealer Dudley Blauwet pur Afghan border. chased a large, euhedral yellow sapphire crystal said to have originated from Summary Dharipiche, Kunar Province, north-eastern The above accounts clearly describe two Afghanistan (pers. comm., 19 Sept 1994). separate mines for ruby and/or spinel. 264 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

One, located at Jagdalek (spelled variously, Occurrence: Jagdalak or Jegdalek), 51.5 km (32 miles) east Afzali (1981) has reported the Jagdalek of Kabul, and another further north in mine to lie in Kabul province at 34° 26' N, Badakhshan, on the banks of the Shignan, a 69° 49' E. For those who read German, the tributary of the Oxus (Amu Darya), near most complete description of the mine is Gharan, just north of Ishkasham. that of Brückl (1937). The rubies are said to According to Alexander Fersman occur embedded in a regionally-metamor (1946-47), noted Russian phosed marble cut by granitic intrusions of mineralogist/gemmologist, 'From the mines at the mouth of the Kuga-Lial River, Oligocène age. the East for a thousand years has been getting its red stones—bright rubies and Colour range: pinkish-red spinels, called lal.'6 Gary Rubies from Jagdalek are only rarely Bowersox has told the author that the encountered in faceting quality, but when Afghan name of the Badakhshan mine is clean can be magnificent. In terms of Kuh-i-lal ['the place of ruby/spinel'] (pers. colour, Jagdalek rubies resemble most the comm., 1 July 1994). Undoubtedly the gems of Vietnam, Burma and Sri Lanka, localities described by Fersman and being strongly fluorescent and often of a Bowersox are identical. slightly pinkish or raspberry-red hue Political difficulties and rugged terrain similar to rubellite tourmaline. A small make Afghanistan a difficult country to percentage are of violet hue. explore, and Tajikistan is no better. Until someone manages to visit the Badakhshan Solid inclusions: mines, and lives to tell the tale, we must be content with mere speculation. Various types have been found in Afghan rubies. Common are colourless Characteristics of Afghanistan ruby blocks displaying rhombohedral cleavage, (Jagdalek) most likely of calcite. Inclusions of calcite Nothing exists in the literature regarding are not surprising, considering the fact that the gemmological characteristics of rubies Jagdalek rubies are found in a marble or spinels from Badakhshan, primarily matrix, just as in Burma. Transparent because no twentieth-century eyewitness plates and books of hexagonal outline are accounts exist of the mines. In addition, also seen. Due to their anisotropic charac gemmological descriptions of the impor ter between crossed polars and prominent tant specimens of history, such as the basal cleavage, they are most likely mica. Timur ruby and the Black Prince's ruby, Other plate-like inclusions consist of irreg have never been published. ular distorted shingles which are opaque and black or slightly gold in color. These The situation at Jagdalek is somewhat also display a somewhat micaceous better. Material has filtered out throughout appearance. Additional solid inclusions the 1980s. In the early part of that decade, seen were rounded colourless grains of low the author acquired a number of faceted relief and, in one specimen, corroded and rough specimens from Jagdalek. The blocks of a yellow colour. Several speci following is based on his first-hand mens examined by the author contained studies, supplemented by those of deep red-orange prisms of square outline Bowersox (1985), Barthoux (1933), Beesley and submetallic luster. Some were knee- (1986), Brückl (1937) and Themelis (1988). shaped twins with obvious re-entrant angles, indicating rutile. 6. Lal is the Persian word for balas ruby. In Chinese, it is la (Bretschneider, 1887). J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 265

| Table I: Properties of Jagdalek (Afghanistan) ruby vv:f^$|

Property Description

1 Colour range/phenomena • Near colourless to a deep red, often slightly purplish, strongly fluo- 1 rescent. Violet stones are seen on occasion. 1 1 Geological formation • Ruby is found embedded in a regionally metamorphosed marble 1 cut by granitic intrusions of Oligocène age. 1 Crystal habit • Most crystals are hexagonal prisms (short or long) with develop- 1 ment of rhombohedron and pinacoid faces. Spindle-shaped 1 bipyramids are also sometimes seen. 1 1 RI and birefringence ^=1.762^=1.770; birefringence = 0.008 1 Specific gravity -4.00 1 Spectra Visible region 1 • Strong Cr spectrum (similar to rubies from other localities) 1 1 Fluorescence UV • Strong reddish to reddish-orange fluorescence (LW stronger than SW). 1 1 Other features May be dyed or heat treated. 1

Inclusion types Description 1

1 Solids • Calcite; rhombs • Pyrite 1 • Phlogopite mica; books • Spinel 1 • Rutile; prisms and knee-shaped twins • Graphite 1 • Garnet • Hornblende 1 • Chondrodite • Dolomite 1 • Apatite 1 1 Cavities (liquids/gases/solids) • Primary negative crystals. 1 • Secondary healed fractures are common. They occur in a variety of 1 patterns and thicknesses. 1 • Iron oxide stains are common in cracks (these stains can be elimi- 1 nated during heat treatment). 1 1 Growth zoning • Straight, angular growth zoning parallel to the faces along which it 1 formed; irregular 'treacle'-like swirls in other directions. Distinctive 1 are the blue colour zones intermingled in most stones, similar to 1 Vietnamese rubies. Growth zoning is extremely sharp and promi- 1 nent. 1 1 Twin development • Growth twins of unknown orientation. 1 • Polysynthetic glide twinning on the rhornbohedron. 1 1 Exsolved solids • Dense zoned clouds of (often, but not always) tiny particles (proba- 1 bly rutile), parallel to the hexagonal prism (3 directions at 60/120°) 1 in the basal plane. 1 • Boehmite, long white needles along intersecting rhombohedral twin 1 planes (3 directions, 2 in one plane, at 86.1 and 93.9°). 1 266 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

Cavities: Acknowledgements The author would like to give thanks to Both primary and secondary liquid inclu those who have assisted in this article. sions are seen, the latter being responsible First, to Bob Frey, a prince of a man, who for the lack of clarity which most of these has gone above and beyond the call of duty rubies display. Irregular, liquid-filled cavi in both editing and helping the author ties with jagged edges (much like those in locate obscure references. May all his Colombian emeralds) are also found. dreams come true. Secondly, to Paul Picus, However, the cavities of the Jagdalek of rapier wit and red pen, whose advice rubies are somewhat thicker. The finger has been a constant source of joy. Thirdly, prints and feathers which fill these stones to Gary Bowersox, American-born, but often show a ragged appearance, with doubtless an Afghan in a previous lifetime. coarse tubes that can easily be confused Finally thanks are expressed to the Lord with the flux inclusions in flux-grown syn Chamberlain's Office and to Her Majesty's thetic rubies. Stationery Office for permission to repro duce a picture of the Black Prince's Ruby. Growth zoning: Colour zoning in Jagdalek rubies is References7 extremely sharp and narrow, forming in Afzali, H., 1981. Les resources d'hydrocarbures, de métaux et de substances utiles de l'Afghanistan: aperçu générál. the typical hexagonal pattern when viewed Chronique de la Recherche Minière, No. 460, 29-49, RWHL*. parallel to the c axis. The most distinctive Ball, S.H., 1931. Historical notes on gem mining. Economic feature of Jagdalek rubies are the small Geology, 26, 681-738, RWHL*. Ball, V., 1881. A Manual of the Geology of India, Part 3: Economic spots or zones of a sapphire-blue colour. At Geology. 1st edition, Calcutta, Geological Survey of India, 4 times, these blue zones may be hexagonal Vols., Vol. 3, 663 pp., RWHL*. Ball, V., 1893. A description of two large spinel rubies, with in outline while in other cases they consist Persian characters engraved upon them. Proceedings of the of narrow bands, but all show a sharp divi Royal Irish Academy, 3rd Series, No. 3, pp. 380-4-500, sion between red and blue. Similar blue Reprinted in Gemological Digest, 1990, 3, 1, 57-68, RWHL*. Bancroft, P., 1989. Record Russian spinels. Lapidary Journal, Vol. zoning is seen in Vietnamese rubies and in 43, No. 4, p. 41; RWHL. Myanma rubies from Mong Hsu. Bancroft, P., 1990. Spectacular spinel. Lapidary Journal, Vol. 43, No. 11, February, p. 25; RWHL. Bank, H. and Henn, U., 1990. New sources for tourmaline, Twin development: emerald, ruby, and spinel. ICA Gazette, April, p. 7; RWHL. Barthoux, J., 1933. Lapis-lazuli et rubis balais des cipolins Rhombohedral polysynthetic twin lamel afghans. Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences de France, lae are seen in most specimens, inevitably 196, 10, 1131-4; RWHL. Bauer, M., .1904. Precious Stones. Trans. by L.J. Spencer, First accompanied by long white boehmite published in German in 1896; English edition reprinted in needles meeting at 86.1/93.9°. 1968 by Dover (2 vols.) and 1969 by Charles E. Tuttle Co. (1 vol.), Charles Griffen and Co., London, 647 pp.; RWHL*. Beesley, C.R., 1986. Pakistan's emeralds: A trickle becomes a Exsolved inclusions: stream. Jewelers' Circular-Keystone, February, pp. 359-3-465; RWHL. While exsolved rutile needles have not Boa, M.K., 1987. Kalashnikovs provide cover to smuggled been found, clouds of tiny exsolved parti Afghan gems. Bangkok Gems and Jewellery, November, 5-14; cles of what may be rutile have been seen. RWHL. Bowersox, G.W., 1985. A status report on gemstones from The lack of true silk means that star rubies Afghanistan. Gems & Gemology, 21, 4, pp. 192-204, RWHL*. are not produced. Cabochons may show a Bretschneider, E., 1887. Medieval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources. Reprinted 1967, Barnes & Noble, New York, silvery sheen though, from reflection off London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 2 Vols., Vol. the particles. Exsolved boehmite needles 1, 334 pp.; RWHL. are common at the junctions of intersecting Brückl, K., 1937. Die Minerallagerstätten von Östafghanistan. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geologie und Paläontologie, B- rhombohedral twin lamellae. Bd 72, Abt. A, H 1, pp. 1-97, RWHL*. Collins, R., 1968. East to Cathay: The Silk Road. New York, McGraw-Hill, 128 pp.; RWHL. Fersman, A.E., 1946-47. Jewels of the Russian Diamond Fund. J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 267

trans. by Marie Pavlovna Warner, Gems & Gemology, 5, I: Griesbach, C.L., 1881. Report on the geology of the section 8, 363, 372-376; Part II, 9, 403-405; Part III, 10, 432-434; Part between the Bolan Pass in Baluchistan and Girishk in IV, 11, 467-470; RWHL. Southern Afghanistan. Memoirs, Geological Survey of India, Gibb, H.A.R., 1971. The Travels of Ibn Battuta. Trans. by C. 18, Pt. 1, not seen. Defrémery and B.R. Sanguinetti, Cambridge, Hakluyt Griesbach, C.L., 1885. Afghan field notes. Records, Geological Society, 3 Vols., Vol. 3, see p. 571; RWHL. Survey of India, 18, Pt. 1, 57-67 (see also 1886, Pts. 1 & 4; 1887, Herrn, U., Bank, H., Bank-Scherner, M., 1990. Rubine aus dem Pts. 1 & 4); not seen. Pamir-Gebirge, UdSSR. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Griesbach, C.L., 1892. The geology of Safed Koh. Records, Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, 39, 4, 201-5, RWHL*. Geological Survey of India, 25, Part 2, 71; RWHL. Hughes, R.W., 1990. Corundum. Butterworths Gem Books, Gübelin, E.J., 1982. Gemstones of Pakistan: Emerald, ruby and Northants, UK, Butterworth-Heinemann, 314 pp., RWHL*. spinel. Gems & Gemology, 18, 3, 123-9, RWHL*. Kammerling, R.C., Scarratt, K., Bosshart, G., Jobbins, E.A., Hayden, H.H., 1911. The geology of northern Afghanistan. 39, Kane, R.E., Gübelin, E.J., Levinson, A.A., 1994. Myanmar Pt. 1, 1-97; not seen. and its gems—An update. Journal of Gemmology, 24, 1, 3-40, Herbordt, O., 1925. Über nutzbare lagerstätten in Afghanistan. RWHL*. Zeitschrift für Praktische Geologie, 33, not seen. Koivula, J.I., 1987. Gem News: New ruby locality in Herbordt, O., 1925/26. Über die aussichten Afghanistans als Afghanistan; heat-treated pink sapphires [from Sri Lanka]. bergbauland. Intern. Bergwirtsch, not seen. Gems & Gemology, 23, 3, 176, RWHL. Heron, A.M., 1930. The gemstones of the Himalayas. Himalayan Mallet, F.R., 1887. A Manual of the Geology of India, Part 4: Journal, 2, 21-8; RWHL. Mineralogy. 1st edition, Geological Survey of India, Calcutta, Holland, T.H., 1898. A Manual of the Geology of India—Economic 179 pp., RWHL*. Geology: Corundum. 2nd ed., Pt. 1, Geological Survey of Markham, C.R., 1859. Narrative of the Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez de India, Calcutta, 79 pp.; RWHL*. Clavijo to the Court of Timour, at Samarcand, A.D. 1403-6. Hutton, T., 1846. Notes on the geology and mineralogy of Hakluyt Society, London, see pp. 163; RWHL. Afghanistan. Calcutta Journal of Natural History, 6, 562-611; Prinsep, J. and Kalíkishen, R., 1832. Oriental accounts of the not seen. precious minerals. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1, Jameson, N.M., 1843. On the geology, zoology, etc. of the 353-63; RWHL*. Punjab, and of a part of Afghanistan. Journal of the Asiatic Streeter, E.W., 1892. Precious Stones and Gems. 5th edition, Bell, Society of Bengal, 7, 192-226, not seen. London, 355 pp., RWHL*. Koivula, J.I. and Kammerling, R.C., 1989. Examination of a gem Themelis, T., 1988. Blue spot on ruby. Lapidary Journal, 42, 1, spinel crystal from the Pamir Mountains. Zeitschrift der April, p. 19; RWHL. Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, 38, 2/3, 85-88; Twining, L., 1960. A History of the Crown Jewels of Europe. B.T. RWHL. Batsford, London, 707 pp.; RWHL. McLachlan, K. and Whittaker, W., 1983. A Bibliography of Wood, J., 1841. A Journey to the Source of River Oxus. 2nd ed., Afghanistan. Menas Press Ltd, Cambridge, geology, pp. 1872, reprinted 1976, Oxford Univ. Press, London, John 13-53; RWHL. Murray, 280 pp.; RWHL. Rossovsky, L.N. and Konovalenko, S.I., 1980. [Gemstones in the Yevdokimov, D., 1991, A ruby from Badakhshan. Soviet Soldier, pegmatites of Hindukush, southern Pamirs and western No. 12, Dec., 71-3; RWHL. Himalayas] in Russian. In Gem Minerals (Proceedings of the Yule, H., 1872. Papers connected with the upper Oxus regions. XI General Meeting of IMA, Novosibirsk), ed. by V.V. Bukanov Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 42, 438-513, 2 maps; et al., pp. 52-62; not seen. RWHL. Sersen, W.J., 1991. Gemstones and early Arabic writers. Yule, H. and Cordier, H., 1920. The Book of Ser Marco Polo. Gemological Digest, 3, 2, 34-40, RWHL*. Reprinted by Dover, 1993, London, Murray, 3 vols., 462; Stewart, G., 1880. [Ruby mines of Afghanistan]. Proceedings, 662; 161 pp; RWHL*. Asiatic Society of Bengal, p. 4; not seen. Torrens, H., 1842a. On a cylinder and certain gems, collected in Further reading the neighborhood of Herat by Major Pottinger. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 11, 316-21, not seen. Ball, V., 1894. [Engraved spinel ruby]. Athenæum, No. 3454, 6th Torrens, H., 1842b. On the gem and coins, figured as Nos. 7 and January, not seen. 8 in the preceding plate, and on a gem belonging to the late Barbara, J., 1873. Travels to Tana and Persia. ed. by E.D. Morgan and C. H. Coote, London, Hakluyt Society, pp. 53-60; not Edward Conolly. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 11, seen. 137-45; not seen. Bariand, P., 1979. The Wonderful World of Precious Stones in their Trinkler, E., 1928. Afghanistan. In Petermann's Mitteilungen, Natural State. London, Abbey Library, 112 pp., RWHL. Gotha, Justus Perthes, No. 196, not seen. Chardin, J., 1988. Travels in Persia: 1673-1677. Reprint of the USSR Diamond Fund 1972. USSR Diamond Fund Exhibition. 1927 Argonaut Press edition, Mineola, NY, Dover, 287 pp.; Moscow, 54 pp. + 66 color plates; not seen. RWHL. Wilber, D.N., 1962. Annotated Bibliography of Afghanistan. 2nd Clément-Mullet, J., n.d., ca.1982. Essai sur la Minéralogie Arabe. edition, Hraf Press, New Haven, CT, geology, pp. 13-47; Reprint of 1868 ed., AP A-Oriental Press,Amsterdam, 406 RWHL. pp.; RWHL*. Wolfart, R. and Wittekindt, H., 1980. Geologie von Afghanistan. Conolly, E., 1840. Note of discoveries of gems from Kandahar. Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin, not seen. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 9, 98, 97-106; RWHL. Yule, H. and Burnell, A.C., 1985. Hobson-Jobson. Ed. by William Drummond, H., 1841. On the mines and mineral resources of Crooke, reprint of 1903 ed., Routledge & Kegan Paul, Northern Afghanistan. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, London, 1021 pp. (see Ava, pp. 40-41; Balass, p. 52; 10, 109, 74-93; RWHL. Capelan, p. 159; Ceylon, pp. 181-190; Coromandel, pp. Fersman, A.E., 1954-61. Ocherki Po Istorii Kamnya [Gems of 256-8; Corundum, p. 259; Tenasserim, p. 914); RWHL. Russia]. Moskva, Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 2 Vols., 370, 370 pp.; not seen. 268 J. Gemm.; 1994,24,4

