PARASITES 2.2018 Maxplanckresearch

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Parasites

INTERNATIONAL LAW POLYMER RESEARCH METEOROLOGY CRIMINAL LAW Trawling in Plastic – Kind to Climate Anti-Espionage Outer Space the Environment Slashing Strategies

SCHLESWIG- Research Establishments HOLSTEIN Rostock Plön Greifswald MECKLENBURG- WESTERN POMERANIA Institute / research center Hamburg Sub-institute / external branch Other research establishments Associated research organizations Bremen BRANDENBURG LOWER SAXONY Max Planck Innovation is responsible for The Netherlands Nijmegen Berlin Italy the technology transfer of the Max Planck Hanover Potsdam Rome Society and, as such, the link between Florence Magdeburg USA Münster SAXONY-ANHALT industry and basic research. With our inter- Jupiter, Florida NORTH RHINE-WESTPHALIA Brazil Dortmund Halle disciplinary team we advise and support Manaus Mülheim Göttingen Leipzig Luxembourg Düsseldorf scientists in evaluating their inventions, Luxembourg Cologne SAXONY Jena Dresden filing patents and founding companies. We Bonn Marburg THURINGIA offer industry a unique access to the Bad Münstereifel HESSE

innovations of the Max Planck Institutes. RHINELAND Bad Nauheim PALATINATE Thus we perform an important task: the Mainz Frankfurt transfer of basic research results into Kaiserslautern SAARLAND Erlangen products, which contribute to the economic Saarbrücken Heidelberg and social progress. BAVARIA Stuttgart

Tübingen Garching BADEN- Munich WÜRTTEMBERG Martinsried Freiburg Seewiesen Radolfzell Connecting Science and Business Publisher‘s Information

MaxPlanckResearch is published by the Science Translation MaxPlanckResearch seeks to keep partners and friends of the and Corporate Communication Office of the Baker & Company Max Planck Society up to date on the latest research conducted at Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science. Ferdinand-Maria-Straße 30 the Max Planck Institutes. Four editions of the magazine are pub- Legal headquarters of the Association: Berlin. 80639 Munich lished in German each year, all of which are translated into English. ISSN 1616-4172 Tel. +49 89 8583608-0 At present, the English version has a circulation of 10,000 copies e-mail: [email protected] ( : 85,000 copies). It is free of charge. None Publisher’s mailing address MaxPlanckForschung Hofgartenstraße 8, D-80539 Munich Art Direction of the views and opinions expressed in MaxPlanckResearch may Tel. +49 89 2108-1719 / -1276 (Fax: -1405) Julia Kessler, Sandra Koch be interpreted as representing the official views of the Max Planck e-mail: [email protected] Voßstraße 9, 81543 Munich Society and its associated bodies. Reprint of texts is permitted only The magazine as ePaper: www.mpg.de/mpresearch Tel. +49 89 27818770 with the prior approval of the publisher. Photographic rights may App for free download: www.mpg.de/mpr-mobile e-mail: [email protected] be granted by agreement. The Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissen- Lithography Content Authority schaften e.V. (Max Planck Society) comprises 84 institutes and KSA Media GmbH Dr. Christina Beck (-1276) research facilities where around 23,400 employees, including Zeuggasse 7, 86150 Augsburg Editors-in-Chief some 6,700 employed scientists, work and conduct research. The Printing & Distribution Peter Hergersberg (Chemistry, Physics, Technology; -1536) annual budget for 2018 is 1.8 billion euros. Research activities of the Vogel Druck- & Medienservice GmbH Helmut Hornung (Astronomy; -1404) Max Planck Society focus on basic research in natural sciences Leibnizstraße 5, 97204 Höchberg and the humanities. The Max Planck Society is a non-profit Editorial Staff Advertising organization registered under private law as an Dr. Elke Maier (Biology, Medicine; -1064) www.max-planck-innovation.de Beatrice Rieck incorporated association. Its central decision- Dr. Harald Rösch (Biology, Medicine; -1756) Vogel Druck und Medienservice GmbH making body is the Senate, with members Mechthild Zimmermann (Culture, Society; -1720) Leibnizstraße 5, 97204 Höchberg from the world of politics, the scientific comu- Photo Editor Tel.: +49 931 4600-2721 (Fax: -2145) nity, and the professional public, providing for Susanne Schauer (-1562) e-mail: [email protected] a well-balanced partnership.

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2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 83

mi_anzeige_1/1_englisch_28_07_2017_prod.indd 1 28.07.2017 15:11:39 Uhr ON LOCATION Photo: Sonja Metzger/Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology

Daily Life in the Jungle

West Africa, Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, not far from the border to Liberia: the camp of the Max Planck researchers is sited in the middle of the Taï National Park rain forest, a 12-hour drive from the port city of Abidjan and three hours along a dirt road from the nearest village. For several years now, a team of scientists headed by Christophe Boesch has been observing three neighboring chimpanzee groups with a total of around 100 animals. These animals are so used to the presence of humans that they practically take no notice of them – as if the researchers are merely a part of the surroundings. Achieving this usually takes many years of the scientists carefully and gradually approaching the primates. The actual research can begin only when, even in the presence of people, each chimpanzee behaves as it normally would when alone. The scientists follow the chimp groups everywhere they roam and observe their day-to-day life, making sure, however, that they behave in a completely neutral way in the animals’ presence: they don’t feed them, don’t eat in their presence, don’t play with the young chimps – even when the latter are curious and seek out the humans’ company. And the researchers never come into physical contact with the animals. This last point is crucial for the health of the primates: even a seemingly harmless cold can wipe out an entire chimpanzee family. Consequently, there are strict rules of behavior and hygiene measures: every person who enters the camp must be vaccinated against numerous diseases; in addition, he or she must initially spend five days in quarantine in the camp’s outsta- tion. Anyone who shows even the slightest symptoms of an infection is forbidden from entering the forest in the vicinity of the apes. On site, each observer must maintain a distance of at least seven meters from the animals – and always wear a protective mask, which can become quite uncomfortable at 95 percent humidity and temperatures that often exceed 30 degrees Celsius.

