INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY FIRST SESSION 16-23 JUNE 1961

OLYMPIA

SECOND EDITION Published by the Hellenic Olympic Committee 4, Kapsali Street, Athens (138) - Greece Printed by : Grafiki EPE Athens 1973

The first edition was arranged jointly by the Hellenic Olympic Commitee and the National Olympic Committee of Germany. 1961. REPORT

OF THE

FIRST SESSION

OF THE

INTERNATIONAL

OLYMPIC ACADEMY

AT

OLYMPIA

ATHENS 1961

CONTENTS

Introduction 7

The Olympia Myth Address on the Occasion of the Handing-Over of the Antique Stadium at Olympia. By Prof. Dr. Carl J. Burckhardt, Basle, June 22, 1961 9

Olympia — Spiritual Symbol The Excavation of the third Antique Stadium By Prof. Emil Kunze, Director of the German Archaeological Institute at Athens, June 16, 1961 14

An «Elis» of Our Times Meaning and Purpose of an Olympic Academy By Prof. Dr. med, et litt. h. c. Carl Diem, Rector of the Cologne Sporthochschule, June 20, 1961 18

A Rampart against Decline The meaning of the Olympic Games By N. Ph. Yalouris, Ephoros of Olympia, June 20, 1961 23

Plato's Charioteer The whole Man, Science, and Physical Education By Dr. Arthur H. Steinhaus, Professor of Physiology and Dean, George Williams College, Chicago, Illinois, June 20,1961 28

Origin of the Modern Theory of Training By Cleanthis Palaeologos, Director of the National-Academy for Physical Training in Athens, June 17, 1961 37

Sports Training in Great Britain By Albert Davis Munrow, Director of the Department of Physi cal Education, University of Birmingham, June 21, 1961 45

Sports Education By Ernst Hirt, Director of the College of Physical Education, Budapest, June 19, 1961 52

Psychological Problems and Advice on Training By Prof. Dr. Otto Misangyi, former Director of the College of Physical Education Budapest, June 19, 1961 61

5 The Halteres-Jump By Dr. Erich Lindner, Director of the Institute of Physical Educa- tion of the University of Marburg on the Lahn, June 20, 1961 69

Olympic Literature By Prof. Dr. Josef Recla, Institute for Physical Education of Graz University, Austria, June 19, 1961 78

Olympic Bibliography Compiled by Hubert Jachowski, Köln 85

Looking Back and Looking Forward By Dr. Franz Lotz, Director of the Institute for Physical Education of the University of Würzburg 109

List of Lecturers and Participants 111

6 INTRODUCTION

This is what Pierre de Coubertin wrote to the German Government on the 16th March 1937 : — "/ have not been able to carry out to the end what I wanted to perfect... I believe that a Centre of Olympic Studies would aid the preservation and progress of my work more than anything else, and would keep it from the false paths which I fear." ' The Olympic Academy, whose first trial course on the 16th to 23rd June 1961, with 31 students from 24 countries, coincided with the ceremonial handing-over of the newly-revealed antique stadium at Olympia, could be such a «Centre of Olympic Studies». The idea and the reality of this Academy harmonized happily in those noble precincts, whose excavation has yielded findings which to-day throw new light on the past. The excavation of the Olympic Stadium is part of the great enterprise of giving antique Olympia back to the sun again. This was once the intention of Winckelmann, the great teacher of the history of ancient art. Later, there was collaboration between scholars of many European peoples. Then in the period after 1870, that is after the unification of Germany, it was taken up by German scholars as their first cultural task. The first campaign of excavation in the years 1875-1882 laid bare the inner area of the sacred place, found the palaestra and the gymnasium and also discovered the threshold of the ancient stadium. They were content at that time to make another probe in the clay stratum at the known distance of 192 metres. They again struck starting-bases, and were able to identify turning-points and finish at the traditional interval apart. So the site of the stadium was found, and at that time it was assumed to be the only one of its kind in Olympia. They did not believe they would make any more finds in the stadium area, and therefore limited themselves to mapping the track and the spectator- slopes. But from the point of view of sport it was a great pity that while the sacred places of Olympia had been examined, the sports-places which belonged to them had not. For this reason the resumption of excavation at Olympia was included in the programme of the 1936 Olympic Games, and the appropriate monies were made available. On the 15th October, 1936, Prof. Dr. von Gerkan began fresh excavation at Olympia. Gerkan was later transferred to Rome and his work was taken over by Prof. Dr. Emil Kunze, who has carried it on to the present day — apart from a short break during the last World War — with great success. For the archaeological findings exceeded the most optimistic expectations. To clear the stadium completely it was necessary to remove a great mass of earth, and this required more means than the researchers had at their disposal. German sport brought into being the «Carl Diem Foundation»; a collection among friends

7 of the Olympic idea, with the vigorous aid of the German Olympic Asso- ciation, provided funds which made the continuance of excavation possible. The antique Olympic stadium has now been completely excavated. In the process many works of art from archaic times have been found. But the most important discovery was that the present stadium is the third of its kind. The first, which went back to the 8th century B.C., evidently ended at the Altis of Zeus. The growing number of works of art in the Altis, which made it necessary to extend the Sacred Grove, and also the increasing numbers of spectators at the Games, caused the second to be displaced 50 metres to the east. The third stadium, which has now been excavated, is shifted right out of the Altis, and connected to the inner area by a tunnel. Olympia now lies before our gaze as it has been made and remade in the course of its history. The first thing which catches the eye of a present- day visitor is the connection between the arena and the religious precincts. Olympia wears its old face once again. Surely the completion of such an impor- tant excavation, which builds a spiritual bridge to the Games of our times, should not merely be notified in an official paper. By mutual agreement, a simple ceremony was prepared in the newly-opened stadium. A hundred Greek and a hundred German sports-students were to take part, in the presence of the International Olympic Committee. It was to be associated with the first trial course of the Olympic Academy. For a week the joint rehearsals of the two student-groups and the lectures and training in the Academy proceeded without a hitch. On the opening- day the inhabitants of the Péloponnèse gathered in great throngs. The exca- vated slopes of the antique stadium were alredy filling with spectators by early morning, bringing their families and pack-animals with them as of old —when suddenly a storm broke, and put them all to flight. The inside of the stadium became a small lake, and torrents of water swilled down with them clay from the slopes, which had not yet been bound with grass. The antique drainage-system, restored in an expanded form, was not equal to such a downpour. The weather-god was unkind, and the cere- mony was impossible. The ceremonial addresses were taken from the programme and delivered in the main hall of the Museum in the presence of Crown-Prince Cons tontine and the IOC. In the late afternoon the sky cleared again. So next morning the displays which had been intended as a dedication of the stadium were able to take place - ,not indeed in the stadium itself but on the ground of the antique gymnasium, with the expected fusion of the Greek and German teams, and with the participation of the athletes selected for the . Olympic Academy. This moment flung a bridge across the centuries, and made a living bond between Olympia yesterday and to-day — a call to further action. CARL DIEM

8 THE OLYMPIA MYTH

Address on the1 Occasion of the Handing-Over of the Antique Stadium at Olympia BY PROFESSOR DR. CARL J. BURCKHARDT, BASLE The millennial silence of these ruins, the mystery of the sacred grove, and the brooding outlines of the serried hills, speak so great a speech that man's word seems all too feeble in their presence. Upon all that we here perceive there flows a happy light, such as our eye has never taken in elsewhere. This light lets all that is to be seen appear in strict precision, and yet it remains always tender; it imparts to every details its full meaning, and at the same time lends to all a noble distance. As a poet expressed it «Nothing is comparable to this light, unless it be the mind itself». Nowhere are we so far as here from drifting dreams, for everything, even the furthest past, appears «truthfully», and it is this truth which lifts up our hearts — it bears lasting witness to man's dignity. In Olympia, mankind's place of remembrance, arose one of the great liturgies by means of which mortals held communion with the gods and with one another, in mutual respect and in the sign of peace. We stand here at the source of solemm festival and heroic contest. Here was dis- closed the deep meaning of the dignified procession which led to the throne of the highest God. Everything which for us to-day has become Abstract Idea was for the men of old Divine Presence. Men's hope, their sense of awe, their urge to worship, once filled their world with ever- present shapes. We of to-day, who observe and take Nature apart, are seeking to be Masters of her powers. But the Greeks did not observe in our manner; no, they looked and discerned, and their discern- ment led them on other ways than ours. In this incomparable light arose the vision of their genius, whose marks are moderation, the rhythm of true proportions, and a symphonic sense endued, with the gift of harmony. Game and contest and sporting achievement came under the law of this harmony. Victory won in the stadium belonged in the first place not to the team from a country or a particular district or a particular city, nor to a group of men — no, not even to the victors themselves. It belonged to the great Beyond, to the ever-present Divine Spectators whom every competitor saw clearly before him, while the gods saw right through him. Every Greek was after his fashion a Lynkaeus, who could see through walls ans knew what was going on in Olympus and Hades; at the same

9 time he left himself pierced through by the gaze of the gods as if by a bright arrow; but to these gods nothing human was strange. In the presence of those divine exemplars, in reverent wonder, and yet never without a freedom whose clear-sightdness bordered on irony, the men of that new distant day strove to reach the highest degree of self-perfection. In the epochs of their greatness there was no rift among them between man's body, his bearing, and his thought. All the powers of body and mind had free play together here in Olympia. Here the pre-Socratics taught; Cheilon and Thames died here; here arose Archilochos' hymn to the glory o Herakles. Pindar and Eu- ripides spoke their epinikia here. Herodotus read from his great report, and Thucidides reflected upon his work. Artists like Myron, Polygnot, Polyklet, Skopas or Praxiteles wrought their works in this valley. Miltiades was honoured here after the victory of Marathon. The helmet which he gave as an obligation was found here. Themistocles was greeted in this place as victor of Salamis. Here were preserved the trophies taken from the conquerors, and it is here that Alexander read his amnesty at the 114th Olympiad. The lists of names of Olympic victors were collected on this spot by Hippias and Aristotle, while the eternal Olympic flame burned in the Prytaneion. From of old heroes who fell in battle were honored by competitive games. For 2700 years we have been reading in the Iliad, as though we were contemporaries and spectators, how Pateroklos the friend of Achilles was honored in this splendid way. Here in Olympia was held high the memento of Pelops the son of Tantalus, who gave his name to the Pélo- ponnèse. But Pausanias tells us «As for the Olympic Games, their origin goes back far beyond the beginnings of the human race, for we know that Kronos and Zeus measured themselves in this arena, and that the Curetés held their first race here». Myth always reaches ahead. How often it is the cause of historic event ! In the last late afterglow of antique life, the Byzantine Stephanos was to write «Myth is what never happened, but is for ever happening». Far above all the strife and brawling of the Hellenes, and revived ever and again by hopes, reigned the glorious concept of «homonoia», of concord , of unity and reconciliation. Here reigned a peace which was the forerunner of the striving of our Middle Ages after the Peace of God — that Peace of God which for very brief moments seemed to come to pass. From the moral rule, the great games-rule of the Olympic Games, came a virtue which endured actively through all the collapses and declines —knightly conduct. It was a knight of France who dared to re-awaken this ideal. I speak of Pierre de Gouberin; we honour his memory! We know of his fight

10 against trivial sneers, against the stubborn ambition of modern nations, against the evil of modern peak-performance, against lack of imagination and vanity. We know that his will and confidence won the day. We know of his many helpers, of whom we will mention only the outstanding Greek worker Bikelas. Yes, we know the help which Coubertin received from 1896 onward, and the final result — the resurrection of the Olympic Games as it was realised for the first time in Athens — what a glorious Introitus! When the Olympic Committee under Bikelas, its first President, organised the first Olympiad, they avoided every romantic touch. They wanted to begin in a practical way, to serve contemporary sport and fill it with a new spirit. Nonetheless the art of the discus-throw sprang to life and was soon to become an important athletic event. It was in Athens too that something particularly impressive happened. A Marathon- race had been put on the programme. The conditions had been criticised. People held them to be much too severe — the race was over a course more than 26 miles long. Well! at the appointed hour, in the presence of His Majesty the King and his two sons, there appeared as victor, and showing no sign of exhaustion, a powerful young Greek, a shepherd dressed in his «fustanella». Quite on his own he had glorified the victory of Marathon of the year 490 B.C. over again. Since those days in Athens the Olympic games have been preserved for us despite the catastrophes which have befallen our contemporaries in the course of the 20th century. Last year in Rome one could see what a universal character they have acquired. May they guard the Olympic spirit, the knightly spirit, the fair spirit of ordered play together, as a torn world's hope of concord on a higher plane. There is another sphere, above all fratricidal wars, in which a noble spirit of fraternal rivalry has prevailed. That is the sphere of archaeo- logical science and its bold pionneering representatives. From the eigh- teenth century up to our days the Greeks and representatives of great nations have been daring the magnificent adventure of bringing to light the past. Frenchmen, Englishmen, Germans and Americans' have completed with the generous help of Greece their wonderful achievement. In this achievement the history of the excavations at Olympia has an honourable place. That so many scholars from all civilised countries have been able to work together in Greece from the 18th century up to the latest times has been due, since the Greek Wars of Freedom, to the liberality of the Greek state and the continuous collaboration of expert Greek collaegues. Right up to our days the French were working in Delphi and Delos, the English in Knossos and Mycenae; the Italians in Phaistos, and the

11 Americans in Corinth and in the Agora of Athens. Here in Olympia the common effort of men swept along by the joy of discovery has been especially impressive. Since 1723, from Bernard de Montfaucon through Winckelmann to Richard Chandler, Fauvel, Leake, Dodwell and Cell, Cockerell, Lord Stanhope, Quatremere de Quinzy, Allason and so many others, the chain of great achievements is unbroken. Among the band of meritorious men we may especially name three initiators — Ernst Curtius, Georg Treu, and Wilhelm Dörpfeld They all laid the foundation on which we still build to-day. Archaeological science has grasped what was hidden in the ground and perceived countless traces left behind by vanished cultures. Emil Kunze, the Director of the German Archeological Institute in Athens, has now found — in the middle of deep excavations penetrating to the last levels — a direct connection with the Olympiads. Thanks to the work led by him, and thanks to the generous gift made by the President of the German Olympic Asso- ciation, the excavation of the stadium has been possible. It, can be shown to-day in the condition in which it existed in the 4th century. Professor Kunze will give us an expert report on this and other related happenings in the archaeological aspirations. In our present state, verging on ultimate perils, may this stadium with its simple restraint help the youth of to-day to grasp Coubertin's thought entire. This thought includes the challenge to renunciation, to wise restraint, to the observance of just rules in sign of respect for a leading Principle set above us. Only in this sign can we win, beyond all the contradictions which divide us, our common humanity and with it the peace for which we all yearn. We are not heirs who mourn for lost ideals. We are ready to earn for courselves in daily endeavours whatever serves to free us from want and danger. We have lost the harmony of the men of old; let us find new harmonies again — our own. If we stay creative a new spring will break forth. The people of present-day Greece, who are receiving us so hospitably, have given us great examples time and again. For more than a hundred years they have been staking their lives incessantly for freedom and have heroically withstood the blows of fate. May I in conclusion recall a distant personal memory? In 1923, when, in the service of the International Red Cross in Anatolia, I lived through the terrible episode of the flood of Asia Minor Greeks back to Hellas, 1 saw in boundless grief only want and misery ahead. But what in the beginning had the effect of a catastrophe, in the end transformed itself into new strength. A great people renewed itself through unity; mighty and constructive possibilities appeared, and the welding together

12 of all Greeks was the pre-condition for their wonderful powers of resistance in the last war. May the present day. may the high place which unites us, so streng- then the will of those who are growing up and who tomorrow will bear the responsibility, that they may withstand, the ceaseless forward pressure of chaos : stern and composed, as the Olympic Rule requires; incorruptible as the spirit of true, of free research shows, and ever with the aim of reconciliation in community. With this wish to the young torch- bearers striding towards an unknown future I should like to close.

13 OLYMPIA - SPIRITUAL SYMBOL

The Excavation of the Third Antique Stadium By Prof. Dr. EMIL KUNZE Director of the German Archaeological Institute at Athens

A few years ago, indeed as lately as 1957, anyone who entered the Olympic Stadium by its vaulted tunnel-like entrance beheld a confusing spectacle. Instead of the spacious arena rebuilt on a bold 4th century B.C. design, in which up to the end of antiquity the oldest of Olympic contests, the foot-race, had been held, he was confronted with a mound of earth over 15 feet high, which rose immediately behind the threshold, and sloping gently down towards the south, covered the whole track and the adjacent land as far as the modern road. Confusion was increased by the fact that the artificial escarpments to the south and west of the arena had been excavated down to grass-level, so that the level here was now lower than the whilom surface of the arena. Nonetheless the enthusiastic visitor was able with the help of a plan and a printed introduction to orientate himself more or less in the chaos. But he was denied a physical impression of the venerable place, such as might have enthralled him directly on the spot itself, and later wakened again to life in his memory. We must think back to this situation, which has only just now been hapily overcome, if we are to value fittingly the occasion which unites us here to-day in a festive hour. Indeed, we must reach back even further in order to assess the meaning of this day rightly. For everybody to whom Olympia is not merely a name, but a spiritual symbol, will ask straight away why it took such a long time before this greatest and most significant of all Greek stadia saw the light of day once more as a monument. For we know that the systematic excavation of the holy precincts of Olympia with their temples, treasure-houses, and other buildings, was undertaken more than 80 years ago, and completed in all essentials in the astoundingly short time of 1875 to 1882. And the stadium ? Well, the scholars to whom we owe all our funda- mental knowledge of Olympia — Ernst Curtius, Georg Treu; Wilhelm Doepfeld and Adolf Furtwaengler, to name only the most meritorious — by no means neglected the stadium. They soon discovered it, despite its being completely covered in earth, ascertained its size and extent, and by digging it free at a few important points made clear the broad lines of its lay-out. The complete excavation of such an extensive and deeply- buried area would certainly have been a physical impossibility with the technical means which were then at their disposal. Bull-dozers did not

14 yet exist. But to remove more than 200,000 cubic metres of earth with horse and cart, and at least half of it more than once, would have been from the outset-a hopeless undertaking, if only because of the astronomic sums which it would then have cost. The first excavation had therefore to bequeath this task as a legacy to a later generation. It was our great good fortune to be able to continue from 1937 to 1941 the work begun in 1879, to take it up again in 1952, and this year to bring it near to its conclusion. For this we feel deeply indebted to our predecessors in re- search at Olympia, and, apart from them, above all to this country. For the Greek archaeological authorities have not only permitted our work with unrestricted liberality, but have also invariably supported it in every way with the selflessness of true colleagues. It is not my intention to use the ceremony which has brought us together on holy ground to give you honoured listeners, a thorough exposition of the course of our protracted labours. It must suffice to report that after we had removed the ancient earth-ramparts to the south and west of the track, and had thereby gained a precise picture of the transformations which the stadium site had undergone in the course of centuries of Greek history, we found ourselves facing a situation as difficult and apparently hopeless as that of our predecessors. It was the situation which I tried to call to your memory in my opening sentences. The arena was and remained covered in silt for almost the whole of its length, and in practice this as good as entirely precluded a thorough scientific investigation of the northern stadium slope also. The costs of digging free the whole arena would still be very considerable; to meet them out of the limited means available to archaeological research seemed quite a Utopian aspiration ; it looked as though the second stage of reclaiming the Olympic Stadium would have to be given up before the goal was reached. We were rescued from this impasse by the man whose heart has ever been in Olympia, and whose life-work has been directed to implanting something of the true Olympic spirit in the young sportsmen of our time. He was able to arouse the enthusiasm of the German Olympic Committee and of other German sports-circles for the plan of restoring the Olympic Stadium and thereby bringing to a worthy conclusion the scientific research upon it. With joy we see Carl Diem among us in the inexhaustible freshness of his vigorous old age — a figure loved by many and honoured by all. Let us in conclusion take a look at what has been won. The task is not yet quite ended. The antique earth-deposits by the north wall were unexpectedly high and the discoveries in them were exceptionally rich and valuable; we began the excavation in 1959 and were able to finish it only last Christmas. Then came the violent rainfalls of this

15 spring, which stopped the work of the machines for weeks at a time, and furthermore a substantial extension of the originally-planned drai- nage system, the necessity for which was now realised. Finally came the circumstance that our money too was running short, because the move- ment of such colossal quantities of earth and the drainage arrange- ments were causing much heavier expenses than could have been fore- seen. The result of all this is that only part of the structure stands before us in its primal beauty. The lawn cover planned for the slopes and indi- spensable for their preservation is also still lacking; its presence in the carefully-maintained stadium of Greek times is showed by the layer of humus on the ramparts. Although serveral things thus still remain to be done, any receptive person will feel the peculiar beauty of this mighty structure. The way in which this work of man merges into the broad gentle landscape of the vale of Alphios testifies to the direct unreflective relationship of the Greeks to nature, a relationship which however is free from any modern sentimental strain. But the newly-arisen monument, uniting as it does inward and outward greatness with an enthralling simplicity, is in itself a solemn warning. He who is disappointed by the apparent modesty and absence of all showiness has understood nothing of the Greeks and of the spirit of their sacred games. This original pattern of a stadium manifests none of the love of ease and comfort which seem indi- spensable to us, nor any expense which is not directly related to the thing it serves. Simple earth-ramps for the spectators, but water too running along the track for their refreshment; a stone platform ringed by a wooden railing, on which wooden chairs were placed, for the judges (the Hellanodikoi). The Greek stadia with comfortable stone seats are all of later date, and the few marble stadia are only from Roman times. But the institution of games in the stadium in honour of Zeus is inse- parable from respect for the Divine Principle. The altar of Demeter, whose remains we found in the north of the track opposite the judges tribunal, testifies to it. When this hallowed shrine of Demeter was in- cluded in the precincts of the stadium it was allowed to continue as such, although as a result it was necessary to break an otherwise sternly obser- ved tradition and allow the priestess, as votary of her goddess, to be present at the contests in the stadium. Finally, now that we can survey the Olympic Stadium as a whole it affords us yet another significant insight. At first its groundplan seems the simplest conceivable — a long rectangle for the arena, surrounded by gently rising earth slopes. But how does it come about that a design based like this on a geometrical principle yet contrives to give such a feeling of life, to radiate such a harmony, to have nothing stiff about it,

16 and therefore to fit so perfectly into its natural surroundings ? The ex- planation of this phenomenon is clearly to be found in the fact that the arena is not an exact rectangle, but bellies out slightly in the middle of length, as one can see straight away if one stands at either end of the track and looks along the row of stones which mark its boundary. It is the same phenomenon of entasis which transforms the rigid pattern of the Greek pillars, infusing it with warm and breathing life. The incompa- rably animated quality peculiar to every work of Greek hands has given its noble stamp to the outwardly so simple stadium at Olympia. In conclusion, let us also not forget that the earth which we have been digging up here for more than two decades was unimaginably rich in the most costly finds. They have revealed to us many quite new aspects of early Greecian art, and there are also historical monuments of the first importance among them. To give at least one example of the latter, I should like to refer to a strange bronze helmet which came to light almost completely undamaged little more than half a year ago at the bottom of a spring in the area of the north slope, and is shown by its inscription to be the only piece of booty from the Persian wars which has come down to us. I am coming to an end. In the short time at my disposal I have tried to indicate only a few of those aspects lying closest to the hearts of friends of Greece and antiquarians which lend a high meaning to this present day, when young people have gathered together from all the world to dedicate anew the rearisen Olympic Stadium. We wish and hope that we shall soon be able to put the last touches to an already almost completed task. For only by bringing it quite to an end will it be possible to secure what has already been achieved and preserve it for the future. May these venerable precincts, in the care of the appointed wardens of the monuments and museums of Greece, be for coming generations too the goal of a Greek pilgrimage, and call them to reflect upon the sources of human civilisation.