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Mineral and chemical compositions of jadeite jade of Myanmar Win Htein, FGA, Ph.D. (Durham)* and Aye Myo Naing, DAG, M.Sc. (Yangon)**

*Universities' Research Centre, Yangon and **Myanma Gems Enterprise, Yangon

The earliest geological accounts of the Abstract jade mine areas in northern Myanmar are due to Noetling (1892). The occurrences of This research work contributes mineralogical jade have been reported by Bleeck (1908), and chemical data for jade Coggin Brown (1921), Chhibber (1932; varieties of Myanmar (Burma). From 1934). General descriptions of jade colours petrographic examination and XRD and qualities have been given by many analysis, jade of Myanmar can be authors such as Webster (1948; 1949; 1975) defined as a monomineralic (pure jade) and Coggin Brown (1948). The mineral or polymineralic (impure jade) rock. constituents and chemical compositions Twenty five specimens were studied (not bulk composition) of very limited and about two thirds consist essentially specimens of jade of Myanmar can be of jadeite and one third of jadeite plus found in the papers by Lacroix (1930), amphiboles and/or other pyroxenes. Yoder (1950), Bauer (1969), Coleman (1961) Edenite, richterite and tremolite are and Mével et al. (1986). Analytical data are major associated minerals; kosmochlor, mainly for jadeite itself. enstatite and chromite/ magnesiochromite Jade rocks or jade pieces used in the jade are minor associated trade may be monomineralic or polyminer minerals. Rutile/ilmenorutile are frequently alic. It was, therefore, considered that the present as acicular inclusions in mineralogical and chemical characteristics jadeite. No albite was observed in any would be required for a more representa of the jade specimens studied. XRF tive study of different varieties of jade of analyses demonstrated a wide range in Myanmar. bulk chemical compositions from a pure Some discrepancies between previous jadeite to impure jade compositions data on jade of Myanmar and present depending upon the content of amphiboles results were encountered. For instance, the and/or other pyroxenes. locally called 'maw-sit-sit' is technically neither jade because of lack of jadeite nor albite-jadeite rock as has been described Introduction before (e.g. Gübelin, 1965). Literature on jade and its counterfeits is The term 'jade7 normally refers to one of abundant, but that specifically on jade of two mineral species - jadeite or nephrite. Myanmar is less well known. Jade counterfeits have usually been named Mineralogical and chemical data are scarce with prefixes, such as, 'South African jade', or not available for the different varieties of 'British Columbian jade' for grossular and jade of Myanmar. As used in this paper the hydrogrossular, 'Swiss jade' for chal term jade of Myanmar refers to jadeite. cedony, etc. On the other hand, a jeweller

may use the terms 'Chinese jade' and 'New crusts. Zealand jade' to refer to the true jades, In sample preparation, care was taken to jadeite and nephrite respectively, with a obtain representative results of mineral justifiable indication of locality. Thus, the and chemical compositions. For X-ray use of this kind of locality prefix may cause diffraction analysis each sample was confusion. Therefore, we propose that the crushed and roughly sorted by hand- term 'Jade of Myanmar (or Burma)' is picking under a stereo-zoom microscope. preferable to 'Myanma jade' in order to dif ferentiate between true jade and Mineral compositions determined by pseudo-jade. optical and XRD methods Each jade specimen was sectioned for Sampling and sample preparation pétrographie examination before and after For this research work the Myanma Gem XRD identification of the mineral con Enterprise has provided jade specimens in stituents. A computer controlled Rigaku many different colours and varieties. Some X-ray diffractometer 'Geigerflex' D/Max specimens were collected from the III B was used for mineral identification. Geological Museum, Geology Department In the panel below are mineral assem of Yangon (formerly Rangoon) University blages identified by both XRD analysis and and from personal collections. These speci optical examination in the jade of mens were from the following mining Myanmar. centres: Hpakan, Lonkin, Tawmaw, In a collection of 25 specimens of Nantmaw, Whay Khar Maw, Haungpa and assorted jade varieties (see Figures 1-4) Knamti. about two thirds are essentially composed Assorted samples were carefully selected of jadeite and about one third consist of for appropriate analyses on the basis of two or more essential minerals. Acicular variation in colour, texture, transparency rutile and ilmenorutile, as confirmed by and weathered crust. The colours of jade XRD occur occasionally as tiny inclusions samples under investigation ranged from in some grains of jadeite. white through grey to almost black, shades Pure jade is almost white in the absence of green, dark green, emerald green, laven of colouring agents and the emerald-green der, yellowish through brown to colour in jadeite-jade is due to chromium. reddish-brown, bluish and greyish blue- On the other hand, kosmochlor in impure green. Textures vary from almost glassy to jade specimens gives a similar or even a coarse grained as seen in hand specimen. deeper green. For example, the bright- The weathered crusts in some specimens green colour of maw-sit-sit from the may be thick or thin, rough or smooth and Tawmaw area is due to kosmochlor. compact or porous; some specimens lack Unlike Gübelin's (1965) samples, our three

Monomineralic - Jadeite (pure jade) - Jadeite ± rutile/ilmenorutile - Jadeite ± chromite/magnesiochromite ± rutile

Polymineralic - Jadeite + edenite + richterite ± chromite (impure jade) - Jadeite + kosmochlor ± ilmenorutile - Jadeite + enstatite + tremolite - Jadeite + tremolite + edenite + richterite + kosmochlor ± ilmenorutile

Note: The sign ± denotes minor accessory mineral. J, Gemm., 1994,24,4 271

maw-sit-sit samples (two from Myanma standard mixtures are: for Si02 10.69 - Gems Enterprise (MGE) and one from 71.11%, for A1203 10 - 40%, for Na20 2 Mandalay jade market) do not contain - 18%, for Cr2O30.10 -12%, for Fe203 0.10 - jadeite or albite. (A mineralogical account 7%, for MgO 0.05 - 4%, for CaO 0.05 - 4% of maw-sit-sit is in preparation.) The and for K20 0.01 - 2%. amphiboles are largely responsible for XRF analyses of 15 jade specimens are greenish grey, dark green and black given in Table I. The measured values for colours. Na and Mg may be slightly low due to the use of a tungsten X-ray target; also Mn and Chemical composition determined by XRF water were not determined. These factors, analysis although small in magnitude, probably A wavelength dispersive X-ray fluores account for the low totals in Table I. cence spectrometer (model: RIGAKU 3060 Nevertheless, these compositions are P) was used for analysis of major and trace believed to be representative of the jade elements in various jade specimens. The varieties of Myanmar. international igneous rock standards - AG In Table I, the specimens 1 (mauve) and V.l, BCR-1, G-2, W-l and BR - were 2 (white) are pure jadeite. The specimens employed in the determination of all major 3-11 contain considerable amounts of elements except Na, Mg and Cr where syn calcium and iron, although they are still thetic jade mixtures were used. The essentially monomineralic. concentration ranges of the oxides in these The excess components of calcium and

Table I. XRF Analysis of jadeite-jade of Myanmar

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Si02 59.80 59.67 59.42 59.79 59.50 59.65 59.55 59.08 Cr203 0.22 n.d. 0.17 0.03 0.23 0.21 0.20 0.28 A1203 24.18 23.04 22.56 23.11 23.66 23.16 23.58 22.24 Fe203 0.93 0.98 1.74 1.37 1.11 1.32 1.06 1.44 MgO 0.01 0.05 0.66 0.75 0.29 0.33 0.36 0.80 CaO 0.33 0.72 1.79 1.71 1.21 1.22 1.22 1.82 Na20 13.44 15.52 12.35 12.48 12.93 12.93 13.28 12.86 K20 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 98.92 99.99 98.70 99.25 98.94 98.83 99.26 98.53

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Si02 59.45 59.16 58.95 56.14 59.79 58.67 58.64 Cr203 0.03 0.19 1.16 0.70 0.10 0.17 0.12 A1203 23.27 23.79 22.16 15.34 22.80 20.67 17.51 Fe203 1.12 1.12 1.40 1.42 1.13 2.34 1.97 MgO 0.50 0.26 0.85 9.88 0.60 1.72 3.17 CaO 1.32 1.10 1.90 10.84 1.47 2.59 5.40 Na20 13.02 13.04 12.99 5.66 12.56 12.61 11.65 K20 <0.01 <0.01 . <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 98.72 98.67 99.42 99.99 98.46 98.78 98.47 272 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

Fig. 1. Photographs of jade varieties of Myanmar.* (a,l) Jadeite. Mar-sar Maw. (b,3) Jadeite + ilmenorutile + rutile + magnesiochromite. Phakangyi Maw. (c,4) Jadeite + ilmenorutile. Nant Maw. (d,5) Jadeite. Chauk-oo Maw. (e,7) Jadeite. Chauk-oo Maw. (f) Jadeite + richterite + rutile + chromite. Phakan-gyi Maw. (g) Jadeite + ilmenorutile. Chauk-oo Maw. * Numbers in brackets refer to the sample no. in Table I. J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 273

Fig. 2. Photographs of jade varieties of Myanmar.* (h,8) Jadeite + rutile. Phakan-gyi Maw. (i,10) Jadeite + rutile + magnesiochromite. Tar-ma-khan Maw. (j,9) Jadeite + rutile. Whay-khar Maw. (k) Jadeite + rutile. Whay-khar Maw. (1,12) Jadeite + richterite + tremolite + kosmochlor + ilmenorutile. Nant Maw. (m,13) Jadeite + edenite + kosmochlor + rutile. Maw- maung Maw. * Numbers in brackets refer to the sample no. in Table I. 274 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

rf^^>,- - .«.*=. *#**

^aS^^afeTfiC* » iw-:

Fig. 3. Photographs of jade varieties of Myanmar.* (n ) Jadeite + richterite + kosmochlor + tremolite. Whay-khar Maw. (o,15) Jadeite + enstatite + tremolite. Ka-tone-yat Maw. * Numbers in brackets refer to the sample no. in Table I. iron may be attributed partly to chemical edenite, richterite, tremolite, kosmochlor impurities and tiny crystal inclusions in and enstatite are characteristic associates of jadeite itself and/or partly to a small jadeite in polymineralic varieties. molecular component of augite. Chromite, magnesiochromite, rutile and From optical and XRD examination the ilmenorutile are frequent accessories; no specimens 12-15 were found to be pyrox- albite has yet been found among the true ene-amphibole jades and a considerable jade samples studied. range of chemical variation was to be XRF analyses of the bulk chemical com expected. positions of various jades showed that Qualitative XRF analyses of 9 selected there was a significant range of chemical samples were also made to provide a variation from almost pure jadeite to general survey of trace elements present in impure jade compositions. The impure the various jades of Myanmar. Ti, Sr, Zr, + varieties contain more Ca, Mg, Fe and Nb, + Ni and +Zn are present, in addition sometimes Cr, and less Al and Na. These to Cr and Fe as shown in Table I. The + variations are mainly due to the contents of sign indicates that the element may be amphiboles and/or other pyroxenes. present or absent in some specimens. The jade specimens studied are believed to be fairly representative. Therefore, based Conclusions on the present evidence, it is suggested that The present study demonstrates that jade of Myanmar should be defined as a jade of Myanmar may include a much rock consisting essentially of jadeite with wider range in mineral constituents and or without interlocking amphiboles and/or chemical composition than was previously other pyroxenes. recognized. All the jade varieties in a range of colours may be either monomineralic or Acknowledgements polymineralic. The monomineralic type is The authors are grateful to the former entirely made up of jadeite, whereas geology Professors U Ba Than Haq and U J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 275

s,14

Fig. 4. Photographs of jade varieties of Myanmar.* (p,2) Jadeite. Nant Maw. (q,6) Jadeite + rutile. Chauk-oo Maw. (r,ll) Jadeite. Met-lin Maw. (s,14) Jadeite + kosmochlor + ilmenorutile. Tar-ma-khan Maw. . * Numbers in brackets refer to the sample no. in Table I. 276 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

Clarence Thacpaw and Professor Dr References Maung Thein, who permitted them to Bleeck, A.W.G., 1908. Rec. Geol. Survey India, 36, 254-285 Brown, J.C., 1948. The Gemmologist, XVII, No. 208, November carry out this research project. The authors Chhibber, H.L., 1932. Rec. Geol. Survey India, 66 are also indebted to Dr Zin Aung, former Chhibber, H.L., 1934. Mineral Resources of Burma, Macmillan, Associate Professor of Physics and Head of London Clegg, E.L.G., 1944. The Mineral Deposits of Burma, Times of Universities' Research Centre, for labora India Press, Bombay tory facilities provided for this study. Gübelin, E., 1965. Journal of Gemmology, IX, 11, 372-379 Grateful acknowledgement is made to the Lacroix, M.A., 1930. Bull. Soc. France. Miner, 53 Mével, C., and Kiénast, J.R., 1986. Bull. Mineralogie, 109, 6 Managing Director and the staff of Jade Noeting, F., 1892. Rec. Geol. Survey India, 25, 3, 130-5 Section, Myanma Gems Enterprise for pro Noeting, F., 1893. Rec. Geol. Survey India, 26, 26-31 viding the valuable jade specimens. Webster, R., 1948. The Gemmologist, XVII, No. 205 Webster, R., 1949. The Gemmologist, XVIII, No. 219 Webster, R., 1949. The Gemmologist, XVIII, No. 221 Webster, R., 1975. Gems, Butterworth & Co. Ltd., London Yoder, H.S., 1950. Amer. Journ. Sci, 248, 225-48, 312-34

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27 GREVILLE STREET (SAFFRON HILL ENTRANCE) LONDON, EC 1N 8SU A • TELEPHONE: 071 404 3334 FAX: 071 404 8843 T J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 277

A new occurrence of dendritic opal in south-eastern Zambia Claudio C. Milisenda*, Markus Redmann* and Veston Malango**

* German Foundation for Gemstone Research (DSEF), Idar-Oberstein, Germany **Ministry of Mines, Lusaka, Zambia

Abstract Gem-quality dendritic opal from a newly discovered deposit in southeastern Zambia is transparent to translucent yellow to brownish-yellow and is found in fractures and cavities of sedimentary rocks. Chemical analyses suggest that the dendrites consist of the manganese oxide psilomelane.