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 3 Contents

In a flash: Astrochemist Paola Caselli has always steadfastly pursued her 18 PARASITES 48 professional goals.

18 Genes as Parasites PERSPECTIVES Parasites exist not only in the plant and animal kingdoms, they are Ethics, Economy and Social Change also a part of us. Our genome contains myriad short stretches of DNA 06 – known as transposons – that propagate at the genome’s expense. 06 High Accolade for Science Historian Researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology 07 “In ten years, we will know which want to shed light on the processes by which transposons are copied animals can predict natural disasters” – not only because they can cause disease, but also because they may 08 Rust Protection from Nanocapsules be an important engine of evolution. 08 Potential Tuberculosis Vaccine 26 A Stickleback Full of Worms Draws Closer 09 Foundation for Heidelberg Around 40 percent of all species on Earth are parasitic. Even a fish such Research Network as the three-spined stickleback is plagued by up to 25 different parasites. One of them particularly appealed to scientists at the Max Planck 09 On the Net Institute for Evolutionary Biology: the tapeworm Schistocephalus solidus. They are researching the numerous tricks that host and parasite use to outdo each other. VIEWPOINT 34 Perilous Puddles 10 Trawling in Outer Space Lu xembourg passed a law guarantee- Admittedly, the research subject isn’t particularly appetizing: Strongyloi- ing companies entitlement to raw des stercoralis – small parasitic worms that live in their host’s intestines materials obtained in outer space. and have the potential to cause severe problems. Nevertheless, However, this farsighted policy researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology are is more than a little dubious with fascinated by this threadworm. It has a unique life cycle, and to this day, respect to international law, as our no one really understands why. author explains.

FOCUS ON THE COVER A human whipworm of the genus Trichuris can grow as long as five centimeters. This intestinal parasite comprises a thread-like anterior end connected 18 Genes as Parasites to a thicker posterior end containing the internal organs, making the worms resemble 26 A Stickleback Full of Worms a whip. Some species infect animals, such as dogs, cats or pigs, but humans, too, 34 Perilous Puddles can serve as hosts for whipworms. Infections are usually imperceptible. Only very

severe cases might result in intestinal bleeding and diarrhea. Cover: Science Photo Library/DENNIS KUNKEL MICROSCOPY; photos this page: Michael Schwarz/MPI for Evolutionary Biology (lg. imag e), Axel Griesch (sm. image)

4 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 image) (sm. In excess: Mountains of plastic In the forest: Humans are In the dark: German investigators are waste pollute the environment and altering the global carbon often defeated by national borders when Griesch 56 can endure for hundreds of years. 64 balance through forestry. 72 trying to track down industrial spies. Axel image),

(lg. SPECTRUM MATERIALS & TECHNOLOGY CULTURE & SOCIETY

Biology 42 Dramatic Decline of Bornean 56 Plastic – Kind to the Environment 72 Anti-Espionage Strategies Orangutans Plastics are practical – not least be- Especially small and medium-sized 42 Fighting Malaria with Chemistry cause they last. But when they find businesses are increasingly falling their way into the environment, this victim to criminal competitors or being Evolutionary 43 The Nose Knows

for is precisely what becomes a prob- targeted by foreign intelligence ser- Star Migration 43 lem. Scientists at the Max Planck vices. Nevertheless, most cases remain 43 Maelstroms in the Heart Institute for Polymer Research in shrouded in mystery. Scientists at the 44 A Millirobot with a Talent Mainz are therefore developing Max Planck Institute for Foreign and In-

Schwarz/MPI for Movement alternative materials that can be ternational Criminal Law are conduct- 44 Interconnected Sensory Impressions broken down by microorganisms ing research into, among other things,

Michael once they have served their purpose. the scale of industrial espionage and 44 Colonial-Era Pathogen Identified how companies are combating it. page: 45 A Relic of the Big Bang right)

to this 45 The Spread of the Bell Beaker ENVIRONMENT & CLIMATE (left 45 Brains of Jazz and Classical REGULAR FEATURES photos dpa Pianists Work Differently 64 Climate Slashing 46 Neanderthals as Artists Debates on global warming focus 03 On Location on one main cause: CO emissions 46 A Jigsaw Puzzle of Plant Cells 2 16 Post from – Isparta, Turkey from the combustion of fossil fuels. A Yearning for Roses iStockphoto,

MICROSCOPY; 47 Humans Limit Animal Movements But humankind is also changing 78 Flashback 47 Axolotl and Planarian Flatworm the climate by clearing forests and Molecules – On Ice

KUNKEL Genomes Decoded through farming, forestry and animal husbandry. Researchers 80 Max Planck Community Abdulraheem, 80 Countdown to Summer Schools at the Max Planck Institute for 80 German-Chinese Exchange in Shanghai PYHSICS & ASTRONOMY Meteorology are investigating the 81 Minerva Fellows Meet in Munich consequences of these activities Library/DENNIS 81 PhDnet Visits Administrative 48 In the Cosmic Chemistry Lab for the climate. Personal Portrait: Paola Caselli Headquarters Photo 82 When the Senate Gets Together with Iron Researchers Shutterstock/Mohamed

Science 83 Research Establishments Cover: Photos: 83 Publisher’s Information

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 5 PERSPECTIVES

Ethics, Economy and Social Change

New Max Planck Center launched with the University of Cambridge

How do moral and ethical convictions impact a local economy, and how do they influence the global capitalist system? These questions are at the heart of the research conducted at the Max Planck Cambridge Center for Ethics, Economy and Social Change, which was formally launched in early March. The collaborative project’s search for answers will see researchers from the UK’s elite University of Cam- bridge work together with scholars from the Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology in Halle and the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity in Göttingen. At the inaugura- tion ceremony, Max Planck President Martin Strat- mann expressed his delight that “in this period of uncertainty caused by Brexit, we have established another highly visible collaboration with top British scientists.” The Center’s four Co-Directors – James Laidlaw and Joel Robbins from the University of Cambridge, and Max Planck researchers Chris Hann and Peter van der Veer – are aware of the consider- able public interest in the ethical principles of capi- talism generated by the global financial crisis. One Acclaim for Anglo-German initiative: Max Planck President Martin Stratmann of the aims of their work is to develop new approach- (left) and Stephen Toope, Vice Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, at the es to respond to urgent social issues. launch of the joint venture.