17 AN "ELIS,, OF OUR TIMES

Meaning and Purpose of an Olympic Academy By Prof. Dr. MED. ET LITT. H. C. CARL DIEM Rector of the Cologne Sporthochschule

We may say simply that the Olympic Academy which is to arise here will be at once a continuation of the ancient Academy — an Elis of to-day — and the realisation of Coubertin's plans to lay a scholastic foundation for the Olympic idea. For centuries the competitors in Olympic Games used to assemble at Elis in order to train together. Ten months before the Games the high judges of the Sports Tribunal, called «Hellanodics», met there in order to be instructed by the «Nomophylaces», members of families which inherited the guardianship of the Olympic Laws. From then on the training quarters were open to intending competitors. They had to arrive at least a month before the beginning of the Games, in order to complete their training in the same conditions, boarding, lodging and living together. Under the guidance of the judges they grew with them and with one another into a team united by a religious bond. Together they dedi- cated themselves to Zeus, whose altar the best of them, the victor in the 200 metres race, was to kindle anew. They learned from one another, the son of a city with a short sports-tradition from one with a longer, an athlete brought up in obsolete or underdeveloped technique from one coached by a master. The best was to win a wreath from the Olive-tree. Elis was at this time the sports-school of the Mediterranean. In Coubertin's opinion a centre for exchange of ideas and for research into the sciences upon which teaching, technique, and performance rest, was no less necessary than one for the practical cultivation of sporting technique. Out of the Olympic Festival grew the spiritual strength which once made it the focus of ancient culture, the cultural bond uniting the Greek people and later the whole Mediterranean. Thus it became part of the foundations of western culture also, and from it the sport of our day has grown. These foundations are continually explored and further extended to-day in the Universities of the world, and especially in those Departments of Education and Training Colleges which show how to educate through the body. Coubertin believed that the spread of progress required a collective scientific effort. The International Olympic Committee was intended to give an initial impulse thereto. He himself began to arrange scientific congresses. Three years after the Congress for the Foundation of the

18 Olympic Games at the Sorbonne in Paris, he summoned a Congress for Hygiene and Pedagogics through Sport and in Sport at Le Havre (1897), then in 1906 one for Art and Science at Paris, and in 1913 a third for the Psychology of Sport. He returned ever and again in them to the theme of scientific research. One can discern his programme easily from the proposals which he made at Olympic Conferences : — anatomy, physiology, hygiene, psychology, sociology, the relationship to music and to the production of festivals, a positive harmonic theory of festivals, but also the move- ment-theory of sport and the theory of human development through physical exercise. All these were to be thought over and studied indivi- dually, and above all as a collective picture whose parts illuminate each other; the responsibility of the Education Authorities for physical education was ever and again to be deduced. In his congresses he succeed- ed in uniting educationists, scholars, authors, artists and politicians of rank, and in rallying them to co-operation. One might call Coubertin an Olympic Academy in himself, so rich in ideas are his writings and proposals, which ought some time to be systematically sifted. They have such a wide range of doctrines which are still valid to-day, and are so rich in sporting insight, in practical truths about sport, in psychological advice, and in sociological reflect- ions. Not the least of these are on «Ruskin and Sport» — Ruskin (1819- 1900) was an English artist and scholar rich in thought. Under the sti- mulus of Ruskin, Coubertin wielded the laws of form and beauty in human festivals which we saw him apply with incomparable genius in his Olym- pic Games. In short, his heritage offers a harvest whose scope we cannot assess for our education, our humanity and naturally for our sport. Here is, also a later task for the Olympic Academy, for which France or Switzerland should allot a young scholar. When Coubertin observed that after his retirement from the Pre- sidential chair the International Olympic Committee completely lost sight of the idea of scientific congresses, and indeed up to the present day had no thought of arranging them in connection with the Games, he sought assiduously for a new sponsor for this task. On the 16th March, 1937, he wrote to the Government, and referring to the Exhibition on the History of Sport at the Olympic Games in Berlin in 1936, proposed that it should found an International Olympic Institute, a Centre d'Études Olympiques, to which he would bequeath his «papers, documents» and unfulfilled plans concerning the revival of the Olympic idea (Facsimile letter, Revue Olympique 1938, No. 1, P. 3). The request was granted. The balance left over from the 1936 Games was used to endow a fund for this purpose, and thence forward

19 the «Revue Olympique» which Coubertin had founded and financed from his private means was issued trilingually as the official Olympic review. The task was entrusted to me at Coubertin's suggestion. In 1946 the Institute was transferred by the International Olympic Committee to Lausanne. This prevented the publication of Coubertin's letters, which had been prepared. We renounced further work in our Institute. But previously — in 1938 — the International Olympic Institute in Berlin had already made a proposal to the Greek N.O.C. for the foundation of an Academy (Olympic Flame, vol. 1, pp. 317-319). The plan for this Centre d'Études Olympiques was then laid before the I.O.C. by the Greek Olympic Committee at a meeting in Stockholm on 19th June 1947. Brundage characterized it as «very interesting». Ketseas next presented a memorandum to the I.O.C. in January 1949 in whose drafting I had been permitted to share. He wrote that on his last visit to Athen's in 1937 Coubertin had expressed concern about the development of sport; he proposed that the I.O.C. should be the pro- tecting body for the Olympic Academy. The Greek Olympic Committee would finance it. The mode of operation would be through annual courses. The Greek Ministry of Education was to invite scholars from all over the world to work in the fields of history, the science of sport, and physical education. All work was to be honorary. The travelling and residential expenses of students were to be borne by the countries which sent them, or by their Olympic Committees. It was thought that the G.O.C. would bear the costs of the teachers (Bulletin 1949, March section, pp. 11-12). On 28th April 1949 the Committee resolved unanimously to accept proposal. The first invitations went out, but only four Olympic Commit- tees replied — substantially in the negative. More than a decade went by before a trial-course was risked. The occasion was the 58th session of the International Olympic Committee, which was transferred to Athens. It was decided to do this in order to link it with the cere- monial handing-over of the excavated antique stadium of Olympia to the Greek Office of Antiquities. This session and this event were thought sufficiently important to warrant bringing together the Presidents of the National Olympic Com- mittees and those of the International Associations for various forms of sport for a discussion with the Executive Committee of the I.O.C. This afforded the opportunity of demonstrating to the Presidents of the National Committees the mode of operation of such an Academy. From the experience thus gained a final decision was to be made about the financial basis, the constitution and the mode of working; further

20 preparations were then to be made. These were the stages of the plan whose furtherance we still have to ensure. We know the difficulties of organization which lie before us. In future each course at the Academy, if its work is to be valid by academic standards, must have a particular subject for both its practical and theoretical work. This time we have chosen «Training-technique». But there should never be theory without practice nor practice without intellectual standards. This time we want to find out how the participants from different countries understand each other. There may in future be courses for particular language-groups. Perhaps later a common working- language will develop, as it does to-day in countries with many languages e.g. English in India. We may also transfer the main stress of the practical exercises to Athens, where the modern sports-facilities are. I look upon this course as an experiment in another respect, too, and I appeal to your youthful strength. We want you to consider the Spartan way of life to which we have «sentenced» you as a romantic charm. We don't want you to find it an inconvenience to sleep in tents, wash in fountains and eat in the open air. Sportsmen may accept the amenities of our age as agreeable, but should be noble-minded enough—the Greeks called this virtue Megalopsychia — to renounce them when the world «Olympia» rings out. Otherwise the victors of those days — Koroibos, Pantakles, Chionis, Arrhachion, Milon, Theagenes, Ladas, Leonidas, Melankomas, Varazdates, and whatever other names they bore would laugh at us from the grave. For we have found everything in our exca- vations at Olympia, warm and cold baths, a house for the Hellanodics and priests, a hotel for guests of honour, but none for the competitors. They lived in tents and ate from the roasting spit. I do not want to say any more. I bid you a hearty welcome. Learn as much as you can, and be glad of this historic hour, glad to be participants in the first course of the Olympic Academy, at the moment when the antique stadium is delivered from the dust of oblivion to the light of the sun again. We can turn our eyes to the place where once the Hellanodics sat in purple robes; on the opposite side we see the altar of the goddess Demeter, who was held to be daughter of Kronos and sister of Zeus, and who made the earth fruitful ; at the run-out of the track we can see the found- ation-stone of the altar to Endymion, in antiquity the possessor of eternal youth. What a symbol for sport, which holds the secret of re- maining twenty years old for thirty years. There is something else we should not forget; in the tunnel to the stadium the athletes passed by pillars of shame, which served as a warn- ing of the eternal contempt reserved for those who had flouted the.Olym-

21 pic Laws. One had arrived too late, ostensibly because of adverse winds, but really because he had performed at a few places en route and taken money for it. Another had betted for money with his opponents in wrestling. Bribed boxers are named, who were punished — and not only the guilty athletes themselves but their corruptors. Even late arrival, with excuse, was punished, In the second century A.D. Pausanias cannot cease wondering how anyone can accept or offer gifts in exchange for victory, when they thereby break a sacred commandment sworn to Zeus. We see that there were human weaknesses then too, and corruptors then too; but there seems to have been no-one who defended shamateu- rism, the expenses racket, or the acceptance of money or monetary values. So this academy is dedicated for its entire future to an ethical ideal, that is to an exemplary morality in sport as a formative influence for the whole of life. And with this goal before our eyes of the path to a higher humanity, let us begin our work.

22 A RAMPART AGAINST DECLINE

The Meaning of the Olympic Games By N. PH. YALOURIS Ephoros of Olympia

Every fifth year the Greeks assembled in Olympia from every corner of their land and from its most distant colonies. They came to do honour to the Olympic gods, and especially to Zeus and the various heroes who had founded the holy games. They honoured them with sacrifices, with ceremonies and with the famous contests which have made Olympia a deathless symbol for every age and for the whole world. In our age they have risen again as the celebration of a noble athletic ideal. What the original content of the festival hidden behind the mythical tales about its foundation may have been we are no longer able to say exactly, for at the dawn of historical times the form of the games had already fully crystallised. Their organization was in the hands of the priest of Zeus and they were the most important events in this festival- centre in the corner where Kladeus meets Alpheios. The calm and idyllic landscape of Altis and its surrounding plain were usually deserted save for the priests and attendants who had to look after the maintenance of the festival-place. During the games themselves the Greeks came to Olympia in their tens of thousands, to sacrifice to Zeus, to take part in the contests or to watch them. The athletes could win as a prize a simple but highly- prized frond of the wild olive tree which Hercules was said once upon a time to have planted. The myth relates that he brought it from the blessed domain of the Hyperborei, who were thought to live in the lands of the North. The army of pilgrims filled the plain of Olympia and pitched its tents by the banks of the Alpheios and the Kladeus. The giant trees of the wooded district cast a welcome shadow on the fruitful and conse- crated earth. For many days the smoke of countless sacrificial fires rose to heaven and the whole valley echoed to the sound of hymns and the applause of spectators for the victory of the best. The victors in the Olympic Games felt beating upon them the efful- gence of the gods and heroes who had been the first mythical victors. The fame of Olympia went with them all their lives. They were honoured as God's elect, and won military fame or played a decisive part in poli-

23 tics. They were the incarnation of the Olympic Idea, which was shaped not so much by the stadium itself as by the consecrated atmosphere which informed the games. The Olympic Idea was decisive in ensuring this recognition for the victors. The Olympic Games aimed at fostering men strong in body, clear in mind, and pure in soul, with a vigorous, energetic and deter- mined attitude to life; furthermore with an inner proclivity for action, and a joy in chivalrous contest and the heightening of manly powers through competition. The Olympic Idea is thus not restricted to bodily attainment, but makes its impress felt throughout all departments of activity of both body and mind. In ancient Greece there was no interest in top-performance as such. They kept no note of records. The goal of the contest was victory. A longing for victory rose from the depths of the restless Greek heart; a victory to which the priests gave the challenge and provided the accompaniment, in order to bring forth Virtue and Beauty. This aim of the Good and the Beautiful gave its stamp to many of the master- pieces of Olympia, foremost among them the artistic decoration of the temple of Zeus, and the form of many of its figures and metopes. On the east gable is represented the myth of Pelops, the bold hero who had to fight against the hard and wicked King Eunomaos. In this struggle the powers of good were victorious and the noble hero who possessed them gained the upper hand. The west gable shows the battle of the Lapithae with the Centaurs, those mongrel creatures, half man and half beast. They had insulted Pirithos, the King of the Lapithae, and abused his sacred hospitality. How magnificently the artist has succeeded in portraying the contrast between the Lapithae and the Centaurs. The former have strong, well-built bodies, and features which shine with beauty and loftiness of mind. They are intelligent and creative beings, invested with a godlike dignity. In contrast to them the Centaurs are bestial and clumsy of build, and brutal and sly of expression. Their features are ungly and express their wild and uncouth nature. Between these two groups stands Apollo, the god of wisdom and light, who evidently is protecting «Kalokagathia». The metopes of the temple of Zeus depict the Twelve Labours of Hercules, which express the same sacred idea of the victory of the Good or Beautiful, and thus form whith the two gable- compositions a trilogy full of meaning. Hercules vanquished wild beasts and slew immoral and criminal men although he had to serve the unworthy and unrighteous King Eurystheus.

24 But after these colossal labours he was taken up into Olympus as one of the Immortals, and received Hebe, the Goddess of Eternal Youth, as his wife. From the 5th century B.C. onwards (to be precise from 456 B.C.), these works of art and the whole temple were a source of fascination for the Greek world. Owing to the fairy-tale element, the myths depicted in them, they became part of the Greek national mind ; at the same time they were a symbol of the unceasing struggle which man has to wage in order to dominate and tame the chaotic savagery of Nature. It is rebellious Nature which surrounds Man and at the same time lurks within him. Moreover in all religions and cultures men have to fight against various «Centaurs» — however they may be designed — and to hold their own in ceaseless strife with them. It is those Centaurs in their manifold forms who seek to degrade and destroy human nature; and these myths, depicted in the most important spot of the whole sacred precincts, were a standing reminder of the high ideal which the Olympic Games served, and from which the Greeks repeatedly received a fresh stimulus to emulation. So it becomes clear why the panhellenic contests took place in this holy place and why they were put under the protection of the gods. This is their deeper meaning, and the Greeks were so strong of soul that they looked upon the simple olive-branch as sufficient reward for their sporting efforts. They felt that so modest a gift brought out the value of victory more strongly than gold or any other costly prize. Thus the celebrations at Olympia did not merely consist of many contests, but were enhanced by the world of philosophers and poets and the ennobling influence of art. They all had opportunity at the Games to approach their compatriots and show their work. Phelokles, the father of the history of Herodotus, and his pupil Thucydides, were both — to name only two — at the Games in their time. The artists competed amongst themselves in modelling. Their works stood in the holy place before the eyes of all the visitors, challeng- ing their verdict and in the end their admiration. The victors were proud of their sporting achievement; the artists were proud of enhancing it by their art. How proud this inscription sounds : — «I set up this statue for mortals to admire». And he adds : — «Glorious work ! I am no novice». Even the simplest vase-painter has so much self-consciousness that he makes bold to write at the foot of his vessel «Don't look at it just once». One sees his satisfaction and contentment after the completion of the work of art he had created. The same vase-painter writes on a vase «Euthymines made someting

25 such as Euphronius never could»; for Euphronius was his rival. We see there were things to laugh at in Olympia too; the rivalry in the Agon and the pride in one's creative power melted together into a gay trimph. The element of competition entered into all man's acti- vities, and affected philosophers, athletes and artists alike. Bodily achievement ranked to lower than spiritual. Both ennoble man equally. Pericles was great and mighty not only in battle and in politics, but also in his intellectual deeds. Socrates, the greatest of the Greek intellects, was a brave soldier and possessed an incredible physical endurance. And Aeschylus expressed before his death the wish that his participation in the battle of Marathon, rather than his dramatic works, should be recorded on his grave-stone. This was the atmosphere of the holy place of Olympia, with its thousands of masterpieces and the deep wisdom of its philosophers and poets, which enveloped pilgrims and brought them nearer to things divine. Everyone, whether athlete or spectator, returned home deeply affected by the meaning of the games. Because of this significance sport became an instrument of human education. The great achievement of the Greeks was to fit it into the Paideia. The beneficent significance of the holy place is to be seen in other periods of Greek history. When the Greeks from every city set foot in the holy precincts they had to interrupt all hostilities. Once the priests of Olympia announced the sacred armistice all enmities ceased for the period of the contests. There was no civil power to enforce this decree. It was sacred and the Greeks had enough moral sense to respect it. Thus there blew in Olympia an air of creative fellowship. Common sport, common religion, common ideals came palpably to the fore and strengthened trust in the significance of the Greek people and its culture. This supremacy became decisively apparent after the victory over the Persians, and within the area of its influence petty antagonisms were dispelled. The possibility of a united state was considered in Greece as early as the 5th century B.C. The writer Lysias made the same proposal at the beginning of the 4th century in an address which he himself gave at Olympia, with the object of making the Greeks strong enough to fight against tyrants. Later an Athenian politician, Aischines, after recogniz- ing that his native city was incapable of founding a united state, turned to Philip of Macedonia and encouraged him to do so. He sacrificed his local loyalty to the welfare of all Greece. From this moment onward Aischines was no longer merely an Athenian, but something more — a

26 Greek. Alexander the Great was then able to realise his aspiration. But the ethic of the Olympic Idea succumbed to the passage of time. The process began with the disintegration of the ideal of the harmo- nious development of the human being. The educative goal of gymnastics was lost when professionalism took hold of sport. What had been a reli- gious celebration became a sensation for wealthy spectators, Infringe- ments of the Olympic Laws increased. The number of brides in the Games grew. Powerful cities began to pursue selfish political ends in them. In the 4th century B.C. Socrates and others had already to protest against athletes who strove for victory for the sake of outward renown. Olympia indeed lived on for several centuries thereafter; magni- ficent new buildings were erected; and the Games became more brilliant than ever. But they had forfeited their deeper meaning, and the festival bore the mark of decay. It was only when the Renaissance brought the Greek intellectual and artistic inheritance to light once more, and Greek teachings were studied, that Olympia arose again from the ruins as a symbol of human culture, and the ideal of the perfect man renewed itself thereby. What arose again was not the decadent Olympia of the pro- fessional athlete, but the recollection of that zenith of human develop- ment whose limitless powers had gone to Olympia's foundation. What has been newly created is indeed not free from menace. But Olympia remains immortal. It will bear the good fruit of enthusiasm in the future too, and prove itself ever and again a means of averting that decay which once allowed the true form of Olympia to crumble — the true form which has returned with healing vigour to the world again.

27 PLATO'S CHARIOTEER

The whole Man Science and Physical Education By Dr. ARTHUR H. STEINHAUS Professor of Physiology and Dean, George Williams College, Chicago, Illinois

To participate in this pilgrimage to the cradle of sport in Olympia is in itself the event of a lifetime. That this event celebrates a newly revitalized Olympia makes it a most joyous occasion. The presence here of peoples from many lands who feel themselves united in the spirit of the true Olympic tradition is for all of us an inspiring experience of the first magnitude. All of us know that were it not for the Herculean efforts of one man this historic week in the annals of sport would not have come to pass and none of us would be here today. The thoughts that I have collected under my title «The Whole Man, Science and Physical Education» are as old as the wisdom of ancient Greece where civilization flourished two thousand years before Columbus discovered my homeland. They are also as new as the great neurological institute of our generation. Both old and new they give to physical education greater responsibilities for helping to maintain modern man fit in body, in mind and in spirit. Plato's concept of the soul or total personality is pictured by him to be a charioteer driving a pair of winged steeds. Whereas in a god soul both of the horses are good and of good extraction, in the human soul only one horse is such a modest, honorable and chivalrous tho- roughbred, whereas the other one, which by the way has lost its wings, balks and bolts to fulfill its lust in carnal delights. In this classic parable, the charioteer represents wisdom or judge- ment, the thoroughbred horse rational thought and the other one, the baser animal, traits ruled by appetites. These baser traits, Plato tells us, require man to have a body which the gods do not need. Thus encum- bered, mankind is earth bound. Only the best can for a time keep pace with the gods to secure glimpses of the real existences. «But the common herd follow at a distance, all of them indeed burning with desire for the upper world, but, failing to reach it, they make a revolution in the moisture of the lower element, trampling on one another and striking against one another in their efforts to rush one before the other». (Plato's apparent preview of today's world then continues.) «Hence, ensues the extremest turmoil and struggling and sweating; and herein, by the

28 awkwardness of the drivers, many souls are maimed, and many lose many feathers in the crush; and all after painful labor go away without being blessed by admission to the spectacle of truth, and thenceforth live on the food of mere opinion.» (From J. Wright's translation of Phaedrus as reproduced in No. 456 of Everymans Library, New York, Dutton, 1910). Neurologists have now discovered Plato's charioteer and two horses inside the cranium and spinal column and there with electrical stimu- lation, surgery and brain waves, they have localized and analysed the characters of this trinity. In the limbic system, composed of the primitive cortex and its related nerve centers in the brain stem and the hypothalamus, they have identified the bolting, appetite driven, wingless horse that holds man earth bound. Here it is that electric stimulation evokes overeating, fighting and a host of activities related to self preservation. Here also stimulation produces behavior related to procreation and race preserva- tion. One electrode will evoke the brooding reaction in a hen causing her to crouch and with spread wings cluck for chicks to get under her, whereas another nearby electrode will stimulate the alarm cry, a back- ward look over the shoulder, and escape as from a chicken hawk. When stimulated simultaneously with both electrodes the hen remains brooding, but with evident signs of conflict, only to fly off the more violently when excitation to brooding is suddenly terminated (1). Here also Professor Olds (2) found the cell masses that animals, given access to an electric circuit for self-stimulation, elect to activate more than two thousand times an hour for 24 consecutive hours until they fall exhausted for lack of food. Even though food is present through- out the experiment they ignore it in their eagerness to experience the electrically induced feeling of gratification. Some isolated observations on man indicate that he also has such centers of wonderful feeling. These so-called motivation centers, be it noted for later reference, make connections with regions of the brain where will be identified both the nobler horse and the charioteer. These older portions of the brain together with the cerebellum and spinal cord are shared alike by pigeon, dog and man. When in experi- mental animals the higher cortical centers are removed leaving only those parts that correspond to Plato's baser steed, the animal shows perfect coordination for walking, running, fighting mating and flying. Its behavior is instinctive and predictable as that of a robot. It possesses no great storehouse of previous experiences that give individuality to animal and man, and to man the stuff out of which his thoughts are com- posed and his intelligence arises. I can demonstrate this, though some-

29 what imperfectly, with these pigeons from which we removed the cere- bral hemispheres nine days ago. You will note that they possess perfect coordination for walking, balancing and flying, but they have no me- mory of friends or enemies and are quite incapable of learning. They preen themselves periodically and when they become hungry they per- form pecking movements with head and neck, but they will not feed themselves. This experiment shows us that no cortex is needed for mere physical activity. For physical education, however, the cortex is essential. Plato's second horse of rational action and intellect undoubtedly resides in the neocortex of higher animals and men. Because this cortex is only poorly developed in experimental animals it has thus far eluded full exposure. Beginning with Fritz and Hitzig who in 1870 stimulated the brains of soldiers suffering head wounds in the Franco-Prussian War, a number of brain surgeons have stimulated the cortex of conscious patients to explore its character. Today the activity of this outer mantle of gray matter, composed of some ten billion nerve cells, is identified as the human mind with powers that we call memory, discrimination, symbol, word, language and idea formation, the capacity of reasoning, and voluntary activity. Here Professor Penfield's electrodes (3) evoke not only bodily movements but cause also the conscious patient to relive, vividly, long forgotten experiences with their complete agenda of music, conversations, location and associated feelings. Destruction of portions of the cortex results in predictable losses of mental functions. It would no doubt surprise Plato to learn that his nobler horse is neurologically an offspring of the baser one since the neocortex actually arises by repeating multiplication of a few nerve cells that early in em- bryonic development wander away from the old cortex but continue in two ways communication with it over a very rich set of intercommuni- cating pathways. Bulging into the forehead of man is that special mass of gray matter comprising the prefrontal lobes which have been variously called the seat of wisdom, of conscience, of values, of worry and of judgement. Nearly absent in animal forms below man and, judging from skull con- tours, also poorly developed in early human forms such as Sinanthropus pekinensis, these lobes are probably the last to become functional in each of us. They do not attain their optimum efficiency until the end of the second decade of life when their connections with the brain stem are fully perfected (4). When in 1850 Phineas Gage, a New England Yankee, accidentally set off the explosion that drove a powder taming rod into his prefrontal lobes, he recovered consciousness within an hour and lived another twelve years; but no longer was he the honest, home-

30 loving, conscientious Puritanic New Englander of his preaccident days. Other accidents, the removal of prefrontal tumors and the practice of psychosurgery, all indicate that this area of cortex in some special way integrates the activities of the new and the old brain. Over multifarious two way nerve paths between them and the reasoning cortex on the one hand and the brain of feelings, fights and appetites on the other, these lobes connect feelings with ideas and reason with baser drives. Seventy years ago Luther Halsey Gulick, the father of American Physical Education, pondered a similar question. He invented the triangle to symbolize man as a unity of body, mind and spirit. Whether Dr. Gulick was influenced by Plato's parable we do not know; but we are certain that he shared the great philosopher's conviction that man is a closely knit integration of higher and lower ingredients and that each is important to the effective functioning of the whole. He was convinced that in the conduct of physical activities and all other activities designed to develop man, this unity must always be recognized and respected. Comparing Plato's parable and Gulick's symbol one realizes that Plato makes no mention of the chariot itself, which should in reality be the body of man, and Gulick fails to distinguish between the baser drives and nobler thoughts in his expression of mind. But one must not expect too much of any analogy. Much has been learned and written about the effect . of physical activity on the body or shall we say the chariot. Thus it is common knowledge that whenever muscles, heart, blood vessels and lungs are caused to operate at intensities above normal, i.e., when they are over- loaded, they respond by becoming larger, stronger and more efficient in their ability to withstand the stresses imposed on them by exercise. We know also that with the cessation of such overloading these changes are reserved so that muscles, heart and lungs again become smaller and weaker. Extra capillaries that developed under strenuous training in heart and muscles, disappear and the more efficient regulations of the circulatory system that mark the trained state are lost soon after training is ended. Every use of the body involves related portions of the nervous system. Voluntary movements and especially the learning of new skills are functions of the newer cortex where also are left the memory traces of what has been learned. The unconscious adjustments of circulatory and endocrine functions that mark the trained state are regulated by nerve centers in the brain stem, hypothalamus and the limbic lobes that comprise Plato's baser animal. With or without interference of direction from the «thinking cortex», repeated use of these centers im- proves the effectiveness with which they mobilize the inner organs and

31 circulatory system to support better functioning of the whole man. The recently identified intimate connections of hypothalamic nerve centers with the posterior and anterior lobes of the pituitary gland pro- vide an anatomic basis for the long suspected connections between neural and hormonal regulation of the body. Today we know that nerve centers in the hypothalamus produce various neurohumors that find their way via the axon surfaces of neurones and via special connecting blood vessels into the posterior and anterior lobes respectively. Here they induce the formation of hormones that stimulate kidneys, smooth muscles, thyroid, ovary or testes, growth centers in bones, adrenal cortex and other organs. In turn the reproductive and adrenal glands excite activity in other parts of the body. Thus we should really include these slower acting chemical regulators of body function with the brain stem and limbic systems as part of Plato's steed of lowly origin. Recent studies by Raab (5) give reason to believe that strenuous physical training through its influence on this interacting neuroendo- crine mechanism produces changes that help to protect man from the threat of heart failure. The explanation seems to be as follows : By action of the vagus nerve • (cholinergic activity) the heart is caused to beat more slowly and in other ways to find itself in position to recupe- rate its powers between beats. On the other hand sympathetic discharges (adrenergic activity) speeds up its action in every way. Such augmented action is useful and necessary to cope with the stresses placed upon the body by the struggle for existence in the jungle, in strenuous labor and in athletic competition. But after the struggle in which the sympathetic system must dominate, there should come a quick return to the resting state under rule of the vagus. This appears to be the case in the well- trained athlete but not in the untrained person. Not only is there a stronger resting vagus tone in the trained person but very likely also an active inhibition of sympathetic tone. This means that in the trained person at rest, the heart is more fully bathed in quieting acetylcholine (vagus Stoff of Loewi) and through inhibition of sympathetic discharges there is reduced formation not only of adrenalin and noradrenalin from sympathetic endings in the heart and everywhere in the body but also less of the corticosteroids from the adrenal cortex. These substances which are necessary to mobilize the body's resources for survival in crises are virtually useless and even harmful when continued through the re- sting state. Inability to shut down their production when the need is over, subjects the heart to dangers resulting from their continued action. Unfortunately, in our present, day world, many stresses caused by unhygienic ways of people and nations arouse man's sympathetic nerves to place such strain on his heart. Add to this the fact substances released