Introduction Besides amethyst and malachite occur rences, it was the rediscovery and new finds of emerald in the 1970s and their consequent massive exploitation which formed the basis of Zambia's dramatic entry into the gemstone supply scene. This Fig. 1. Simplified geographical map of south-eastern led to widespread exploration and, as a Zambia showing sample location (triangle) result, gemstones such as aquamarine, garnet and tourmaline have been found no such diffraction of light occurs in and there is certainly more potential not common opal because the silica spheres yet realized. Most recently, yellow to vary in size and are randomly stacked. brownish-yellow, gem-quality dendritic White and multi-coloured common opal opal has been discovered in south-eastern often contains inclusions of other minerals Zambia. with tree-like forms which are termed Opal as such is a non-crystalline, col dendrites. Such is the case with dendritic loidal substance consisting of very minute opal known from Zimbabwe, South Africa, spheres of silica gel with various amounts Tanzania, various places in the United of water, mostly between 3 and 5 wt% States (Webster, 1983; Gübelin and H20. In contrast to precious opal, where Koivula, 1986) and, most recently, from the silica spheres are relatively consistent Zambia. in size and are regularly stacked thereby The new Zambian opal find is located causing a three-dimensional diffraction approximately 40km north-east of the town grating and, as a result, a play of colour, Maamba at Lake Kariba in south-eastern

Fig. 2. The Zambian opal occurs in veins in Karroo sandstones

Table I. Properties of dendritic opal from Zambia

Colour Yellowish to brownish-yellow

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Fracture Conchoidal

Refractive index 1.459

Specific gravity . 2.15

UV luminescence Distinct Long-wave UV Yellowish Short-wave UV Greenish-yellow NIR-Absorption Spectrum Typical opal-spectrum Absorption maxima Assignment

1420-1460 nm vibrations of H20 1915 nm vibrations of H20 2213 nm vibrations of SiOH 2315 nm vibrations of SiOH J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 279

Fig. 3. Two cut opals with dendritic inclusions from south-eastern Zambia. Width of photograph 3.5cm

Zambia (Figure 1). The material occurs in the opals contain black, dendritic inclu veins and cavities in sandstones (Figure 2) sions which originate from veins and form which belong to the upper Carboniferous patterns resembling trees or even land to Jurassic Karroo Suite as indicated on the scapes (Figure 3). Geological Map of Zambia. The standard gemmological properties of Refractive index and specific gravity the Zambian material, as well as the results Using a standard gemmological refrac- of chemical analyses are given below. tometer, the RI was determined to be n = 1.459. Some samples show a strain Gemmological Properties induced birefringence and, as a result, an The gemmological properties are listed iridescent effect when examined under in Table I. The colour of the opal samples crossed polars (Figure 4). The SG was mea examined is yellow to brownish-yellow sured using a hydrostatic balance and and their diaphaneity ranges from trans yielded a value of 2.15. parent in small samples to translucent mostly in larger specimens. They typically Ultraviolet luminescence show a conchoidal fracture. In some cases When exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radia tion, the opal samples show a distinct yellowish fluorescence with long-wave UV radiation and a distinct greenish- yellow under short- wave UV.

•i 1 Spectroscopic analysis The infrared spectrum is plotted in Figure 5. The sample displays a near- infrared (NIR) spectrum which is Fig. 4. Interference effect of a cut opal under crossed consistent with the general patterns found polars. Width of photograph 3.5cm in natural opal (e.g. Langer and Flörke, 280 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

dentritic opal, Zambia dentritic opal, Zambia

I'lnK-x

1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 S. 80 Ö.ÜEJ Wavelength (nm) 0.00KEV lOsV/ch R ET D FIX

Fig. 5. Infrared absorption spectrum for an opal spec Fig. 6. Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrum imen from south-eastern Zambia (for of the dendritic inclusions (for explanation see explanation see text) text)

1974; Fritsch and Stockton, 1987). The opals Conclusions tested show combination vibrations of The gemmological properties of this molecular water (H20) between 1420 and common opal correspond to those 1460nm and at 1915nm. Additional described for other common opal occur absorption maxima occur at 2213 and rences. The beautifully arranged 2315nm, both caused by combination psilomelane inclusions make this new vibrations of SiOH groups. Zambian material interesting for the gem trade. Large quantities of dendritic opal Chemical analysis are apparently available and there are The dendritic mineral inclusions were good prospects for commercial exploita chemically analyzed using an EDAX tion. energy dispersive analytical system fitted on a scanning electron-microscope. The References spectrum is shown in Figure 6. The strong Fritsch, E., Stockton, C.M., 1987. Infrared spectroscopy in gem identification. Gems & Gemology, 23, 1, 18-26 Si-peak results from the opal-host, whereas Geological Map of Zambia, 1981. Geological Survey both Ba and Mn are present in the inclu Department, Zambia, Scale: 1:1,000,000 sions. It is thus probable that the inclusions Gübelin, E.J., Koivula, J.I., 1986. Photoatlas of inclusions in gemstones. ABC Edition, Zürich, Switzerland are psilomelane, a colloidal manganese Langer, K., Flörke, O.W., 1974. Near-infrared absorption oxide including barium oxide and spectra (4000-9000 cm-1) of opals and the role of 'water' in 3+ these SiO nH O minerals. Fortschritte der Mineralogie, 52, 1, water [(Ba,Mn )3Mn8016(O,OH)6]. 2 2 17-51 Webster, R., 1983. Gems, their sources, descriptions and identifications. Fourth Edition revised by B.W. Anderson, Butterworth, London

[Manuscript received 13 December 1993] J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 281

Letters

a)his familiarity with the composition of From J.B. Nelson, PhD, FGA Research Diploma low flow-point and solder glasses where boron oxide is an important additive, Dear Sir b) the results of an X-ray elemental analysis On diamond-filling glasses and with the GIA's energy-dispersive X-ray Nelson's speculations fluorescence spectrometer attachment to I was not surprised to see from his Letter a scanning electron microscope (SEM- to the Editor in the July issue of the Journal1 EDS).4 These were semi-quantitative that my favourite curmudgeon, Kurt analyses of spot areas lying along various Nassau, has followed up the two salvos23 outcropping glass-filled fractures on the from his Lebanese battlements at a previ same stone.3 Chlorine, along with lead ous paper of mine4, by yet another one. and bismuth, was detected. The results His judgement of the currently offending were reported as '... The chlorine concen paper5 is that '...while [Nelson's] discussion tration consistently seemed [emphasis is actually not often wrong, much of it is added] to approximate the sum of the irrelevant...'. lead and bismuth concentrations ...' I am grateful to Dr Nassau for allowing Because of the 'semi-quantitative' nature me the further opportunity for expanding of the observations, the cautious GIA on matters related to this topical subject.12 analyst chose to express the chlorine After the submission of a thesis to the content in the less precise terms which GAGTL on The glass filling of diamonds', the less-cautious Nassau would prefer us the writer was awarded the title of FGA to ignore. Research Diploma. The articles in the From these two viewpoints, he firmly Journal are based on this thesis. It appears concludes '... that boron is the only practi that Nassau's comment on the irrelevancy cable (and indeed expected) candidate ...' of the ideas does not accord with the ver There have always been great doubts by dicts of the thesis examiners. analysts on the quality of X-ray spectro- chemical results which attempted to He begins by stating '... [Nelson] has measure the percentage of a very light therefore missed the important boron element occurring in a matrix of a very content of these [Yehuda] glasses ...' heavy element. The inverse situation, e.g. a This wording wrongly conveys to the small percentage of say lead (Z=82)* or reader that a quantitative boron analysis bismuth (Z=83) occurring in a predomi was reported in the GIA laboratory's nantly boron (Z=5) matrix, would elegant paper of 1989.3 Not even a qualita invariably yield results of high accuracy. tive detection of boron was claimed. Nor, I For this reason only, I declined to pursue feel sure, has its presence in Yehuda the 'logic' of the GIA analysis, as Nassau glasses been reported in the literature since feels that I should have done. that date. It is really not sensible to speculate on He was therefore careless in failing to missing elements on such flimsy evidence. insert the essential word 'possible' between Is it not far better to actually determine the words 'important' and 'boron'. His their concentration? Why indeed has this firm belief that boron is the missing * Z is the characteristic number of an element. It is the element probably stems from: number of protons in its nucleus.

not been done? If it had, it is not beyond of the glasses of any diamond enhancer belief that lithium (Z=3) or beryllium (Z=4) other than Yehuda had been reported. could equally well have been found to Nassau's later, undated and unpublished serve as Nassau's missing element.** personal communication from Fritsch of Quite unwittingly, he has drawn atten the GIA, stating that bromine had been tion to one of the more intractable found in one fracture-filled diamond of problems facing present-day inorganic unstated origin, comes as no surprise. analytical chemistry. The low atomic Following Yehuda's trail-blazing inven number elements, lithium (Z=3), beryllium tion, it would be astonishing if other (Z=4), boron (Z=5), carbon (Z=6) and nitro entrepreneurs had not tried out various gen (Z=7) cannot be detected, let alone cocktails. I would find it easy to accept measured, by X-ray fluorescence energy- that a Koss or other glass consisted of PbO dispersive spectrometers (XRF-EDS). and PbBr2 with a small addition of B2Os or These instruments, of the non-destructive Li20 to adjust for a low flow point, better kind still in use at the GIA laboratory,4 glass stability and the desired RI. have been the mainstay of modern elemen Laboratory safety. As to his warnings tal analysis. However, they are quite about the oil-quenching process being '...an unable to detect and measure elements of extreme explosion and fire hazard!...', may lower Z number than sodium (Z=ll). I ask him to perform the following experi In general, the light elements play an as ment? Take a teaspoonful of motor engine yet little understood role in gemmological oil and heat it with an alcohol lamp. He science. I have recently completed a brief will find that it is quite difficult to set account of the historical developments of alight. After all, engine oil has had all the the analytical methods used to determine volatiles distilled off, otherwise it would be them. A different scene is now emerging. a fuel and not a cylinder lubricant. He will It is now possible with a new generation of discover that it has to be heated to smoking X-ray fluorescence, wavelength dispersive temperatures before it becomes a labora spectrometers (XRF-WDS) to measure, tory hazard. The alcohol lamp itself is accurately and non-destructively, all the much more dangerous! elements from uranium (Z=92) to beryl My suggestion for dribbling the molten lium (Z=4), except lithium (Z=3). It is quite glass into a large bath of cold motor engine likely that this too, will soon yield to the oil has long been the preferred quenching instrument engineer. The account, under method in phase equilibrium studies of the title '... The troublesome trio; boron, alloys and inorganic compounds. It has beryllium and lithium', will hopefully the advantage of thermally-shocking the appear in a future issue of the Journal. glass into small fragments which are ideal It is now necessary to return to Nassau's for rapid remelting. It is by far the most other comments. effective way of ensuring that there is no Glass formulations. He has advised me to devitrification. Sodium chloride in the look up his list of references on lead, glassy state can be produced only in this bismuth and boron oxide glasses. This is way. The 'splat' method by which the not a task which I feel obliged to do as I molten sodium chloride is poured on to a have no intention of starting up a fracture- cold, thick, polished copper plate does not filling station. work. Alas, I cannot share Nassau's belief As mentioned in my paper, no analyses that glasses do not devitrify easily. They do, and often quite unexpectedly. He must ** For carrying out X-ray powder diffraction studies of surely have been aware of the devitrifica organic substances sensitive to H20, C02 and 02/ the writer has made and used thin-walled capillary tubes of tion at 250°C of the 90 per cent silica glass 'Lindemann Glass'.5 This X-ray transparent glass has the ('Corex') envelopes of halogen lamps. approximate composition 5Li O.Be0.6B 0 . 2 2 3 Only a touch of moist fingers containing J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 283

sodium chloride traces is enough to catal References yse the conversion to cristobalite. 1. Nassau, K., 1994. On diamond-filling glasses and Nelson's speculations. Journal of Gemmology, 24, 3, 183-4 Glass-filling apparatus. As to a real labora 2. Nelson, J.B., 1994. The glass filling of diamonds. Part 2: a tory hazard, I was horrified at the possible filling process. Journal of Gemmology, 24, 2, 94-103 suggestion that his DIY test-tube apparatus 3. Koivula, J.I., Kammerling, R.C., Fritsch, E., Fryer, C.W., Hargett, D., and Kane, R.E., 1989. The characteristics and as shown in his Figure lb could be used for identification of filled diamonds. Gems and Gemology, 25, fracture filling. I would not dream of Summer, 68-83 asking anyone to attempt these experi 4. Stockton, C.M., and Manson, D.V., 1981. Scanning electron ments without a large, thick Perspex screen microscopy in gemology. Gems and Gemology, 17, Summer, 72-9 placed in front of the hot evacuated glass 5. Taylor, A., 1945. An introduction to X-ray metallography. ware. Vacuum implosions are almost as Chapman and Hall, London. p.329 devastating as pressure explosions. Flying molten glass, solid hot glass splinters and Response from Dr Kurt Nassau, PhD, FGA incandescent diamonds are much to be avoided. His costings make interesting reading. Dear Sir His test-tube arrangement of Figure lb More on diamond-filling glasses 'could be purchased for £5.00 ../ A Pyrex and Nelson's speculations test-tube, yes, but not a Bunsen burner. As I fully agree with James B. Nelson1 that for a suitable two-stage, ballasted, oil boron has not yet been demonstrated to be vacuum pump such as the Edwards RV3, it present in the fracture-filling glasses used would cost him about £1300. Again, his on diamonds; I thought I had made this estimate of the cost of about £5000 for my clear in my letter2. Perhaps instead of suggested filling unit is quite far out. I saying that 'boron is the only practicable could not expect to have it made for less (and indeed expected) candidate' for the than £20 000. missing cation component, I really should Precision diamond polishing. Finally, he have said possible or probable there and else states that it would not be possible to where in my letter2 commenting on polish diamond-glass surfaces without Nelson's article3. undercutting. A diamond polishing friend No -1 was not 'unwitting', as Nelson in the trade had assured me that it could be puts it1, when it comes to the difficulty of done, but not as in the routine manner. A analyzing for the presence of low atomic thin film of some coolant or lubricant such weight cations in small samples: this well- as a light mineral oil or isopropyl alcohol known limitation always presents a would be required to be maintained on the problem. Yet a 'glass-former' needs to be scaife. With a very light load and a long polishing period, it should be possible to present, and the lithium or beryllium prepare good, polished, strictly-coplanar Nelson suggests as alternatives just will flat surfaces without any undercutting or not do. In my opinion, boron is the only heating. possible candidate, a conclusion not grounded merely on the limited basis I would put it to Nassau that his own 1 letter is totally irrelevant. His rebuttal of Nelson attributes to me. As neither the my rebuttal, which is sure to follow, will be GIA, Nelson, I, nor anyone else who has eagerly awaited as they say. analyzed these glasses has had access to the special capability needed to determine Yours etc. boron, certainty will only result from such James B. Nelson an analysis. But the possibility of the pres Nelson Gemmological Instruments ence of boron cannot be ignored. Hampstead, London. Yet Nelson has missed the essential point 25 July 1994 of my letter2 which was intended as a polite and, I hoped, gentle reminder for him to 284 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