High Accolade for Science Historian

Max Planck Director Lorraine Daston receives Israel’s Dan David Prize

Lorraine Daston, long-serving Director at praise, which the jury called “one of the the Max Planck Institute for the History of most discussed and reviewed works in the Science in Berlin, won a prestigious inter- history of science.” national award in recognition of her scien- Named after Israeli businessman Dan tific work. She received the prize, which David, the prize is awarded each year to in- carries an endowment of 1 million US dol - dividuals with proven excellence in the sci- lars (more than 800,000 euros), for her ences, arts, humanities, public service and “groundbreaking research on the ‘Ideals business. This year, three scientists were and Practices of Rationality’.” In its state- honored in each of the following fields: ment, the jury noted that Prof. Daston’s history of science, bioethics and personal- work had demonstrated, among other ized medicine. things, “how such seemingly universal con- cepts as ‘fact’ and ‘proof’ have changed since the 17th century.” Objectivity, a book International recognition: Lorraine Daston has co-written by Lorraine Daston and Peter made a name for herself through her research

Galison, was singled out for particular into the cultural history of rationality. Photos: Alice Boagey/Max-Cam-Centre (top); Skúli Sigurdsson/MPI for the History of Science (bottom)

6 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 PERSPECTIVES

“ In ten years, we will know which animals can predict natural disasters”

Interview with Martin Wikelski on the Icarus antenna’s successful voyage to the International Space Station

It is expected to launch by mid-year: spend two months testing whether the Icarus – the first satellite-based program antennas and on-board computer are to research animal migration. With the functioning and making sure the data help of tiny transmitters that send data to transmission is working properly. And the International Space Station (ISS), Martin then, in the fall or toward the end of the Wikelski’s team of scientists at the Max year, we can finally get going. Planck Institute for Ornithology in Radolf- zell hope to understand the factors that Icarus will allow scientists the first-ever impact migratory patterns of different an- opportunity to observe thousands of animals imal species. The Icarus program’s two on their journeys around the globe – over key components have been in space since months and years, 24/7. What are the most mid-February, after a Soyuz rocket trans- pressing questions that Icarus can answer? ported the Icarus antennas to the ISS. Mar- The most significant thing for me would tin Wikelski talks about experiencing his be migratory birds. Their numbers are first countdown and what the future falling dramatically around the world. holds for the project. We often don’t know where they disappear to or why. Unless we find answers Martin Wikelski Dr. Wikelski, you were at the rocket launch fast, so we can take countermeasures, it in Baikonur. How did you feel at that will soon be too late for many species. moment? There was an awful lot at stake. The same applies to heavily exploited but also on a series of other satellites. This Martin Wikelski: The spaceport in the fish populations and many marine mam- will also allow us to survey areas that heart of the Kazakh Steppe is quite a spe- mals in our oceans. We also urgently Icarus is currently unable to cover. Above cial place. When you stand beside the need to learn more about how animals all, additional satellites will enable us to massive gates and the rocket comes roll- spread pathogenic agents. How does examine regions of particular scientific ing out of the hangar, you feel a bit un- bird flu travel to Europe? Which animals interest above the 55th parallel in Europe, easy. My colleagues and I put so much carry the Ebola virus? This is why we Asia and North America. time and energy into developing Icarus – want to track the flight paths of water- and it could all go up in smoke in a mat- fowl in Asia and fruit bats in Africa. Both As soon as Icarus is up and running, a lot ter of seconds. After all, we know that are possible carriers of these pathogens. will also change for you personally. How will not every launch is successful. And last but not least, in ten years, we’ll it affect your everyday work? know which species can predict natural I will be able to work on my own research Now that the antenna has arrived safely at disasters. Initial scientific data on earth- projects again, thank goodness! Unfortu- the ISS, what happens with it next? quakes and volcanic eruptions suggests nately, during the last few years, I’ve For now, it is stored in the station’s Rus- that certain animals can sense such sometimes had to put my scientific work sian module. Then, in August, the anten- events hours ahead of time. If we can on the back burner in favor of Icarus. na will be mounted on the station’s exte- provide solid evidence of these abilities, That should certainly change now. Start- rior. That will be another critical mo- it could soon save the lives of hundreds ing in July, I will take a sabbatical for sci- ment. If everything goes well during the of thousands of people. ence and go back to focusing completely spacewalk for the two Russian cosmo- on my research. Interview: Harald Rösch nauts Oleg Artemyev and Sergei Proko Looking to the future now – what will Icarus piev, we’ll have overcome the last remain- look like in ten years? ing major hurdle. To begin with, the numbers of research projects using Icarus will increase signifi- 2018 is a decisive year for Icarus. What are cantly in the coming years. I imagine that, you most looking forward to in the months by 2028, several thousand projects will be to come? able to collect scientific data thanks to The first data transmission from the ISS – the Icarus system. Our transmitters, no question! The moment we receive the which by then will be even smaller, could first test data from the Space Station and be fitted to hundreds of thousands of an- know that the system works, I’ll be the imals. In addition, in ten years, Icarus will

Photo: MaxCine happiest man in the world. We will then probably not only be installed on the ISS

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 7 PERSPECTIVES

Rust Protection from Nanocapsules

New technology prevents metal from corrosion

Costs resulting from corrosion total some 3.3 billion US dollars annually. Currently, varnishes, enamel, rubber and metallic surface layers are applied to materials to prevent rust damage, but these often contain harmful substances and do not provide long-term protection. German company Envi- ral has now acquired a license for a brand new anti-corrosive technology that was developed at the Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces and is based on “smart” pigments. The process enables anti-corrosive coatings to repair damage, similar to the self-healing mechanism of human skin. To achieve this, micro- and nanovessels are filled with organic corrosion inhibitors, encapsulated in a polyelectrolyte shell and subsequently embedded in the coating. If the protective layer is damaged – by scratches or fissures, for instance – the embedded vessels at the site of the flaw open, releasing the corrosion inhibitors and immediately protecting the damaged area. Enviral plans to further de- Effective anti-corrosion protection: An environmentally friendly plastic coating velop the smart pigments and promote their pro- with self-healing properties is designed to protect iron components against rust. duction and marketing.