32 by stimulation of the sympathetic nerves cause blood to clot more ra- pidly and you have the ingredients that make a cardiac thrombosis. This is why some observers are convinced that the stresses of many occupations and the lack of regular exercise should be matters of graver concern than dietary cholesterol, as possible causes of the mounting death rate from heart disease in so-called civilized man. What more can we do for this horse of lowly ancestry whose ways of acting have passed the test of natural selection through hundreds of millions of years in the struggle for survival. These ways are the driving forces of pain, fear, hunger, sex and rage; the elemental struggles for food, for mate and for existence. Without them there would be no existence for man or animal. They can never be ignored. They must never be repudiated. They cannot be changed but they can be brought under domination of the charioteer and harnessed to team up with the nobler horse as when anger becomes righteous indignation; the struggle for existence, enlightened self interest; and the care of young, love for mankind. • Although we cannot change this animal nature in man, we could slow its coming of age even as we have in recent generations hastened its maturing. Studies reported by Mills (6) show that since 1795 the age of the onset of sexual maturity has dropped from approximately 16.6 years to 13.0 years and even lower. This accelerated sexual maturation that distinguishes recent generations from their forerunners, is undoubt- edly due to the higher nutritional levels attained by the more prosperous civilizations. The wife of an Innsbruck professor, after a year in the United States, last summer expressed to me her astonishment over the early and plenti- ful feeding of meat and eggs to very young children in my country. In recent studies Slovenian girls that received meat once a week (7) were found to mature at age 14.1 whereas girls that ate 14 servings of meat per week matured on the average at 11.7 years. Bigger babies may not always be better babies. The nutritional pressurizing of sexual maturation by. the present hysterical emphasis on high protein diets may well be reflected in the staggering increase of unwed child mothers and other sex related forms of delinquency that mark today's families of both high and low culture in the more prospe- rous countries. In a small German village the Pastor told me last summer that by actual count 54 % of the girls that came to be married by him were already pregnant. A high protein diet may bring earlier maturity to the animal in man but it cannot bring to his educable cortex the endless succession of experiences through which alone, this cortex can become an effective guide of behavior. The development of discriminating

33 thought patterns and strong habitual controls of conduct takes time. Have we perhaps inadvertently placed man-sized instinctive drives into the custody of child-sized cortical learnings. Physical education that is interested in the whole person cannot overlook such facts. The noecortex contains nerve centers that make possible seeing, hearing and localization of touch; speaking and delicate movements of face, hands and other body parts; memory, learning, reasoning, and awareness of self. It is because of these abilities that Plato's horse of noble heritage knows the way. Here are stored memories of the past, here are learned the rules and skills of sports that cause one person to differ from another, here are correlated the sensory experiences that acquaint us with objects and events in the world about us, thus to give meaning to our concepts and ideas. Here also is located the least under- stood yet most important of our senses, namely, the muscle sense. Approximately 40 % of the nerve fibers in the motor nerve to a muscle are actually sensory fibers that carry nerve impulses from muscles, tendons and related joint structures into the cord and brain. More important to life than vision and hearing, this proprioception, kinesthesia or muscle sense provides the mind with its understading of stretch, tension, movement and the third dimension. Observed by the eyes alone, a sphere is but a circle. Only after the hand has closed around it does the concept of a sphere become «true to life». How incorrect would be the concept of the sun to a person whose hands had never clutched a ball ? What is the meaning of «tension» to a man who. has never strained his muscles to pull a rope or lift a heavy object ? Without the sensations that arise from activity in muscles and joints our «inner world» of concepts would be flat and completely unreal. Herein lies the most important contribution of physical activity to the mind of man. Every movement, every body position, every tension in muscle, tendon and joint structure contributes to the formation of concepts or ideas that form the building stones with which we construct our thought life. How important then, it is that each concept represent as truly as possible that object or event of the external world for which it is the thought world's counterpart. It is probably safe to guess that many unlearned persons who work much with their hands often exhibit a high grade of «common sense» because their concepts are richly supplied with this «muscle sense» ingredient. On the other hand the unexpectedly naive judgement often displayed by persons educated too much in the rarefied air of books and abstract ideas may well be due to a shortage of this ingredient in their mental life. Thus for modern man whose occupation often demands

34 that he exist in a world of abstractions, sports and other physical acti- vities may well be one of the few retreats into reality and therefore sanity, that are readily available to him. There are many other ways in which the practice of sports and other activities involves the neocortex but time permits the mention of only one. Largely because of the work of Pavlov and his successors in Russia we have come to realize that many of the adjustments in the circulatory, respiratory and probably the endocrine systems that serve to prepare the organism for performance in competition are in reality learned, conditional reflexes that undoubtedly are formed in the neocortex. Thus the memory trace left by an often repeated activity includes in addition to the nerve patterns for the practiced movements also the nerve paths that govern the associated visceral adjustments. Most recently Gutman and Jakoubek (8) found that the blood sugar level and liver glycogen stores of rats rose considerably soon after they were placed in the environment in which they had previously been trained to run. Now we must turn to Plato's charioteer, the prefrontal lobes. It is through these centers that the differing talents of the older and newer centers are wisely or unwisely coordinated. It is here that the ideas and other activities of the rational cortex are brought together with the pleasures, pains, drives and appetites of the older centers. The kinds and amounts of such feeling tones that become associated with each thought or voluntary act depend upon how these components are brought together in the life experience of the child and adult. Thus if a boy in his early experiences with basketball is wisely guided to ex- perience pleasure when his play is that of an honest sportsman and pain when his actions are unfair and unsportsmanlike, corresponding connections are made through the prefrontal lobes. Subsequently, the persistence of these associations of thoughts and acts with feelings will determine the athlete's conduct. It is only through many such experiences and much practice that the charioteer of the prefrontal lobes stores up the wisdom needed to integrate the thought life and baser feelings and appetites to assure victory in the race of life. Always in life the horses and charioteer must function together. Sports and other physical activities are life speeded up. In a game of football the body moves much faster and the mind must make decisions much faster than in ordinary life. Thus in competition hundreds of de- cisions are made and executed in the time that ordinary life allows for ten. Even more important, these decisions must be made in the heat of emotion, engendered by the competition, and they must be made

35 fairly and efficiently. In this sense competition places a terrific overload on the body to perform efficiently, on the mind to make quick and accurate decisions, and on the spirit to make these decisions with the right control over the emotions. Thus the chariot, the two horses and the charioteer, in other words the whole man is given a tremendous work- out in athletic competition. The degree of success that is attained by whole man depends on how well he learns to perform — on how well his parents and other teachers have succeeded in leading him to accept their guidance. The most perfect says Plato, «follows a god most closely and resembles him most nearly, succeeds in raising the head of its charioteer into the outer regions, and is carried round with the immortals in their revolution, though sore encumbered by its horses, and barely able to contemplate the real existence ; while another rises and sinks by turns, his horses plunging so violently that he can discern no more than a part of these existences. But the common herd follow at a distance . . . without being blessed by admission to the spectacle of truth, and thenceforth Jive on the food of mere opinion».

Bibliography

(1) Reported by Fremont-Smith as a personal communication from Konrad Lorenz on p. 94. The central Nervous System and Behavior, Trans of the Second Conference, Feb. 22, 23, 24, and 25, 1959. Princeton, New Jersey. Edited by Mary A. B. Brazier. New York, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation (1959). (2) OLDS, JAMES, ibid p. 47; Pleasure Centers in the Brain, Scientific American October 1956. (3) Penfield, W. The Excitable Cortex, Springfield, HI. Thomas (1958). (4) Burr, H. S., The Anatomy of Anxiety, Conn. Med. Jour. 24, 21 - 26 (1960). (5) RAAB, W. Metabolic Protection and Reconditioning of the Heart Muscle, Through Habitual Physical Exercise. Ann of Int. Med. 53, 87 - 105 (1960). (6) Mills, C.A. Geographic and Time Variations in Body Growth and Age of Menarche. Human Biol 9, 43 - 56 (1937) and Eskimo Sexual Function, Science 89, 11 (1939). (7). KRALJ-CERCEK, LEA. The Influence of Food, Body Build, and Social Origin On The Age of Menarche. Human Biol. 28, 393 - 406 (1956). (8) GUTMAN, E. and B. JAKOUBEK. Preparatory Reactions to Muscular Work Physiologia Bohemoslovenica 10, 275-282 (1961).

36 ORIGIN OF THE MODERN THEORY OF TRAINING

By CLEANTHIS PALAEOLOGOS Director of the National-Academy for Physical Training in Greece

Many people believe that history repeats itself, and this can be, up to a certain point, considered to be true, if one adds Mankind always follows in the footsteps of the preceding generations, exactly as is the case with the «rope-team» (in mountaineering), that climbs up a moun- tain slowly and with determination. The sayings of which people often make full use in their discussions, have been valued in Greece as conden- sed wisdom, passed on from one generation to the next one. As far as I am concerned, I believe that this truth has been passed on by those peoples which have not become estranged from nature, from the open air and from the country. That is the reason why the Greeks who are particularly able to enjoy Life in the open air, almost the whole year over, and who love the joys of the sun near the calm sea, as well as the mild winter near their low mountains, have kept a very great number of sayings which are the heritage from the intellect of the old philosophers. The old slogan of «nothing new under the sun» can be interpreted in modern Greek as follows : «The World is a rotating Ball». What does this tell us about sport ? The latest developments in training methods remind us of the period of progress in athletics among the old Greeks. We must compare the great records which have been set up by the athletes of to-day, with those of the old Greeks — from the moment when present-day trainers re-introduced the methods of the old trainers. In this manner, without noticing it, following in footsteps of the athletic community, we can confirm the popular saying : «The World is a ro- tating Ball». Let us, therefore, look back twice ten centuries and try to form a picture of the art of training of the old Greeks. Athletic games were the common privilege of all Greeks, and their splendour was such that each young man wanted to be crowned with the laurel of victory. Because the old wise men had noticed to what degree the athletes were superior to other young people, they made efforts to further the athletic games, and finally even granted legal powers to them, as part of the youth movement. Consequently, all young men wanted to become known as victors and the towns and cities wanted to claim a similar reputation for themselves. Out of this wish grew the art of training. At first it was carried out by the old athletes, who made use of the experience which they had gained in the course of long years.

37 To this experience, little by little, the study of the functioning of the human organism was added, both anatomical structure and phy- siological function. Thus theory came to the help of experience. In this way the first pioneers of the art of training came to the fore and, as the old Greeks liked to attribute everything to the gods and to Demi-Gods, they idolised Hermes as the first trainer. Theseus, the hero of Athens had as his trainer a man called Forva. Herakles, according to the Saga by Apolodorus had learned the art of quadriga racing from Amphi- tryon, the art of wrestling from Autolycus, the art of arohery from Eurytus, the art of fencing from Castor, and the art of playing the guitar from Linus. The first specialised, technician, who had to prepare the athletes for the games, must have appeared simultaneously with the first installa- tions for gymnastics, which were called «Palaistra» ; that is to say prior to the 6th century B.C., as the «Palaistra» were already in existence when Solon (639-599 B.C.) promulgated the Law on the Destination of the «Palaistra». We can show from other evidence that these official pio- neers in training, had until then instructed the young men out of their experience, and that the art had been in existence a long time before the «Palaistra» and Solon, that is to say, since about 700 B.C. Filostratos valued it as part of the science of medicine, and wrote: «What do we have to know of gymnastics ? Nothing else, than that it is a doctrine which is composed of medicine and 'Paidotribiko'; everything is a part of the second and much more perfect than the first.» In order to develop the art of training which was in use with the Greeks, one would have to expand greatly the limits of the present article. We will have, therefore, to restrict ourselves to the main topics. The Greeks used for the training of their athletes — regardless of the kind of the exercises, running, walking, games, wrestling, jumping, as well as for dancing — various kinds of exercises. They knew very well that all these exercises made the body quick, flexible, strong and resis- tant, and thereby able to hold one's ground in the games. But besides these general preparations, the athletes mainly trained in their specia- lity, in that game which they preferred. Boxers, for instance, practised fighting against filled sand-, bran- grain- bags etc., which were hanging from the ceiling of the gymnastic-hall, and whose weight and diameter were not always the same. The runners ran at first on sand, because this made running extremely hard, so that, later, on hard ground, they had the impression that they were flying like birds. The special kinds of training for the athletes were different. They classified them as : hand-, foot-, neck-, shoulder-, rump-exercises etc. they knew «skiama- chia» (shadow-boxing), hopping, «jogging» . . ., and «skipping» . . . They

38 made use of many forms of apparatus designed to put more stress into the exercises, and they liked to work with weights. All hand exercises were called gesture plays. «Skiamachia» was a very beautiful exercise, for the athlete moved to and fro, exactly as is being done when boxing, constantly and very quickly towards all sides, but without an adversary. They knew the turning of the hands in all directions (Pitylizin), the hands being stretched out forwards for a long time, or they made exercise's only with their wrists. With the dumb-bells, which they carried in their hands, they practiced boxing. For training the feet they had exercises of running and jumping. Running exercises were : 1. Anatrochasmos, that means the athletes were running the other way round, that is backwards. 2. Peritrochasmos, that means that the athletes were running in circles and 3. Ekplethrizin, that means that they were running forward and backward over a distance of a few metres, lessening this distance each time until there was none any longer. Among the «jogging» — and «skipping» — exercises which we have al- ready mentioned before, they also knew various kinds of jumps, both with one foot and with two. They knew all the exercises which train the muscles of the rump ; but one thing specially worth notice is, that they performed them all while dumb-bells or other weights; or else they practised with apparatus fixed in the ground, or climbed on ropes, trees or vertical poles. They also used small balls and knew the medicine-ball for the training of boxers and wrestlers. They were also practising, besides other exercises, going down in a free fight, and there was one kind of fighting in which they fought, standing upright. They also had big hoops which they rolled round in front of them running, and with which they practised and played. The purpose of these hoops was in particular to warm up the athletes. Often they skipped through these hoops, exactly as they do to-day with a rope. But the above mentioned exercises are only a part of those which were known to the old Greeks. We know all this by the descriptions of the old authors, for the bearing and the gestures of the athletes, as can be found on various classical vases, can to-day neither be interpreted nor classified. We also know that the athletes in order to complete their training did fatigue work : they hacked, ploughed, rowed, mowed and carried heavy burdens etc. They not only knew the art of training, but they also knew the method of relaxation and of recreation of the organism when relaxing after the training. They knew when and how to breathe out and in, they knew how to go slowly in order to recover their repose. They had de- veloped the art of massaging to perfection, in order to prepare for

39 training to warm themselves up, as well as to relax after the training. They had many varieties of massaging and they used all sorts of powder and oil for rubbing in. It would require too much time to describe all these things. The way of life, followed by the athletes, had been fixed in great detail and their programme depended on the kind of sport. According to a statement by Plato, the first man with a great influence on the way of life of the athletes was Ikos of Tarent, about 500 B.C. Still earlier a certain Pythagoras (he is not identical with the famous philo- sopher) had trained Eurimenes, an athlete of Samos, who became known as a victor in the Olympic Games. His diet was meat, in accordance with Pythagoras' way of life, which was in sharp contrast to what had been believed hitherto, i.e. that the athletes should eat fresh cheese and figs. Pausanias says that this new type of meat diet was introduced by Dro- meus, from Stymphalus, who has beaten a «Dolichocephalen» (some sort of a giant) in the course of the Olympic Games, in 480 B.C. Plato, as is known, said preference, should be given to veal, whereas in the opinion of Klitomachos the meat of goats, because it is not so fat, should be preferred. Later on, he pointed to the example of an athlete from Thebes who became victor because he lived on a diet of goat. According to state- ments by Galen the athletes taking part in difficult games should eat pork and much bread. At any rate, it is certain that diet played a funda- mental part in training and that the old trainers prescribed various diets in accordance with the games in which the athletes took part. The training which was formerly called «Kataskevi» lasted almost the whole day with the old Greeks. The restoration of repose, which was highly esteemed, took place after the «Kataskevi». In the morning, the athletes began training in the stadium or in the gymnastic hall, where they had to remain until the evening, because the stadiums and the gymnastic hall were closed. Here, therefore, is the important point which we have to keep in mind. The old athletes were training all day with a great variety of exercises, of which we have already spoken, and they especially favoured a 4-day training-system called «Tétras». The «Tétras System» was very strict and it was applicable to all athletes. It was a training cycle which was never interrupted. The training during the first day was easy, but that of the second day was hard. During the third day the athletes re- laxed, or only trained very slightly, and during the fourth day the train- ning was moderate. The cycle was continuously repeated. Many people were opposed to so severe a method. Even Filostratos believed that it was not right. He thought the initiative of the trainer should not be restricted. Atmospheric conditions could change the training-programme. One should also show regard for the athlete's state of health and state of mind.

40 He then cites, to justify his point, the case of the athlete Guerinos from Athens, a victor in a boxing match during the Olympic Games. Guerinos one day came up to his trainer and told him that he had, during a festive occasion on the preceding evening, drunk and eaten too much, and that he therefore did not want to train. His trainer became angry because the «Tetras-cycle» would be broken, and finally Guerinos was compelled to train. The result was that the athlete died after prolonged vomiting. We must also emphasise that the free citizens of this epoch had no other daily occupation apart from practising in the gymnastic halls and in the stadiums, and taking part in the philosophical discus- sions of the philosophers who had their places in the gymnastic halls. They also followed political discussions and watched theatrical plays in the Agora. The slaves worked in the fields and did everything for their masters. We must now draw a brief comparison between classical and present- day training. We know that prior to World War II athletes could train three afternoons per week, and this was considered sufficient. Later, as records tumbled, trainers were compelled to train their athletes daily. Now athletic training can only meet with success on an international level, if the athlete trains twice a day, that is both morning and afternoon. We are now facing the facts which the old Greeks bequeathed to us some 3000 years ago. We are coming back to «Kateskevi», which was nothing but a very scrupulous and attentive care of the human organism, with the aim of reaching the highest records. Thus we are compelled to recognize that the present high records in the sphere of athletics require a complete sacrifice during training. We have not the intention of investigating in this brief lecture whether this point of view is morally right or wrong. We wish merely to state a fact. As far as I am concerned I believe that sooner or later this question must be discussed and examined. Daily training does not permit the athlete to tackle any other task, such as intellectual work, manual work or any other occupation, when the training itself lasts all day. As I have already said, the old Greeks considered this the natural thing to do, for they were not compelled to work in order to make their living. Social conditions during the classical athletic epoch were basically different from those of to-day. At present, the athlete who makes up his mind to break international records will have to submit himself to intensive training twice a day, and that excludes all other work such as study, or the practising of a craft. But I hope that interested circles, and in particular the authorities of smaller States, will one day study this question; they have already realized that it is impossible to keep up in professional athletics with the Big States, as these have a great

41 number of Athletes and big resources to make their choice form. The old athletes who trained several hours per day achieved splendid records which, however, to us at present do not appear as splendid, because of the development of our contemporary records. The old Greeks were interested only in knowing the winner, and not in the time which was needed. Therefore the information at our disposal about records is very limited. We must therefore make deductions from various historic events, and must have faith as we have to have it for history as a whole. It is certain that people exaggerate a little when they talk of records on the part of the old athletes. Nonetheless athletes like Milon, Lygdamis, Diagoras, Theagenis, Polydamas, Glafkos, Amissinas, Keras, Moskos, Ipposthenis, his son Etimocles as well as many others appear enormously powerful. They kill lions or lift quadrigas, grasp bulls and perform other tasks which seem superhuman to us to-day. •We must conclude that the legend has not only been caused by sheer imagination; it must have had its origin in an event. There are happenings which almost confirm the legends. On the Island of Santorin there was a very big stone with a weight of 480 kg with an inscription according to which Evmastoras, the son of Kritovoulos, had lifted it from the ground. One still can see in the Olympic Museum another stone with a weight of 123.5 kg which has been found in the village of Pelopion. It also has an inscription saying that Vivon has lifted it high over his head by means of one hand only. But we must not assess all these splendid deeds according to our criteria, possibilities and means of to-day, as the present circumstances of our life are totally different from those of the classical period. We must bear in mind that the athletes of this epoch were the best of all, for they were trained strongly and very carefully, and there were numerous possibilities to make a choice from them. Those who had been chosen from the people spent their whole life in the gymnastic hall. Finally one cannot consider the statues as mere imaginative crea- tions on the part of Polyklitos and Lyssipos. Before these monuments could be created in bronze or marble their originals must have lived in the gymnastic halls and triumphed in the stadiums. They were excellent, for they were well trained. Ageos, the victor over the Dolichocephalen in Olympia, arrived on the same day of his victory in Argos, his home- town, to announce his victory. That is to say he had to run 100 km (J. Afr.11301). Filippidis reached Sparta coming from Athens in 2 days' time (230 kms). The Army of Sparta numbered 2000 men. Armed to their teeth, they reached Athens within 3 days' time (Herodot 6, 106- 120 Isocrate Paneg. 87). Does this team-record really prove nothing ? Efchidas went from Platea to Delphi and returned on the same day to

42 bring back the holy fire of the sanctuary. Therefore he must have braved a distance of 180 kms (Plutarque, Aristides 20,10). As far as speed is concerned there are no reports which could tell us anything about the abilities of the old Greeks. It is however a clear hint when Lucian says : «As soon as the starting-barrier fell to the ground I was immediately proclaimed victor, for I had crossed the stadium with one jump, so that the onlookers had no time to see me.» I shall here mention a few more names in order to demonstrate the unlimited strength as well as the abilities of the classical athletes : The athlete Chionis of Sparta, who won the race in the stadium and was the victor in the Diaulos (double-race) on the 29., 30. and 31. Olympiad. Nikandro of Elide, six times winner in the Diaulos contest in the Games of Nemea, was winner for a further 20 years; Xenophon of Co- rinth, victor in the stadium race and in the pentathlon at the 79. Olym- piad; Gorgias of Elide, victor in the Diaulos contest, in racing and in the pentathlon; Politis of Keramos, victor in the stadium race and in the Dolichos and Diaulos at the 212. Olympiad, as well as Ermogenis of Xamthi at the 215. Olympiad.-But what is really most surprising, is that Leonidas of Rhodes became the victor in three games, over all three distances, at four consecutive -Olympiads (154, 155, 156. 157). Is there any similar athlete existing to-day ? The athlete Milon of Crotona, unbeaten wrestler, became victor in the Olympic Games and in the Pythie Games during his youth (the Pythie Games took place in Delphi every four years). Later he was five times victor in the Olympic Games, and six times in the Pythie Games, nine times in Nemea, and ten times in the Isthmus. The athlete Glaucus of Carystus, an excellent boxer became twice the victor in the Olympic Games and in the Pythie Games, as well as eight times in succession in the Games at Nemea and Delphi. The athlete Diagoras of Rhodes twice became the victor in the Olympic Games and in the Games of Nemea, four times in the Games of Isthmus, twice on Rhodes and eight times in other towns. Moschos of Colophon is the only youth who became the victor in the four great Games : Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, Isthmus. In. 216 B.C. Klitomachos of Thebes became the victor in the Pancration (gymnastic fight, comprising both wrestling and boxing) in the Olympic Games, three times victor in the Pythie Games, as well as in the Games of Isthmus (wrestling, boxing and Pancration). In the year 468 B.C. Theagenes of Thasos was victor in the three above-mentioned classes at the 75. Olympiad, victor in the Pancration at the 76. Olympiad and once again victor in wrestling at the 77. Olympiad. He became victor three times in the Pythic Games (Pancration and Boxing), nine times in the Games of Nemea and ten times in the Games of Isthmus. It is said that

43 he was crowned altogether 400 times in the course of Games in which he took part. Although we are not in a position to cite the records attained by the old athletes in discus, javelin, jumping, and other events, I believe that we should be satisfied with what has already been said. It shows us athletes who have won on the very same day in boxing, wrestling, and in Pancration, that is in three hard if not even dangerous contests. Their victories swept Greece and they kept their strength for a long time. They all were victors over a period which lasted for twenty or even twenty-four years. From all that has been said above, we must take it that the training of the old athletes was not different from that of present-day athletes. In spite of the lack of scientific knowledge of the functioning of the human organism, the old trainers attained wonderful results. They cared for performance, not for the life of their athletes. According to historical reports, there were athletes who in the course of the Games killed them- selves in order not to leave their place to an enemy and not to concede defeat. Dion Chrysostomos wrote : «Look at these athletes, how they suffer when they are training, look at their efforts in the face of defeat; but he who dies last, claims victory for himself.» The commentator of Pindar writes that many athletes died before victory, either because they could not endure, despite their great strength, or because they were killed by their adversaries. For the time being, modern training is following in the footsteps of the old athletes, and the most important point is, that it lasts almost all day, and this, as we already have said, requires a complete sacrifice for the sake of athletics.

44 SPORTS TRAINING IN GREAT BRITAIN

BY ALBERT DAVIS MUNROW, B. SC. Director of the Department of Physical Education, University of Birmingham

England is thought of as traditionally the home of sport, yet it has provided relatively few champions or winning teams in recent years, and its provision of technical, books on training does not compare in number with those coming from America, Germany and Russia — to name but a few other countries. The apparent contradiction between our reputation and our per- formance can only be explained by reference to the history of sport in England. It is not the purpose of this lecture to deal with sport histori- cally; but a brief reference will help, not only to explain the contradict- ion we have mentioned, but also to explain some of the background of our recent developments. Games developed in England during the second half of the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth centuries — mainly in the schools and mainly by the boys themselves. They were not at first approved of by teachers, but they were tolerated by overworked schoolmasters in boarding schools because they could not possibly look after the boys all day long, and if the boys played games they were in less trouble and mischief than if they did not. The boys ran the games entirely by them- selves. Later on schoolinasters began to see a value in games more than merely keeping boys out of mischief. But the value they saw was not so much physical as moral. These schools — the so-called Public Schools — were really training leaders. In the games the boys had their first chance to practise leading, selecting teams, giving orders, encouraging and rallying a losing side, and so on. So, although schoolmasters became interested in games, they left the control of them in the hands of the boys themselves. I am not at this moment concerned to argue whether this is a good or a bad thing. The effect of this attitude to games has been that less people have been able to make a profession of coaching or technical study of sport. And, because of the emphasis in the schools on using games for training character, an attitude to games grew up which paid more attention to being courageous or unselfish than being skilful. Ano- ther good example of this attitude to games is that team-games such as football and cricket were much more highly regarded than athletics and tennis, simply because one played for a team and not as an indi- vidual.