familiarize himself adequately with the lit samples into oil and other fluids on many erature on glasses before attempting to occasions, but this is usually done with draw subtle conclusions. He may indeed very small quantities. For the topic under be well acquainted with the physical prop discussion however, the preparation of erties of glass, yet reading his article3 and bulk glass, I can guarantee at least a minor his subsequent letter1 makes it clear to me eruption on dropping a hundred grams of that his knowledge of possible glass- molten glass into oil and a definite major forming compositions and glass explosion if this were done with a kilogram preparation techniques does not have the amount. What happens is that the oil is necessary depth. 'cracked' on contact with the high tempera And I am totally baffled by Nelson's ture glass to yield volatile and flammable stated1 unwillingness to look up the refer low molecular weight fragments. Please ences I suggested because he has 'no do not try it! intention of starting up a fracture-filling Incidentally, I did not say that glasses do station'. Should not a scientist feel the obli not devitrify easily, as stated by Nelson1. I gation to consult suggested new sources did say that solder glasses do not usually before deciding on their irrelevance? do so unless specifically designed and pro I might note that over the last 20 years I cessed to do so2. And I ignore comments of have studied the preparation and proper Nelson irrelevant to the topic at hand such ties of a wide variety of glasses (fused as those on X-ray diffraction, the devitrifi silica, silicates, other mixed oxide, heavy cation of 'Corex', and so on. metal and halide glasses, also including My deduction of the probable presence rapid quenching and crystallization of boron was based on a consideration of studies), with over 50 publications on the nature of known glass-forming glasses in recognized journals. Based on systems, on the usual necessity for the this experience I can assure Nelson of the presence of a good 'glass-former', com following. bined with the missing cations (all of One can definitely work with low- Nelson's speculations notwithstanding, melting glasses in fused silica with only these cannot be ignored). In my judge minimal contamination. I have done this ment, a non-crystallizing glass consistent many times, even making my own tubes -1 with the available analyses with enough picked up glass-blowing in my youth. I fluidity to penetrate thin fractures in a rea have frequently used vacuum without ever sonable time at a reasonable temperature experiencing an implosion. Of course I just does not seem plausible in the absence used safety shields and goggles, as does of significant boron. any prudent experimenter. And I did not I am also quite unimpressed by the include the cost of these, of the bunsen assurance given to Nelson1 by his burner, vacuum pump, or glass-blowing diamond-polishing friend of his ability to torch in my £5.00 estimate, because every avoid undercutting totally and to achieve laboratory I have ever worked in contained the 'exactly coplanar' surface required for such standard equipment. I accept Nelson's measurement1. I shall believe this Nelson's estimate of £20 000 for building one only when it has actually been demon his apparatus as being reasonable; my strated. £5000 was obviously just an order of mag Feedback that helps to put facts into a nitude guess. meaningful perspective is considered to be Dropping a red-hot glass into oil is defi part of the scientific approach. None of us nitely not the same as Nelson's1 heating a can know everything, however expert. I teaspoon of it over an alcohol lamp! I too myself have found comments on my own have dropped red hot phase diagram reports useful and therefore assume that so J. Gemm., 1994, 24, 4 285

would others. ture at which Dr Farrimond made his determinations but if it were 25°C (at Yours etc. which water has a density of 0.9971) a Kurt Nassau downward correction of 0.29 per cent Nassau Consultants should have been made to obtain more Lebanon, NJ 08833, USA accurate values. The SG of diamond mea 24 August 1994 sured as 3.45 would be 3.44 and the 4.01 for corundum lowered to 4.00. References These differences are not large and prob 1. Nelson, J.B., 1994 (the preceding letter) ably no greater than other experimental 2. Nassau, K., 1994. Letter: On diamond-filling glasses and Nelson's speculations. Journal of Gemmology, 24, 183-4 error. However, since in using toluene a 3. Nelson, J.B., 1994. The glass filling of diamond; Part 2: a correction must be made, the reported possible filling process. Journal of Gemmology, 24, 94-103 values are probably more accurate than those obtained in using water with no cor rection. When a specific gravity is reported From Professor Cornelius S. Hurlbut correct to the third decimal place (as that given for quartz in this article) without a density/temperature correction, it is Dear Sir suspect. I write in reference to the article by T. Farrimond in the Journal of Gemmology Yours etc. (1994,24,3,161-3,), 'Hydrostatic measure Cornelius S. Hurlbut, ment of specific gravity'. In this article Dr Professor of Mineralogy, Emeritus, Farrimond concludes that accurate deter Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, minations of specific gravity can be made Harvard University, Cambridge, on gemstones 0.25ct or greater by the Mass 02138, USA. hydrostatic method using water. 29 August 1994 Because of it low surface tension, toluene has been used in place of water as an immersion liquid for specific gravity mea Response from Dr T. Farrimond surements of small stones. By adding a detergent the surface tension of water can be lowered to a point approaching that of Dear Sir toluene. For this reason Dr Farrimond I should like to express my appreciation feels there is little point in using toluene. to Professor Hurlbut who correctly points He mentions as a disadvantage the rather out an error in my article entitled large variation in its density with changes 'Hydrostatic measurement of specific in temperature and the necessity of making gravity' (J. Gemm., 1994, 24,3,161-3). On a density/temperature correction. page 163, the sentence referring to the It is stated that the density of toluene at effects of temperature on the density of 25°C is 2.3 per cent less than at 5°C, water should read: 'Since water only whereas the density of water changes only changes by about 0.2 per cent between 4°C about 0.02 per cent between 4°C and 70°C and 20°C no compensation need be made.' making compensation unnecessary. There Although the figures are different, the is an error in this last percentage figure. rationale remains unaltered, since at The density of water at 4°C is of course 1.0; normal temperatures up to 20°C, the at 70°C it is 0.9778 a difference of 0.0222 or density of water is little different from 2.22 per cent, more than 100 times greater unity. All SG determinations were made at than stated. We are not told the tempera 17°C. 286 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

Professor Hurlbut notes that tempera nated movements resembling drunken ture correction for water at 25°C would ness, have all been reported as a result of change the SG value for a diamond of inhalation of toluene fumes. 0.053ct from 3.45 to 3.44 and for a corun The avoidance of health hazards such as dum of 0.46ct from 4.01 to 4.00. At lower these by using water whenever practicable, temperatures the difference made by tem instead of toluene, is largely an exercise in perature correction could also be made for prudence. water if thought necessary. Although it is true that the low surface Yours etc. tension of toluene brings benefits, its 13 per Dr T. Farrimond, cent lower density of 0.867 at 20°C relative Thornton Road, Cambridge, New Zealand to water (0.998) would decrease the magni 12 September 1994 tude of the balance readings, so exacerbating the influence of other factors including surface tension. From Alec E. Farn Professor Hurlbut also refers to the quoted SG for quartz questionable if stand ing alone, but the standard deviation of the Dear Sir sample places the value between 2.64 and John M. Jerwood MC FGA 2.66. I was surprised when my wife, who was The term 'accuracy' used in the article is reading the Review section of the Sunday qualified by the statement that: Telegraph of 12 June, looked up and asked 'For stones in excess of 0.25ct hydrostatic me if I knew a John Jerwood. I replied that determinations become more accurate and I did (past tense) and enquired why the at about 0.46ct the error is only 0.5 per question? cent.' She passed to me the full page Arts Given the above limitations of hydro Review portraying artists and their style of static measures of SG using water, the work. method is quick, convenient and suffi A write-up described the Jerwood ciently accurate to make it a means of Painting Prize of £30 000 to be awarded obtaining useful ancillary information for annually. The criterion being 'excellence in stone identification. Modern British Painting' the only condi Toluene, if used regularly, requires con tion required that entrants must have lived trolled conditions so that the fumes are not and worked in this country for the past ten breathed in by the operator. I encountered years. It was an aspect of John Jerwood at first-hand the effects of olfactory adap who gained his Diploma in Gemmology in tion brought about by the regular use of 1937 which was new to me as was his the chemical carbon tetrachloride. Some Military Cross won in the Italian members of the staff at a coal research lab Campaign. His firm featured in the early oratory, where I was employed for a short days of the Laboratory of the Diamond time when a student, used the liquid for Pearl and Precious Stone (trade section) of washing samples of coal prior to analysis. the London Chamber of Commerce One hot summer's day, they did not turn holding positions of deputy chairman of up for lunch as usual and upon investiga the Standing Committee 1931 and Hon tion they were all found to be unconscious Secretary to the section. John Jerwood was on the floor. well known to Basil Anderson in labora Damage to lungs, nervous system and tory terms of pearl testing. I personally liver, as well as changes in behaviour made contact with him by correspondence involving slurred speech and uncoordi towards the end of my time at the labora- J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 287 tory on matters concerning the Japanese when I started (in retirement) to write production of non-nucleated cultured Pearls Natural, Cultured and Imitation that pearls from Lake Biwa. I met him personally. He had then lived in He was a fount of first hand information Japan for many years. In my early days at haying cultured pearl farms in Japan and the laboratory I seldom dealt with the pearl Australia. He sent me a report on the trade. Coloured stones and gem set jew decline of pearl fishing in Australia and of ellery were my metier. Few gemmologists cultured pearl production of Mabe pearls today will have heard or known of John in the Pinctada maxima oyster. I had often Jerwood. wondered why these expensive oysters which were in fairly short supply were Yours etc. used to produce Mabe cultured blister A.E. Farn, pearls*. He gave me important addresses Seaford, E. Sussex. to which to write to in Japan for produc tion figures and dollar earnings. It seems * See A.E. Farn, 1986. Pearls natural, cultured and imitation, Butterworth, London, pp 79-80. ironic that it was not until November 1983

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ABSTRACTS

Diamonds Gems and Minerals

Instruments and Techniques '••?#&•&:• >>&V£ ^KrVl

magnetism, plumes and diamonds are explored; Diamonds some correlations are established and others are implied. The results are sufficient to allow the [Morphogenese peculiarities of placer dia author to suggest that kimberlites and the geo monds from Anabar River alluvial deposits and graphically and temporally associated a problem of their genesis.] (Russian with carbonatites are continental recorders of plumes English abstract) dating back to > 2800 m.y., and that some dia A.I. DEGTJAREVA, T.V. POSUKHOVA AND V.K. monds may have recorded core events dating GARANIN. Proc. Russian Mineralogical Society, 123 back to 3300 m.y., or possibly earlier. Peaks in (1), 1994, pp 71-80. kimberlite magmatic activity correlate, on Data are presented from the morphological average, with normal and reverse superchron analysis of diamond crystals found in a total of and subchron behaviour of the geomagnetic six alluvial deposits in tributaries on both banks field. The time lag between magnetohydrody- of the Anabar River and on the coast of the namic activity in the core and kimberlite eruptive Laptevs' Sea. The degree of mechanical wear and cycles at the Earth's surface is of the order of 25 some other hypogene alteration of these dia to 50 m.y., consistent with the travel times mod monds were investigated by SEM. The weight of elled for the passage of plumes from the D" layer the diamond crystals ranges from 3.3 to 52.7 mg. to the subcontinental lithosphère. Although the The typomorphic peculiarities of the crystals lead existence of plumes and the nature of D" are to the suggestion that the diamonds have debated, the correlations established for the past reached these placer deposits from different 500 m.y. between and among superchrons, sub- sources; the nature of these sources is discussed chrons, kimberlites and entrained diamonds are in the light of the reported observation. considered to weigh heavily in favour of the fol R.A.H. lowing scenario: solid core growth, the consequent release of Si, O, C, H, S, K and possi Superkimberlites: a geodynamic diamond bly N and B to D", disruption of D" at some window to the Earth's core. critically unstable threshold thickness (200- S.E. HAGGERTY. Earth & Planetary Science 300km), enhanced core convection and the Letters, 122 (1-2), 1994, pp 57-69. stabilization of a constant non-reversing mag Diamonds are geologically ancient (3300 m.y.) netic dipole field, rising plumes and subsequent and originate deep in the mantle (> 180km); rare volcanism. If protokimberlitic magma and diamonds are from the transition zone entrainment begin at the core-mantle boundary, (400-670km) and others possibly nucleated in the a number of geochemical and mineralogical lower mantle (>670km). Transport to the surface anomalies in diamonds are at present best satis is via volatile (C-O- H-N-S)-charged highly fied if D" is invoked. These include, but are not explosive kimberlite and lamproite volcanoes, limited to, intensely reduced (i.e. oxygen defi sited exclusively in the oldest (> 1700 m.y.), tec cient) SiC, metallic Fe, an abundance of hnically most stable and thickest (~200km) sulphides, silicate perovskite and wüstite-peri- regions of crust and upper mantle lithosphère. clase mineral inclusions in diamonds. The most The energies required for volcanism are so excep abundant source of diamonds is unequivocally tional and the sources so deep that possible from cratonic root zones with C possibly connections between and among the core, geo implanted by ancient plumes; eclogitic suite dia-

ABSTRACTORS R.A. Howie R.A.H. P.G. Read P.G.R. M. O'Donoghue M.O'D. R.E. Samson R.E.S. RJ. Peace RJ.P. I. Sunagawa LS.