Potential Tuberculosis Vaccine Draws Closer

A promising vaccine is being tested on patients with recurrent tuberculosis

Tuberculosis remains one of the world’s are currently unknown, around 10 per- most dangerous infectious diseases. cent of these patients contracted the Healthcare professionals and policy- disease again within a year. In the tri- makers are particularly troubled by the al, a portion of the participants are in- increasing number of multiresistant oculated with VPM1002 a few weeks af- pathogens. Researchers at the Max ter being discharged as healthy. “If the Planck Institute for Infection Biology vaccine candidate can reduce the rein- MPI for Infection Biology (bottom) laid the scientific foundation for a po- fection rate in this particularly chal- /

tential new vaccine that is now enter- lenging group and proves to be well ing the decisive Phase III clinical drug tolerated, it will have cleared a major trials. The vaccine, called VPM1002, is hurdle on the path to approval,” ex- currently being tested in a study in- plained Stefan Kaufmann from the volving some 2,000 participants in In- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biol- dia. This study began early this year ogy, who made a significant contribu- and is slated to run until mid-2020. Re- tion to developing the scientific con- searchers are testing the potential vac- cept for VPM1002. cine on patients who have already suf- fered from tuberculosis and successfully Immune system in action: A while blood cell (shown in red) ingests tuberculosis bacteria (yellow), confining them. However, the bacteria can survive for years in these phagocytic cells. undergone treatment. For reasons that Photos: iStockphoto (top); Volker Brinkmann

8 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 PERSPECTIVES

Foundation for Heidelberg Research Network

Max Planck Society and Baden-Württemberg agree on a new building for the joint “Biology at the nanoscale” project

The Baden-Württemburg State Ministry of Science has agreed to support the collaboration between Heidelberg University and the Max Planck Insti- tute for Medical Research in Heidelberg. Minister for Science, Research, and the Arts Theresia Bauer, Max Planck President Martin Stratmann and Pres- ident of Heidelberg University Bernhard Eitel signed a declaration of intent to this effect in early March. The document details the federal state’s commitment to provide 25 million euros to fund the construction. The new building will be erect- ed on the “Heidelberg 4 Life” life sciences innovation campus, directly adjacent to the Max Planck Institute. It will become home to the planned “Bi- ology at the Nanoscale” research network, which was born of an initiative by Nobel Prize laureate Stefan Hell. The University and the Max Planck In- stitute hope to use the research network to expand their collaboration in basic research in bioscience and biomedicine. Additional partners, including the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and local clinical researchers, will also be integrated Innovation in sight: Bernd Bukau and Bernhard Eitel from Heidelberg University, into the network. The scientists also aim to culti- Baden-Württemberg’s Minister of Science Theresia Bauer, and Martin Stratmann vate industry contacts so that their discoveries can and Stefan Hell from the Max Planck Society (from left) after signing the agreement. be quickly translated into medical applications.

On the Net

Flight and Trauma Passion for Science Copy and Original Some 20 to 30 percent of refugees suffer This is the motto of the Max Planck Through his copies of Italian paintings from severe depression or post-traumat- Schools – an innovative national net- and frescoes, Johann Anton Ramboux ic stress disorder. A short film by the work for excellent graduate education. (1790-1866) left a lasting imprint on art Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry uses Preparations to launch the first three history research. Generations of artists animated images to show that insom- Schools are in full swing. The Max Planck and art researchers have relied on Ram- nia, obsessive brooding and physical Schools will issue a call for applications boux’s museum of copies. Before photog- complaints such as headaches and short- in the fall of 2018, and the first students raphy became the main form of docu- ness of breath can be symptoms of a will commence their studies 2019. Appli- menting works of art, his drawings, trac- mental illness. The film aims to relieve cations will also be open to students ings, lithographs and watercolors were the pressure on those affected and en- with a bachelor’s degree, who can then often the only accessible source of these courage them to seek help. The two-min- complete a two-year master’s degree fol- works. The Max Planck Society’s Kunst ute film is available in ten languages, for lowed by a three-year PhD program. The historisches Institut in Florenz created example German, English, French, Italian, Schools have a joint website where an online exhibition juxtaposing Ram- Arabic, Dari and Kurdish. those interested can find detailed infor- boux’s copies with the original works. http://bit.ly/2M2GbV3 mation about the program. http://photothek.khi.fi.it/documents/

Photo: Heidelberg University https://www.maxplanckschools.de/en oak/00000331

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 9 VIEWPOINT_International Law

Trawling in Outer Space

Luxembourg is the first European country to pass a law guaranteeing companies entitlement to raw materials obtained in outer space – as long as the companies are based in the country. The Grand Duchy is also using loans and research investments as incentives. The rationale behind this is Luxembourg’s desire to become the leading international center for mining in outer space, in the hope that the companies involved will then pay tax on their profits there. However, this farsighted policy is more than a little dubious with respect to international law, as our author explains.