45 When the State schools grew up they did not at first play games and when physical education grew up in the state schools — which happened quite late, mostly since 1900 — it took the form of gymnastics, mostly Swedish gymnastics, and the emphasis was on physical develop- ment and health. It was even later (1930 for men) before it was possible to train in England to enter the profession of physical education, and that profession put its emphasis mainly on gymnastics. Things have changed. Athletics are much more highly regarded now in England than they were thirty or forty years ago; the training of physical education teachers contains a much greater proportion of games and sports, and correspondingly less of gymnastics. Specialist coaching in sports has begun to grow, though it is much less highly de- veloped in England than, for example, in Germany and America. But the sort of background which I have briefly sketched has left its mark on our thinking and on our facilities in ways which help to explain, our more recent training developments ; they can be summarised as follows : 1. Besides many thousands who still prefer just to play once a week and forget about their sport for the rest of the time until the next weekend comes round, there are many nowadays who are willing to train perhaps just once a week and want something which offers the maximum of effect in the minimum of time. 2. Many of the people who first became interested in training were, by their own physical education training, more aware of the physio logical effects of exercise than of the possibilities of technical develop ments in the area of particular skills for particular sports. 3. Although England is relatively well provided with grass playing- fields, many of these are at some distance from towns, practically • none floodlit, practically none have any hard practice surface for rainy weather, and mostly they have just minimum changing facili- ties — nowhere for indoor training. 4. In the towns are many very well equipped gymnasia belonging to the schools and often available for hiring at very low costs. These four factors between them have, I believe, helped towards the evolution of a method of training which is now very popular among athletes, rowers, rugby players and footballers, and has also been adapted for use by swimmers, cyclists, climbers and tennis players. Before des- cribing it in some detail I must briefly discuss some of the principles on which it is based. Whatever the sport or skill with which one is concerned, we in England tend to look at it as being composed of four factors.

46 1. Flexibility or range of movement in joints. 2. Muscular strength. 3. Endurance. 4. Skill. The contribution of each of these four factors to any particular sport is very varied. Long-distance running requires, relatively speaking, little skill. The basic running action is all that is required, plus pace judgment and some skill in assessing one's fellow competitors and how they will react to challenge at various stages of a race. Flexibility hardly matters at all, even muscular strength is only a factor of secondary importance. The crucial factor is endurance. Ice-skating by contrast requires less endurance though it requires some. Skill selects itself as thé most important factor, with strength and some special flexibility as secondary, but important secondary factors. The first essential, therefore, of any training programme is that it should contain within itself an accurate assessment of the relative importance of the factors to the sport concerned. The second essential is that the training programme should be related to the individual. I propose to say nothing about this now but to return to it later. General opinion in England would tend to separate the four factors which we have mentioned as follows. Skill, and the particular methods of training for it, we tend to regard as highly individual and specific. There are, I think, some generalisations which can be made, but they are very few and we would regard it as safest on the whole to treat each sport or activity on its own merits. It is difficult in a brief lecture not to be too brief and I am conscious as I write these words that some ge- neral principles have emerged in recent years and been applied outside the sports in which they were developed. Interval methods have been taken from running and applied in swimming; Pressure-training devised in England by Winterbottom for football has been applied in other games. But even when these facts have been considered it still remains substantially true that sports-training in skill is still largely separate for separate sports. Flexibility is quite definitely a factor of minor importance except in a small number of special skills, high-hurdling and swimming, for example. Otherwise it does not need to be taken account of in training more than by a few loosening movements which can be incorporated into a short warm-up period. The factors of strength and endurance, however, have come more and more to be regarded as having a major part to play in improved performance in a whole variety and range of skills from football to shot-

47 putting, from swimming to tennis. What is more, the general principles of training for increased strength and increased endurance are fairly well understood.. The conventional forms of strength-training on the one hand and endurance-training on the other lie at the two extreme ends of a continuum of training-programmes. For strength-development one needs few repetitions of maximal or near maximal local effort, then sufficient rest for the muscles to recover and further repetition. The precise «dosage» of load and repetitions varies; it is to some extent a matter of fashion, to some extent it depends on the precise effects being aimed at. A very generally agreed formula in England and no doubt elsewhere for strengthening exercises is ten repetitions against the ma- ximum resistance which can be overcome for this purpose; rest and then ten repetitions with three-quarter load; a further rest and then ten repetitions with half load. Exercises with weights are the commonest means of performance against resistance. It follows that training sche- dules involve a reasonably long period of resting between repetitions. At the other extreme, endurance training involves no maximal or near maximal effort but some relatively unloaded or completely unloaded movement of a massive nature, which is repeated absolutely without pause for a reasonable length of time, say, ten minutes as a minimum. In this way the training effect is thrown off the local muscu- lature performing the movements on to the cardio-vascular system. The regular form of such training is running. It will be seen that these methods of training, while effective for the particular qualities they aimed to develop, are really mutually exclusive, and furthermore that the second really requires a reasonable area for running — say a running track if training is not to get too boring, and floodlighting if training is to be carried on in the winter evenings. There is one further complication. While some activities require mainly strength, as for example shot putting, and others require mainly cardio-vascular efficiency, as for example long distance running, most sports like football, rowing, swimming require both, and some of the endurance-factor is dependant on good local endurance in the working muscles concerned. Morgan and Adamson working in England at Leeds University devised a system of training which has been well tested now over a number of years and has been proved to be effective. They have given to it the name of Circuit Training and I will now attempt to des- cribe it. Circuit Training consists of a number of sub-maximal but never- theless fairly heavy local body movements, some for the arms, some for the legs, some for the abdominal muscles and others for the muscles of the back. For normal men it is preferable to have weights available

48 for some of the exercises though this is not absolutely essential. I have known of some instances in which loaded rucksacks are carried round the circuit and most of the exercises performed with the rucksack worn on the back. T think if I now describe the way the circuit was first devised it will make it clear what was in the minds of the inventors. In practice the modern circuit has changed rather considerably. Originally each performer needed two testing visits. On his first testing visit he perform- ed, with long rests in between, each of the ten or twelve local movements the circuit was composed, and performed each one to exhaustion and recorded his score. Such exercises might be : 1. Hanging from a bar or beam, bending the arms to touch the head or chin on the beam. 2. Front support position, arm bending and stretching. 3. Support position on the parallel bars, arm bending and stretching. 4. Lying on the back with arms above the head, raising up to touch the toes and going back again. It will be readily appreciated that, if no external weights are used, it is not possible to find many exercises where there is a maximum score which does not run into hundreds or more. In this case the trainee at his first testing session performed the movement as rapidly as he could and the total repetitions in, say, one and half minutes was recorded. By the end of the first training session the performer had recorded a score which was either his maximum or his maximum in, say, one and a half minutes. On his second testing visit, he reminds himself of the exercises he performed and he is then timed performing one third of his scores from the previous session and getting right round the circuit from one exercise to another as fast as he can. Now he is ready in all subsequent visits to perform his training dosage. His target is to perform all his exercises one third of his first recorded performance on each round of his circuit and to aim to complete three circuits in three times the time it took him to do one circuit. As I have said the method of performing circuit-training has changed a good deal since these early efforts but T think it is best at this point to discuss the system and see what merits it has. 1. Because there are heavy local demands on the muscles the training has a strengthening effect. 2. Because it is continued without pause there is considerable load

49 placed on the cardio-vascular system and the training has an endu- rance-effect.

3. Because various muscle-groups are variously employed it is possible to continue working even though the local demands are fairly severe. 4. Each individual sets his own target and the training load is therefore a reflection of his own strengths and weaknesses. 5. The circuit once it is set out in a gymnasium or quite a small room can occupy a number of people following each other round. One can be working with other people — team-mates for example — and yet working on one's own as far as intensity of demand is concerned. 6. Although it is necessary to alternate the muscle groups used, to give something of a resting period, it is possible to vary the actual exercises used so as to favour particular types of development. A circuit for winter training for a rowing club, for example, would have more arm and dorsal work than a circuit for a football club. 7. At about this stage in describing in words what is essentially a practi cal thing, I can feel that I am failing to convey the full value of this work. For instance I feel (a) it sounds very complicated and (b) very dull and boring. It is somewhat complicated and most of the changes in its practice have been to make it simpler. But, for people who want a ready means of training on one night a week in the winter it is apparently not boring. At any rate there are a great many clubs using this form of training now in England and for example once a week in my own department we put out a circuit and it is used by eighty, ninety, even a hundred members of the various teams who come along purely voluntarily to use it. One advantage is that you can please yourself when you arrive and all you need is the time for the competition of three circuits, usually about twenty minutes. Another advantage is that you have some sort of target, you can measure your improvement, and hence get some sense of achievement. The original theory was that once one could complete three circuits in three times the duration of one circuit, one was re-tested in repetitions at each exercises. Obviously one's performance would be likely to have impro- ved and this improved performance set one's new target. In actual fact, while this was true enough, the administrative difficulties of testing and re-testing began to make more work than staff could deal with. What is more, a great number of performers were not that interested in the arithmetic; they would forget their required repetitions or muddle them up, or lose the card on which they were written down.

50 It was soon discovered that the actual range of performance was more or less predictable. Trained staff knew within a little what repe- titions to suggest for a given individual. At my own University we have now a standard circuit and at each exercise there is a card displayed prominently. On it are one suggested number of repetitions in yellow ink; another number, which is larger, is in blue and the highest number is in red. A newcomer to the circuit is usually conducted round the circuit; each exercise and its correct performance is explained to him. He is then advised to go round a couple more times for his first week just to learn the circuit fairly thoroughly. At the next visit the performer is advised to try the yellow circuit, that is perform the repetitions suggested by each yellow number and aim to complete three yellow circuits in twenty minutes. As soon as three yellow circuits are completed in twenty minutes the performer is urged to promote himself to the blue circuit, and finally to the red circuit. Sometimes this represents an impossible task for a particular person of particular physique who may finally settle for the red circuit, but using the blue circuit at exercises 2 and 7, or some such arrangement. It will be seen that the coloured circuit system is far less complicated for the performer. Once the circuit is explained, he has nothing to bother about, he simply looks at the large clock on the wall and sets off on his circuit and follows the coloured instructions. Students who wish for advise or special recommentations know they may come and ask for it. We find it interesting that, on the whole the games players do not bother, they do as they are told and trust that we know what we are doing. Some of the athletes on the other hand modify the circuit and take what they want from it. I do not of course suggest that there is anything magical or specially beneficial about this system of training. It in no way replaces the ne- cessity for skill-training at whatever is the particular activity at which improved performance is required. It does give in a compact form a scheme of training which is at once affecting strength as well as endurance. It can be performed in a relatively small space. Once it is started it does not even need a trained teacher to be present, though it is better if there is one. Each individual can come and go as he pleases, and his only task- master is his own conscience and his own will-power. If any sportsman wants to get fitter and better he will soon find that there is no substitute for hard work. This particular form of hard work is reduced to fairly simple arithmetic and seems to have an appeal to a fairly large group of English games-players and athletes. But there, Englishmen are mad anyway !

51 SPORTS EDUCATION

BY ERNST HIRT Director of the Eidgenössische Turn- und Sportschule Magglingen

«Sport, The Most Important Trifle In The World»; this is the title of Horst Peets little symposium of essays on Sport. «Sport is a world- power» affirmed Alexander Natan in the year 1954. It is a fact that in the comparatively short span of 70 years and without any external compulsion, and also not in the Cold War sport has developed into a major power. In the world of today over 500 mil- lion people practice sport in some form or other. In all countries and to the farthest corner of the earth the world «Sport» makes a suggestive and positive impression on the majority of people. No other phenomenon in world-history has known such a meteoric rise. Sport, «Tops» for the youth of today, came into being in an epoch which favoured its successful development. The industrialization of trade and commerce, the mechanization and standardization of work and human life, have long threatened not only health, but the whole sphere of instinct and irrational strength, which is of the most vital importance for human activity. These imperilled urges rebel involun- tarily, and find in sport their most faithful ally, which helps to conserve and develop their strength in face of the deadly threat of technique and civilisation. What do we really understand by the world Sport, this great revo- lution in our mode of life ? Horst Peets has this to say about it in a succinct essay : — «I asked Mr. Wooderson the Englishman, What is sport' ?» Mr. Wooderson was wearing a hand-woven tweed-jacket. From the left- hand pocket he pulled out a shag pipe and from the right a tobacco- pouch. Then after carefully filling up his pipe Mr. Wooderson began to puff away. «Look here», said Mr. Wooderson, «I am smoking. And now I am •blowing a ring. I love doing that» — «Oh», I said, «That is Sport». «No Sir», replied Mr. Wooderson, «That is nothing at all. But now I stand on Trafalgar Square with three or four friends each of us smoking a pipe and each trying to blow the most beautiful smoke rings» . . . «Now I see», I murmured, «that is Sport». «No Sir», replied Mr. Wooderson «That is still nothing. A lot of spectators begin to gather round, and after a while bets are being laid which of us can blow the nicest smoke rings . . .». «Oh» : I said «That is certainly Sport». «No Sir», returned Mr. Wooderson, «That is still nothing. My friends and I repeat

52 this game, year after year in the same place, and there are always more and more spectators; and it is still the same after fifty years». «Ah», I said, «Now it is Sport». «Yes Sir», answered Mr. Wooderson, «That could be Sport, on the assumption of course that our Queen were present.» I asked Pan Tcherbakow, the Russian : «What is Sport ?» Pan disappeared for a moment, conferred with his escorts, came back at last and handed to me a blue brochure. «You read this, all is in.» To which I answered. «Sorry no time for reading». Pan vanished again, spoke with his escort and at long last returned. «Nix sport», he said. «That is a capi- talist conception; we say Physical Culture». «Very well», I replied, «What is physical culture ?» «Question quite false», said Pan, «You do not say 'what', but, 'how' is physical culture.» «Alright», I replied, «How does one practise physical culture then ?» «Question not good», said Tcherbakow. «Not one — the people practise physical culture. Already quite young. At first we have a pro- ductive plan for the 14-16 years old. Then we have the Alternative plan for the 17-19 years old; you understand either so or so. «Oho», I said. «Either you join in — or ... ?» «Not good» continued Tcherbakow, «either you are a runner or a javelin thrower. Then we have the Activist plan for 20-26 years old . . .» «Aha», I said, «Either you win ten world records, or . . .» «Quite wrong,» replied Tcherbakow. «For that we have a capacity plan. You understand : either so or so or not at all» . . . «As clear as the day,» I said. «But now, what is physical culture ?» Pan Tcherbakow vanished and conferred once again with his escort. However he did not come back. I asked the Frenchman Mr. Grandjean : «What is Sport ?» Mr. Grandjean placed his right foot carefully on the first rung of the Eiffel Tower, gave a glance around him, stuck the thumb of his left hand under his coat lapel and said : «Sport Sir ? That is the Tour de France, Sport Sir, that was Georges Carpentier, Jules Ladoumegue. Sport Sir, that was Suzanne Lenglen, and the Tennis-Musketeers Borotra, Cochet, Lacoste, Brugnone. Sport Sir, that was Marcel Cerdan — a hero. France Sir, voilà, that is Sport !» Just as these three representatives of different nations each ima- gined Sport in his own way, so we should encounter an endless diversity of ideas if we put the question «What is sport ?» to all the active sports- men of the world. Each would give his own personal conception of this international word. Sport is marked by its opposing aspects, which must be attributed to it in almost every department.

53 Sport is without aim, and yet it demands the highest effort; is great exertion and yet means recovery; is specialised ability, and yet procures relaxation and equilibrium; is highest concentration and yet belongs to the realm of play; is the conquest of pain, and yet the experience of pure joy; is renunciation and asceticism, but at the same time the highest pleasure in life; reveals a man's abilities and weaknesses impartially, yet instils self- confidence; is highly dramatic, yet evaporates in itself; is followed on television, radio and in the stadium, with the greatest of interest and excitement by millions of people, yet in the history of the world is of hardly any significance; is experienced by the mind and spirit, yet belongs to the «banal» sphere of the body; is international, knows no barriers of speech, race, age, sex, ideology, or rank, yet gives the greatest depth of experience to the individual; is the most ingenious refinement of scientific technique, and yet remains always a free play of forces; means ruthlessness towards oneself, yet brotherly fairness to the adversary. Sport is an ever-continuing Revolution, a constant revolt against the mechanisation of our being. It is a challenge to the materialism of our days. It is a firm declaration of war against the almost exclusively intellectual scale of values of the world. Sport is the direct opposite of all that is implied by the standardi- sation of our life and trade. It stands also in opposition to the generally accepted opinion that bodily exertion must have an aim in mind, and bring an earned reward. In sport one battles in the sweat of one's brow, e.g. in hazard of the north face of the Eiger, yet without creating anything permanent or remunerative. These indications should be sufficient to prove that what we under- stand by sport may hardly be defined. Therefore we may rightly say that Sport is a phenomenon of our time. Perhaps what we understand by Sport will become more compre- hensive, clear and graphical, if we consider more closely its effect on man and his being. Let us take for instace the adjective «sporting». In my country a person is sporting, when he is healthy, whole- some, young in character, lithe in carriage and movement, when he is positive, decided, and vigorous in his dealings, modest and unpretent- ious in his personal requirements, natural, helpful and considerate in all his dealings with his fellow man. A «sportsman» is thus a personality, formed and trained under the influence of a sporting conception of life. The fact that people have a clear and unequivocal conception of

54 a «sportsman» justifies us in attributing a positive value to sport. Sport cannot of course be valued intrinsically, it is neither valu- able nor worthless, neither good nor bad, neither useful nor useless, neither noble nor vulgar. Sport can be judged only in its relation to man. It lends him support and sets him the task of self-perfection, or on the other hand he allows it to exert a negative and destructive influence upon him. An example which the Olympic Sports of 1936 gave in this respect was exeptionally drastic and illustrates this thesis. At that time two negroes were the focus of interest, on account of their marvellous performance in light athletics. Both were the proud holders of gold medals. A few years later one of. them ended in the gutter of a slum of New York. The other is, still today, a leading light in the public eye. He has the proud and honourable task of organising the sports education and freetime physical culture of the youth of the U.S.A., is a shining example for youth, and has remained the idol of the sporting world : Jesse Owens. This example gives an indication of the two extreme results which can arise from the influence of a sports education. In between there lie many variations and possibilities, in a positive and negative respect. In education, sport is that department which best meets the re- quirements of the infant and the youth. The love of games and the readiness to practise and profit by it is born in man, and remains with him to a ripe old age. In the infant and youth the urge for movement complies with a biological need and reaches its most intensive form bet- ween the ages of 20-30 years. The child and the majority of adults yearn after a real natural existence which today, due to the mechanising of life, is denied to them and is replaced with wireless, cinema and television. The more man finds himself to day assured, protected and secured, the more his nature drives him to the unknown and the adventure of discovery. The modern Welfare State offers hardly any possibility of a risky undertaking, save perhaps at the steering wheel of a car. Every man has within him the yearning and striving after perfect- ion, after the improving of his substance, the increasing of his capacity, the ennobling of his behaviour and bearing. Neither the standardized school nor the fenced-in life in many industrial communities give him enough opportunities to do so. Finally it lies in the nature of man, to escape from time to time and lose himeself in aimless pursuits. The one finds his liberty in artistic creation, the other in games or in dolce far niente. All these needs : — the play-impulse, the urge to movement, the yearning after unadulterated experiences and risky undertakings, the

55 striving for perfection, the desire for truth, and the inclination to aim- less activity, are in no sphere of our life so fulfilled as in sport. Here sport encounters the latent readiness of mankind. This inner readiness, this instinctive abandon of men of all ages gives sport its great chance, which is not to be found in any other sphere of education. The satisfying of this longing procures joy, and makes a lasting impression on the soul. To what extent can sport help us in education '.' It is being gradually recognised that the functional training which is guaranteed in a modern physical cultural education, has a beneficial effect on the natural development of the organs. On the ground of ex- periments, we know today that the whole human apparatus of support and movement is strengthened and consolidated by physical training. In addition interval training helps in a very special way the circu- lation of the blood, the functioning of the heart, the expansion of the lungs, assimilation, as well as the increasing of the alkali reserve in the blood stream. A similar effect on the inner organs, including the glands with their secretion, has been proved. Under normal circumstances, a body in perfect physical training, is healthy, i.e. it possesses enhanced health. Scientists, who are about to undertake a hazardous enterprise, e.g. in the Antarctic, the Himalayas, the depths of the ocean, or plane- tary space, all undergo an intensive physical training usually lasting years. This proves that sports-training plays a decisive role in promoting the growth and functioning of the organs, and in increasing their activity. The task therefore is to endow youth with robust health, substantial reserves of strength, and all-round ability to cope with life. We must also promote suppleness and mobility through physical training. Quick reactions and dexterity are of decisive importance for the man in a car or an aeroplane, in traffic or at work at a machine, for the precision- mechanic or worker in electronics, and for the space-explorer, where the swiftest and most delicate co-ordination is required. Finally, we have enough examples to-day to show that not only strength and skill, but also peaks to performance hitherto held impossi- ble may be attained. The achievements of Paavo Nurini, Gunder Hägg, Fausto Coppi, Emil Zatopek, Sixten Jernberg and Herb Elliot have proved this. The rise in standards since the first Olympic Games in Athens is stupendous. I will mention only that the times of 12 seconds for the 100 m. and 54.4 seconds for the 400 m. races recorded by the winners in the 1896 Olympics, would hardly qualify one for the final in a good secondary school to-day. The achievements of sportsmen as a whole have risen correspondingly. In our Land we have statistics concerning the performance of 19 year-old military recruits. In 1905 the average

56 performance in the 8O m. race was 13.5 seconds, as against 11.2 seconds in 1957. In the long-jump the corresponding figures are 2.85 m. and 4.45 m. Our statistics of military fitness are based on general constitution, anthropometric measurements, organic functioning and physical capa- cities. They give the following as an important factor : that the youth who since leaving school (15 years old), has not done any regular physical training until his 19th year and does not adhere to any sports club (37 %) has a fitness of 75 %, whereas the youth who regularly practises some sort of gymnastics or athletics scores 95 %. With this example we have another proof of the vital role which sport plays in the general fitting-out and building-up of the constitution to confront life, as military fitness means in a certain measure also life- fitness. Health, agility, high records and power of resistance — these are the aims that can be achieved in high measure through sport. We must not fail to mention that sport not only furthers health, but is also a means of recovering more quickly from illness and accidents. He who desires and seeks to elevate his capacities and assure his health through physical culture must also regulate his way of living accordingly. Food, the rhythm of work and repose, especially sleep, are necessary to an athlete. Temperance in all things must be the rule of life. Alcohol and nicotine should be avoided. We regret however to state that, in so far as the abuse of nicotine is concerned, our youth and people in general are still blind to its nefariousness. Many sportsmen are so influenced by the experience of positive health and capacity during the age of high performance that for the rest of their lives their whole being is stamped with it. It is not a rare thing for leading sportsmen to keep their form until over the forties. From almost every country examples can be given. For instance Matthews the English international footballer in spite of his 46 years is still one of the best men that they have. At the last Swiss Confédéral Gymnastic Display in Basle, with almost 40,000 active gymnasts taking part, several hundred of 60 and over exercised with success in their sections. The practice of sport affords the possibility of remaining young in body and spirit, in spite of the flight of the years which no man can stay. It is by no means inevitable that a man will persist in the way of life which a sporting education inculcates. He will adhere to it rigorously only if its experience has convinced him of the value of sport, and only if he possesses the insight, the remorseless logic, and above all the ne- cessary will-power. This means renouncing the many temptations which

57 modern life strews in our way. Among our millions of sportsmen only personalities of rare strength are capable of this discipline. The great advantage of sport as a means of education lies in the fact that it is life itself — pulsating, vigorous, adapted to our nature, and experienced spontaneously. It is therefore the testing-ground of the human make-up. Life is the inner citadel of education. Every individual experiences the decisive forming and strengthening of his character in the struggles of his personal life. In the sporting department of life men develop their powers and individualities. Being an activity closely bound to nature, sport positively thrusts this development upon them. I will mention here a few characteristics developed by sport which modify native egocentricity — devotion, team-spirit, courage, determination, will-power, self-control, toughness towards oneself, single-mindedness in the building-up of performance, perseverance and self-confidence. Team-games foster such attitudes towards fellow-players or the group as submission, co-operation, devotion to the common good and bridling of the individual will, even helpfulness and consideration to- wards opponents. Sportsmen must observe the rules in this spirit if they are to enjoy the fullest experience of sport. We must now ask how far the powers and virtues schooled on the testing-ground of sporting education stand up to rough reality, i.e. how far the code of conduct of sport can be applied to life ? This question is not so easy to answer as those on biological topics. But we dare not shut our eyes to developments in modern sport which give cause for grave concern. I have particularly in mind the current slave-trade in football, the decline in morality in certain circles caused by money-making in sport, and last but not least the misuse of sport as political propaganda. And now to return to our question. Is the Olympia-winner who has the courage to make a Ski-Jump and soar freely through the air capable of displaying the same courage in the face of a superior, and of protesting to political authorities, when there is a question of injustice ? Would the winner of the high jump, who displayed such confidence on that day in the Stadium in Rome 1960, possess the same self-confidence if he were called upon to address a meeting of important personalities ? And the footballer who passes the ball to his right or left man that he may score the goal, even though he himself is in a good position to do the same, does he show the same spirit of fair play and unselfishness towards his fellowman in private life ? In this sphere we are — like Pestalozzi — left to our belief in the Good in Mankind. Only this assurance allows us to believe in the purport and worth and the continuance of education. Pedagogues who have not

58 this firm belief implanted in their breasts are working on barren soil. Sporting education, the pedagogical possibilities of which we affirm, must have a formative influence upon the smallest of communities, the family, then on the sport circle or club, on the workshop, on the commu- nity and finally on the folk and State. Sandringham, the English Public School goes so far as to teach to its students the following prayer derived from sport : — Teach me, oh Lord, to observe the rules of the game; to be modest, and when adversity faces me not to protest; Help me to discern the glitter from the gold; Deafen mine ears that they may not hear cheap praise; And preserve me from giving out the same; If it be Thy Will that I have to suffer then give me the necessary . grace to bear it nobly and silently; Teach me to conquer if it give me strength. And if I am not to prevail (above all) give me the power to bear my defeat nobly and proudly with submission. In the cradle of sport, people breath the spirit of sport and fair play. Every visitor to old England is impressed by the attitude of fair- ness and consideration towards others of the Englishmen, in the pub, in the trains, in the theatre queues, the buses, on the sports field, and today we can say with all fairness, in the political field. She has shown to the whole world what her people, raised in the spirit of sport, liberty and freedom of thought and movement can suffer and achieve. By the same token, we can also take the example of the Finns, who in spite of their comparatively small number, before the Second World War were considered as the greatest sports-people among the free nations that the world had ever known. This great people, with their heroic strength, in part attained by the practice of sport, held in check and quite alone, the biggest military power of all times. They solved the problems arising from their everlasting battle against communism, also alone. The Finns and the English have a firm belief in the inner strength obtained through physical exercise. We shall not and may not be behind them in this belief. There remains also the question to be answered, how a physical education can be fashioned in order to have a positive influence on human morals. In the West and middle of Europe only slight importance is given to sport at school and in other educational centers. Even though in Middle Europe the scholar of the higher forms has hardly fewer hours

59 at his desk than a worker at his day's work, the school devotes only two hours per week to sport or physical culture. As long as the daily physical exercise remains a distant aim then the heart attack remains a near one, so says Carl Diem. So the first step towards an adequate sports education is to convince the people and the government of the vital importance of it so that the required time and means may be made available and that sport may be given its educational recognition in the State. Physical education adapts itself in matter, form and intensity to the age and sex, as well as to the inclination and disclination of the scholar. Schools sports must offer the child and youth in general, fresh, impressionable, and positive experiences. Awaken their pleasure in . achievement, and of course ensure progress. Physical culture must tighten the bonds with Nature and be carried out in the spirit of freedom and liberty. Only on these conditions can the flame be planted in youth, which will bring it without any doubt, to choose sport as its life's companion. There is an old English saying : «The child is father to the man». «Awaken the impulse for work in the pupil, and allow free work in groups», this is the demand which education in general makes of the school to-day. These different postulates are however not yet realised in many places of Middle Europe. When we look back upon the goal, the path, and the possibilities of a sports-education, and carefully consider all, we are unfortunatley obliged to admit that we are still a long way off from our ideal. We are still further aw.ay than were the inhabitants of this beautiful country, this Olympic earth, more than two thousand years ago. We are gathered together here, in this venerable place , in quest of possibilities, mutually considering and weighing them; possibilities which are to help towards the unfolding of a better world where man may live in freedom and dignity. We believe in sport and its great worth and value. In training for sport and education through sport all possibilities are to hand. The contribution of sports-education can only be obtained when energetic personalities trained in the sporting spirit, willing and ready fighters, are prepared to take up the banners of a noble cause-sport pedagogues who, like the prophets, are ready to fare forth as torch- bearers lighting the way to a new world. You, my young friends, you have been chosen. This call however requires of you self-denial and readiness to sacrifice. «He who ventures nothing, wins nothing».