monds are equivocal, and diamonds transported Diamond radiation detectors. from the transition zone and the lower mantle are R.J. KEDDY, T.L. NAM. Radiation Physics & best explained by entrainment in highly reduced Chemistry, 41 (4-5), 1993, pp 767-73 (Apr-May), 10 plumes. Carbon in the great majority of dia figs, 28 refs. monds appears to be primordial. By analogy A review to date is given of the status of with a chondritic Earth and chondrites, carbon diamond as a detector of ionising radiations. The was acquired during accretion in gaseous com use of diamond as a thermo-luminescence plexes, in the form of nanometre-size amorphous device, as an ionisation chamber (pulse and dc C, and as hydrocarbon particles; it may also have modes), as a scintillation counter for a-particles been added as crystalline nanodiamonds that and for high dose applications using radiophoto- served as seeds for subsequent diamond growth. luminescence is discussed. Some of the data R.A.H. obtained have also led to a better understanding of physics and crystallographic structures of the 'Primary' diamond deposits. What controls diamond lattice. Appropriate examples and ref their size, grade and location? Giant ore erences are given. Particular attention is paid to deposits. the role played by the impurity atoms within the H.H. HELMSTAEDT. Society of Exploration lattice. (Author's abstract). R.J.K. Geologists, special publication no. 2,1993, pp 13- 81,26 figs. [Clastogenic* pyropes and diamonds of north Kimberlites and lamproites are shown not to ern Karelia.] (Russian with English abstract) be primary deposits for diamond in the sense S.F. KLJUNIN AND A.A. ZAKHAROV. Proc. that diamond originated within them, although Russian Min. Soc, 122 (6), 1993, pp 43-7. they are principal source rocks for diamond. New data^n the composition, morphology These rocks were transporting agents for dia and types of crystal surface are presented for monds forming in harzburgitic and eclogitic chrome-pyropes and diamonds found in heavy- source rocks in the subcontinental lithosphère. mineral concentrates obtained by sampling the The 'primary' deposits are analysed to show 'pyrope aureole' in N. Karelia. EPMA results are sources, modes of transportation and deposit reported for 19 pyropes. Photomicrographs are locations. It is not possible to distinguish given of the surface textures of grains of garnet between 'giant' deposits which may have arisen and diamond; their morphology and the stepped from different processes and smaller deposits. A development of faces on diamond bear witness to notable dilution in diamond grade between the short distance of transportation undergone source rocks and 'primary' deposits suggests that by these minerals. It is concluded that prospect 'giant' deposits may be those represented by con ing for diamond deposits in this area should be centrations of eclogitic source rocks in the upper promising. R.A.H. mantle and that these would be far larger than any known 'primary' deposits. M.O'D. *Editor's note: the term 'clastogenic' is generally used in connection with fire fountains and may be considered in a kimberlite volcanic context Gem Trade Lab Notes. thus: fallout from a fire fountain produces a spatter rampart around the vent and if the accumulation rate is high the molten spatter may coagu R.C. KAMMERLING, C.W. FRYER, G.R. late to form a flow of lava known as a clastogenic flow. CROWNINGSHIELD, T. MOSES, K. HURWIT AND S.F. MCCLURE. Gems and Gemology, 30 (1), 1994, pp 39- 46,20 illus. in colour. The Centenary diamond was graded on site in Rb-Sr ages of Proterozoic kimberlites of India: London and at 273.85ct was declared the largest evidence for contemporaneous emplacement. 'D' colour, flawless or internally flawless A. KUMAR, V.M. PADMA KUMARI, A.M. DAYAL, diamond graded to date; a colour report was D.S.N. MURTHY AND K. GOPALAN. Precambrian made on the 545.65ct diamond known as Research, 62 (3), 1993, pp 227-37,2 maps. 'Unnamed Brown' and shown to be fancy yel Rb-Sr analyses of leached phlogopite macro- lowish-brown of natural colour; a fancy coloured crysts from kimberlite pipes 1, 2, 5 and 7 in S orange to brown rough diamond was shown to India give concordant ages of 1091 ± 20,1092 ±15, be natural although cutting produced a near 1093 ± 20 and 1091 ± 10 m.y., respectively, indi colourless stone; clusters of fine dark needles in cating contemporaneous emplacement. The fancy intense yellow diamonds strongly sug present results contradict earlier measurements. gested a type-lb stone; orientated platelets Groundmass mineral assemblages with low appeared to be unique to type -IaA fancy yellow Rb/Sr ratios give a tight set of initial Sr ratios at diamonds. R.J.P. 0.7029 ± 0.0002, 0.7019 ± 0.0002, 0.7029 ± 0.0002 and 0.7030 ± 0.0004, suggesting derivation of the J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 291

primary kimberlite magma from a relatively J.-P. CASSEDANNE. Revue de gemmologie, 119, uniform and depleted mantle source. A similar 1994, pp 5-6,2 illus. in colour. age and initial Sr isotopic ratio of one sample of Amazonite from the iron-bearing area of the Majhgawan lamproite from central India Itabira is described. The region is 100km east- imply that the Proterozoic kimberlite/lamproite nor-east of Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, activities in India, although widely separated in specifically in the Fazenda de Geraldo Duarte on space, were almost contemporaneous. R.E.S. the left bank of the Corrego do Patriminio. Amazonite occurs in a granite pegmatite cutting A high-chromium corundum (ruby) inclusion a granite gneiss and is associated with quartz, in diamond from the Sao Luiz alluvial mine, albite and biotite. M.O'D. Brazil. G.R. WATT, J.W. HARRIS, B. HARTE AND S.R. Cordiérites à effets spéciaux. BOYD. Mineralogical Magazine, 58 (3), 1994, pp C. DA CUNHA. Revue de gemmologie, 119,1994, 488-91. pp 11-14, 2 illus. in black-and-white, 2 in colour, A highly chromian, red corundum inclusion 2 figs. (-100 urn long) was found in a type II diamond Chatoyant and star cordiérites are described, with a variable Ô13C (-11.56 to -15.21 vs PDB). both 4- and 6-ray versions of the latter being Electron microprobe analyses gave Si02 0.58, recorded. Though hematite and/or lepidocrocite TiO20.10, A1203 90.37, Cr203 8.58, FeO 0.28, MnO are proposed as the cause of the chatoyancy the 0.04, MgO 0.40, CaO 0.01, Na20 0.01, = 100.39. minerals responsible for the asterism were not The high Cr content of the Säo Luis corundum identified. A note on a cordierite showing aven- relative to corundum from eclogitic xenoliths turescence identifies the presence of biotite and may reflect formation at sub-lithospheric depths, muscovite in the literature and these may be the analogous to increased Cr partitioning in kyanite cause of some of the aventurescence observed in with pressure. R.A.H. the author's studies but this is uncertain. M.O'D. Comments on 'An unusual octahedral diamond' by A. Yacoot and M. Moore. Gravure sur pierres précieuses: les saphirs. A.R. LANG. Mineralogical Magazine, 58 (3), 1994, M. DUCHAMP. Revue de gemmologie, 119,1994, pp 506-510. pp 7-10,6 illus. in black-and-white, 3 in colour. A recent application of X-ray topography to a Engraving on sapphire is traced from early natural diamond [Min.Mag. 56,1992,111-13] is times with notes on specimens from a number of considered to have incorrectly interpreted the collections. M.O'D. evidence. A new interpretation is put forward, with the emphasis on the cuboid protuberances, The Indaia sapphire deposits of Minas Gérais, and a possible explanation for the present shape Brazil. of this diamond is proposed. R.A.H. D.S. EPSTEIN, W. BRENNAN AND J.C. MENDES, Gems & Gemology, 30 (1), 1994, pp 24-32,11 illus. in colour. Gems and Minerals Although the total amounts of sapphire mined during the last three years have been relatively small, the discovery of deposits in this region Structural changes of nephrites at elevated tem may be of major significance. The sapphires are peratures as revealed by their IR-spectra. recovered from alluvium. Spectroscopy is con A. BANERJEE AND P. WANG. Neues Jahrbuch für sistent with iron-rich sapphires from other Mineralogie Monatschefte, 1994 (7), pp 317-27. localities. Optical characteristics and microscopy Correlation between the Fe and Mg contents of are given in detail with a high percentage of two nephrites [no localities given] and their IR stones showing colour change. Whether more absorption bands was investigated. The more sophisticated mining methods will be practical magnesian nephrite had one absorption band at and economical remain questionable. RJ.P. 3674cm~l due to OH-stretching vibration; this band splits to give an additional absorption band Les perles rouges de Pinna noblis (continued). at 3660cm * for the more iron-rich sample. The J.-P. GAUTHIER, J. CASEIRO AND B. LASNIER. changes in the IR spectra with heating to 900°C Revue de gemmologie, 119,1994, pp 2-4, 3 illus. in were also studied. R.A.H. black-and-white, 2 in colour, 1 fig. Pearls with aragonite composition are a little L'amazonite de Santa Maria de Itabira (Minas rarer than those composed of calcite and usually Gerais, Brésil) (part 1) measure from l-4mm. A section of one pearl 292 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

showed seven distinct growth stages. Some spec its red colour enhanced by red foil or paint on the imens apparently owed their nucleation to the pavilion facets in a closed setting. R.J.P. presence of a 'nodule' placed at the base of the mantle close to the viscera. The structure of the World gemstone market invaded by sizeable nodule shows a fibrous and radiating picture amount of Burma ruby. with concentric growth zones. The material was C. KREMKOW. Israel Diamonds and Precious found to be calcite with some aragonite. Stones, 136 (May), 1994, p. 64,68 (2 pages), 1 illus. M.O'D. in colour. A newly developed ruby mine at Mong Hsu in The name game. western Myanmar is now producing sizeable R.W. HUGHES. The Australian Gemmologist, 18 quantities of commercial-quality ruby, and sig (10), 1994, pp 311-15. nificant quantities of fine-quality goods Although written in a light-hearted style, the particularly in sizes up to one carat. Larger sizes author nevertheless gives the reader much to are rare and only available in the lower qualities. think about and is master of his topic. The whole The deposit was first discovered in 1991, with system for naming varieties is in need of serious commercial quantities being produced from 1992 overhaul and will require a concerted effort by all when the Myanma government officially concerned bodies. R.J.P. declared the area a gemstone tract. The supply of rough has enabled dealers to offer calibrated A combined magnetic resonance and gamma- sizes up to 8 x 6mm, including rounds up to irradiation study of some green beryls. 5mm. Virtually all Mong Hsu ruby is heated to D.R. HUTTON AND G.J. TROUP. The Australian eliminate blue zoning. P.G.R. Gemmologist, 18 (10), 1994, pp 315- 317, 7 illus. in black-and-white. Der Blue John-Fluorit. Ein Besuch in den Part of a continuing series, the article shows Flusspatgruben von Castleton, Derbyshire, how a combined Electron Spin Resonance tech England. nique (ESR) with gamma-irradiation can detect W. LIEBER. Lapis, 19 (6), 1994, pp 13-22,1 illus. vanadium in the presence of both iron and in black-and-white, 14 in colour, 3 maps. chromium providing that the Fe3+ and/or Cr3+ A useful description with historical notes of the lines are not too broad. In the study, Colombian Blue John fluorite occurrences in Derbyshire, emeralds from the Chivor and Muzo mines con England. Many artefacts are illustrated. M.O'D. tained vanadium whilst Brazilian and Zambian emeralds together with Torrington emerald Edel- und Schmucksteine aus Österreich. showed an absence of vanadium. The role of the G. NiEDERMAYR. Mineralien Welt, 5 (4), 1994, pp radiation is to produce paramagnetic vanadium 17-23,1 illus. in black-and-white, 16 in colour. ions which can then be detected by the ESR The gem minerals of Austria include emerald, method. R.J.P. garnet, quartz, nephrite, fluorite, lazulite, corun dum, diopside, topaz, sphene, feldspars and Gem Trade Lab Notes. phenakite, all occurring with reasonable fre R.C. KAMMERLING, C.W. FRYER, G.R. quency. Rarer species include datolite, CROWNINGSHIELD, T. MOSES, K. HURWIT AND S.F. sphalerite, apatite, scheelite, cordierite, scapolite, MCCLURE. Gems and Gemology, 30 (1), 1994, pp 39- vesuvianite and rutile. All are briefly described. 46,20 illus. in colour. M.O'D. A snuff bottle was shown to be primarily pla- gioclase feldspar with garnet of the Comparative study of beryl from various grossular-andradite-uvarovite series; a black Indian occurrences - beryl from Jammu & stone which was highly magnetic was shown to Kashmir [continued from vol. 4. no. 1.]. be about 75 per cent hercynite and 25 per cent J. PANJIKAR. Indian gemmologist, 2 (2), 1994, pp 3- spinel; a lavender-coloured jadeite had been 7, 6 tables, 2 figs in black-and-white, 6 in colour. polymer impregnated; several translucent green Kashmir beryls show protogenetic solid inclu ish-blue carved pendants with the appearance of sions identified as biotite and three types of finest Mexican chalcedony were confirmed as syngenetic single phase solid inclusions identi opal by X-ray diffraction; assembled cultured fied as quartz, fluorite and tourmaline. Primary blister pearls were shown to be early Japanese; a and secondary fluid inclusions occur frequently pearl necklace was proved to be cultured with in all observed specimens. Two- phase (gaseous one pearl having a distinctive plastic nucleus; a and liquid) and three-phase inclusions are also star sapphire with a buff-top cut was found to be reported. Multiphase inclusions including vari natural; a colour change synthetic sapphire had ously-shaped crystals (one identified as hematite) J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 293

are also observed. Colour zoning is reflected in in the vicinity of pegmatite veins in the meta the arrangement of the inclusions, both features morphosed Moçambique belt. The mines at being syngenetic. Chemical analyses are given. Morrua have worked lenses of emerald-bearing [To be continued.] M.O'D. schist in the contact zone of the pegmatite veins. The Maria I, Maria II and Maria III mines have Synthèse du rubis en phase gazeuse. produced the bulk of emerald from the area. D. ROBERT. Revue de gemmologie, 119,1994, pp M.O'D. 15-18,1 table, 1 fig. A short review of the principles observed for The Anahi Ametrine Mine, Bolivia. crystal growth from the gaseous phase with par P.M. VASCONCELOS, H. WENK AND G.R. ticular reference to ruby. M.O'D. ROSSMAN. Gems and Gemology, 30 (1), 1994, pp 4- 23, 23 illus. in colour. Torrington emerald update. Ametrine (intergrown amethyst and citrine) K. SCHMETZER. The Australian Gemmologist, 18 only appeared commercially from this source in (10), 1994, pp 318-19,1 table, 2 illus. in black-and- 1978 and its natural nature was challenged. The white. authors studied its nature at source and sug Evidence was cited for this green-coloured gested that the sharp colour distribution was beryl from Torrington, New South Wales, to be crystallographically controlled. Theories of described as emerald. This included spectropho- colour formation were suggested and one involv tometric examination which confirmed the ing quenching of the amethyst colour by natural presence of chromium. Chemical analysis by radiolysis of the higher water content in citrine electron microprobe and wet chemical determi areas was not borne out by analysis of crystals nations showed extreme zoning with alternating from a different source. The geology and miner green emerald and colourless beryl. Vanadium alogy were thoroughly discussed. The difficult intensified the green colour due to chromium. access to the mine and former mining restrictions Microscopic examination of the crystals showed imposed by the authorities accounted in part for intense colour zoning parallel to the basal pina- the mystery surrounding this deposit. R.J.P. coid. R.J.P.