TEXT LORENZO GRADONI

n 1973, the President of the United States of law that has obtained “written authorization for the America sent an unusual gift to the Grand Duchy mission” from the competent ministry. The proce- of Luxembourg – the nation’s flag in the size of dure is governed by a law adopted on July 20, 2017, a handkerchief, and a slightly smaller piece of Article 1 of which states: “Resources in outer space rock. The flag had just travelled to the Moon may be appropriated.” and back onI the Apollo 17 mission, and the rock came This statement will come as a surprise to anyone from a Moon valley near Mare Tranquillitatis. The who believed that outer space was the province of fragment of the Moon’s surface, which is now housed mankind under international law. How can it be law- ful for somebody to own space resources and exploit them for their own advantage? Aside from the US, which adopted similar legislation in 2015, and the The words “in accordance with United Arab Emirates, where a comparable bill is being prepared, what are other countries doing? international law” were omitted Let’s say that a company is the owner, under Lux- embourg law, of a ton of heavy metals obtained from an asteroid. Doesn’t it run the risk of having at the National Museum of Natural History, was pre- its valuable assets seized in the port of Antwerp? Bel- sented to Luxembourg “as a symbol of the unity of gium, which is a member of the United Nations human endeavor.” Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, has Today, the right to own and sell such rocks can be clearly opposed unilaterally promoting the privatiza- obtained in Luxembourg, regardless of whether they come from the Moon, a near-Earth asteroid or a min- No shoal of fish: The Outer Space Treaty seemingly prohibits ing facility on Mars. The only requirement is that the appropriation of entire asteroids. Whether international

they be extracted by a company under Luxembourg law permits them to be mined is a contentious issue. Photo: iStockphoto/dottedhippo

10 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 VIEWPOINT_International Law Photo: iStockphoto/dottedhippo

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 11 VIEWPOINT_International Law

tion of resources in outer space. One need only look certainty alone if international law itself doesn’t at the Benelux countries to witness this “extraterres- provide it. The practical conclusion drawn by the trial” dispute. But the new law is controversial in Conseil was quite radical: “Article 1 of the bill” – the Luxembourg, too. emblem of the entire project – “had to be deleted.” On November 15, 2016, Etienne Schneider, Lux- At the same time, it didn’t wish to torpedo the leg- embourg’s Deputy Prime Minister, presented to islation. Instead, its message to parliament was this: parliament a draft bill whose first article stated: “The a bill that indicates that international law general- resources of outer space may be appropriated in ly tolerates the appropriation of space resources accordance with international law.” Readers will un- would simply be misleading, and the legislator doubtedly notice the difference between this provi- should confine itself to introducing an approval pro- sional wording and the final version of the law cit- cedure to decide on outer space “permits” on a case- ed above. In the final version, there is no reference by-case basis. to international law, as if it had been overlooked. As outlined above, only half of the message was The Luxembourg government seems convinced, taken on board. Article 1 of the bill was retained, al- however, that international law can’t stand in the beit without any reference to international law, as way of its “space resources” project. So why was the if to protect the Luxembourg legal system and in- reference to international law removed? Doesn’t it vestors hoping to take advantage of Article 1 from look like an admission of culpability? the legal uncertainty highlighted by the Conseil. It The headquarters of the Conseil d’Etat, which is therefore not by chance that the bill’s legal basis, was responsible for deleting it – involuntarily as we as spelled out in the commentary thereto, refers not will see – is just a few hundred meters away from so much to international law as to domestic and nat- Parliament. Its task is to check whether bills comply ural law. It is the Napoleonic code that paved the way for the appropriation of space resources, to which it is said to apply by analogy. According to the bill’s authors, the “analogy between outer space Are asteroids like small islands, and the ocean” is “legally [...] evident.” They seemingly took a decisive cue from François Laurent, a boulders or icebergs? famous lawyer born in Luxembourg in 1810, who wrote a 33-volume “Principles of Civil Law” (Princi- pes de droit civil) and the 18-volume Studies on the with Luxembourg’s Constitution, as well as with in- history of humanity (Études sur l’histoire de l’hu- ternational agreements and EU law. While the Con- manité). According to Laurent, who had a good un- seil didn’t find any significant discrepancy between derstanding of the “nature of things,” one couldn’t the bill and international law in its position state- assert that ownerless things, such as crustaceans and ment issued on April 7, 2017, it did question the fish, “are intended by nature for use by all mankind. project’s raison d’être. In reality, they are of no use to anyone unless they The Conseil couldn’t conceal its unease about in- have an owner, and as soon as they have an owner, ternational law on outer space – a law it deems to they are of use only to those who have appropriat- be vague. Nevertheless, the government of the ed them.” Grand Duchy declared that the “primary aim” of the In the view of the Luxembourg government, the bill was to “establish legal certainty as regards the resources of outer space can, therefore, “like fish and ownership of minerals and other valuable resources crustaceans,” be appropriated, but “celestial bodies obtained in outer space and, in particular, from as- and asteroids can’t, in the same way that the oceans teroids.” But Luxembourg law can’t offer this legal can’t be appropriated.” According to Article 116 of

12 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 the United Nations Convention on the Law of the then states could make them their own, as they did Sea, “All States have the right for their nationals to when they sailed their ships across the oceans in engage in fishing on the high seas.” The same rule search of unknown lands. “A planet becomes the ex- would apply to outer space. This is provided that traterrestrial possession of the state that acquired it they can locate what counts as a fishing ground in through conquest or peaceful occupation,” wrote Jo- outer space and distinguish it from things that can’t seph Kroell in 1953 in a journal on outer space law. be appropriated. Anyone wishing to cast their nets to capture an asteroid would, according to the Luxembourg government, be trying to catch a celestial body that – Only 18 states expressly recognize even if relatively small – isn’t legally the same as a tuna fish. What position would the extremely diverse the Moon as the common heritage family of asteroids occupy in the analogy between of mankind ocean and outer space? Should they be regarded as uninhabited small islands or as underwater boulders or pebbles washed up on the beach? Perhaps they But the international community took a different should be viewed as icebergs? Can they be distracted view in the first half of the 1960s. That was the de- from their orbit or mined until they are just empty cade in which the international community began shells without this being deemed illegal appropria- to establish the law of outer space – a positive law tion? More importantly, can we really be certain that that could sometimes run contrary to the “nature of François Laurent himself wouldn’t have seen them as things” and seemingly supported the call for justice fish? Investors in space resource exploration and ex- coming from the nations that had just freed them- ploitation would be delighted to treat an asteroid like selves from colonial rule. What does this law say a big fish, but what does international law say? Noth- about the legal status of space resources? ing specific, according to the authors of the draft leg- Outer space law can be found in five major islation. In their view, the “predominant school of treaties concluded under the auspices of the Unit- thought suggests that appropriation of these resourc- ed Nations between 1967 and 1979. Only two of es is possible.” them matter for our discussion. The first of these The notion of interpreting outer space law agreements, the Outer Space Treaty, entered into through the categories of law of the sea is certainly force in 1967. Today, it has 107 signatory states, not arbitrary; international lawyers have frequently including Luxembourg and all the space-faring na- relied on that analogy. Yet its applicability is far tions. The Agreement Governing the Activities of from being uncontroversial. This is clearly reflected States on the Moon and other Celestial Bodies, by the problems encountered when attempting to known as the Moon Agreement, entered into force define the maritime equivalent of an asteroid. It is in 1984, but it has only been ratified by 18 coun- also worth remembering that the cornerstone of the tries, none of which are space powers. So far, it has law on outer space – that is, the exclusion of sover- been a failure. eignty – was established, not on the basis of the How can these very different outcomes be ex- analogy between the sea and outer space, but rath- plained? The two treaties don’t contradict each other in contrast to it. er, but the second one goes further in advocating a “Outer space is to Earth what the ocean is to the collective approach to the use of space resources, continents,” wrote René-Jean Dupuy, a famous generally in the interests of newly independent French international lawyer, in 1989. But if celestial states. And that sealed its fate as the conservative