60 PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AND ADVICE ON TRAINING

By Prof. Dr. OTTO MISANGYI former Director of the College of Physical Education, Budapest

Let us begin with the observation that although the many-sided and complex activity of training and competition in sport is carried out with the body, it has its roots in the soul. Here are its deep sources and instinctive drives. Such drives, to name only a few, are aggression, ambition, the urge to high performance and the satisfaction in attaining it, the attempt to compensate for defects, the impulse to imitate notable sportsmen, family-, school-, and national tradition, comradeship, idealism, the hankering after adventure and after mastery over one's own body (always sources of joy and satisfaction to athletes). I would further point out in this introduction that physical processes during competition are transferred to psychic levels, and that performance in competition is, to a degree of which we scarcely have an inkling, an affair of mind and psyche. It is therefore evident that bodily training and exercise can by itself scarcely lead to the goal. The trainer's task is therefore educational, and is inconceivable without spiritual co-opera- on, since body and soul form and inseparable unity. Let us first of all describe some characteristic elements of contest- efficiency, in order to show afterwards how these can then be included in the preparations for the contest. To give an example, in teaching the psychology of sport, the imagina- tion of movements is mentioned right in the beginning; by this we mean a picture in the mind of movements already seen (in nature, in fancy, in pictures, drawings etc.,), but not actually seen any longer. Without imagination there is really no movements, and imagination creates a kind of ideal pattern of the real action. The significance of the imagination of movements lies in the fact that it leads to a conso- lidation and precise fixation of the nervous and sensory connections. This is tantamount to saying that these imaginative pictures have an important influence on a better performance on the coming, real move- ments. This favourable effect has been proved by experiments. Furthermore, consecration is desired, and what is actually meant by it is a kind of inner composure, a «Be-by-oneself». It is an increased tense, attention which is combined with the readiness of the muscles to be put to use. In order to produce great achievements, competitors must be able to keep from themselves all disturbing outside influences which may approach them.

61 Any trainer in a big club, or any national coach, can collect useful lessons as to the decisive part by feelings during a contest. Only a few should be mentioned here : Self-Confidence, on the basis of a diligent and correctly built-up training. It is an important aim of the trainer to increase the athlete's confidence in himself and in his own abilities. A small degree of self- confidence will lower the energy and seal off the psychical sources of power. Hope, on the basis of good achievements so far, and of successes scored in earlier contests. Enthusiasm, sometimes an unheard of devotion to the colours of the Club and, above all, to the national flag. Comradeship and team- spirit. (That actually is the social feeling of the Sports-man and of the player, and is, in an ethical-psychical way, its finest revelation). Team- spirit is a wonderful thing, whereby we gladly integrate ourselves in an organized body, voluntarily subordinating our individualities to the whole. We want to completely adapt ourselves to our partners. We desist from our personal success and we have a reciprocal, unlimited, confidence and trust; we are convinced that our comrades are inspired by the same mentality. Noble ambition and Courage. This latter is re- quired when the competitor has been unsettled, and may lose his grip, or faces unknown dangers. Joy is an essential driving force in psychic life. Even in the Bible, there is much talk of the heart's joy. Joy in Greek is «Chara». Chara, however, has a much more comprehensive meaning than the word joy. In it there is something inspiring, enrapturing, and jubilant. We will also mention feelings of tension (excitement just before the start), feelings of release of tension (after reaching the goal, and after a success,) mood, or overall feeling and emotions ; all these play an immensely important part. All are typical elements of psychic life, and play a big part in the psychology of sports, above all, because the will - this is perhaps the most important psychic function for the fighter in a contest-is built on feelings. The positive feelings of joy are the beautiful side of sport. They lure and attract young people. Sports-trainers must have the gift of quickening these feelings in their pupils. If they have, they will win youth over to sport for all time. The feelings just mentioned are positive feelings, but there are also those with a negative effect, as for instance fear, shock and inhibiti- ons which have an equally great influence on efficiency during a contest. (Examples : a big crowd, superiority of the opponents, predictions by

62 newspapers, an exaggerated feeling of responsibility in the case of Euro- pean championships and in particular at the Olympic Games, outer track in 400-m racing, jump-off bar, the edge of the circle when putting the weight, etc.) It is a secret and, at the same time, a miracle of human nature that feelings have an immediate effect on the course of movements, either hindering or helping them. We may imagine, therefore, how important it is to understand this relationship. Any runner, half-back, cyclist, swimmer and rower feels exactly what will-power is— even when perhaps he cannot define it exactly. All active sportsmen know that will-power is a very important factor in achieving victory. It is fair to say that out of several athletes with the same pre-requisites, equal preparation and equal training-conditions, the one who possesses more and tougher will-power will succeed in the contest. All sports-trainers must know that prior to an action of the will, opposed feelings are struggling with each other inside ourselves (consci- ously or unconsciously); the positive result of this struggle is the act of willing, and its strength is will-power. Favourable and furthering factors are: the fighting spirit, desire for success, comradeship etc. By contrast the following have an unfavour- able effect: dislike, fear, disinclination, vacillation, whimsicality, lack of determination, lack of interest and other similar factors. Here we are dealing with a psychic faculty which by harnessing favourable feelings and positive motives in the interest of a sporting action helps on to victory. We could also say : it is the psychic ability to decide on the grounds suitable motives in favour of certain actions. We know well from experience that the rhythm of movements is, in many disciplines, of the greatest importance, and that a maximum efficiency- can only be obtained with a natural individual rhythm. The rhythmic formation of movements facilitates physiological work and thus permits an improvement of efficiency. The reason is to be found in the fact that through a rhythm which sets free pleasant feelings the effects of fatigue are delayed and the otherwise necessary impulses partly become superfluous. Attention and will are eased. Here we have also the psychic source of efficiency. To estimate correctly the opponents in an 800 m-race, or in a cycle-race over several kilometres, in order to choose the right moment for an attack, generally speaking, to know exactly what is to be done, in that we are able correctly to weigh, judge, consider and to make the right decision, -in one word : to think - all these things are further examples to show that efficiency in a contest is not alone a matter of

63 the activities of the heart and of the muscles, but also a matter of mind and soul. Further examples of the thinking activities of both the sports- trainer and his pupils are : - describing, transcribing, comparing, dif- ferentiating, analysing, summarising (synthesis) movements to be carried out; grasping inner connections, recognizing cause, effect, purpose, inner motives. These are all of decisive importance in preparation for the contest. Also under this heading come: - the acquisition of movement-skills, the process of learning, the memory of movements and the recollection of movements, the basic principles of learning. When examining the psychological factors listed above, we can immediately see - and all sports trainers and training instructors must be aware of this fact - that they are all interwoven, that they are working together in close connection with each other. That means the psyche not only acts by concentrating, feeling, willing, thinking, observi- ing etc., but expresses itself in whole chains of these activities. Therefore, we must always be aware that all those elements which we hear, in our lecture, separate from each other, are actually united in the psyche. If we are to take account of these psychological factors, and include them in the preparations for the contest, we must know exactly which psychological type we are training. There are in general two main types. For instance, with respect to imagination: the first type has the ability for overall perception, for the entire course of a movement; the second type is capable only of partial perceptions. In the case of concentration we differentiate: 1. The reliable, stea- dy, conservative, attentive type. 2. The type who is able to concen- trate himself quite well for a time, then however, all of a sudden, sees too many, superfluous unknown things, and slackens. He is the unsteady fluctuating type. We speak of static and dynamic attention when concentrating. As for the feelings we have, : 1. The constantly steady type. 2. The emotionally unstable type. •Interesting are the groupings which we can set up when it comes to thinking : 1. The creative type. 2. The imitative type. Or another grouping which refers to thinking : 1. The quick-thinking and speedily grasping type. He immediately grasps new situations, orientates himself quickly and comprehends speedily. Associations at once occur to him. 2. The slowly grasping type with whom comprehension etc. takes so long, that it becomes too late for him to be able to act in the right manner. To us, as leaders and future leaders, the fixing of types on the strength

64

Avery Brundage. President of the I.O.C. (left) with Prof. Carl Diem, at the Zeus Temple.

John Ketseas, member of the I.0.C. for Greece, Cl. Palaeologos (Greece) deputy Curator and Prof. Otto Misangyi (Switzerland) attending the lectures. (From left to the right).

Prof. Carl Diem lecturing in the open-air amphitheatre. In the background the Sacred Altis.

The newly ereavated Olympic Stadium of physical structure, psychical disposition — character — the way he moves - the rhythm of his movements and his ability to react is of an overall extraordinary importance. This fixing becomes of enormous importance, when we take into consideration that between the types of various spheres certain connections exist, that any type of physical structure has its own constant type of character accordingly. For whom can this question be more interesting than for the trainer, who has to build up his whole training on the knowledge of the particular qualities of his trainees. He has to weld together his teams out of the most different individual types. To him it is vital to know the above- mentioned connections. Only in this way can he find the key to success. Otherwise he is likely to fail. It is quite obvious that one's attitude is pedagogically different, if one knows that one has to deal, for instance, with a well-balanced athlete of strong will-power or with a disharmonious type burdened with complexes. The following grouping of athletic types is interesting to make : 1. The fighting type. 2. The steady type. 3. The stylist. 4. The unsteady type, full of restraints. 5. The star. * * * No type deserves to be given priority over the other in any respect — each type has its advantages and disadvantages, — and all of them are in need of education and improvement. The task of education (that also means the work of the trainer) is to develop the good sides of tempe- rament and character, to fight against extremes and also to show regard for the individuality of the sportsman. The sports-teacher must in no way give preference to those whose temperament and character are pleasing to him personally — which is often the case —, he must try to lead all of them to perfection.

* * Now, let us see a few examples of how the different types should be treated in preparation for the contest — and even in the last minute from the physical side — by the trainer. When watching movements we draw the athlete's attention to these facts : 1. He should advance with his aim clearly in mind. 2. He must be systematic.

65 3. He must repeat the movements tirelessly in order to fix them in his memory. 4. It is indispensable that his observation is accompanied by compa risons. Without comparing observations a deeper comprehension of the movements seen is hardly possible. As for the method, it is right to watch the movement at first in its entirety, and to try. only after wards, to analyse the individual parts. Even in the latter case, one should never lose sight of the whole movement. We always try to recognize the connections of the individual parts of the movements. One could observe also from the view point of economy or of rhythm. Let us now see which mistakes occur, for instance, with concentra- tion : 1. It is applied too early, so that the athletes become fatigued through too long lasting tension. 2. The athletes often turn their attention to trifling matters and thus scatter it. 3. Concentration occurs as a result of compulsion. Advice alone is of course of little use, when a correct, spontaneous readiness does not exist on the part of the athlete. Training instructors cannot bring any athlete to concentration, if he lacks determination and makes no effort to achieve it. . . The feelings of athletes can be influenced by the trainer. For ins- tance in the case of start-fever and stage-fright prior to the contest or game. Whether someone is excessively excited by an important event is dependent on temperament, character, mind, intellect. In the majority of the cases, it is therefore an in-born matter. These characteristics can however gradually be adapted to the situation with the help of the trai- ner. It is essential that the athlete finds the right attitude to the contest. He cannot alter the fact of the contest, but he can alter his attitude towards it and thus lessen the burden on his nerves. But what is this desirable attitude ? I should say — and this is my personal opinion — that he should not take excessively seriously something which by its very nature cannot be the main thing in life, and ought not to be even a vital thing. The trainer should remind the athlete that even the biggest contest must not lose the character of play. Certainly, one must strive for victory with all one's strength, but not at any price. For though victory is fine, the noble comradely contest is finer still. He who can discover the true meaning in game and contest, and can accept victory merely as a wel- come gift, will carry lesser nervous burdens, do what is possible more calmly, and give of his best with greater certainty. He will therefore

66 THE HALTERES-JUMP

By Dr. ERICH LINDNER Director of the Institute of Physical Education of the University of Marburg on the Lahn

As long as people in modern times have been dealing with Greek gymnastics — in studying old writings or in observing and interpreting works of art, there has been, with regard to the Greek Pentathlon a controversial and hitherto unsolved question, that is : the use of hal- tères by Greek athletes when jumping. It may, under the impression of the great sports successes in the most recent past, appear less important to investigate the Greek jump, especially as the use of haltères holds no promise of any advantage for technique and for increasing efficiency. Yet we are of the opinion that this question is an essential one, because it will not only serve the pur- pose of clarifying Greek gymnastics, but may also hold in store some gains for the modern knowledge of movement. In our opinion, research, as far as the knowledge of movement is concerned, has so far yielded no fruit, because it did not go beyond arbitrary interpretations and assumptions, instead of contributing through practical experiment to a clarification of the question of making use of haltères. Reviewing the literature of the last 100 years the neces- sity of such experiment will be confirmed. To afford a first idea of the use of haltères I will review the relevant literature briefly. I will follow with a report of our own investigations, which were experimental and provide material for discussion. The ex- perimental results will provide material for discussion. The experimental results will then be completed by a physical analysis, so that both from practical experience and from theory an answer to the question of the use of the haltères is to be expected. Our knowledge about jumping as an exercise in the contest of the old Greeks has been derived from the following sources : from works of art, both representing and describing, and from the archaeological findings at the places of the contests. It is astonishing that although they figure prominently in visual art, so little has been said by Greek narrators and poets on the question of jumping and its technique. As the most important sources, again and again, quotations from Philo- stratos, Aristoteles and Pausanias are cited. The only certain thing we learn is that jumping was one of the exercises included in the Pentathlon and that it was carried out with the help of haltères.

69 Examining the literature which has dealt with the halteres-jump during the last 100 years we had to find out that only seldom has there been made any clear-cut statement on the value of the use of haltere- which has been supported by experiments. What we do find in discus- sions of this question are mostly arbitrary and emotional interpretations which do not justify any final and conclusive answer. While during the last century, prejudiced by the excessive admiration for all Greek gymna- stics, enthusiastic interpretations of the original material can be found, in more modern times we find a remarkable reserve and caution in the interpretation of what had been handed down to posterity. What signi- ficance have the haltères for efficiency in jumping ? Under this aspect we will now have a look at the literature dealing with this topic, and we will present those statements which appear to us in particular essential and informative, in all their abundance and colourfulness. and also in their controversies. On the execution of the jump as exercise in the Greek Pentathlon contest, at first, Krause has given us a very informative and detailed report. In evaluating the jump as a whole and in particular in the eva- luation of the haltères as auxiliary instruments for the jump, he referred to Aristoteles, according to whom throwing with the arm, burdened With stones, has a less tiring effect than throwing with an empty arm, that jumping with a burden is better than without it, because the haltères give a greater swing and because they serve the body, when jumping up and coming down, so to speak, as supporting points. That apart, the haltères create a certain balance, in that they train and strengthen upper parts of the body which are neglected when jumping without weights. Already with Krause we find descriptions of a variety of differently formed haltères. These many forms lead to the conclusion that they were often used. They are seen as an attribute of the Pentathlon-compe- titor. The haltères are described in some places as «swimming springs of the jump» and in other places as «support of the body». The use of them had been calculated in accordance with the laws of physics. For our experiments a book by Wassmannsdorff, is very interesting. In it the author deals with the question whether or not dumb-bells are help- ful when jumping. With the sound scepticism of an expert, Wassmann- dorff turns against all unfounded mere assumptions, while he himself makes experiments in order to be able to judge from his own experience on the use of the haltères. These experiments in the «Berliner Central- turnanstalt» concerned jumps of the most different kind (high, low, wide, forward and backward) of which in particular the results of the jumps with dumb-bells are of importance.

70 At first, Wassmannsdorff found: «Some people jump further with dumb-bells, others jump better without them.» With particular reference to the long-jump, we find the following statements: «All people recognize furthering affect through the swing of the dumb-bells.» Obviously, these jumps must have been standing jumps for Wassmannsdorff says a little later when dealing with running jumps: «With running jumps the support by the dumb-bells might be most questionable.» F. A. Lange attempts in a detailed description to do justice to the characteristics of the Greek haltères jump. The jump is being presented as a physical exercise which «in the characteristic Greek way makes demands on the whole body, simultaneously and equally, and which also demands the highest degree of elasticity and sudden response of almost all muscles». The significance of the haltères, and their effective principle, is recognized to consist in the possibility of changing the balance, especially right after jumping, off, and shortly before landing. According to Pinder, jumping is the first and the most difficult exercise in the Greek Pentathlon. We find in his work about it a rather exact description of the various forms of haltères. For the jump, in Pinder's opinion, only those weights were used whose handles were so fixed, that the front part was bigger. Thereby a certain balancing effect was created. In great detail, Pinder deals with the representations of jumpers through pictures on vases. But he expressly points out that many a picture on vases showing movements with haltères must not directly lead to the conclusion that it is necessarily a picture of a jumper; for the haltères were also used for other gymnastic and training purposes. In the representation of the jumpers, however, Pinder does not find the jumping-off-phase in the classical pictures. In order to clarify the question of the use of the haltères, Pinder caused relevant experiments in the «Berliner Centralturnasntalt» during which he himself was present. We only learn that the jumps were made easier by throwing forward the arms with the dumb-bells, but that, equally so, they are rendered more difficult by throwing the haltères backward. Citing also the statements by Grasberger, Jäger, Richter, Jüthner, Hachtmann, Schröder, Mezö, Gardiner, Vogt, Mehl, Curtius, and Saurbier we conclude that in the question of the use of haltères there is no unity and that, on the contrary, the most contradictory statements stand side by side and one against the other. This lack of clarity is due, on the one hand, to a lack of cooperation on the part of philologist, archeologist and of experts on movement, on the other hand, it is due to the un- critical acceptance of statements without confirmed records We thus see from studying the relevant literature that all possible

71 interpretations and arbitrary corrections do not contribute tu a clarifica- tion of this question, and, we cannot find, in the reports about jumping experiments dud special performances, exact results and exact defini- tions. Also the recording of negative results in experiments with haltères would be essential to us. The only common statement we can take from this literature is that the haltères were being used for jumps in the classical contests, and that they, beyond that, were considered as a general attribute of the Pentathlon competitor. Whereas the last century, in its enthusiasm for Greek gymnastics, was not open to a critical judgement, the reports of the last twenty or so years show reservations and the tendency to critical checking of what has been handed down to posterity.

JUMPING EXPERIMENTS I now report on our practical jumping experiments, which we made between November 1953 and December 1954. For these jumping experiments we employed altogether 58 test persons. They belong to the following groups, which are quite different as far as their training in jumping technique is concerned: 1. Students (male), 2. Students (female), 3. Athletes (for certain more vigorous forms of athletics), 4. Pupils, 5. Sports teachers, 6. Primary teachers (both male and female). The first aim we had in mind was to get a first insight into the process of movements when jumping with weights. The point at issue was to ascertain efficiency differences between jumping with and without weights. In November 1953, we began with jumping in the hall and we dealt, to begin with, with the standing jump. According to statements which have reached us through literary reports the weights of the haltères which have been found ranged between 4 and 9 (German) pounds. We have also varied their weight. As weights for the jumps we used dumb-bells of between 3-9 (German) pounds. With all these experiments on standing jumps we got the result that people increase their leaping range when using weights, and we thus found Wassmannsdorff's reports on his experiences confirmed. We then went over to running jumps. We chose a run-up of 9 steps (rhythm of nine). Later experiments showed, however, that a shorter run-up is of greater advantage for the first training in jumping with weights. For running-jumps we used dumb-bells of 3 (German) pounds. Here, too. it was found out later that for the initial training these weights were too heavy. On each day of the experiments, jumps were made with

72 and without weights in order to enable efficiency comparisons. That is not necessarily useful for the attitude towards the weights. In training jumps with weights, one would have to work only with weights. Some- times, changes were made several times, i.e. at first, jumps with weights, then jumps without weights, and then again jumps with weights. In order to disturb the jumpers as little as possible in their usual process of movements, the weights chosen, as compared with the experi- ments during the winter 1953, were considerably lighter. They were of only 1/2 (German) pound and 1 (German) pound. They had been manu- factured in such a way that they could be buckled on to the hand, and thus did not need to be held fast. Most test persons had, at the beginning of the experiments, the idea that the weights could not be of any advantage for the leaping-range. It has been proved that technical advice to the persons referring to the handling of the weights is not suitable. The test persons attention was drawn to the fact that they should jump, without paying any particular regard to the weights, and without any special intention in their use; they should jump exactly as when doing their normal jumps. We consider a good training in the run-up with weights to be help- ful for the haltères jump, because, by so doing, it is easiest to become accustomed to the burdening of the arms and to the right coordination between the work of the arms and that of the legs. We had not always the time to lead our test persons in this way to the jump. In most cases, however, we asked the test-persons prior to and between the individual jumps to accustom themselves to the movement situation by running with the weights. We gave the advice to our test-persons not to mind the take-off board, but to jump off independently of it. By measuring the leaping range from the tip of the foot when jumping off up to the heel when landing, we were able to exclude a factor of uneasiness, and a cause for an intentional steering of movement during the flying start. In the following weeks, for a better adaptation to the weights, experiments with a short run-up were carried through. We furthermore invited a group of athletes (for certain more vigorous forms of athletics) to our experiments. We believed that the constitution of these men came close to the physical structure of the Greek Pentathlon competitor. This group of athletes does not in general practice the lighter forms of athletics, they prefer, in summer, putting the shot and throwing the hammer. So these test persons were not preliminarily trained in jumping nor did they posess a particular technique in the sphere of running or jumping. A strongly-built upper part of the body and well- trained arms constituted, nevertheless, a good pre-requisite for our

73 experiments, and to them the handling of weights was no obstacle either during the run-up or when taking off. They quickly accustomed them- selves to the weights ,and we were able, in the case of several test persons, even to increase the burdening of the hands by 1 (German) pound up to 4 (German) pounds. With the test group of these (heavy) athletes we achieved the most favourable results of our series. A decisively new point of view for the experiments came from the inclusion of juveniles, to whom theoretical considerations and an inten- tional handling of the weights were completely unknown; who, so to speak, approached the experiments totally unprejudiced. We selected a class of primary school-boys and girls of the age between 14-15 years. We had the favourable opportunity to test them in the framework of the «Boundesjugendspiele» (Games for the youth of the Federal Republic). About some 70% of the test-persons jumped, with weights of 1/2 (German) pound, further than in the contest. None of the test-persons felt that the weights were a burden or a disturbing obstacle during the run-up or when taking off, but many were astonished and enthusiastic about the improvement in their efficiency. We also dealt with the question whether and how short-distance racing is being influenced by the weights. We used distances of 50 m, 100 m and 400 m. The steps marked themselves very distinctly by the nails of the spikes. The running was carried out with command-start and on time, with and without weights. Although a weight of only 1 (German) pound was used, it had to be assumed that on the 50 m distance a distinct difference in time was to be noticed. As a matter of surprise, there were only very slight differences. Thus; when running over a distance of 100 m, only 1/10—2/10 were recorded as loss of velocity. Let us keep in mind that in contrast to the numerous free jumps which each test person has already carried out, there is only a very small number of jumps with weights; thus the already mentioned results should prove that it is possible to increase the leaping range, under certain conditions, by weights. It is also to be assumed, that, when continuously practising, and that is only with weights, the efficiency would even become still very much greater. One will also have to take consideration with the jumps: If the delicate inner movements of a person, experienced in contests, are influenced and prejudiced by weights from outside, also a physical and physiological impediment cannot be excluded. LIGHT - TRAIL In order that we might be able to present findings which were exact and susceptible of optical examination, we also investigated the long-

74 jump with the aid of a light-trail. With the standing long-jump we found that a long and shallow forward swing brings the haltères into a favour- able position. From there the downward-and-backward swing begins. 1. The body is lifted, and because of its inclined position is pulled forward. 2. A rotation is imparted to the body, which brings the feet into a higher position and pushes them forward. In the halteres-jump the function of the weighted arms is decisive; we therefore investigated this arm-movement more closely and came to the following conclusion : A well-timed two-arm forward swing is the best way to get results with the haltères, not only in the standing-jump but also in the running- jump. After the take-off and the snatch movement the arms are brought forward into the forward-high position. In this highest point of the curve of flight their potential energy, deriving from the forward and high position, is used up in a vigorous arm-swing. We made the following observation about the use of the weights in the running-jump : — the weights can only be of use if they perform a dynamic function of their own. Now let us look at the following light-trail pictures; the contact- prints show in Figure 1 a jump with weights and in Figure 2 a jump without weights. In figure 3 we show the light-trails of both jumps in enlarged simul- taneous projection for purposes of comparison. The continuous lines refer to the jump with weights and the dotted lines to the jumps without weights. Now let us look at the individual lines. The hand-line of the jump with weights remains comparatively flat, but reaches its culmination much further forward than in the jump without weights; i.e. the weights first come far forward and are then swung energetically downwards and back. This arm-swing imparts a certain lift to the centre of gravity, as we see from the hip-line. The hip-line is also flatter in the jump with weights than in the jump whithout weights. After its culmination it re- mains for a time almost horizontal. But its subsequent decline is signi- ficantly slighter than in the jump without weights. The decisive advantage of the use of weights is to be seen in the foot-line. In the jump with weights the foot-line begins to climb afresh in the middle owing to the arm-swing, reaches its culmination further forward than in the jump without weights, and therefore also ends further forward. Thus the light-trail investigation also confirms that the weighted arms impart a forward push and an upward lift to hips and

75 legs. These two factors result in an advantageous landing position and in the attainment of a greater distance.