On the presence of OH groups in Zabargad Blauer Kluftberyll aus der Südschweiz. olivine gems. S. WEISS. Lapis, 19 (6), 1994, pp 25-40,1 illus. in P.F. SCIUTO. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, black-and-white, 5 in colour. Monatshefte, 4,1994, pp 145-56,5 tables. Blue beryl crystals, some appearing to be gem Single-crystal XRD study of an olivine from quality, are found as cleft minerals near the Zabargad shows a structure suggesting that an Basïdino Glacier, Ticino, Switzerland. Some crys essentially hydrous phase is present. Hydrogen tals reach 1.25cm in length. M.O'D. content is not measurable by this technique. The crystal examined was gem quality. Internal dis Mineralogy of the Bennett pegmatite, Oxford order evaluation showed that inter-crystalline County, Maine. exchanges ceased at an upper limit of approxi M.A. WISE, T.R. ROSE AND R.E. HOLDEN JR. mately 600°C. M.O'D. Mineralogical record, 25 (3), 1994, pp 175-184, 2 tables, 9 illus. in black-and-white, 1 fig., 1 map. Lepidolith und Heliodor aus Rozna in Fine crystals of morganite, tourmaline and flu- Westmähren/CR. orapatite are among the minerals found at the J. STANEK. Lapis, 19 (6), 1994, pp 49-50,1 illus. Bennett pegmatite in western Maine, USA. in black-and-white, 2 in colour. Aquamarine of gem quality is also known from Gem-quality yellow to yellow-green beryl is this location. A fine morganite crystal known as found in pegmatites in the neighbourhood of the 'Rose of Maine' was discovered in 1989 and Roznâ, Czech Republic. M.O'D. was cut into gems. The original weight was approximately 23kg. Some elbaite is of gem Moçambique emerald. quality and is found as water-melon and 'cucum A. THOMAS. South African Gemmologist, 6 (1), ber' [water melon reversed] crystals, though 1994, pp 10-11. examples are relatively rare. Dark to pale green Brief note on the present status of mining of and pink crystals are also found. M.O'D. emerald in Moçambique reports that the Cabrai enterprise is in ruins though sporadically Mikro-Achate aus Ost-Thüringen. worked, with other deposits, by itinerant H. ZYPRIAN. Mineralien Welt, 5 (3), 1994, pp 44- garimpeiros. Light green crystals were recovered 6, 2 illus. in black-and-white, 5 in colour. 294 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

Small but attractive specimens of banded agate South African market. Both blue and pink to are described from eastern Thuringia, Germany. purple colour-change varieties are reported; both The sizes are around 3mm in general. M.O'D. show characteristic signs of flame-fusion growth. M.O'D. Schöne Mineralien aus dem Setesdal Minai Park. [No author given] Doubletten und Tripletten. Mineralien Welt, 5 (3), 1994, pp 16-24,19 illus. in G. NiEDERMAYR. Mineralien Welt, 5 (3), 1994, pp colour. 15-16,5 illus. in colour. Crystals of gem minerals are exhibited at a Brief survey with excellent photographs of the newly-established Mineral Park in Setesdal, various types of gemstone composites with Norway. Some of the examples are illustrated. emphasis on emerald imitation. M.O'D. M.O'D. Synthetische, nach dem Schmelz-diffu sionsverfahren hergestellte Smaragde. Instruments and Techniques G. NIEDERMAYR. Mineralien Welt, 5 (4), 1994, pp 15-16,5 illus. in colour. Visual optics-the Hodgkinson method: an Brief, useful description of the flux-melt update. method of emerald synthesis with photographs A. HODGKINSON. The Australian Gemmologist, 18 of characteristic inclusion. M.O'D. (10), 1994, pp 320-2,4 illus. in colour. In this welcome up-date the author acknowl New developments in synthesis of gemstones. edges the contributions by Dr Hanneman to J. PANJIKAR AND K.T. RAMCHANDRAN. Indian amplify the quantitative aspects of the technique Gemmologist, 2 (2), 1994, pp 14- 16. and it is hoped that the proposed kit will enable Brief overview of some of the commoner syn the technique to be separated from the word thetic gemstones covering ruby, emerald, spinel 'instrumentless' which has hitherto been applied. and alexandrite. M.O'D. R.J.P. [Nucleation and growth of diamond.] (Japanese with English abstract) M. WAKATSUKI. Journal of the Japanese Synthetics and Simulants Association of Crystal Growth, 16 (2), 1989, pp 106- 17. Density-driven liquid-liquid phase separation The characteristic behaviour exhibited during in the system A1203 -Y203. the nucleation process of synthetic diamonds in S. AASLAND AND P.F. MCMILLAN. Nature, 369, a metal-carbon system under high-P, high-T con 1994, pp 633-6,1 table, 4 illus. in black-and-white, ditions was explained by a reaction model in 3 figs. which the nucleation of diamond and recrystal- The sluggishness of crystallization of yttrium lization of graphite compete with each other. aluminium garnet, host material for Nd3+ ions in From the model, it became possible to deduce a YAG lasers, may be due to the existence of two suitable P-T cycle for obtaining well-crystallized coexisting liquid phases in the supercooled melt particles and a new method of growing single of AI2O3-Y2O3 both with the same composition crystals using seeds, which is different from the and existing just above the glass transition at conventional temperature-gradient method. The ambient pressure. It is proposed that the two formation of surface dendrites, commonly phases differ only in density and that the transi observed on synthetic diamonds, was prevented tion is entropically driven. M.O'D. by slow cooling at the end of growth. LS.

Fraudulent use of synthetic sapphire. R.MACKENZIE. South African Gemmologist, 8(1), 1994, pp 7-9,3 illus. in colour. Synthetic ruby rough is reported to have been offered as natural ruby in some south-east Asian markets. Material shows diffused colour banding (curved striae), rounded to elongate gas bubbles and masses of partly fused whitish alumina originating at the point of attachment between boule and refractory pedestal. Rough synthetic sapphire has also appeared on the J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 295

Book Reviews

Führer durch das Deutsche Edelsteinmuseum. diamond, ruby, blue sapphire and emerald. H. BANK, 1994. Vereinigung der Freunde der More useful is a chronological table giving the Mineralogie und Geologie, Heidelberg, pp 128, dates when the more important synthetic gem illus. in black-and-white and in colour. [Forms stones appeared. A final table gives the names of Der Aufschluss 45,4/5,1994: ISSN 0004-7856.] gem species first found in the present century. While Idar-Oberstein has more than one pub The text is accompanied by first-class colour licly-displayed gemstone collection, over the past photographs by Gerd Becker and although the 25 years the Deutsche Edelsteinmuseum, housed text is gemmological rather than popular there in the Diamant- und Edelsteinbörse and thus seems no reason why the guide, while part of a conspicuously easy to find, has taken pride of specialist scientific journal, should not become place. It has long needed a comprehensive guide the standard for other collections. M.O'D. and now has one in this monographic issue of Aufschluss. Natural Glasses. The guide opens with a short history of the V. BOUSKA, Z. BOROVEC, A. ClMBALNIKOVA, I. museum which took up its present quarters in KRAUS, A. LAJCAKOVA AND M. PACESOVA, 1993. 1973, occupying one of the lower floors of the Ellis Horwood, New York and London, pp 354. multi-storey bourse building. Movement Price £45.00. towards the establishment of a gemstone This book considers natural glasses in terms of museum in the town began as long ago as 1853 the time required to form them. Classified and before the latest move the collection was according to their mechanisms of formation, they housed in the Gewerbehalle, familiar to all who include fulgurites, dialectic glasses formed by have taken courses with the Deutsche impact, impact glasses formed by thermal Gemmologische Gesellschaft. The present quar melting of the parent minerals and rocks during ters are superbly arranged as I have found on the impact event, tektites, and volcanic glasses many visits and the new guide takes the visitor (on Earth, Moon or the planets). The physical through the display systematically, having dis properties and chemical compositions of the cussed the establishment of the gemstone various glasses are described and there is a final industry in Idar-Oberstein - this dates at least chapter on the practical uses of these glasses. from the fourteenth century. R.A.H. The descriptive part of the text begins with a discussion of the nature of gemstones and their Gemstone enhancement: history, science and properties, the main gemstone-producing loca state of the art. Second edition. tions with brief notes on their geology, on rarities K. NASSAU, 1994. Butterworth Heinemann, and on the use of gemstones and ornamental Oxford, pp xii, 252, illus. in black-and- white and minerals in history. The book then describes the colour, softcover. Price £30.00. ISBN 0 75061797 gemstones in chemical order, following the 7. arrangement of the traditional mineral cabinet, Few texts have been as eagerly awaited as this giving chemical composition, crystal system, one which appears at a time when gemstone physical and optical properties, details of geo treatment is now affecting most of the major gem logical occurrence and main producing locations. species and thence to the dealer and customer. Details of the major synthetic and imitation prod Conferences have been devoted to this difficult ucts follow. topic and the publication of the first edition of Since Idar-Oberstein is one of the world's this book in 1984 served to shed light on events cutting and carving centres, it is welcome to find which many in the trade had never considered. a short section on these topics (there is room for ' While the main text is presented in tl\e same an up-to-date book on gemstone carving); this is way as in 1984, there have inevitably been followed by a discussion on nomenclature and amendments and these are considerable in some by notes on gemstones found in the present areas. The spread of fracture filling and the near- century which form a separate display. Tables flooding of the blue stone sector of the market by list numerical data for the major species and also treated topaz are two places which the author list stones which might be confused with highlights in the preface - there are at least four

different techniques by which blue topaz can be One chapter is dedicated to gemstones and irradiated. Even more alarming is the identifica provides useful information conveniently tion of seven (at the time of writing) types of brought together from various sources. It is fol treated yellow sapphires, a species which has lowed by an account of fluorescent faces and now laboured under considerable disadvantage zones in minerals and then by a catalogue, with commercially for many years. The diamond descriptions, of fluorescent minerals, in chemical story is no less complex though the references order and including gem minerals. The text con appended to this section of the book show the cludes with a table of activators, a set of amount of work being carried out. experiments that the reader can try out and an As in the first edition the author gives us much excellent bibliography. of the knowledge we might need to treat our own This is a useful book and fills a serious gap. stones while showing us how dangerous and While largely concerned with minerals that few unpredictable such an activity would be. While people will ever see, there is enough on better- many gemmologists will be interested in the known and gem species to guarantee wide sales chapters describing the practice and history of and gemmologists will do well to have a copy the different treatments, more (especially in gem handy. The colour photographs, grouped in a testing laboratories) will turn to the alphabetical single section, are the best I have seen so far in a descriptive section where species are described in book on this topic. M.O'D. turn with prefatory summaries introducing the major species and references closing each Fundamentals of crystals. Second, enlarged description. Tables, useful addresses and ampli edition. fication of the earlier chapters on heating and B.K. Vainshtein, 1994. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, irradiation complete the text - or nearly: readers pp xxi, 480, illus. in black-and-white and in will be pleased to hear that in normal conditions colour, hardback. Price DM119.00. ISBN 3 540 of wear the Maxixe and Maxixe-type blue beryls 56558 2. will not fade for at least 20 to 40 years. This is just Covering (and subtitled) symmetry and what student gemmologists in particular like to methods of structural crystallography, this know and it is characteristic of this superb text revised edition of what quickly became a stan that they can find out. Somehow this says it all! dard work is welcome. While revising the M.O'D. original text and updating it where necessary, the author has added quasicrystals, developments in Fluorescence: gems and minerals under ultra molecular-beam epitaxy, surface melting, violet light. improper ferroelectrics and incommensurate M. ROBBINS, 1994. Geoscience Press, Phoenix, phases, with other topics. New techniques AZ. pp ix, 374, illus. in black-and-white and in included are tunnelling microscopy, extended X- colour. Price US$40.00. ISBN 0 945005 13 X. ray absorption fine structures (EXAFS) and Books on luminescence are not too easy to position-sensitive detectors for X-rays. The excel come by and several years have passed since one lent bibliography has also been extended and appeared on the market. Geoscience Press have revised. For the interest of readers quasicrystals built up a reputation for good- quality books in were 'discovered' when the structure of rapidly the earth science field and this example is worth cooled Al86Mn14 alloy was investigated by elec buying. Some of the material is taken from arti tron diffraction. The diffraction patterns gave a cles in Rocks and minerals and some of the text is system of reflections which in reciprocal space updated from the author's previous book The had icosahedral m5m symmetry, previously con Collector's book of fluorescent minerals (1983). sidered impossible as 5-fold rotation axes were Beginning with an account of fluorescence the incompatible with 3-dimensional translation book continues with descriptions of two major symmetry in crystal structure. But don't amend localities, Mont St Hilaire, Quebec, Canada, and your textbooks yet! Franklin, New Jersey, USA. Both sites produce As in the first edition coloured diagrams of such fine specimens of fluorescent minerals that important crystal symmetry patterns make a they are felt to merit a chapter to themselves. welcome and useful addition to what is a Lists of minerals are given for both places. The complex subject, lucidly treated. M.O'D. next chapter describes how fluorescence is acti vated and from this point the book deals with mineral species or groups one by one, each having its own chapter. J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 297

Proceedings of the Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain and Notices

OBITUARY Hanover Street, Liverpool 1, Stephen Professor Igor S. Loupekine (D.1963 Kennedy gave an illustrated talk entitled with Distinction), Santa Julia de Loria, 'Pearls in the Arabian Gulf. Principality of Andorra, died recently. David Wilkins, Yeovil, died on 1 GEM DIAMOND EXAMINATIONS September 1994. A full obituary will be In June 1994 97 candidates sat the Gem published in a future issue of The Journal. Diamond Examination worldwide, of whom 66 qualified including four with GIFTS TO THE ASSOCIATION Distinction. The names of the successful The Association is most grateful to David candidates are as follows: Callaghan of Hancocks & Co., London, for the gift of synthetic ruby beads for research Qualified with Distinction and teaching purposes. Haddock, Brendan, Edinburgh. Kneebone, David G., Penzance. NEWS OF FELLOWS Scott, Damian T., London. On 6 July 1994 Peter Read gave an illus Stossel, Hillary, London. trated talk to the Bournemouth Natural Science Society in their Christchurch Road Qualified premises on the subject of 'Gem mining in Sri Lanka'. Included in his presentation Baddoo, Alfred A., London. was a display of gemmology books and a Bailey, Anne M., London. selection of Sri Lankan rough and polished Bailey, Lisa J., Birmingham. gemstone specimens in which thirteen Balducci, Annette, Neston. species were represented. Ball, Pamela, Hong Kong. Bao, Chunhui, Wuhan, China. MEMBERS' MEETINGS Bastians, Indramal, London. London Brady, Deanna M., Wirral. On 19 September 1994 at the Gem Bray, Betty A., Abilene, Tex., USA. Tutorial Centre at 27 Greville Street, Brown, Allen G., Birmingham. London EC IN 8SU, Susan Anderson gave Carvalho, Rui Galopim de., Lisbon, an illustrated lecture entitled The gem Portugal. materials of Zimbabwe'. Chan Ka Fung, Louisa, Hong Kong Chen Shulan, Wuhan, China. Midlands Branch Chew Lee Lee, Hong Kong. On 30 September 1994 at Dr Johnson Christian, Helen E., Bolton. House, Bull Street, Birmingham, Alan Clover, Wai Ying, Birmingham. Hodgkinson gave a talk entitled 'Poking Crabbe, Jeremy P., Hong Kong. about in gemmological corners'. Di Jingru, Wuhan, China. Everitt, Sally A., London. North West Branch Fu Yun Long, Wuhan, China. On 21 September 1994 at Church House, Galloway, Linda L. Vacca-, Hong Kong.