Photo: iStockphoto/dottedhippo bodies were the equivalents of continents or islands, revolution set in in the 1980s. Not only does the

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 13 Moon Agreement state that “the Moon and its nat- Does the new Luxembourg law comply with this ural resources” are “the common heritage of man- principle? While Article II has often been interpret- kind” (which also applies to other celestial bodies in ed in contradictory ways, it doesn’t say much about the solar system, except for the Earth), it also directs the question as to whether resources in outer space the small group of signatory states to establish “an can be appropriated. It could be argued that the term international regime, including appropriate proce- “national appropriation” was chosen to also exclude dures,” to govern the exploitation of natural re- appropriation by non-state actors. That would also sources in outer space, “as such exploitation is about apply, for example, to a company based in a signa- to become feasible.” The reasons why this paragraph tory state seeking to take ownership of a plot of land has come to nothing are of a political rather than a on the Moon. technical nature. However, it could also be contended that the Just how contentious the idea to create an inter- wording refers only to states and perhaps also to national authority to administrate “the common her- new states that future settlers in outer space may es- itage of mankind” had become by then is illustrated tablish, or to indirect expansions of states’ sover- by the discussions on the legal regime of the deep sea- eignty, for instance through the occupation of ter- bed at the third United Nations Conference on the ritories by contemporary equivalents of chartered Law of the Sea. In 1982, the negotiations ended in an companies. The only thing that can be said with cer- atmosphere of gloomy hostility between the states tainty is that the authors’ main aim was to ban sovereignty from outer space and that the cautious wording of Article II (“by any other means”) simply aimed to prevent the ban from being circumvented. Russia reacted with outrage The exclusion of sovereignty may nevertheless have consequences when it comes to the establish- to a similar law in the US ment of proprietary rights to resources in outer space. This is because the acquisition and protection of property depends on a state exercising sovereign- that were ready to invest in the exploitation of sea- ty. In order to establish itself in outer space, proper- bed resources, but less ready to share the proceeds ty would first have to emancipate itself from sover- thereof, and the numerically superior emerging na- eignty. According to Article VI of the Outer Space tions. This eventually forced the adoption of a trea- Treaty, on which much of the Luxembourg law on ty text that provided for the creation of a powerful outer space is based, activities of non-governmental International Seabed Authority to act on behalf of entities in outer space require “authorization and “all mankind.” It was a Pyrrhic victory. The agree- continuing supervision by the appropriate State Par- ment didn’t enter into force until 12 years later, when ty.” However, as a State performs this task, there is a supplementary agreement was adopted that signifi- a danger that it will overstep the boundary between cantly weakened the Authority and the redistributive legitimate exercise of authority and what would be mechanism it was intended to govern. in essence a claim of sovereignty. Article II of the Outer Space Treaty, to which Lux- To date, the Luxembourg law on space resources embourg is a party, states: “Outer space, including hasn’t attracted much interest in diplomatic circles, the Moon and other celestial bodies, isn’t subject to and it is difficult to predict how many states – apart national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by from the US and the United Arab Emirates – will

means of use or occupation, or by any other means.” share Luxembourg’s approach, but the issue is very Photo: iStockphoto/dottedhippo

14 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 VIEWPOINT_International Law

likely to prove contentious, as Russia’s outraged reaction to the US legislation already suggested. In Russia’s view, the US initiative was an “arbitrary self-extension of its own ‘freedom’” and the result of the “notorious doctrine of supremacy in outer space.” In the eyes of a leading space-faring nation, Luxembourg is therefore acting in the shadows of a self-proclaimed hegemon that seems to ignore the fact that mining in outer space – especially if small asteroids are deflected from their orbits in the process – “presents a high risk for the population of the entire world and should be regulated at the international level.” The issue hasn’t yet been discussed within the EU; nevertheless, it is clear that the few EU states bound by the Moon Agreement (Austria, Belgium and the Netherlands) can’t support Luxembourg THE AUTHOR without violating their international obligations. Belgium, in particular, has clearly expressed opposi- Lorenzo Gradoni is a Senior Research Fellow at the tion to nations going it alone in this field. Instead, Max Planck Institute for International, European and the country supports the negotiation of new inter- Regulatory Procedural Law in Luxembourg. As a political national regulations to break the deadlock the inter- scientist and lawyer, he focuses on international law national community faces due to the ambiguity of and politics, legal theory, international inter-systemic the Outer Space Treaty and the failure of the Moon law, international criminal law and World Trade Agreement. The fact that two countries (Armenia Organization (WTO) law. After obtaining his doctorate and Venezuela) recently ratified the long-neglected in EU law, he worked as a research assistant at the Moon Agreement may indicate that unilateral ini- Graduate Institute of International and Development tiatives such as those in the US und Luxembourg are Studies in Geneva before becoming an associate increasingly being viewed with skepticism, making professor at the University of Bologna and a visiting it unlikely that other states will follow suit. professor at the Panthéon-Sorbonne University in Paris. Andrew G. Haley, a pioneer in the law of outer space, prophesied in 1963 that “some day in the future companies will want to mine meteorite ore and then all the old law-of-the-sea problems will resurface under much more complicated circumstances.” Lux- embourg’s law on space resources presents a good opportunity to tackle this issue and to define new shared approaches to international outer space law.