PHYSICAL ANALYSIS Our experimental investigations and results will now be supple- mented and supported by a physical analysis. Let us first follow how the use of the weights alters the position of the centre of gravity and thereby ensures an advantageous landfall and landing-technique. If the juniper moves the weights downwards during flight to hip- level, the body is lifted relative to the centre of gravity. The lifting of the centre of gravity results in a deeper landfall; the Centre of Gravity Theorem enables us to calculate that for a jump of about 5.50 m. this results in a gain of about 4 cm. When we consider that the jump-weights can be carried even lower than hip-level the advantage becomes even greater. Incidentally we must remark that the advantages of displacing the centre of gravity were well known to the Greeks, at least from practice, for they made haltères in such a shape that they protruded beyond the hand in the high and low positions. When the arms are brought from the forward-high position into the backwards position, the body is correspondingly thrust forward relative to the centre of gravity; the length of jump is thereby increased by about 3 cm. A further important factor for increasing the length of jump is given by the rotatory movement of the weighted arms, which in the second phase of the jump swing from the forward-high position into the downward-back position. This arm-movement imparts a counter-rotation to the body, and thereby puts it into a more favourable landing-position. As one can imagine, the rotation not only increases the depth of landfall by a certain amount, but also brings the feet a bit further forward. If we assume an angle of rotation of 1890 for the arms, we can calculate from the Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum that this arm-movement will impart a counter-rotation of 11° to the body around the common centre of gravity. This rotation of the body betters the jump by 13 cm. We thus obtain the following overall-result: — the increase in the length of jump through the influence of the weights amounts to 20 cm. Without wishing to attach too great a significance to the figures them- selves, their correspondence with the results obtained in the jumps re- mains worthy of emphasis. It also seems important to us that when the standing and running-jumps with haltères are analysed by means of

76 physical laws the same factors become manifest which wen» already apparent clearly in. the light-trail photographs.

INTERPRETATION Our investigations should serve the purpose of clarifying the techni- que of Greek jumping: We are now on the position, on the strength of the knowledge gained, to say a concluding word about the classical haltères jump. It will not be very informative to try to evaluate the individual picture in every technical detail. In spite of this, the pictures taken are collectively of great informative value, for, from the constantly reappearing characteristics we can see essential motives of this Greek contest. In most representations, be it of the run-up, the moment of ta- keoff, or a preliminary gymnastic exercise, the arms remain stretched and parallel. The parallel movement of the haltères with stretched arms is also in accordance with our own experiments. It can be conclu- ded however that the run-up was not too speedy. Let us now also consider the reports of literature. The well-known, rather pre-scienlific and emotional reasons for the suitable use of the haltères coincide with our own experience. The effective factors of the haltères, mentioned in this literature are: «Steering», «secure lead of the arms», «Swing jumps». They appear to anyone who makes experiments of his own as thoroughly correct. The haltères are an invention of the Pentathlon competitors. Only the Pentathlon competitors with their characteristic strength in both legs and arms were in a position to make this invention which certainly was of an extraordinary importance for the classical contest: The less the speed of the run-up was decisive for the leaping range, --and we have no reason to assume that with the Greeks the run-up, its length and the condition of the ground were ideal for sports -, the more the work of the arms and of the upper parts of the body must have been decisive for the leaping range. One may, therefore, describe this halteres jump of the Greeks, because of the diversity of the tasks which it presents, in coordination and in the total employment of the whole body of the athlete, as being a «Multiple- contest» ("Mehrkampf") itself. And thus we can say in conclusion: On the strength of experiments made and of theoretical investigation, supported by the facts which became known to us from classical literature and from picture material, it may be considered as proved that the Greek Pentathlon competitor did achieve a greater leaping range haltères than without them.

77 OLYMPIC LITERATURE

Its Importance for the intellectual basis of physical exercises in our time By Prof. Dr. JOSEF RECLA Institute for Physical Education of Graz-University, Austria

In literature of and about physical exercises the Olympic Idea finds its expression in all its liveliness and its purity. This fact goes for the whole literature which has the intellectual basis of physical exercises for its topic — regardless of the language in which it is written. It is a delightful thing that the initiator and creator of the Olympic Academy which is formed at the outset of the classical games, Rector Prof. Dr. Carl Diem, has also included literature in his programme. Thereby the depth and unity of the timeless Olympic Idea, which besides the noble contest in the stadium also comprises the arts, has been intentionally emphasized. In our present time we have a high opinion of physical exercises — it is in line with the Olympic Idea : Physical exercises are a cultural factor, a pleasing means of forming and binding together. By means of gay and inspirited physical exercises we intend to form and to train the human being, to achieve the harmonic unfolding of the human being who masters life. Joy, spontaneity and freedom are the bases of vivid physical exer- cises in gay company. In an era of technical development each man needs movement in order to remain healthy, to develop himself and in order to be able to master life. Physical exercises to-day concern everybody. Sports in all its variety and with all its accompanying values offers to everyone — without regard for his occupation — the possibility of stepping out of of the uniformity and monotony of his life; he can be somebody in sports, he can play out his personality. The importance of physical exercises for the further development of culture has also in the academic sphere been recognized and emphasized : Our present universities have included physical exercises in their research programmes. Numerous universities in Europe and in America — —- have established lectures — and even professorial chairs for physical exercises. There is thus the possibility to-day to graduate with a disserta- tion, which deals with a sphere of physical exercises or in the field of sports, or to qualify oneself as a recognized university teacher of physical exercises.

78 For further deeping and expanding physical exercises the scientific work of the High Schools — Academies, Institutes and High Schools for physical exercises — is of great importance. In cooperation with all those interested in physical exercises — philosophers, pedagogues psychologists, biologists, teachers for physical training and the more — the rules of physical exercises are explored and in connection with those practising the formation of physical exercises is being deepened and expanded. At the present time in the whole international sphere intensive work is being done in the field of physical training in the Olympic sense. International meetings and congresses — in particular the World Council for Physical Training and Sport, founded in Rome in 1960—furnish visible proof. The basis of any theory of physical exercises is extensive practice. At the present time — through the raising of physical exercises into the cultural sphere — one's own experience is no longer sufficient. By integrating physical exercises into the whole of culture, by spiritualising physical exercises we need the scientific knowledge of these, reflecting on and thinking of, physical exercises. The study of physical exercises will have to be intensified. Thus, justifiably, so the training of teachers for physical training and for sports is being transferred to Institutes and High Schools for physical training. For the time being leading institutes are busy with a new order for the training. Information about new knowledge and experience is given in expert periodicals and published in pamphlets, books and works. We can say — without being overbearing that the present literature of and about physical exercises has a high level of intellectual and expert knowledge. Not only are the basic questions of physical exercises presented in a new manner, but also the topical special questions of our time are being dealt with in detail in our literature. There is a more or less noteworthy literature on physical exercises existing in almost all languages. Viewing the development of literature of and about physical exercises is an interesting and informative matter : The first writings on and presentations of physical exercises point to the spiritual aspect and emphasize the ethics of physical exercises. We can therefore, justifiably, speak of an intellectual literature on physical exercises. In those times, in which physical exercises and training were excluded from cultural happenings, literature yielded exercising material according to the prin- ciple of exercise possibilities. To achieve this a theory of physical training was not necessary — only the biology and the history of physical training were being dealt with. At the turn of the century — with the beginning of the games- and sports-movement — polemical and controversial trea-

79 lises corne into being which make the new trends of rhythmic gymnastics and of free sports the topic of their polemics. In addition to this there is the ideological struggle in the camp of the gymnasts : The Workers Body of Gymnasts, founded in 1892, and the Catholic Gymnastics Movement which came up at the turn of the century are in opposition to the Gymnastic Club (Turnerschaft) with il s solely national orientation. Scientific knowledge, consideration for, and strengthening of the theory of physical exercises, the collapse of the national and the conse- quent international tendency of physical exercises have created a new structure of literature. Modern literature took up the positive trends in this sphere of physical exercises. National physical exercises became international physical training whose sources were callisthenics and games, gymnastics and sports. At the present time we have, in the whole international sphere, a literature which follows in its basic principles equal trends : Keeping the Olympic Idea pure, spiritualisation and animation of physical exercises. Emphasis on all those things which people have in common and which bind them together. The copiousness and abundance of literature on and about physical exercises has recently developed a modern bibliography. Since the call for a get-together of bibliographers in the Federal School of Sports at Schielleiten near Graz an intensive bibliographical work has begun in the whole international sphere. In the Office for Information and Docu- mentation, founded in Rome, in 1960, the bibliography of physical exer- cises has obtained a world center. A typical feature of modern bibliography is the thorough illumi- nation of its contents which means much more than only the publication of names, titles and figures. It is pleasant to note that combined with this thorough illumination of the contents a critical comment is emerging more and more. The Olympic Games of the year 1960 which were combined with important, international meetings and congresses, have placed the Olympic Idea in the center of literature on and about physical exercises. the grandiose shape the Romans gave to these Olympic Games has shattered basic foundations of the Games. A controversy on the value and nonvalue, on the hard core and non-essentials, on the idea and reality of modern Olympic Garnes has arisen and this has been reflected by international literature. In this critical view of the basic thoughts as well as of the practical performance, the eternal and timeless idea of the modern Olympic Idea by the founder Pierre de Coubertin is clearly

80

Participants attending the lectures in the open-air amphitheatre.

Participants during rhythmical exercises.

Camp sight of the I.O.A. In the background the Cronion Hill.

Camp sight of the I.O.A. expressed. The grand idea of the Olympic Games uniting all nations has never been presented so purely, so clearly and so convincingly as it has in the books which have come out in defence of sports in our time. Valuable contributions for explaining and strengthening the Olympic Idea are made by numerous academic works. The graphically quite excellent picture books which have already been brought out by several countries contribute to international understanding. An inte- resting source of the History and Organisation of the Olympic Games has been presented by the Chancellor of the International Olympic Committee, Otto Mayer. The Olympic Games have also been popularised by some 1,800 stamps which have been issued in all countries of the Earth on the occasion of the Olympic Games. It has to be emphasized that many of the Olympic Stamps are of high artistic value. After the second World War — especially since the Olympic Games in Helsinki in 1952 — we can see a strong growth of Olympic literature. In dealing with this literature it becomes clear that at the present time there is a new kind of Olympic literature. Those writings which are con- cerned with purely technical and organisatory matters have been pushed to the background. The volumes reporting on the latest Olympic Games — in Helsinki and in Oslo in 1952, in Melbourne, Stockholm and Cortina 1956, in Rome and in Squaw Valley 1960 — go far beyond the documen- tation of events and merely reporting the facts. What matters in this modern Olympic literature is clearly and solely the spirit, the essence of these matches and games which unite the peoples. The sense and the final aim of these games comprising the whole world is set out with growing clarity. When studying the Olympic literature — in the whole international sphere and in almost all languages of the world — we are able to see the following particulars. 1. Olympic Literature pays tribute to the ideas of humanity and of peace. The general human side is in the center of it all. 2. The aim to keep the Olympic Idea pure becomes clearly visible. Although, also the classical Games of the Greeks and the Olympic Idea of Coubertin are represented as models, leading teachers of physical training are going over to present the eternal value of the Olympic Idea in a modern way which is in accordance with our time, and to look for the most effective form for the Games. Also the Olym pic Games — if they are to lay hold of the people and above all of the youth of the time — will always have to be adapted to the given circumstances and to the possibilities of the time. What has been achieved, fixed or become a matter of course, can be dropped or changed. New ideas, new forms, must be thought out, tested and

81 formed. Only by doing so, can the Olympic Idea remain vivid and thus effective. 3. The emphasis on the idea of uniting the nations, the international trend of the Games, dominates modern Olympic literature, above all, that coming from the Far- and the Middle-East. The fact that there are more States, peoples and countries in the International Olympic Committee than in the political world organisation of UNO stresses the uniting effectiveness but also the unanimous recognition of the Olympic Games. 4. During recent years the entirety of the Olympic Games has been stressed, and the reintroduction of competitions in art is being de manded. 5. The literature advocates the simplification of the Games. 6. The leading Olympic literature — of all countries and of all nations — has appeared for years multilingually. In addition to the «old» worldwide languages, English, German and French, «new» world languages — Russian, Japanese and Chinese — have come out. 7. The Olympic literature of countries and peoples reflects the pecu liarities of the countries concerned. It is interesting to draw a compa rison between the official report volumes of the national Olympic Committees of Finland (1952), Australia (1956) and of Italy (1960). These national and racial differences are only to be welcomed, they strongly flavour and enliven the practical formation of the Games and deepen and expand the Olympic Idea. Institutes and High Schools for physical exercises and sports-and youth-associations have, during recent years, held round-table-talks with young people on the Olympic theme. This attitude of our present- day youth to the Olympic Idea is interesting : basically all young people are in favour of the Olympic Idea; they are agreed on the four-year- cycle, on the partition in winter- and summer-games; the juveniles welcome the alternation of the places where the Games are taking place ; they are grateful for the international active promotion of their parti- cipation — as it is usual since the Olympic Games of Berlin in 1936. A selected group of young German sportspeople was enabled to watch the Games in Helsinki, and another selected group could see the Games in Rome. The experience in the stadium increases the enthusiasm for the vivid personal sports, it deepens the professional ethos of the future teacher for physical training and sports and it awakens the will to work at oneself, steadily and incessantly. This is the great irreplaceable value of the participation of the best juveniles from all countries. The youth of to-day, with their critical attitude, however, come

82 out unmistakably against the weaknesses and shortcomings of the modern Olympic Games : The commercial side of the Games is being sharply criticized, the heavy «skimming» by financial profiteers is condemned. The stress on the national side is somewhat suspicious in the eyes of the youth — is it a struggle of the best athletes of the world or a com- petition of the nations ? We remember that, at the festive conclusion of the Olympic Games in Melbourne, the athletes, on the initiative of a young Japanese, marched into the stadium not according to countries but in mixed groups without regard for nations and races arm in arm as a uniform block. What is not understandable as far as youth is concerned is the lack of any competition in the field of the arts. Summary 1. The Olympic Idea forms the hard core of the general attitude towards physical exercises — at present : harmonious forming of man from the body. 2. The literature on the Olympic Games has reached a considerable intellectual standard and occupies together with the literature on and about physical exercises a noteworthy place in world literature. 3. The Olympic literature of our time not only presents a picture of the idea and practical formation of the Games but approaches cri tically the essential questions and indicates the directions of future development, In this task, pointing into the future, lies the particular value of the Olympic literature of the present time. 4. It will be the outstanding task of the Institutes and High Schools for physical exercises, of the sports associations as well as of the National Olympic Committees, to realise this high-minded inter pretation of the Olympic Idea also in their practical performances. The problem of our time is the discrepancy between idea and practical implementation, between theory and practice. We must always reconsider the theory and must adapt it to new realities. Dealing with the Olympic literature it has been shown that the intellectual and spiritual aspects, the basic principles, the ethic ideas have now as perhaps never before — been placed clearly and intentio- nally in the center. What is at stake to-day in the entire physical training, in the whole world of sports in everyday life, in competition,' as well as during festive occasions is man in all his entirety and, above all, his intrinsic values. Man to-day, more than ever before needs gay and free physical exercises — to further his personal development, to the best- possible unfolding of his personality, and for his life in the community

83 as well as in society. Man of the present time, in particular youth, appre- ciates physical, exercises and is responsive to gay and animated physical exercises. He gladly accepts to be trained and formed by them. This fact increases the importance of physical exercises in the cultural sphere of our time.

84 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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THE OLYMPIC GAMES:

Olympiakoi AGONES en Athenais Martios — Aprilios 1896. Bibliopoleion tes" estias Gasone. — Athen 1895 The Olympic GAMES. B. C. 776 — A. D. 1896. P. 1. 2. — Athen : Beck; London : Grevel; Leipzig : Volckmar; 1896—1897 P. 1. The Olympic Games in ancient times. By Sp. P. Lambros u. N. G. Polites. Transi, from the Greek. Deutsche Übersetzung von Michael Deffner, 1896 P. 2. The Olympic-Games in 1896. By Pierre de Coubertin (u. .a.) Bngl. Transi. Deutsche Übersetzung von Paul Engnath. 1897 Nebent. : Die Olympischen Spiele. Franz.-Griech. Ausgabe u. d. T. : Les Jeux Olympi- ques CHRYSAPH, I. E. Hoi protoi diethneis olympiakoi Agones en Athenais 1896. —Athen 1926 1900 «RAPPORT . général administratif et technique — Tome sixième» Exposition universelle internationale de Paris 1900. Hrsg. v. Ministère du Commerce, de 1' industrie, des postes et des télégraphes de la République Française. — Paris 1903. Darin : Kap. 2 : Concours d'exercices physiques et de sports. RÉSULTATS des Jeux de la llème Olympiade Paris.1900. Sonderzusammen-stellung. Hrsg. v. Französischen Olympischen Komitee, o. J. (Maschinenschr.)

18O4 Spalding's official athletic ALMANAC 1905. Special Olympic number. Containing, the officiai Report of the Olympic Games of 1904. Compiled by James E. Sullivan. — New York : The American Sports Publishing Company 1905 DENKSCHRIFT über «Deutschland Beteiligung an der Weltausstellung von St. Louis 1904». Hrsg. v. Kais. Deutschen Innenministerium (Berichterstatter Dr' Lewald). — Berlin 1905 LUCAS, J. P. The Olympic Games 1904. — Louis : Woodward & Tiernan 1905 PROGRAMME of Physical. Culture, Olympic Games and World's Championship Contests. Universal Exposition St. Louis 1904. — St. Louis 1904 1906 (Olympic Intermediate games) Diethneis Olympiakoi AGONES 1906. Episema Apotelesmata. Jeux Olympiques Internationaux 1906. Résultats officiels.

90 DELT1OX tes Epitropes ton Olympiakon Agonon en Athenais. Bulletin du Comité Jeux Olympiques à Athènes 1906, No. 4. — Athen o. J. DIEM, Carl Die^lympischen Spiele 1906. — o. O. u. J. (Privatbibliothek, Machinen- schr.) The Olympic GAMES at Athens. Spalding's Athletic Library Nr. 273. Edit, by James E. Sullivan. — New York : American Sports Publishing Company 1907 PROGRAMME général des Jeux Olympiques Internationaux 1906. Hrsg. v. Orga- nisations- Komitee für die Internationalen Olympischen Spiele 1906. — Athen 1906. (In franz. und griech. Sprache) De danske deltageres REJSE un der dansk idraetsforbund til de Olympiske lege i Athen 13. April — 10 May 1906. — o. O. u. J. . SABBIDOU, Pan. S. Leykôma ton en Athenais B' diethnôn olymiakon agônon 1906. - Athenais- : Estias 1.907

1808 The Olympic GAMES of London 1908. A complete Record with photographs of winners of the Olympic Games held at the Stadium, Shepherd's Bush, London, July 13-15, 1908. Along with Accounts of other Olympic Events. — London : The Sporting Life o. J. The Olympic GAMES of 1908 in London. A Reply to certain criticisms. — O.O.1908 Les JEUX Olympiques de 1908 au Stadium de Londres. In : Zeitschrift «L'Education Physique», VII. Jhg., Nr. 15, 1908 The Fourth OLYMPIAD. Being the official Report of the Olympic Games of 1908 Hrsg. v. The British Olympic Council. Drawn up by Theodore Andrea Cook. — London : British Olympic Association 1909 Olympische SPIELE von London, 1908. — Athletik- Programm, Regeln und Be- stimmungen für Wettkämpfer. — London : British Olympic Council o. J. Olympische SPIELE von London, 1908. IV. Internationale Olympiade. Programm. — London : British Olympic Association o. J.

Der amtliche BERICHT über die Olympischen Spiele von Stockholm 1912. Bearbeitet v. E. Bergvall. Deutsche- und englische Ausgabe. — Stockholm 1913. BUCAR, Franjo Olimpijske Igre u. Stockholmu. — Zagreb : Tisak llrvaske Tiskäre 1913 DIEM, Carl Die Olympischen Spiele 1912. — Neukölln : Burger 1912 The Olympic GAMES Stockholm 1912. Spalding «Red Cover» Series of Athletic Handbooks Nr. 17 R. Edit, by James E. Sullivan, — New York : American Sports Publishing Company 1912 HOHROD, Georges/ESCHBACH, M. Ode au Sport. Primée au concours de littéra- ture sportive de la Vme Olympiade Stockholm 1912. — o. O. u. J. MEZÖ, Ferenc The Stockholm Olympiad 1912, Veröffentlicht v. the Hungarian Olympic Committee. — Budapest o. J. V OLYMPIADE Internazionale. Stoccolma = Luglio 1912. Ivn: Zeitschrift »II Ginnasta«, Jhg. XXIV Roma, Sept. 1912.

91 y. OLYMPIADEN. Olympiska speien i Stockholm 1912 i biïd oehord. Reda- ktion: S, Hermelin, Erik Peterson. — Göteborg ; Ahlén & Akerlund 1912 The Vth OLYMPIAD. The Official Report of the Olympic Games of Stockholm 1912. Issued by the Swedish Olympic Committee, edit, by Erik Bergvall, transi, by Edward Adams-Ray. — Stockholm : Wahlström & Widstrand 1913 Olympische SPIELE Stochkolm 1912. Hrsg. v. Julius Wagner. — Zürich u. München : Julius Wagner 1912 Olympische SPIELE in Stockholm 1912. Programm und allgemeine Bestimmungen. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee der Olympischen Spiele in Stockholm. — Stockholm : Centraltryckeriet 1911 Official REPORT of the Olympic Games of 1912 in Stockholm. Hrsg. v. The British Olympic Council. — London 1912 SEYBOLD, Eugen Olympische Spiele 1912. Stockholm. — München : Eugen Seybold o. J.

181B (No games) DENKSCHRIFT zur Vorbereitung der VI Olympiade 1916, veranstaltet im Deutschen Stadion zu Berlin. Hrsg.- v. Generalsekretariat für die VI. Olympiade. —Berlin o. J. PETRENZ, A. Olympiade 1916. — Berlin 1914 Olympische SPIELE in Berlin 1916. Programm und allgemeine Bestimmungen. Hrsg. v. Deutschen Reichsausschuß für Olympische Spiele.—-Berlin : Generalsekre- tariat für die VI. Olympiade o. J. (In deutsch., franz. u. engl. Sprache) isao BERGVALL, Erik VII. Olympiaden. Redogörelse för Olympische Speien i Antwer- pen 1920. — Stockholm : Nordiskt Idrottslifs Förlag 1920 — De Olympiska Speien i Antwerpen 1920 . — Stockholm: Ahlen & Akerlunds Förlag 1920 COUBERTIN, Pierre de Autour de la Vllme Olympiade. — Lausanne o. J. HALME, Yrjö Seitsemännet Ölympialaiset Kisat V. 1920 Antwerpenissa.—Helsinki MONTU, Carlo L'Italia alle Olimpiadi di Anversa. — Roma : Direzione della nuova antologia 1920 Den VII. OLYMPIADE. Danmarks deltagelse i de Olympiske Lege i Antwerpen 1920. — Kobenhavn : Chr. Christensens 1921 VIlerne OLYMPIADE Anvers 1920. Auszugsbericht aus der amtlichen Darstel- lung der Olympischen Spiele 1920. Sonderzusammentstellung über die Wintersport- wettbewerbe. — o. O. u. J. (Maschinenschr.) VII, OLYMPIADE Antwerpen 1920 Dänische Ausgabe — aus dem Schwedischen bearbeitet von R. Ritto u. L. Steen. — Antwerpen 1920 RAPPORT officiel des Jeux de la Vllème Olympiade Anvers 1920. — o. O. u. J. (Maschinenschr.) REPORT of the American Olympic Committee. Seventh Olympic Games. Antwerp, Belgium 1920. — Greenwich : The Condé Nast Press o. J.