Geoghegan, Noel R., Wellesbourne. submits the best set of answers in the Griffin, Anthony, Godalming. Diploma examination which, in the Guo Shougou, Wuhan, China. opinion of the Examiners, are of suffi Han Hui, Wuhan, China. ciently high standard, was awarded to Mr Henn, C. John W., Wolverhampton. Neil Rose of Stockport. Hughes, Helen, London. The Anderson Bank Prize for the best Huong Jun, Wuhan, China. non-trade candidate of the year in the Jackson, Brian, Edinburgh. Diploma examination was awarded to Jhaveri, Devang, London. Miss Hiroko Fukagawa of Osaka, Japan. Jones, Amanda, Hagley. The Diploma Trade Prize for the best Kilby Hunt, Judith A.F., London. candidate of the year who derives his main Krikos, Alexandra, London. income from activities essentially con Lee, Jin Young, London. nected with the jewellery trade was Lewis, Rob, Totternhoe. awarded to Mr Neil Rose of Stockport. Lian Bee Chen, Pauline, Hong Kong. The Anderson Medal for the best candi Lowe, David J., London. date of the year in the Preliminary Lu, Jei-Chih, London. examination was awarded to Miss Deborah Ludlow, Andrew P., London. Wilson of Boston, Lincolnshire. Massow, Kenneth J., Rochford. The Preliminary Trade Prize for the best Mathiopoulou, Regina, Athens, Greece. candidate under the age of 21 years on 1 O'Brien, Gillian M., North Berwick. June 1994 who derives her main income Page, Christopher, Newmarket. from activities essentially connected with Parker, David T., Sunderland. the jewellery trade was awarded to Miss Penton, Keith, London. Alicia Arnold of London. Pratt, James, London. DIPLOMA Qi Lijian, Wuhan, China. Saxton, Carol A.L., Alton. Qualified with Distinction Siu Lam Ma, Hong Kong. Sondack, Julia, London. Fukagawa, Hiroko, Osaka, Japan. Sum-Pui F. Yu, Kowloon, Hong Kong Mcintosh, Robert P., Edinburgh. Sutton, Daniela N., Cheltenham. Rose, Neil R., Stockport. Tarazi, Mirna Y., London. Watatsuki, Reiko, Kawasaki, Japan. Taylor, Roger J., Bordesley Green. Thomson, Joanna, Peebles. Qualified Walker, Averil S., London. Alaniva, Orvokki, Helsinki, Finland. Wong Nim Chi, Phyllis, N.T., Hong Kong Alexander, Maria K., London. Xu Shirong, Wuhan, China. Antzoulakos, George, Athens, Greece. Yan Weixuan, Wuhan, China. Armstrong, Michael J., Whitley Bay. Yang Mingxing, Wuhan, China. Au Ming Cheung, Hong Kong. Zhang Shuyun, Wuhan, China. Au Yang So-Wah, Natasha, Hong Kong. Zhou Min, Wuhan, China. Audichya, Pradeep, Jaipur, India. Barcados, Alexander J., Toronto, Ont., EXAMINATIONS IN GEMMOLOGY Canada. In the June 1994 Examinations in Bastians, Indramal, London. Gemmology 366 candidates sat the Bevers-Reinders, L.M., Rotterdam, The Preliminary examination, 255 of whom Netherlands. qualified; 354 sat the Diploma Examination Bezeredi, Svetlana, W. Vancouver, BC, and 148 qualified including four with Canada. Distinction. Bishop, Heather M., Ipswich. The Tully Medal for the candidate who Bollack, Josee, Strasbourg, France. J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 299

FORTHCOMING MEETINGS

London Meetings are held in the GAGTL Gem Tutorial Centre, 2nd Floor, 27 Greville Street, London EC1N 8SU (entrance in Saffron Hill).

The charge for a member is £3.50. Entry will be by ticket only, obtainable from the GAGTL.

22 November Gemstones on display at the Natural History Museum: past, present and future Cally Hall

5 December Sapphires in the Laboratory Stephen Kennedy

Midlands Branch 6 November Autumn Seminar at the Cobden Hotel, Hadley Road, Birmingham

25 November How to buy gemstones Grenville Millington

3 December 42nd Annual Dinner

22 January 1995 Gem Club

27 January The treatment of diamonds Eric Emms

19 February Gem Club

24 February Clive Burch (subject to be announced)

19 March Gem Club

31 March Jewellery through the ages Nigel Dunn

The meetings will be held at Dr Johnson House, Bull Street, Birmingham. Further details from Mandy MacKinnon on 021-444 7337.

North West Branch 16 November Annual General Meeting

Meetings will be held at Church House, Hanover Street, Liverpool 1. Further details from Joe Azzopardi on 0270 628251. 300 J. Gemm., 1994,24,4

Bossenbroek, A.E.H., Doom, The Hu Hai, Wuhan, China. Netherlands. Hui Sze Wai, Hong Kong. Boyens, Christine P., Auckland, New Hui Wai Yee, Wendy, Hong Kong. Zealand. Jang Sool Cho, Seoul, Korea. Bruce, Rachel M., Edinburgh. Jansen, E.T.D.M.L., Wijchen, The Butcher, Anna, London. Netherlands. Carr, Simon D., Garstang. Jargiello, Barbara A., Lublin, Poland. Carroll Marshall, Anne E., Hong Kong. Jin, Yi, Wuhan, China. Carvalho, Roberta Melo De, Rio de Janeiro, Jung, Gwang-Gyo, Seoul, Korea. Brazil. Kam Siu Tong, John, Hong Kong. Chan, Kin-Chung, John, Hong Kong. Kato, Ayako, Tokyo, Japan. Chan Kwok Keung, Hong Kong. Kervezee, R., Berkel-Rodenrys, The Chan Wai Ching, Joanne, Kowloon, Hong Netherlands. Kong. Ketomaki, Tapio, Helsinki, Finland. Chan Yuk Victoria, Hong Kong. Kilby, Linda E., Blackburn. Chao, Tan-Chi, Dandy, Taipei, Taiwan. Kim Sang Sun, Seoul, Korea. Chen, Pauline Lian Bee, Hong Kong. Kiszel, Elisabeth M., Vancouver, BC, Chen Chin-Ho, Taipei, Taiwan. Canada. Cheng Fung Kei, Hong Kong. Kobayashi, Masahide, Osaka, Japan. Cheng Lap Fan, Hong Kong. Kon Kiang Fung, Hong Kong. Chokhani, Shiv Vishwanath, Bombay, Kumar, V. Krishna, London. India. Kwan Wai Shun, Hong Kong. Chua, Virna Ngo, Hong Kong. Lakhtaria, Yashwin, London. Chung Yam Ming, Hong Kong. Lam, Christina, Toronto, Ont., Canada. Cliff, Graham, Greenwich. Leventopoulou, Ageliki-Loudovika, Coghlan, Karen, Exeter. Athens, Greece. Cooke, Joanne T., Petchburi, Thailand. Liang, Tao, Wuhan, China. Cookson, Ian P., Sheffield. Lin, Hsin-Pei, Taipei, Taiwan. Cracco, Alexia, London. Lord, Karen, Lutterworth. Devon, Jill V., Felsted. Louie Miu Man, Hong Kong. Dickinson, Barry E., Blackburn. Lu, Yi, Wuhan, China. Diserens, Myriam, London. Lu, Yung Ching, Taipei, Taiwan. Dragland, Frode, Sortland, Norway. Mackenzie, Nicola-Jane, Hong Kong. Eames, Lucy, London. Mak, So Yi, Hong Kong. Farion, Jean-Christophe, London. Mann, William M., Gloucester. Fung Yuk Fung, Hong Kong. McCarthy, Emily, Dublin, Ireland. Gamst, Terje, Breivikborn, Norway. McKay, Euan S., Newport-on-Tay. Gemin Cherkaoui, Nadine, Geneva, Molloy, Nicola, Ipswich. Switzerland. Ng Lok Chung, Angela, Hong Kong. Goldschmidt-Husein, Asli, St. Ingbert- Okada, Takayuki, Osaka, Japan. Owb, Germany. Or Chi Ching, Hong Kong. Goss, Sanya L., Aldershot. Pan, Huijin, Wuhan, China. Graff, Elliott M., London. Papadopoulos, Iraklis, London. Green, Kimberly H., Birmingham. Paredes Quevedo, Juan, Madrid, Spain. Gunell, Carola, Kirjala, Finland. Park, In-Sook, Seoul, Korea. Hamidulla, Suzan, Helsinki, Finland. Park Young Ah, Seoul, Korea. Hamza, Mohamed Hassan, Colombo, Sri Pavlides, Vassilis, Athens, Greece. Lanka. Pegg, Delia, Petts Wood. Hasler, Christian S., Toronto, Ont., Canada. Perez Munoz, Jorge, Madrid, Spain. He, Wei, Wuhan, China. Picallo Rodriguez, Ma Teresa, Santiago De Hindley, Stuart W., Worksop. Compostela, Spain. J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 301

Proffitt, Graham S., Liverpool. Tang Man Wah, Connie, Hong Kong. Pulkkinen, Kari T., Helsinki, Finland. Tang Wai Chun, Hong Kong. Purkiss, Christopher R., London. Tao, Du, Wuhan, China. Ramos-Gonzalez, Stephen P., London. Terras, Fay, Newton Abbot. Ranasinghe, L.D.S., Eheliyagoda, Sri To An You, Peter, Hong Kong. Lanka. Tse, Pauline Lai-Kiu, Hong Kong. Randall, Gary M., Lowestoft. Tse Woon Lam, Hong Kong. Reilly, Clare, Birmingham. Varey, Irena Maria, Leicester. Rubin, Maria, Lannavaara, Sweden. Wang Tai-Hwan, Taipei, Taiwan. Sakai, Takeo, Chiba Pref., Japan. Welton, Andrew, London. Schroetter, Ralph E., Whitby, Ont., Canada. Wilson, Deborah T., London. Shi, Dan, Wuhan, China. Windwick, William, Elgin. Sinton, Sarah K., Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Xu, Hong, Wuhan, China. Smyth, Lesley J., London. Yeom, Chang-Woo, Pusan, Korea. Song, Jun-Ho, Seoul, Korea. Ying Kai Yiu, Hong Kong. Sorrill, Rachel, London. Yip Ngai, Hong Kong. Stather, Lome F., Hong Kong. Yuen, Flora Tsz Wai, Hong Kong. Stilwell, Lesley, Berkhamsted. Zhao, Hechun, Wuhan, China. Stoner, Jonathon P., Bradford. Zhao, Rugong, Wuhan, China. Sutton, Daniela N., Cheltenham. Zhou, Jie, Wuhan, China. Syren, Riitta, Helsinki, Finland. Zhu, Wenhui, Wuhan, China.

GAGTL GEM TUTORIAL CENTRE Recognizing Treatments and Synthetics 2-3 November An opportunity for you to handle treated and synthetic gem materials currently encountered in the trade, plus materials which have recently appeared. Improve your technique for detection work on these materials. Price £223.25 (including sandwich lunch) The Gem Diamond Practical Tutorial 9-11 and 14-16 November Limited places are available to anyone requiring basic practical training or a practical review for trade purposes. This is a tutorial structured over six days and is designed to give home study students a complete grounding in practical aspects. It will cover clarity and colour grading of polished diamonds, using lOx lens, microscope and colour comparison stones. You will also handle simulants and clarity- enhanced stones, rough and crystals. Price £658.00 (including sandwich lunches) Two-day Diploma Practical Workshop 7-8 January 1995 The long-established intensive practical course to help students prepare for the Diploma practical examination or for non-students to brush up on technique. This is the course to help you practice the methods required to coax results from instruments which can be difficult or awkward to use. The course includes a half-length mock exam for you to mark yourself. Price £160.39 (£111.04 for GAGTL registered students) includes sandwich lunches Just phone, fax or write for details to Doug Garrod at the GAGTL Education Office - 27 Greville Street, London EC1N 8SU Tel: 071-404 3334 Fax: 071-404 8843 All prices include VAT at 17.5% 302 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

PRELIMINARY Chong, Shan Shan Elisa, Hong Kong. Qualified Churcher, Anthony, Morden. Coleman, Arabella J., Villereal, France. Abbott, Debra, Harrogate. Cracco, Alexia, London. Adams, Victoria, London. Dalsplass, Line, Oslo, Norway. Aiken, Glenn, Tunstall. Davies, Paul B., Great Missenden, Akerblom, Tom E., Helsinki, Finland. de Reus, Leonard, Oisterwijk, The Ambrose, Steven J., London. Netherlands. Anderson-Slight, Jamie, London. Dempster, Stuart, Glasgow. Ankh, Catrin M., Stockholm, Sweden. Desai, Hema, Nairobi, Kenya. Arnold, Alicia M., London. Desprat, Anne-Sophie, London. Au Yeung Kwok Ho, Hong Kong. Disereus, Myriam, London. Audichya, Pradeep, Jaipur, India. Do, Thao Phuong Trung, Melbourne, Vic, Badibanga Bialusambo, Carine, Brussels, Australia. Belgium. Dodge, Sarah R., Halesowen. Bailey, Alison, Hong Kong. Downes, Michael D., Morden. Baolin, Ma, Wuhan, China. Duann, Teresa, Taichung, Taiwan. Baxter, Richard P., Birmingham. Eriksen, Sissel E., Malvik, Norway. Beesley, Wendy D., Birmingham. Fleischner-Zois, Krista, Athens, Greece. Betten, Marja L., Schoonhoven, The Fong Ming Ho Philips, Hong Kong. Netherlands. Fong Wai Ko, Raymond, Hong Kong. Bray, Betty A., Abilene, Tex., USA. Foskolou, Frankiska-Agni, Athens, Greece. Briginshaw, Richard C, London. Frankland, Sean C.E., Worth, Crawley. Britton, Andrea L., Woking. Fu, Ming Ho, Hong Kong. Brooke-Webb, Susannah Y., London. Getgood, Fiona J., St Leonards-on-Sea. Buckie, Peter R., Cambridge. Gil Perez, Nuria, Valencia, Spain. Burridge, Marcelle, Aldershot. Gitau, Albert G., Kiambu, Nairobi, Kenya. Cadby, John H.V., Trowbridge. Gorriceta III, Felix Sarabia, London. Callaghan, Stephen, Horsham. Gregori Enguix, Rafael, Valencia, Spain. Carlsson, Johanna A., London. Guest, Vanessa A., Arnold, Nottingham. Carr, John R., Cheltenham. Guo, Xiaodan, Wuhan, China. Chan, Grace K.M., Kowloon, Hong Kong. Hahn, Dieter, Toronto, Ont., Canada. Chan, Ka Mei, Cynthia, Hong Kong. Haittoniemi, Mia Maria, Kuusankoski, Chan, Tony Chung Sing, Toronto, Ont., Finland. Canada. Hamilton, Julie, Houghton-le-Spring. Chan, Yik Pun, Hong Kong. Harchandrai, Priya R., Hong Kong. Chan, Yuk, Christine, Kowloon, Hong Harvey, Kirsty L., Oxford. Kong. Hawken, Diana Blair, Hong Kong. Chan Chi Ling, Phyllis, Hong Kong. Hennessey, John P., London. Chen Shulan, Wuhan, China. Hill, Rebecca M., Edinburgh. Cheng, Edmund Shui-Man, Hong Kong. Ho, Wing Sin, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Cheng, Po Wah, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Hongwei, Tan, Wuhan, China. Cheng, Yau-Cheong, Hong Kong. Hoopman, Jeffrey B., Akersloot, The Cheuk, Tsui Ying, Hong Kong. Netherlands. Cheung, Kam Wah, Hong Kong. Houben, Sanne, Schoonhoven, The Cheung, Doris Chow Tong, Toronto, Ont., Netherlands. Canada. Hsu, Ming Hung, Tapei, Taiwan. Chik, Wing Sheung, Hong Kong. Hughes, Nicholas B., Stevenage. Chino, Izumi, London. Hui Yuk Lum, Isabel, Kowloon, Hong Choi Yong Dog, Seoul, Korea. Kong. Cho, Jang Sool, Seoul, Korea. Hung, Yvonne, Hong Kong. Chonan, Rie, London. J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 303

MEMBERSHIP '95 Members, Fellows and Diamond Members receive an annual membership card, The Journal of Gemmology and the Gem and Jewellery News quarterly. Fellows (members who hold our Diploma in Gemmology) may use FGA after their name and Diamond Members (members who hold the Gem Diamond Diploma) the title DGA, and both may also apply for the use of the Coat of Arms on their stationery.

Laboratory Members receive an annual membership certificate for display, The Journal of Gemmology and Gem and Jewellery News quarterly, discounted testing and grading fees, and may apply for use of the Laboratory logo on their business sta tionery. Gold Laboratory Members may enjoy similar benefits together with lower fees for diamond grading reports and assistance with the temporary importation of gemstones for grading or testing.