An in-depth version of this article was published in French in the Luxembourg journal Forum in Photo: iStockphoto/dottedhippo Photo: MPI Luxembourg December 2017. (www.forum.lu)

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 15 Post from Isparta, Turkey

A Yearning for Roses

Max Planck scientists cooperate with partners in more than 110 countries worldwide. Here they relate their personal experiences and impressions. Lale Yalçın-Heckmann, who works at the Max Planck Institute for Social Anthro- pology in Halle, is studying values and moral ideas surrounding commercial transactions – taking traditional rose farming in Turkey as an example.

The story of roses and me goes back a long way. When I was a child, my maternal grandmother used to tell me fairy tales about women in traditional bathhouses, hammams, who would luxu- riate in bath water infused with rose petals. In early Ottoman times, the roses from which the fragrant oil was obtained came from the Middle East. From there they spread to the Balkans – including Bulgaria, where they were cultivated by Turkish settlers.

Given my family’s roots both in Bulgaria and in Isparta, Turkey, it is hardly surprising that I have had a fascination for roses – especially the culture surrounding their cultivation and the production of rose oil – ever since. There is an expression in Turkish that describes the feeling perfectly; it translates roughly as “the heart’s yearning.” My heart’s yearning for culture and for roses makes perfect sense to the people I speak to in Turkey, especially around Isparta, where my father is from.

In my current research project, I am examining the values and moral ideas surrounding commercial transactions based on the example of how traditional rose farming and modern production processes in Turkey shape the regional community and its values. I spend weeks and months in Isparta, the traditional center of rose farming and rose oil production. I pick roses and talk with farmers, rose oil producers and seasonal workers. After all, social anthropology research is strongly dependent on local relationships, so it is essential to interact with people in order to fathom their knowledge of the economic situation. Illustration: iStockphoto

16 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 RUBRIK TITEL

Lale Yalçın-Heckmann , 62, studied sociology at Bog˘aziçi University in Istanbul before obtaining a PhD in social anthropology at the London School of Economics. Since moving to Germany in 1988 she has researched Turkish and Kurdish migrants, and Islam in Germany and France. She qualified as a professor in 2009 and was a Group Leader at the Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology. Since 2010 she has taught at the University of Pardubice in the Czech Republic and is a faculty member of ANARCHIE, an International Max Planck Research School. Within the ERC project entitled Realising Eurasia: Civilisation and Moral Economy in the 21st Century, she mainly coordinates scientific activities and her own research in Isparta, Turkey.

However, spending time with people “on the ground” can be arduous. As roses are extremely delicate and their fragrance quickly fades, the harvest begins at 5:00 a.m. – though this has the advantage that the work is normally done before the midday heat. Whether a rose picker is treated fairly depends very much on his or her relationship with the farmer and how many seasonal workers are at the farmer’s disposal during the rose harvest. The amount picked by each worker is recorded at the end of every workday, and payment is made at the end of the harvest season. A strong worker can pick up to 40 kilograms a day, which in 2016 yielded a wage of 14 euros. Incidentally, my personal record is ten kilograms.

In the course of conversations and discussions, I’ve learned that rose farming – though charac- terized by expert knowledge and decades of experience – is by no means the only source of income for the farmers. In fact, mixed farming with apples or cherries or with dairy farming is what gives the farmers the leverage they need to negotiate prices with rose oil producers.

Rose prices saw a sharp rise in recent years, then rose oil prices recently plummeted. It is therefore in the farmers’ interests to argue that they can easily switch to another product. Whether they keep a fruit tree or a rosebush depends on its market value. Since the farmers can usually adopt a flexible income strategy, and the factories are secretive about the actual volume of rose oil they produce, the pricing structure is highly opaque.

As in many rural areas, it’s rare for the next generation to follow in their parents’ footsteps. Fam- ilies are migrating to big cities, and the rose harvest spans a period of just two months a year. The process of organizing workers for the season is thus heavily dependent on friendships and kinships. To put it simply, entire extended Turkish families gather in their native village to help with the rose harvest and ensure the survival of this age-old tradition. Ultimately, their heart’s

Illustration: iStockphoto Photo: Lale Yalçın-Heckmann yearning leads them back to the roses.

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 17 FOCUS_Parasites

Genes as Parasites

Parasites exist not only in the plant and animal kingdoms, they are also a part of us. Our genome contains myriad short stretches of DNA that propagate at the genome’s expense. For this reason, these transposons, as they are called, are also referred to as parasitic DNA. Oliver Weichenrieder from the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology in Tübingen wants to shed light on the processes by which transposons are copied – not only because they can cause disease, but also because they may be an important engine of evolution.

TEXT TIM SCHRÖDER

he object of his research that’s not at all what Oliver Weichen- into new DNA sites in the genome. work is tiny and sparkles rieder is concerned with. He is a bio- The term “transpose” is known from like fine diamond dust. chemist, and the crystals he grows at music and means writing or playing a Oliver Weichenrieder slides the Max Planck Institute in Tübingen piece of music in a different key. In a plastic plate containing are molecules from living cells, specifi- the case of transposons, genetic infor- smallT wells back and forth under the cally proteins or ribonucleic acids mation is transported from one site in microscope. He searches for a while. (RNAs). Weichenrieder is studying the the genome to another. This transfer “Ah, I can see a few in there. Pretty, crystals to elucidate the structure of process occurs during the develop- aren’t they?” The small crystals are in- these molecules with a view to solving ment of germ cells and most notably visible to the naked eye, but under the one of genetics’ enduring secrets: the in the early embryo when cells are di- microscope they glitter in violet, pink puzzle of parasitic DNA, or parts of the viding vigorously. and blue hues. “It takes a bit of luck for genome that self-propagate inde- the crystals to form. That’s why we use pendently of the rest of the genome. JUMP INTO THE GENOME these plates with many small depres- Parasitic DNA is a catchy descrip- sions,” Weichenrieder says. That in- tion of genetic snippets known to sci- Each time this occurs, the DNA se- creases the hit rate. entists as transposons. Transposons quence is reshuffled – sometimes with Crystal − that sounds like materials are short sections of DNA that repeat- serious consequences: “It can happen science, like glass and ceramics, but edly replicate and insert themselves that a transposon lodges itself in a gene