92 1B84 BERGVALL, Erik VII. Olympiaden. Berättelse over Olympiska Speien i Paris 1924. —Stockholm : Nordiskt Idrottslifs Förlag 1924 HALME, Yrjö Olympialaiset 1924. — Helsingissae : Kustannusosa — keyhtiö Otava 1924 Les JEUX de la Ville Olympiade, Paris 1924. Rapport officiel. Hrsg. v. Comité Olympique Français. — Paris : Librairie de France 1924 MEISL, Willy Die Olympischen Spiele in Wort, Bild, Statistik. — Oldenburg i. O.: Gerhard Stalling 1924 PIHKALA, L.jJUKOLA, M. Olympialaiskisat ennen ja Paris is a 1924i osa. Bd. 1., 2., — Porvoossa, Finnland: Werner Söderström Osakeyhtio 1924 Teilauszüge aus «Olympialaiskisat ennen ja Parisissa 1924 i osa». — Porvoossa, Finnland 1924 La PARTICIPACION de los Atletas Argentinos en los Torneos de la VIIIA Olimpiada. Paris 1924. Hrsg. v. Comité Olimpico Argentine. — Venezuela o. J. The official REPORT of the Vlllth Olympiad, Paris 1924. — London : British Olympic Association 1924 Die Olympischen SPIELE Paris 1924. — Zürich & München : Julius Wagner 1924. (In deutsch, und franz. Sprache) Die Olympischen SPIELE Paris 1924, veranstaltet unter dem Protektorat des Internationalen Komitee—Erinnerungswerk. Hrsg. v. Julius Wagner u. Guido Eichenberger. — Zürich u. München : Julius Wagner 1925 Die Olympischen SPIELE Paris 1924 und der deutsche Sport. — Zürich : Julius Wagner 1924 18BS BERICHT über die Beteiligung Deutschlands an den IX. Olympischen Spielen in Amsterdam und St. Moritz 1928. — Berlin : Reichsdruckerei 1928 CATALOGUE de l'Exposition au Musée Municipal d'Amsterdam. IXe Olympiade Amsterdam 1928. — Amsterdam : Bussy o. J. La DÉLÉGATION française aux limes jeux olympiques d'hiver. Saint Moritz 1928. Hrsg. Comité National des Sports, Comité Olympique Français. — Paris 1928 DEUTSCHLAND auf der Internationalen Ausstellung Kunst und Sport. IX. Olympiade Amsterdam 1928. — Berlin : Koetschau o. J. Die sportärztlichen ERGEBNISSE der 2. Olympischen Winterspiele in St. Moritz 1928. Hrsg. v, W. Knoll. — Berlin 1928 ERGEB-NISSE der sportärztlichen Untersuchungen bei den IX. Olympischen Spielen in Amsterdam 1928. Hrsg. v. F. J. J. Buytendijk. — Berlin 1929 Officieel FEESTNUMMER. Olympische Speien te Amsterdam 1928. Zusammengestellt v. Jan Feith, J. Hooen u. W. J. M. Linden. Feestuitgave von «De Olympiade» Officieel Orgaan von het »Comité Olympische Speien 1928«. — o. O. 1928 GENSABURO- NOGUCHI IX. Olympiade Amsterdam 1928. — Tokyo : Meguro-Shoten o. J. (Leichtathletik-Studien) IOK-BERICHT über den Olympischen Konreß von Berlin 1930. — Berlin 1930 JUKOLA, Martti Olympialaiskisat Amsterdamissa 1928. — Porvoo, Finnland : Werner Söderström Osakeyhtio 1928

93 LAATI, lisakki Penkkiurheilijaua Amsterdarnissa. — Helsinki : Kustannusosalu-y- htiö Kirja 1928 Die OLYMPIADE . Revue des Internationalen Sports. Erinnerungsheft für die Olympischen Winterspiele 1928, Nr. 2/3, März 1928. — Zürich — München : Julius Wagner 1928 Zur OLYMPJADE 1928. — Berlin : B. Z. am Mittag, Ullsteinhaus 1928 IX. OLYMPIADE — Amsterdam 1928. Allgemeine Bestimmungen und Programm der Olympischen Spiele. Hrsg. v. Holländischen Olympischen Komitee. — Amsterdam 1928 The IXth OLYMPIAD being the official Report of the Olympic Games of 1928 celebrated at Amsterdam. Issued by the Netherlands Olympic Committee. Edit, by G. van Rossera. Transi, by Sydney W. Fleming. — Amsterdam : J. H. de Bussy 1928 IXe OLYMPIADE, Rapport ofliciel des Jeux de la IXe Olympiade Amsterdam 1928. Hrsg. v. Comité Olympique Hollandais. — Amsterdam : J. H.- de Bussy 1931 La PARTICIPATION Française aux Jeux de la IXe Olympiade. Hrsg. Comité National des Sports. Comité Olympique Français. — Amsterdam 1928 RAPPORT sur la préparation de l'organisation des Jeux de la IXe Olympiade à Amsterdam en 1928. — o. O. u. J. (Bibliothek des IOC in Lausanne, Maschinenschrift) RAU, Gustav Die Reiterkampfe bei den Olympischen Spielen. Von 1912/1924/1920 und 1928 .Entwicklung und Stand der Reitkunst. — Stuttgart : Sehickhardt & Ebner 1929 REPORT of the American Olympic Committee. Ninth Olympic Games Amsterdam, 1928, Second Olympic Winter Sports St. Moritz, 1928. — New York 1928 The Official REPORT of the IXth Olympiad 1928. Hrsg. v. M. M. Robinson, veröffpiitl v. The Canadian Olympic Committee. — Hamilton, Ontario, Canada : The Spectator 1929 The official REPORT of the IXth Olympiad Amsterdam 1928. Hrsg. v. Harold M. Abrahams. Veröff. v. The British Olympic Association.—London : King and Hutchings 1928 REPORT of the IXth Olympic Games and of the intercollegiate Finance Committee. Veröffentl. v. The Intercollegiate Finance Committee of the American Olympic Committee. In: Intercollegiate Olympic Journal, Nr. 5, Nov. 1928 RÉSULTATS des Concours des limes Jeux Olympiques d'hiver organisés à St. Moritz 1928. Hrsg. v. Schweiwzer Olympischen Komitee.—Lausanne 1928 RÉSULTATS des Concours des limes Jeux Olympiques d'hiver organisés à St. Moritz, 1928. Hrsg. v. Comité Olympique Suisse. — Lausanne: Uu Léman 1928 SCHELENZ, Karl Deutschlands Olympiakämpfer 1928 i-n Wort und Bild. — Dresden: W. Limpert 1928 Devitas Olimpiskas SPELES. Sarakstijis Ad. Plums Izdevis J. Plikske. — Riga o. J. Die Olympischen SPIELE 1928. St. Moritz, Amsterdam. Erinnerungswerk. — Zürich/Stuttgart: Julius Wagner 1928 f Die Olympischen SPIELE in Amsterdam 1928. Hrsg. v. Deutschen Reichsausschuß

für Leibesübungen. — Leipzig: Verlag für Industrie-Kultur 1928

94 Die Olympischen SPIELE 1928. Hrsg. v. Deutschen Keichsanssehuß für Leibesü- bungen. — Leipzig 1928 WELT-OLYMPIA1928 in Wort und Bild. — Berlin : Conzett & Huber 1928 II. Olympische WINTERSPIELE St. Moritz 1928. Offizielle Festnummer der Olympiade. — o. O. 1928 II. Olympische WINTERSPIELE St. Moritz 1928 Allgemeine Bestimmungen und programme. Hrsg. v. Schweizer Olympischen Komitee. — Laussanne o. J.

1932 BERÄTTELSE over Olympiska Speien 1932 .Hrsg. v. Erik Bergvall und David Jonason. — Stockholm : Ahlen & Söners Förlag 1932 BERICHT über die Beteiligung Deutschlands an den X. Olympischen Spielen in Los Angeles und .den III. Winterspielen in Lake Placid 1932. Hrsg. Deutscher Olympischer Ausschuß. — o. O. u. .1. CANADA at the Xth Olympiad 1932. Hrsg. v. W. A. Fry-Dunnville, Ontario : Dunnville Chronicle, o. J. Finland's CANDIDATES for Los Angeles. — Helsinki : Government Printing office 1932 DIRECTORY and local ADDRESSES of Members of the International Olympic Committees, Members and Attendants of the National Olympic Committees Attaches International and National Sports Federation Members, Press Representatives present at the Games of the Xth Olympiad and Sailing Schedules for East bound and Westbound Vessels. — o. O. 1932 (Maschinenschr.) Olympic GAMES. Official pictorial Souvenir. Hrsg. The Organizing Committee. — Los Angeles 1932 The GAMES of the Xth Olympiad Los Angeles 1932. Official report. — Los Angeles: Olympiade Committee 1933 GRIX, Arthur E. Olympische Tage in Los Angeles. — Berlin : Wernitz 1932 KAMPMANN, Ernst August Die Olympischen Spiele 1932 in Los Angeles und der deutsche Kraftsport. — Berlin 1932 LATTIMER, George Official Report. Ill Olympic Winter Games. Lake Placid 1932. Issued by I I I Winter Olympic, Games Committee. — o. O. u. .). LOKRANT'/i, Sven Medical Report of the Xth Olympic Games. Los Angeles, California 1932, Los Angeles : Central Press 1932 MAYER, Julia C. Games of the Xth Olympiad. — Los Angeles — 1932 MESSERLI, Fr. M. Impressions et Images Mouvantes recueillies en faisant le Tour du Monde. Les Jeux Olympiques de Los Angeles. — Lausanne : Éditions Haeschel-Dufey 1935 A". OL YMPIADE — Los Angeles —1982. Allgemeine Bestimmungen und Programme der Olympischen Spiele. — Los Angeles : Olympiade Committee of the Games 1932 Xth OLYMPIAD . . . Los Angeles . . . 1932. Olympic Competition and Exhibition of Art. — Los Angeles : Neiiner & Lithograph Co 1932 La PARTICIPATION Française aux Jeux de la Xe Olympiade Lake Placid — Los Angeles 1932. — o.O. u. J. POLACY na igrzyskach X Olimpjady 1932. Hrsg. Zwiazku Polskich Swiazkow Sportowych Polskiego Komiletu Olimpijiskiego. — Warschau o. J. (Die Polen auf der X. Olympiade 1932.)

95 Official PRÜGRAM. Xth Olympiad. Los Angeles. USA. Olympic Games 1932. — Los Angeles o.J. RECORD of New Zealand Team at the Games of the Xth Olympiad Los Angeles. — Wellington : Watkins o. J. General REGULATIONS and Program of the Olympic Games. Xth Olympiad — Los1 Angeles — 1932. Hrsg. The Organizing Committee. — Los Angeles Dixon Bell Press 1932 The official REPORT of the Xth Olympiad Los Angeles 1932. Hrsg. v. F. A. M. Webster. — London : The British Olympic Association 1932 REPORT of the American Olympic Committee. 'Games of the Xth Olympiad Los Angeles, California 1932, III Olympic Winter Games, Lake Placid, New York 1932. Hrsg. v. Frederick W. Rubien. — New York : American Olympic Committee o.J. SETTING the stage for the III Olympic Winter Games. — New York : III Olympic- Winter Games Committee o. J. Official SOUVENIR BOOK of the III Olympic Games at Lake Placid. — New York/Andover : The Andover Press 1932 Die Olympisch'en SPIELE in Los Angeles 1932. Hrsg. v. den Reemtsma Cigaretten- fabriken. — Altona-Bahrenfeld 1932 III Olympic WINTER GAMES Lake Placid 1932 — Official Report. Hrsg. v. Olympic Committee of the III Winter Games. — Lake Placid 1932

1838 ABRAHAMS. Harold M. The Official Report of the Xlth Olympiad Berlin 1936. — London : The British Olympic Association 1937 ANSPRACHE v. Dr. Th. Lewald anläßlich des Essens am 31. Juli 1936 im Schloß zu Berlin. — o. O. u. J. AUFSTELLUNG der Fechtkämpfe 2. August bis 15 August 1936 .Hrsg. v. Organi- sationkomitee für die XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936 e. V. — Berlin 1936 BEHREND, Karl Weltbeste Turner der Olympischen Spiele zu Berlin. — Altona : Köbner 1936 BERÄTTELSE over Olympisca Speien 1936. Hrsg. v. Erich Bergvall. — Stockholm: Ahlen & Söners Förlag 1936 BERICHT des Präsidenten des Organisations-Komitees der IV. Olympischen Winterspiele 1936 Dr. Ritter von Halt (auf dem XXXII. Kongreß des Internationalen Olympischen Komitees in Oslo 1935). — Garmisch: Adamdruck 1935 (In franz., eng. u. deutsch. Sprache) BERLIN — Die Kampfstätte der XL Olympischen Spiele 1936. Hrsg. v. Propa- ganda-Ausschuß für die XL Olympischen Spiele Berlin 1936 und die IV. Olympischen Winterspiele Garmisch-Partenkirchen. — Berlin : Zentralverlag GmbH. 1936 BOROWIK, Hans Wer ist's bei den Olympischen Spielen 1936? — Berlin: Reichs- sportverlag 1936 CONTIIBAADERISCHULTZE Der Gesundheitsdienst bei den XI. Olympischen Spiele in Berlin und der IV. Olympischen Winterspielen in Garmisch-Partenkirchen 1936 — Berlin : Verlag der Deutschen Ärzteschaft 1938 COUBERTIN, Pierre de Olympic, Conférence donnée à Paris, dans la Salle des Fêtes de la Mairie du XVlrno arrondissement. — o. O. u. J.

96 DÄMMERT, Eduarde Dibos Memoria del Comité Nacional de Déportes y Comité Olimpico Peruano Ano 1936. -r- Lima : niiprenta Americana o. J. DENKSCHRIFT** der Gemeinden- Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Olympische Winter- spiele 1936. — Garmisch-Partenkirchen o. J. DENKSCHRIFT über die Vorbereitungen der XI. Olympischen Spiele zu Berlin. Hrsg. Deutscher Reichsausschuß für Leibesübungen/Deutscher Olympischer Auss- chuß . o. O. u. J. DIEM, Carl Der Stand der Vorbereitungen für die Olympischen Spiele Berlin 1936. Vortrag Wien IOK-Tagung 1933 — Olympia Neuer Zeit. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee für die XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936 e.V. — Berlin 1936 — Olympische Verknüpfung. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee für die'XI. Olympiade Berlin. — Berlin-Charlottenburg o.J. — Der Olympische Gedanke. — Leipzig 1919 Das Olympische DORF. Leipzig : Philipp Reclam jun. 1936 Olympische DRUCKSCHRIFTEN 1909—1936 (Privatbibliothek v. Prof. Dr. Dr. Diem) EHRENGÄSTE. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee für die XI. Olympiade. II. Aufl. Berlin 1936 EN KEN, Wilhelm Die Olympischen Spiele 1936 in Berlin. — Berlin : Neuer Berliner Büchervertrieb 1936 ESSEN zu Ehren des IOK, NOK und der Internationalen Sportverbände, o. O. u. J. (1936) Amtlicher FÜHRER zur Feier der IV. Olympiade-Winterspiele zu Garmisch- Partenkirchon 1936. — Berlin : Reichssportverlag 1936 FÜHRER zur'Feier der XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee für die XI. Olympiade. — Berlin : Reichssportvelag 1936 GERHARDT, W. Soll Deutschland sich an den Olympischen Spielen beteiligen? Ein Mahnruf an die deutschen Turner und Sportsmänner. Berlin 1896 HANDBUCH der Allgemeinen Bestimmungen und Sportausschreibungen. XI. •Olympiade Berlin 1936. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee für die XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936. — Berlin : Reichssportverlage 1936 HESS, Gustav Weltbeste Wassersportler der Olympischen Spiele zu Berlin. — Altona: Köbuer 1936 IST VAN, Pluhar A Berlin! Olimpia ahogy nie lattuk . . . Budapest : ifj Kellner ernö Könyvnyomdaja o. J. JONES Sommar-Olympia 1936. De elfte Olympiska Speien i Berlin. — Stockholm : Ahlen & Akerlunds Förlag 1936

Olympische JUGEND. Festspiel. Regiebuch. o; O. 1935 KELLER, Erwin Meine Eindrücke von deY Hockey-Olympiade 1936. — Wiesbaden ßechtold 1936 KÖNITZER, Willi Fr: Olympia 1936. Berlin : Reichssportverlag 1936 KONGRESS für körperliche Erziehung im Rahmen .des Internationalen Sportstudent enlagers. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee für die XI. Olympiade 1936. — o. O.u.

97 KRAFT, Wolfgang Altersgruppen-Analyse der Olympischen Wettkämpfer, o.O.u.J. (Maschinenschr.) Olympischer K^NSTWETTBEWERB. Katalog der Olympischen Kunstausstellung. XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936. — Berlin 1936 LE FORT. Peter von Winter-Olympia 1936. — München : Bruckmann 1935 MACANOVIC, Hrvoje Olympia 1936. Savremene olimpijske igre. — Zagreb : Jugoslovenske Stampe D. D. 1936 MARCH, Werner Olympisches Dorf 1936 — Berlin: Bauwelt-Verlag o. J. MESSERLI, Fr. M. Rapport sur la Participation suisse aux IVmes Jeux Olympi- ques d'hiver à Garmisch-Partenkirchen 1936. Hrsg. Comité Olympique Suisse. — Participation : Lausanne: Du Léman 1936 MILLER, Franz/P. v. LE FORT/H. HARSTER, So kämpfte und siegte die Jugend der Welt. XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936. — München : Knorr & Hirth o. J. MINDT, E. Olympia 1936. Die XI. Olympischen Spiele Berlin und die IV. Olympischen Winterspiele Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Berlin-Wilmesdorf: Sport und Spiel Verlags- und Vertriebs-GmbH 1936 MUELLER, Paul/Friedrich/RICHTER, Hans HITZER, Das Erlebnis der VI. Olympischen Spiele in Wort, Bild und Ton. Berlin: Bernard & Gräfe 1936 NACHRICHTENMITTEL bei den Olympischen Spielen Deutschland 1936. — Berlin-Tempelhof : G. Lorenz Aktiengesellschaft, o. J. Ewiges OLYMPIA. Festspiel von Richard Augsten. o. O. u.J. (1936) (Masclrineiischr.) OLYMPIA 1936 und die Leibesübungen. Hrsg. F. Mildner. Berlin 1934 OLYMPIA 1936 — eine nationale Aufgabe. Bearb. v. Gerhard Krause u. Erich Mindt. — Berlin : Reichssportverlag GmbH 1935 Das OLYMPIA-BUCH. Hrsg. im Auftr. des Deutschen Reichsausschusses für Leibesübungen .Bearb.: K. Doerry u. W. Dörr — München 1927 OLYMPIA- FACKEL-STAFFEL-LAUF. — Berlin : W. Limpert 1936 Leni Riefenstahls OLYMPIA-FILM. Hrsg. v. Olympia Film GmbH. — Berlin 1936 OLYMPIA- PRESSEDIENTS. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee für die XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936 e. V. — Berlin-Charlottenburg 1934—1936. (In engl., franz., Hai., span., dan., finn., schwed-, norw., holl., poln., portug., tschech., ung. und deutsch. Sprache) OLYMPIA WELTSENDER. Hrsg. Reichsrundfunk GmbH. — Berlin : Deutscher Verlag für Politik und Wirtschaft, o. J. (1936) Die OLYMPIADE Berlin 1936 im Spiegel der ausländischen Presse, o. O. u. J. (Maschinenschr.) XL OLYMPIADE Berlin 1936. Teilnehmer. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee für die XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936. Sportalbteilung o. J. (1936) XI. OLYMPIADE Berlin 1936. Amtlicher Bericht. Hrsg. v. Organisalionskomitep für die XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936 e. V. Bd. 1. 2. — Berlin 1937.'(In deutsch, u. engl. Sprache) XI. OLYMPIADE Berlin 1936. Amtlicher Bericht. — Bd. 1. 2. — Berlin : W. Limpert 1936 XI. OLYMPIADE Berlin 1936. Handbuch der allgemeinen Bestimmunngen und Sportausschreibungen. — Berlin: Reichssportverlag 1936 Das OLYMPIADE-BUCH. Hrsg. v. Carl Diem. — Leipzig : Philipp Reciam juu. 1935

98 La PARTICIPATION Française aux Jeux de la Xlme Olympiade Garrnisch-Partne- kirchen — Berlin 1936. — Paris : G. Budy et fils o. J. PAX Olympica. Weltsendung des Reichssenders Berlin am Sonntag, dem 4. August 1935. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee für die XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936 e. V. — Berlin 1935 POLIZEIBEFEHLSSTAB für die XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936. Bericht über die Vorbereitung und Durchführung der polizeilichen Maßnamhen aus Anlaß der Olympi- schen Spiele 1936 in Berlin und Kiel. — Berlin 1937 PRESERVE the Olympic Ideal. A Statement of the case against American Parti- cipation in the Olympic Games at Berlin. — New York : The Committee on Fair Play in Sports, o. J. R AU, Gustav Die Reitkunst der Welt an den Olympischen Spiele 1936. — Berlin St. Georg. 1936 • RAPPORT sur la participation suisse aux Jeux de la Xlme Olympiade à Berlin, du 1er an 16 août 1936. Hrsg. v. Comité Olympique Suisse. — Lausanne : Du Léman 1936 Das REICHSSPORTFELD. Eine Schöpfung für die Leibesüdungen. Hrsg. v. Reichs- ministerium des Innern. — Berlin : Reichssportverlag 1936 Die REITERKÄMPFE bei den XL Olympischen Spielen Berlin 1936 unter beson- derer Berücksichtigung der Schweizer Beteilungng. — Zürich : Der Schweizer Kavallerist 1936 REPORT of the American Olympic Committee . Games of the Xlth Olympiad Berlin, Germany 1 to 16, 1936 IVth Olympic Winter Games Garmisch-Partenkirchen — Germany. Hrsg. v. Frederick W. Rudien. — New York : American Olympic Commit- tee o. J. (1936) SAMMELMAPPE der ausgegebenen Eintrittskarten, Ausweise und Abzeichen. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee für die XL Olympiade Berlin 1936 e. V. SCHLÜTER, W. Olympia. Berlin 1936 SCHWERATHLETEN kämpfen in Berlin 1936. Olympiaschrift für Gewichtheben und Ringen. — Stuttgart 1936 Die SIEGER der IV. Olympischen Winterspiele. Hrsg. v. d. Neuen Leipziger Zeitung. — Leipzig : Leipziger Verlagsdruckerei ei AG. o. J. (1936) SISKA, H. Völkerkampf Olympia. Berlin 1936 Olympische SPIELE Berlin 1936. Erinnerungswerk, Hrsg. v. Julius Wagner. — Zürich' : Verkehrsverlag A-G. 1936 Die Olympischen SPIELE 1936 in Berlin iu. Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Bd. 1., 2. . • Altona : Zigarettenbilderdienst 1936 Olympische SPIELE 1936. Offizielles Organ des Propaganda-Ausschusses für die XL Olympischen Spiele. — Berlin 1936 und die IV. Olympischen Winterspiele Garmisch-Partenkircken. Hrsg. Propaganda - Ausschuß für die XI. Olympischen Spiele Berlin 1936 und die IV. Olympischen Winterspiele Garmisch-Partenkirchen. — Berlin - Schützenverlag, o. J. Olympische SPIELE 1936. IV. Olympische Winterspiele Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Erinnerungsheft. Hrsg. v. Julius Wagner. — Zürich : Verkehrsverlag AG o. J. (1936) Olympische SPIELE Berlin 1936. Hrsg. u. bearb. v. Gerhard Krause. — Berlin : W. Limpert 1936

99 Die Olympischen SPIELE 1936. Hrsg. v. den Reemtsma Cigarettenfabriken. Bd. 1., 2., — Altona-Bahrenfeld.1932 Olympische SPl'ÉLE 1936. Offizielles Organ des Propaganda-Ausschusses für die XI. Olympischen Spiele Berlin und die IV. Olympischen Winterspiele Garmisch- Partenkirchen. — Berlin : Zentralverlag 1936 XI. Olympische SPIELE Berlin 1936. 1-16. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomitee der XI. Olympischen Spiele. — Berlin - Reichssportverlag 1936 Internationales SPORTSTUDENTEN LAGER anläßlich der XI. Olympischen Spiele 1936. — o. O. u. J. Internationale TANZWETTSPIELE. Anläßlich»der XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936. — Berlin : Mauer Dimmick GmbH., o. J. (1936) THIMMERMANN, H. Olympische Siege. — München 1936 ÜTT, R. Der Olympische leichtathletische Zehnkampf. Berlin 1931. Dipl.-Arbeit d. D. H. f. L. (Maschinenschr.) WASNER, F. Die Olympischen Winterspiele 1924—1936. München 1935 WECK, G. Deutsehland und die Olympischen Spiele .Leipzig 1896 Eine WELT hörte den Olympia-Weltsender. Deutscher Kurzwellensender 1936. — o. O. u. J. (Maschinenschr.) IV. Olympischen WINTERSPIELE 1936 Garmisch-Partenkirehon. Offizielle Ergebnisse. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomilee für die XI. Olympischen Winterspiele 1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen e. V. — München: Knorr & Ilirth 1936 IV. Olympische WINTERSPIELE 1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Amtlicher Bericht. — Berlin : Heichssportverlag 1936 IV. Olympische WINTERSPIELE 1936 Tagesprogramm. — München : Knorr & Hirth 1936 . IV. Olympische WINTERSPIELE 1936. Garmisch-Partenkirchen 6.—16. Februar. Amtlicher Bericht. Hrsg. v. Organisationskomilee für die IV. Olympischen Winter- spiele Garmisch-Partenkirchen 1936 e. V. — Berlin 1936 Die ZIEL-ZEIT-KAMERA- bei den XI. Olympischen Spielen Berlin 1936. — o. O. u. J. (Maschinenschr.) 194O (No games) BOROWIK, Hans Olympia-Kämpfer 1940. 1000 Kurzbiographien von Sportlern aller Länder. — Berlin : W. Limpert 1939 SCHLUSSBERICHT der Kartenstelle (Abgeschlossen am 15. Dezember 1939).— München Knorr & Hirth 1939 VORBEREITUNGEN zu den V. Olympischen Winterspielen 1940 Garmisch- Pater'nkirchen. Amtlicher Bericht. Hrsg. im Auftgrage des Organisationskomitees für die V. Olympischen Winterspiele 1940 Garmisch-Patternkirchen e. V. von Carl Diem. — München : Knorr & Hirth o. J. (In franz. u. deutsche Sprache) 1944 (No games)

1848 ADELSON, Waller von Die XIV. Olympischen Spiele 1938. Mit einem Geleilwort v. Carl Diem. — Frankfurt/M.: Schütte 1948 BAHR, Gerhard Olympische Tage im Kngadin. V. Olympischen Winterspiele in SI. Moritz. — Nürnberg : Ilerzogeiiajirarh/Ofr. : Gerhard Bahr 19'i8