All members are eligible for a 10 per cent discount on the retail price of most instruments and specimens, and a 5 per cent discount on books purchased from Gemmological Instruments Limited. Overseas Members benefit from arrangements to pay membership fees by credit card and all their journals will be sent by airmail. Subscription Rates 1995 UK Overseas Ordinary Member ^ Fellow I £47.50 £72.00 Diamond Member I Laboratory Member £225.00 + VAT Gold Laboratory Member £525.00 + VAT £525.00

Husain, Sara, Cheltenham. Kubota, Chiaki, London. Inkinen, Osmo Evert, Rovaniemi, Finland. Kuixi, Jin, Wuhan, China. Jargiello, Barbara A., Lublin, Poland. Kwok, Chi Kwong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Joey, Leung Wing Yee, Hong Kong. Lai, Chit Ying, Hong Kong. Johnson, Helen L., Edinburgh. Lai Chuen Cheung, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Jones, Patrick M., Crickhowell. Lai Sau Chun, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Jun, Zhou, Wuhan, China. Langford,AndrewD.,Chelsfield,Orpington. Kabiotis, George, Athens, Greece. Langhaug, Marita, Alesund, Norway. Kam Siu Tong, John, Hong Kong. Lau, Rachel Yun Ha, Kowloon, Hong Karatzas, George, Athens, Greece. Kong. Kataoka, Noriko, Machido-city, Japan. Lau, Yu Ming, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Kawabe, Tadayuki, Wakayana Pref, Japan. Lee, Chiu-Hsia, Taipei, Taiwan. Kent, Jo-anne, Sawbridgeworth. Lee, Helen, Hong Kong. Kerrigan, Mark W., London. Lee, Sau Mui, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Kerry, Deborah, Wellington, New Zealand. Lee Min Hi, Seoul, Korea. Khan, Hillevi K., Vammala, Finland. Lee Yun Jeong, Seoul, Korea. Kim, Yang-Jin, Seoul, Korea. Leung, Siu Ha, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Kim Ki Jung, Tae Gu, Korea. Li, Chen, Wuhan, China. Kim Sang Sun, Seoul, Korea. Li, Ki Wing, Hong Kong. Kleiser, Alwen, Holyhead. Lim, Sau Kuen, Hong Kong. Kou, Wai Hung, Taipei, Taiwan. Liming, Zhao, Wuhan, China. 304 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

Lin, Fiona, Taipei, Taiwan. Canada. Lindeberg, Marko Juhani, Lahti, Finland. Rees-Wardill, Tanya, Wallington. Liu, Kuan Hung, Taipei, Taiwan. Rickard, Sarah V., Market Harborough. Lorking, Derek W., London. Rist, Samantha J., Natal, South Africa. Lousberg, N.A.M.J., Bosch & Duin, The Roca Massotti, Joaquin J., London. Netherlands. Rogers, Mark, South Auckland, New Lui, Wai Yee, Jessica, Hong Kong. Zealand. Ma, Sui Shan, Tina, Hong Kong. Ronkko, Veera Victoria, London. Macarthur, Iain, London. Rose, Christina, Wrexham. Macnish Porter, Frances H., Edinburgh. Rosier, Wendy J., Hong Kong. Makri, Hariklia, Thessalomiki, Greece. Rosse, Shaun C, London. Mangun, Colleen C, Makati, Philippines. Ruxton, Ian T., Winsford. Marr, Peter, Torquay. Sallinen, Virpi H., Helsinki, Finland. Martinez, Fabienne, Manchester. Sammoon, Sarrah, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Maule, Natalie Alice, Alresford. Samson, Ma. Teresita, Quezon City, Mclnnes, John L., Edinburgh. Philippines. Melego Canet, Merce, Valencia, Spain. Sanzo, Manuela, Sanremo, Italy. Metaxa, Ioulia, London. Sapkas, Panagiotis, Larissa, Greece. Milhe-Poutington, Pauline, London. Sark, Kenny, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Mine, Mayumi, Hyogo Pref, Japan. Shah, Sudha, Nairobi, Kenya. Minhas, Harjinder Kaur, Birmingham. Sharma, Animesh, Jaipur, India. Moran Legua, Veronica, Valencia, Spain. Shen, Yu-Lin, Taipei, Taiwan. Morey, Helene J., Manchester. Shende Vivekanand Vasant, Bombay, Morris, Anthony P., Liverpool. India. Morrison-Hammerstein, Monique, Shepherd, Louis, Birmingham. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Sherzman, Suthita, Makati, Philippines. Multon, Diana L., Fleet. Shuzhen, Zhou, Wuhan, China. Naeder, Karin, Nairobi, Kenya. Siegfried, Andreas Balthasar, London. Naing, Aye Myo, Yangon, Myanmar. Simmons, Mary A., London. Ng, Alsion, Kai-Chuen, Kowloon, Hong Sinton, Sarah K., Newcastle-Upon-Tyne. Kong. Siu, Chun Nei, Hong Kong. Nga, Tsang, Tuen Mun, Hong Kong. Slattery, Bo, London. Nicas, Styliana, P. Pendeli, Greece. Smallenburg, M.A., Amsterdam, The Nip, Yeun Moo, Hong Kong. Netherlands. Oja, Tonis, Tallinn, Estonia. Soskin, Marie-Joan, London. Oo, Zaw, Yangon, Myanmar. Sotolongo, Sachiko, London. Or Chi Ching, Hong Kong. Suninmaki, Virpi K.A., Helsinki, Finland. Papadopoulos, Dimitrios, Athens, Greece. Susan-Roet, Violet E., Naarden, The Park Young Ah, Seoul, Korea. Netherlands. Pattni, Jilesh Hirji, Wembley Park. Takiguchi, Naomi, Macclesfield. Perera, Sreemal, Hounslow. Tang, Shun Man Catherine, Hong Kong. Pierce, Jason R., London. Teofanidis, Elefteria, Athens, Greece. Pierce, Jill F., Manchester. Testier, Jeffrey, Ilford. Porter, Simon D., Lichfield. Tinnyunt, Emma J., Torquay. Pronk, Simone J.C., Den Helder, The Tompkins, Alison L., Birmingham. Netherlands. Tripaathi, Naagesha, Jaipur, India. Pugh, Anthony, Huddersfield. Tsai, Pei-Lun, Taipei, Taiwan. Quintin-Baxendale, Brian W., Turner, Caroline, Thorpe Bay. Rickmansworth. Turula, Suvi A.K., Raahe, Finland. Rabstein, Wolf L, London. Tuson, Jonathan L., Romford. Radomska-Kozuch, Beata, Toronto, Ont., Tzou, Jyh-Jeng, Kee Lung City, Taiwan. J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4 305

Ueng, Chi-Hong, Taipei, Taiwan. Ordinary Membership Vaja, Pravin, London. Branch, Henry C Hampton. van der Wijk, Anneke, Schoonhoven, The v Chu-Jueh Chen, Debbie, Taipei, Taiwan. Netherlands, Sulub, Abdirizak M., London. van Doom, M.R. A., Maarssenbroek, The Webb, Christine, London. Netherlands, Weng, Li Li, Taipei, Taiwan. van Duijnen, Anna M., Bergen aan Zee, The Netherlands, At a meeting of the Council of van Essen, Elma I., Schoonhoven, The Management held on 7 September 1994 at Netherlands. 27 Greville Street, the business transacted Verma, Hitesh, Jaipur, India. included the election of the following: Wang, Congyou, Wuhan, China. Welton, Andrew, London. Transfers - Ordinary Membership to DGA Westbury, Victoria L.H., Byfleet. Whipp, David, Chipstead. Bray, Betty A. White, Michèle Lynne, Birmingham. Whiteson, Sarah J., London. Transfers - Ordinary Membership to FGA Whiting, Sarah K., London. Bevers-Reinders, L.M., Rotterdam, The Wilkinson, Calley P., Nuneaton. Williams, Edward D., Edinburgh. Netherlands. Wilson, Deborah T., Boston. Bollack, Josee, Strasbourg, France. Win, Mai Mu Mu, Yangon, Myanmar. Butcher, Anna, London. Winegarten, Robert, London. Carr, Damien P., Preston. Wong, Kam Wah Steven, Kowloon, Hong Chao, Tan-Chi, Dandy, London. Chen, Chin-Ho, Taipei, Taiwan. Kong. Cheng, Su Chen, Taipei, Taiwan. Woods, Mark H., Faversham. Cliff, Graham, London. Wu, Ching-Lin, Taipei, Taiwan. Devon, Jill, V., Felsted. Wu, Chiu Shek, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Eames, Lucy, Ljubljana, Slovenia. Wunna, Kyaw, Yangon, Myanmar. Farion, Jean-Christophe, London. Xuefang, Lin, Wuhan, China. Fukagawa, Hiroko, Osaka, Japan. Yamanaka, Kazue, Osaka, Japan. Goss, Sanya Lisa, Aldershot. Yan, Chun Wai Danny, Hong Kong. Kato, Ayako, Tokyo, Japan. Yates, David Hayman, Matlock. Kervezee, R., Berkel-Rodenrys, The Yen, Mun Ching Liza, Hong Kong. Yim Pik Wa, Hong Kong. Netherlands. Yoo, Sun Ah, Chonbuk-do, Korea. Kilby, Linda E., Great Harwood. Yoshida, Miyuki, Hong Kong. Kobayashi, Masahide, Osaka, Japan. Yoshimura, Shinya, Osaka, Japan. Kumar, V. Krishna, Morden. Yuyan, Yuan, Osaka, Japan. Lakhtaria, Yashwin, London. Lin, Hsin-Pei, Taipei, Taiwan. Lu, Yung Ching, Taipei, Taiwan. MEETINGS OF THE COUNCIL OF Mackenzie, Nicola-Jane, Southport. MANAGEMENT McCarthy, Emily, London. At a meeting of the Council of Mcintosh, Robert P., Penicuik. Management held on 20 July 1994 at 27 Okada, Takayuki, Osaka, Japan. Greville Street, London EC1N 8SU, the Pegg, Delia, Petts Wood. business transacted included the election of Purkiss, Christopher R., London. the following: Ramos-Gonzalez, Stephen P., London. Randall, Gary M., Lowestoft. Fellowship Rose, Neil R., Stockport. Deora, Naresh, Jaipur, India. Sakai, Takeo, Chiba, Japan. 306 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

Stather, Lome F., Hong Kong. Sondack, Julia, London. Stilwell, Lesley, Tring. Sutton, Daniela N., Evesham. Wang, Tai-Hwan, Taipei, Taiwan. Thomson, Joanna, Peebles. Watatsuki, Reiko, Kawasaki, Japan. Walker, Averil S., Kingston-on-Thames. Windwick, William, Lhanbryde. Yu, Frankie Sum Pui, Hong Kong. Yip, Ngai, Hong Kong. Yeun, Flora Tsz Wai, Hong Kong. Diamond Membership Zhao, Rugong, Wuhan, China. Baddoo, Alfred A., London. 1994 Chew, Lee Lee, Hong Kong. 1994 Transfers - FGA to FGA/DGA Everitt, Sally A., South Kensington. 1994 Bailey, Anne M., London. Parker, David T., Roker. 1994 Bailey, Lisa J., Birmingham. Balducci, Annette, Neston. Fellowship Ball, Pamela, Hong Kong. Bishop, Heather M., Ipswich. 1994 Bastians, Indramal, London. Carroll Marshall, Anne, Hong Kong. 1994 Brady, Deanna M., Wirral. Cheng, Fung Kei, Hong Kong. 1994 Carvalho, Rui Galopim de, Lisbon, Coghlan, Karen A., Weston-Super-mare. Portugal. 1994 Christian, Helen F., Bolton. Dickinson, Barry, Clitheroe. 1994 Clover, Wai Ying, Solihull. Graff, Elliott M., Cockfosters. 1994 Crabbe, Jeremy P., Hong Kong. Lam, Tai Sing, Denys, Kowloon, Hong Galloway, Linda L. Vacca, Hong Kong. Kong. 1994 Geoghegan, Noel R., Wellesbourne. Molloy, Nicola, Ipswich. 1994 Haddock, Brendan, Edinburgh. McKay, Euan S., Newport on Tay. 1994 Henn, C. John W., Tong. Proffitt, Graham S., Liverpool. 1994 Hughes, Helen, London. Schroetter, Ralph E., Whitby, Ont., Canada. Jackson, Brian, Edinburgh. 1994 Jones, Amanda, Stourbridge. Stoner, Jonathan, Bradford. 1994 Kneebone, Garfield D., Penzance. Terras, Fay, Newton Abbot. 1994 Krikos, Alexandra, Birmingham. Lewis, Rob, Dunstable. Lowe, David J., London. Ordinary Membership Lu, Jui-Chih, London. Amigo-Descarrega, Jose, Valencia, Spain. Ludlow, Andrew P., Buckhurst Hill. Bawa, Shah Riza, London. Ma, Siu Lam, Hong Kong. Hirshfield, Frank, London. Massow, Kenneth J., Rochford. James, William, Delafield, Wisconsin, USA. Mathiopoulou, Regina, Athens, Greece. Jones, Maureen, Coventry. O'Brien, Gillian M., North Berwick. Johnson, Derek J., London. Page, Christopher, Newmarket. Lamb, Paola M., London. Penton, Keith, London. Norton, Stephen R., Camberwell. Saxton, Carol A.L., Alton. Thomes, Alice G., Seattle, WA, USA. Scott, Damian T., London. Yoshida, Miyuki, Hong Kong. J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 307

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T. H. March and Co. Ltd. Saint Dunstan's House, Carey Lane, oawJ:ieAVc& London EC2V 8AD. Telephone 071-606 1282 & Lloyd's Insurance Brokers J. Gemm., 1994,24,4 311

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The Fifield Collection For sale - £30,000 An important collection of cut gemstones compiled over forty years by a Hatton Garden gem dealer. It comprises over 1350 gemstones representing all types of natural, synthetic and composite gems and collectors' specimens of unusual minerals. • Diamonds and diamond simulants Collectors' cut stones: unusual minerals • Gemstone ranges of many colours from axinite to wulfenite including: beryl, corundum, chrysoberyl, Organic gemstones: natural and garnet quartz, spinel, tourmaline and cultured pearls, amber, coral and jet zircon Doublets and triplets: garnet-topped- • Star stones, natural and synthetic in a doublets, beryl doublets, etc. variety of minerals Synthetic stones and simulants • Chatoyant gems in a variety of species including: Chatham, Gilson, Kashan, • Opals: natural (Australian, Brazilian, Ramaura, Verneuil, Russian, etc. Peruvian, Mexican), synthetics and Synthetic rutile, YAG, GGG, strontium simulants titanate, etc. All items boxed and catalogued Also available a range of minerals and crystals (over 200 specimens) at £500 All enquiries to: A Sechaud & Co. Ltd., New House, 67-68 Hatton Garden, London ECIN 8JY Telephone 071-242 5330 312 J. Gemm., 1994, 24,4

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Tbe Journal of Gemmology

Contents

Editorial 234

The Hope Pearl S.J. Kennedy, S. Akamatsu and Y. Iwahashi 235 Structural and chemical investigations on shells and pearls of nacre forming salt- and fresh-water bivalve molluscs W. Gutmannsbauer and H.A. Hänni 241 Dyed natural star corundum as a ruby imitation K. Schmelzer and F.-J. Schupp 253 The rubies and spinels of Afghanistan - a brief history R.W.Hughes 256 Mineral and chemical compositions of jadeite jade of Myanmar Win Htein and Aye Myo Naing 269 A new occurrence of dendritic opal in south-eastern Zambia C.C. Milisenda, M. Redmann and V. Malango 277 Letters 281 Abstracts 289 Book Reviews 295 Proceedings of The Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain and Notices 297

ISSN: 1355-4565

Produced by Quadrant Offset, Hertford, England.