100 HERN II ARD. Johann Arbok 1 droit Ainanna 1948. — Reykjavik 1949 BRITISH OL YMPJC ASSOCIATION officiai Report of the London Olympic Games 1948. Veröffentl. v.'^World Sports. — London 1948 'CATALOGUE of the XlVth Olympiad Sport in Art Exhibition London 1948. — London : Oliver Bur-ridge & Co. o. J. Canada COMPETES at the Olympic Games 1948. Official Report of the Canadian Olympic Association 1938—1948. — o. O.: Committee of the C. O. A. o. J. DELEGATION- to World Olympic Games London 1948. Hrsg. Pakistan Olympic Association. — Karachi : Pakistan Olympic Association 1948 Olympic GAMES London 1948. Official Souvenir. — London : Sun Prusters Limited o. j. Olympic GAMES London 1948. Official Souvenir. — London : Future Publications adprint house 1948 ILLUSTRATIONS from the XlVth. Olympiad. Sport in Art Exhibition London 1948. — London - Oliver Burridge & Co. o. J. L'ITALIA alia XIV Olympiade. Giochi di Londra. V. Giochi invernali di Saint Moritz. —Roma : Curnilalo Olirnpico Nationale lialiano 1949 Morses Olyrmiiske KOMITÉ 1945—1948. Hrsg. Norges Idrottsforbund. Redaktor : Tonnod Normann. — Olso : Merkur 1949 LAING, Di'snu>nd. XIV Olympiad. An illustrated Record. — London : Desmond Laing o. ,1. LINA'EN/IACI/, Hermann Olympische Reiterkampfe — London 1948. — Düssel- dorf : SI. Georg-Kunst-Y'crlag 1948 OA.TES, H. J. Olympiad 1948 with complete Olympic Records since 189«. — London :'Findou Publications LtD o. J. OLYMPIA 1948 London. — Hamburg : Molich 1948 OLYMPIA. Fust der Völker St. Moritü. — London 1948. — Wien : Österreichische Slaiilsdrui-keri'i und Marathon Edition 1948 OLYMPIA ruft Österreichischen Komitee. — Wien: Östereiehehische Staatsdrnc- kurei und Marathon Edition 1948 OLYMPJAßOKEN 1948. Hrsg. v. Lennart Uruunhage. — Stockholm : Svenska Sportlorlaget 1948 XH'th OLYMPIAD London 1948. Opening Ceremony. Official Programme. Hrsg. The Organising Committee for the XIV. Olympiad London 1948. — London : Me Corquodale & Co o. J. XI \' OL Y MPI AD London 1948. Complete List, of Olympic Champions with Winners performances and records. Hrsg. the Organising Committee for the XlVth Olympiad. — London 19i8 X( V OL Y MPI A D London 1948. Hrsg. v. Organising-Committee for the XIV Olympi- ad London 1918 XIV. OLYMPIADE. V. Olympische Winterspiele St. Moritz 1948. Erinnerungswert Hrsg. unter d. Patronal d. SclnvtH/.erisehon Olympischen Komitees . . . von Julius Wagner f. — /iirich : Hermes-Vi-rlag 1918 Iceland's OLYMPIC TEAM at (he Garnes in London 1918. Hrsg. v. Johann Bernhard — Reykjavik o. J. POURET, Henri/ Singularités sur des Jeux. — Limoges : Le Solilaise 1919

101 La RADIODIFFUSION aux Jeux Olympiques Rapport de M. R. de Reding, Secré- taire général de la Société Suisse de-Radiodiffusion, chef des services de la radio- diffusion des Veines Jeux Olympiques d'hiver, St. Moritz, 30 janvier — 8 février 1948. Hrsg. v. der Swcheizerischen Rundspruch-Gesellschaft. — .Berlin 1948. (Maschinenschr.) RAPPORT Général sur les Ves Jeux Olympiques d'hiver St. Moritz 1948. Hrsg. Comité Olympique Suisse. — Lausanne o. J. (1948) RAPPORT sur la Participation Suisse aux Jeux Olympiques de Londres .1948. — o, O. u, J. (Maschinenschr.) REPORT of the United States Olympic Committee. Games of the XIVth Olympiad, London, England ... Vth Olympic Winter Games St. Moritz ... d. by Asa S. Bushnell. — New York : United States Olympic Association 1949 The official REPORT of the organising Committee for the XIV. Olympiad 1948- — London : Organising Committee for the XIV. Olympiad 1948 Official REPORT on Ireland's Participation XIVth Olympiad London, July — August 1948. Hrsg, Irish Olympic Council. — Dublin o. J. The REPORT of the Chairman of the Organising Committee for the XIV Olympiad London 1948 to the International Olympic Committee.— London : Welbescon Press o. J. 1948. XIV Olympische SPIELE. London. — Freiburg: Illu-Sport 1948 Die SPIELE der XIV. Olympiade St. Moritz und London 1948. -- Zürich: Heinzmann 1948 TÄTIGKEITSBERICHT über die XIV. Olympiade, London 1948. Hrsg. Öster- reichisches Olympisches Comité. —• Wien 1949 TAN, G. G. Olympiad with an Introduction of Hon. Yu KHE THAI. — Manila, Philippines 1948. (In chinesischer Sprache) 1948. V. Olympische WINTERSPIELE St. Moritz. — Freiburg: Illu-Sport 1948 V. Olympische WINTERSPIELE St. Moritz 1948. Zürich : Pfenninger & Wiedmann o. J. (In deutsch, u. franz. Sprache) 1952 BRITISH OLYMPIC ASSOCIATION. Official Report of the XVth Olympic Games Helsinki 1952. 'Hrsg. v. Cecil Bear. —'London : World Sports o. J. CACRÊS, Btnigno La XVe Olympiade. — Paris : Editions dn Seuil 1953 Canada COMPETES at the Olympic Games 1952. Official Report of the Canadian Olympic Association 1948-1952. Hrsg. Committee of the C.O.A.—o. O. u. J. XVth Olympic GAMES Helsinki 1952. Official Publication of the Bermuda Olympic Association. — Bermuda : The Bermuda Press o. J. ISRAEL at the XV Olympic Games, Helsinki o. O. u. J. (In hebräischer Sprache) L'IT ALI A alla XV Olimpiade. Giochi di Helsinki Giochi Invernali di. Oslo. Hrsg. Comitato Olimpicp Nazionale Italiano. — Rome 1953 JOKL, ErnstlKARVONEN, M. /. u. a. Sports in the Cultural Pattern of the World. A Study of the Î952 Olympic Games at Helsinki .— Helsinki Institute of occupa- tional Health 1956 KESER-WIEDE VI, Olympische Winterspiele, Oslo 1952. — München : Süddeu- tscher Verlag 1952

102 KÖRNER, Hans Joachim/Walter UMMINGER, Seurasaari. Olympiafahrt der deutschen Jugend. — Frankfurt/M.: W. Limpert 1953 OLYMPIA 1952 VJ.. Winterspiele in Oslo. — Köln : Du Mont-Schauburg 1952 OLYMPIA Helsinki 1952. XV. Olympische Sommerspiele .T. 1. 2. — Köln : Du Mont-Schauburg 1952 OLYMPIA in der deutschen Kunst der Gegenwart. Ausstellung zur XV. Olympiade in Frankfurt/M. o. J. 1952. XV OLYMPIA Helsinki. Sid. Olympiad-Sonder-Dienst. Hrsg. Pressebüro Roevel. 2 Bde. — Düsseldorf : 1952. (Machinenschr.) , LJUBOMIROV, N. J. XV. Olimpijskie igry. (Die XV. Olympischen Spiele). Moskva 1955 OLYMP1ABOKEN 1952. Hrsg. v. Lennart Brunnhage. — Stockholm : Svenska Sportförlaget 1952 United States OLYMPIC BOOK 1952. Quadrennial ReportM the United States Olympic Committee Games of the XVth Olympiad Helsinki, Finland July 19, August 3, 1952. Vth Olympic Winter Games Oslo, Norway Febr. 14 to 25, 1952. 1st PanAmerican Games Buenos Aires, Argentina Febr. 25 to March. 8, 1951. Ed.: Asa S. Bushnell. — New York : United States Olympic Ass. 1952 PROGRAM de VI. Olympische Vinterleker 1952. — Oslo o. J. RAPPORT sur la Participation Suisse aux XYmes Jeux Olympiques Helsinki -Oslo 1952. o. O. u. J. Bib. des IOC Lausanne — (Maschinenschr.) The official REPORT of the organizing Committee for the games of the XV Olympiad Helsinki 1952. — Porvoo, Helsinki : Södersrtöm Osakeyhtiö 1955 Official REPORT on Ireland's Participation XVth Olympiad Helsinki, Juli-August, 1952. Hrsg. The Irish Olympic Council. — Dublin o...J. SOBOLEV, P.IN. KANININ Olimpijskie igry. (Olympische Spiele). Moskva 1955 Die Olympischen SPIELE 1952. Das offizielle Standardwerk d. Nationalen Olympi schen Komitees. Sonderausg. —' Stuttgart, Zürich, Salzburg : Europäischer Buch klub 1952 ' , Die Olympischen SPIELE Oslo und Helsinki 1952. Das offizielle Standardwerk d. Nationalen Olympischen Komitees. Hrsg. Deutsche' Olympische Gesellschaft. — Frankfurt/M.: Olympischer Sport-Verlag 1952 XV. Olympische SPIELE. Helsinki 1952. Hrsg. NOK und DSB. — Frankfurt/M.: W. Limpert 1952 XV. Olympische SPIELE Helsinki 1952. Hrsg. v. Österreichischen Olympischen Comité, 2 Bde. — Wien : E. Metten Nachf. o. J. (1952) Bd. II. VI. Olympische Winterspiele Oslo 1952 Lebendige TURNKUNST. Das Olympia-Buch für den Deutschen Turner-Bund. Hrsg. von der Deutschen Olympischen Gesellschaft im Einvernehmen mit dem Deutschen Turnerbund. — Frankfurt/M.: Olympischer Sportverlag o. J. (1948) De VI Olympiske VINTERLEKER Oslo 1952. De XV Olympiske Leker Helsingfors 1952. Hrsg. Norges Olympiske Comité. — Oslo : Lie & Co 19544 VI Olympische VINTERLEKER Olympic Winter Games Oslo 1952. — Oslo : Organizing Committee o. J. (In engl. und finn. Sprache) 1956 BAHR, Gerhard Olympia in Melbourne 1956. Ausg. A: Leichtathletik, Moderner Fünfkampf, Boxen, Gewischtheben, Basketball, Kanu, Rudern.—Nürnberg: Bahr 1956

103 — Olympia in Melbourne 1956. Ausg. B: Turnen Schwimmen, Wassecball, Fußball, Hockey, Fechten, Schießen, Ringen, Radfahren. — Nürnberg : Bahr -1956 BRITISH OLYMPIC ASSOCIATION. Official Report of the Olympic Games. XVIth Olympiad Melbourne, Nov. 22—Dec. 8, 1956. Ed.: Cecil Bear. —London : World Sports 1956 CORTINA 1956. Ein Photoalbum, gewidmet allen Freunden der Photographie und des Wintersports zur Erinnerung an die VII. Olympischen Winterspiele 1956 in Cortina d'Ampezzo. Hrsg. m. Unterstützung d. Zeiss-Ikon AG Stuttgart. — Hamburg : Drei-Mohren-Vel. 1956 Offizieller FÜHRER der VII. Olympischen Winterspiele. Deutsche Ausgabe. Zusam- mengestellt v. Federico Terschak. Rom : Pais o. J. (In.ital., deutsch., engl., und franz. Sprache) GALLO, R./HORNACEK, I. Nesmrtel' ny plamen. Smena : VydacateF stoosuv GSM 1957 XVI Olympic GAMES Melbourne 1956. List of Results. Zusammengestellt von Ferenc Mezö. — Budapest : Pannonia Press o. J. Olympic GAMES Melbourne 1956. Opening Ceremony. Official Souvenir Programme. — Melbourne : Wilke & Co Ltd. 1956 VII. GIOCHI Olimpicati Invernali Cortina 1956 Italia. Risulti. Bollettino Ufficiale. Nr. 10 — Roma o. J. GLAHN, Erich. Reitkunst am Scheideweg. Die XVI. Olympischen; Reiterspiele in Stockholm 1956 . Heidenheim : E. Hoffmann 1956 XVI olimpijskie IGRY MePburn. — Moskau 1957 L'IT ALI A ai giochi délia CVI olympiade Melbourne-Stoccolma-Corti Hrsg. Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano. — Roma o. J. KISELEV, N. S./J. A. MELNIKOV Nad Melburnom goluboe nebo. (Über Melbourne ist ein blauer Himmel.) Moskva 1957 KOENIG, Walter Die VII. Olympischen Winterspiele 1956 in Cortina d'Ampezzo. — Frankfurt/M.: W. Limpert 1956 MAEGERLEIN. HEINZ Die XI. Olympischen Reiterspiele 1956 in Stockholm. — Frankfurt/M.: W. Limpert 1956 MEZÖ, Ferenc. Olympische Spiele Melbourne 1956. Budapest 1957 (In franz., engl. und deutsch. Sprache) La NON PARTICIPATION de la Suisse aux Jeux de la XlVe Olympiade Melbourne 1956 (Zeitungsberichte). Zusammengestellt von -Otto Mayer (Bibliothek des IOC: Lausanne) Deutsches OLYMPIA. Kunst und Kultur im Sport (ausstellung 1956). — München Süddeutschen Verlag o. J. OLYMPIA 1956. Cortina d'Ampezzo Stockholm Melbourne. — Innsbruck : Inn- Verlag 1956 OLYMPIA 1956. Reiterspiele Stockholm. Sommerspiele Melbourne. Chefredakteur : Kurt Jeschko. — München : Olympia-Edition 1956 OLYMPIA 1956. Winterspiele Cortina. — München : Olympia-Edition 1956 XVIth OLYMPIAD Melbourne 1956. Sid-Olympia-Sonderdienst. Hrsg. Pressebüro Roebel. — Düsseldorf o. J. (Maschinenschr.)

104 XVI. OLYMPIAD Melbourne. 1956. Reprinted from the General rules and special sports regulations (1—16) — Melbourne : Organizing Committee for the XVIth Olympiad Melbourne 1956 *. XVI. OLYMPIAD, Melbourne, 1956. General Rules and special sports regulations. — Melbourne : Organizing Committee for the XVIth. Olympiad 1956 XVI. OLYMPIADE. — Erlebnisse und Erinnerungen. Verantwortl.i Walter Koening, Robert Lembke, Gerd Mehl, Herbert Zimmermann. Frankfurt/M.: W. Limpert Bd. I: VII. Olympische Winterspiele in Cortina d'Ampezzo. (1956) Bd. II: IX. Olympische Reiterspiele Stockholm (1956) Bd. III: XVI. Olympische Sommerspiele Melbourne 1956 (1957) United States 1956 OLYMPIC BOOK. Quadrennial report of the United States Olympic Committee. Ed.: Asa S. Bushnell and Arthur G. Lentz. — New York : United States Olympic Association 1957 RAPPORT sur la participation Suisse aux XVImes Jeux Olympiques Cortina 1956. — o. O. u. J. (Maschinenschr.) RÈGLES Olympiques provisoires. Jeux équestres de la XVIle" Olympiade. — o. O. : Comité organisateur 1956 The officiai REPORT of the Organizing Committee for the Games of the XVI Olym- piad Melbourne 1956. Hrsg. The Organizing Committee of the XVI Olympiad Melbourne 1956. — Melbourne : W. M. Houston 1958 Official REPORT on Ireland's Participation in the XVIth Olympic Games. 1956 which took place at Stockholm —• Equestrian Events, Melbourne — all other events. Hrsg. Olympic Council of Ireland. Dublin o. J. General R U LES and Special Sports Regulations, XVI Olympiad, Melbourne, 1956. Hrsg. Organizing Committee for the XVI Olympiad, Melbourne, 1956. — Melbourne: Massina & Co 1956 IX. Olympische REITERSPIELE Stockholm. — Frankufrt/M.: W. Limpert 1956 Olympische REITERSPIELE 1956. Stockholm. — Weltmeisterschaft der Spring reiter, Aachen. Hrsg. Hans-Joachim v. Killisch-Horn. — Verdern/Aller: Kornett- Verlag 1956 - XVI Olympiadens RYTTARTÄLINGAR. Jeux équestres de la XVIe Olympiade. Equestrian Games of the XVIth Olympiad 1956 Stockholm. Program. Hrsg. Ryttarolympiadens Organisationskommitté. —• Stockholm p. J. RYTTAROLYMPIADEN Stockholm 1»56. En aterblick i ord bild. QfficieH rapport av organisationskommitten for den XVI Olympiadens Ryttartavlingar Stockholm 1956. — Stockholm : Esselte Aktiebotag 1959. (In sehyred. u. engl. Sprache) Die XVI. Olympisehen SOMMERSPIELE «56 Stockholm und Melbourne. DM offizielle Standardwerk des Nationalen Olympischen Komitees. Hrsjr. Deutsche Olympische Gesellschaft. — Stuttgart : Olympischer Sportwlag 19587 XVI. Olympisch« SOMMEKSPIBLE Melbourne 1956. — Frankfurt/M.: W. Lhnpwt 1957 (nebst Beilage u, d. T.: Die Olympiasieger von 1896 und vos 1948—1956) SPEECHES at Solemn Opening of the congress of the International Olympic Com- mittee (19. Nov. 1956). — Prahan, Victoria : Acton Press 1956 Olympische SPIELE 1956. Cortina — Stockholm — Melbourne. Hrsg. v. Harald kechenperg. — München : Copress-Verlag 1957

105 Les SPORTIFS Roumains aux Jeux Olympiques de Melbourne. Hrsg. v. Comité Olympique Roumain. — o. O. u. IJ. Le SPORT Hongrois avant Melbourne. Hrsg. Sport Laspeés Kônyvkiado Vallalat. — Budapest o. J* Die VII. Olympischen WINTERSPIELE Cortina d'Ampezzo 1956. Das offizielle Standardwerk der Nationalen Olympischen Gesellschaft (Hauptschriftleiter : Carl Diem). — Stutgart-Döfflngen : Olympischer Sportverlag 1956 VII. Olympische WINTERSPIELE Cortina d'Ampezzo. — Frankfurt/M.: W. Limpert.1956 VII. Olympische WINTERSPIELE Cortina d'Ampezzo 1956. — Berlin : Sport- verlag 1956 1980 ABRAHAMS, Harold XVII Olympiad Rome 1960. — London : Cassel & Co 1950 The BRITISH OLYMPIC ASSOCIATION. Official Report of the Olympic Games. Hrsg. v. Phil. Pilley. — London : World Sports o. J. Das BUCH der Italienischen Tage. Ente Nazionale Industrie Turistiche. — Rom. : Enit Editions o. J. (1960 CUBA Compite en los Juegos Olimpicos. Informe Oflcial. XVII Olimpiada Roma, Italia 1960. Hrsg. 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PERIODICALS BULLETIN d'informations. Hrsg. v. Comité Olympique Bulgare. Jg. 1. 1956ff. — Sofia : Comité Olympique Bulgare 1956ff. CITIUS, Altius, Fortius. Estudios Deportivos. Hrsg. Comité Olympico Espanol. Tomo I. 1959 ff. — Madrid 1959 ff. Olympisches FEUER. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Olympischen Gesellschaft (Jg. l u. 2 u. d. T. Olympische Rundschau). Jg. 1. 1951 ff. — Celle : Pohl 1951 ff. Olympische JUGEND. Zeitschrift d. Deutschen Sportjugend. Jg. 1. 1956/57. ff. — Frankfurt/M.: W. Limpert 1956 ff REVUE Olympique. Bulletin Trimestriel du Comité International Olympique, 1901—1914 COMITÉ International Olympique Session de 1921, Lausanne BULLETIN officiel du Comité International Olympique 1926—1933, 1934—1938, Mon Repos, Lausanne. OLYMPISCHE RUNDSCHAU. Hrsg. v. Internat. Olymp. Institut. Berlin : W. Limpert 1938—1944. (In deutsch, franz., engl. Sprache) BULLETIN du Comité International Olympique. Hrsg. IOC, Mon Repos. Lausanne 1946—1961

Note : The Bibliography does not claim to be complete.

108 LIST OF LECTURERS AND PARTICIPANTS

John Th. KETSEAS, Member of the I.O.C. for Greece Prof. Dr. med. et litt. Carl. DIEM, Cologne.

Directors of Studies Cleanthis PALAEOLOGOS, Athens Dr. phil. Franz LOTZ, Würzburg

LECTURERS 1. Prof. Dr. Carl J. BURCKHARDT, Basel 2. Pr. D. Ass. Prof. J. Kenneth DOHERTY, Pennsylvania 3. Direktor Ernst HIRT, Magglingen 4. Dr. phil. Erich LINDNER, Marburg 5. Dr. phil. Franz LOTZ, Würzburg 6. Prof. Dr. Otto MISANGYI, St. Gallen 7. Prof. Albert Davis MUNROW, Birmingham 8. Director Cleanthis PALAEOLOGOS, Athens 9. Pater Martin-SOLL, Düsseldorf

10. Prof. Dr. med. Arthur H. STEINHAUS, Chicago 11. Prof. Dr. Willy ZSCHIETZSCHMANN, Gieben 12. Toni NETT, Stuttgart, Verbandssportlehrer des DLV PARTICIPANTS Argentina 1. Alfredo Miri, 2. Christel Romero Austria 3. Helmut Donner Belgium 4. Robert Moutquin Canada 5. Geo Marinier Chile 6. Renate Friedrichs Congo 7. Gustave Fabrizi Egypt 8. Siham Badr Germany 9. Günther Willmann Great Britain 10. David Kingston, 11. Peter Mills Greece 12. Theodor Avgidis Holland 13. Dick de Groot Iran 14, Iras Khalili Varasteh Israel 15. Matitjahu Kranz Italy 16. Silvano Mazzi Japan 17. Reijiro Kamoshita Kenya 18, David Lyon

111 Mexico 19. Hilde Knösels Nigeria 20. Anthony Omo-Osagie S. Africa ' 21. Gerhardus Porgieter Spain 22. Cornuelo Durantez Switzerland 23. Jürg Baerlocher U.A.R. 24. Nabila Mansur, 25. Nabila Nasser, 26. Abdelmohcem Fadlala . Uganda 27. Mariano Obol Uruguay 28. Miguel Gesto, 29. Georg von Hegedüs U.S.A. 30. William Boomer 31. Gordon Tower Camp Manager : GAZIANIS Medical Officer : Dr. Josef Engels, Köln Administration : Rudi Krammer Organisation : Walter König

NATIONAL ACACEMY FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION OF GREECE Athens' i. Cleanthis PALAEOLOGOS, Director 2. Achilles DRIVAS, Representative 3. Triantaphylos KARATASSAKIS 4. John JIOKARIS 5. Elias CHARALAMBAKIS 6. Dimitrios CHRISTOPOULOS 7. John SKORDILIS 8. Ephrosyni FRAGOU 9. Panajotis TSAKRIS, National Dances

10. Charalambos NESOS 11. Erifili LALOU

DEUTSCHE SPORTCHOCHSCHULE KÖLN 1. Prof. Dr. med. et litt. Carl DIEM, Rector 2. Dr. Werner KORBS, Representative 3. Liselott DIEM 4. Anneliese SCHMOLKE, National Dances 5. Horst KOSEL 6. Herbert LANGHANS

MEMBERS OF DEMONSTRATION TEAMS FEMALE Greece : 1. K. Alexiou 3. V. Grigorio 2. S. Anastasiadou 4. N, Dafna

112 5. P. Dimitroulakou 22. M. Zestou 6. E. Koutlelou 23. 0. Kavoura 7. D. Ktena 24. V. Kalampakou 8. S. Lekka 25. Th. Kastanou 9. V. Moytzouroulia 26. P. Kollia

10. L. Moraitou 27. S. Kouaki 11. S. Negri 28. J. Kiriazi 12. K. Paklantzidou 29. A. Liakopoulou 13. S. Stamati 30. N. Micha 14. A. Tziakou 31. G. Mpounakou 15. H. Tschokalidou 32. K. Mpoutsikaki 16. K. Fantarou 33. E. Mprillaki 17. E. Chatzicharalampous 34. A. Drellia 18. Th. Christodoulou 35. A. Papathanasiou 19. S. Andreakou 36. S. Sivitanidou 20. H. Guika 37. H. Tschachouridou 21. P. Dede 38. S. Papadopoulou 39. E. Tschitsilara

Germany : 1. Bassènge, Sabine 21. Krumm, Sabine 2. Bautz, Dagmar 22. Langhans, Traudl 3. Beuing, Ute 23. Lemmen, Marianne 4. Dombrowski, Oda 24. Lenthe, Friderike 5. Flochenhaus, Christa 25. Lenthe, Holde 6. Gauter, Katharina 26. Lenwerder, Minchen 7. Gerfertz, Christa 27. Meisenheimer, Sigrid 8. Haag, Gerhild 28. Neusius, Ursula 9. Pralle-Burgfort, Karin 29. Nocke, Helga

10. Hodum, Silke 30. Nöh, Sigrid 11. Hohmann, Anita 31. Pretzell, Regine 12. Horstmann-Briesch, Karin 32. Raquet, Trude 13. Joosten, Ute 33. Rick, Christa 14. Junge, Barbara 34. Riebel, Ingrid 15. Junker, Renate 35. Roßberg, Ursula 16. Klein, Helga 36. Schaub, Bärbel 17. Köhler, Marlene 37. Tilli, Dietlinde 18. Köhn, Ursula 38. Wilkens, Gisela 19. Korbs, Jutta 39. Willomeit, Rosemarie 20. Kretz, Cornelie 40. Ziebe, Gudrun 41. Knopf, Irmgad (Flötistin)

113 MALE Greece : 1. J. Amiridis 21. G. Mpidelis 2. J. Doutas 22. M. Nicolaidis 3. E. Koimpoulas 23. D. Ntoysmanis 4. K. Leontsinis 24. G. Papadakis 5. J. Markojanakis 25. D. Paraskevopoulos 6. J. Matsotas 26. S. Priggos 7. P. Mentzelopoulos 27. K. Saganas 8. N. Mpartzoudis 28. M. Sofroniou 9. G. Papadakis 29. N. Triantafillou

10. P. Priovolos 30. S. Douvis 11. J. Satratzemis 31. J. Doulis 12. J. Tsitsijannis 32. K. Kalliaras 13. Ch. Anagnostopoulos 33. D. Karageorgos 14. J. Zervas 34. M. Karajannis 15. G. Zogzas 35. D. Katsakioris 16. P. Jakovou 36. Ch. Koykoytsidis 17. A. Karavoulis 37. A. Lanitis - 18. A. Kokkinos 38. Al. Persakis 19. K. Kotrozos 39. P. Rouskas 20. G. Mpenekas 40. A. Skordis Germany :

1. Adler, ' Gerd 21. Lottermoser, Hans 2. Bär, Ortwin 22. Lindner, Heinz 3. Bennung, Gunter 23. Mull, Günter 4. Broske, Olaf 24. Miedzinski, Klaus 5. Bockheiser, Ulf 25. Nord-Dorset, Helmut 6. Bockheiser, Peter 26. Rahn, Rüdiger 7. Brillât, Joachim 27. Ritter, Klaus 8. Braun, Herbert 28. Röthele, Eberhard 9. Chmiel, Klaus 29. Schulze-Bäing, Heinrich

10. Carsjens, Udo 30. Spiess, Paul 11. Geissel, Kurt 31. Sinns, Jürgen 12. Gerdes, Heio 32. Schlesinger, Volkmar 13. Gutenschwager, Dieter 33. Siegmeyer, G. 14. Grah, Horst 34. Tilli, Horst 15. Haible, Otto 35. Weber, Peter 16. Hessing, Herbert 36. Wever, Heinrich 17. Halbritter, Hans 37. Werner, Georg 18. Hess, Peter 38. Zimmer, Helmut 19. Kräh, Klaus 39. Frings, Elmar 20. Lazar, Stefan 40. Hellmich, Josef

114