18 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Photo: Wolfram Scheible By analyzing the crystal structure, researchers researchers structure, crystal the analyzing By The crystals of a transposon protein measure measure protein transposon a of crystals The in Tübingen have discovered how the protein protein the how discovered have Tübingen in around one-tenth of a millimeter across. across. millimeter a of one-tenth around is able to package transposon RNA. transposon package to able is 2 | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch 19

FOCUS_Parasites

Transcription Reverse transcription

RNA

Master element Daughter element

Genomic DNA Genomic DNA

Above For retrotransposons to be able to insert copies of themselves into the genome, their DNA, termed the master element, is first transcribed into RNA. The RNA is then transcribed back into DNA (reverse transcription), while the resulting DNA copy (the daughter element) is integrated into the genome. Right Oliver Weichenrieder checks incubation cabinets for genetically altered bacteria. The microbes produce transposon proteins, which the researcher and his colleagues need in order to analyze the protein structure.

segment that contains information for er says. “But if we elucidate the struc- The genome contains around 500,000 a protein that is essential for metabo- ture of the proteins involved in trans- LINE-1 copies and fragments. In fact, lism,” Weichenrieder explains. “The poson replication, we might be able to the LINE-1 element alone makes up 17 gene can then no longer be read cor- better understand the whole process.” percent of the genome. “This immense rectly.” The APC gene is a prime exam- number has resulted from the creation ple. The protein it encodes can prevent FLOOD OF TRANSPOSONS IN of ever new copies in the course of the development of cancer. If it is dis- THE GENOME evolution over millennia,” Weichen- rupted by the incorporation of a trans- rieder says. It’s possible that more than poson, colon cancer can result. Oliver Weichenrieder and his col- half of our genome has been created Proteins are essential for reading the leagues focus primarily on identifying from transposable elements. The pro- information contained in DNA, tran- the structure of two important parasit- portion of transposons may be even scribing it into RNA and translating the ic DNA snippets known as the LINE-1 higher in other organisms. In corn RNA into new proteins. Transposons, retrotransposon and the Alu retrotrans- plants, for example, as much as 85 per- too, need various proteins to replicate poson, as both are extremely common cent of the entire genome can be and to insert themselves into the ge- in the human genome. A LINE-1 seg- traced back to transposons. nome. “We still don’t know exactly ment is about 6,000 DNA base pairs Of course, the transpositions could

how transposons work,” Weichenried- long − about as long as an average gene. only be passed on if they didn’t kill the Graphic: MPI for Developmental Biology; photo: Wolfram Scheible

20 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 FOKUS_xxxxxxx

individual, for example as a result of quires LINE-1 proteins and uses them characteristics that are vital to survival. cancer. “Not every transposition is for its own purposes. “It has long been believed that evolu- necessarily fatal for the individual or Transposons are therefore con- tion is driven by the exchange of indi- their offspring. It depends on which cerned only with their own propaga- vidual letters of the genetic code, part of the genome the LINE-1 copy is tion and don’t appear to contribute known as point mutations,” Weichen- incorporated into.” In addition, many anything to the organism’s survival. rieder says. Now, however, many of his have been deactivated over time by The organism is just a means to an colleagues believe that transposons mutations. At present, only around end. On closer inspection, however, it play an important role in vigorously re- 100 of the 500,000 LINE-1 sections in becomes clear that it can nevertheless shuffling the genome, thus creating the human genome are active and ca- benefit from transposons. Whenever new variations. pable of parasitic behavior. The rest no transposons insert copies of them- longer work. selves into the genome, they reshuffle PROTEINS FOR Weichenrieder is particularly fasci- the DNA, thus driving evolution. JUMPING GENES nated by Alu retrotransposons, which “That keeps the genome flexible,” says are also distributed throughout the ge- Weichenrieder. “During times when In recent years, Oliver Weichenrieder nome – not only because, with more the environment changes dramatical- and his team have used the small pro- than a million copies, they occur in ly as a result of climate change or nat- tein crystals to probe deep into the mo- great numbers and make up about 10 ural disasters, the organism is able to lecular structure of LINE-1 and Alu. percent of the genome, but because, adapt more quickly.” In fact, it has Their laboratories in Tübingen contain from a parasitic point of view, they since been shown in plants that trans- equipment that allows them to extract take things a step further. They are par- posons are particularly active when the proteins required for the transposi- asites of a parasite in that they hijack the plants are under stress – for in- tion of LINE-1 and Alu. These high-per- the LINE-1 machinery and use it for stance during a hot spell. formance liquid chromatography sys- their own replication. LINE-1 is able to Many transposons are harmful, but tems separate a mixture of different

Graphic: MPI for Developmental Biology; photo: Wolfram Scheible replicate by itself. Alu, in contrast, re- sometimes they give an organism new proteins into its component parts so

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 21 Alu RNP

RNA Ribosome Nucleus

ORF1p ORF2p

ORF2p

that tiny amounts of a pure protein teins is contained in the LINE-1 ele- Above A parasite attacks a parasite: trickle out at the end. These are then ment. If LINE-1 is active, an RNA copy A complex consisting of Alu RNA and mixed with a variety of substances on is first made. This migrates to the cell’s proteins (Alu-RNP) recognizes the ribosomes that are currently translating the microtiter plates and are concen- protein factory, the ribosome, where it the RNA of the parasitic LINE-1 element to trated in the hope that the small crys- provides a template for synthesizing produce ORF2p. The Alu complex hijacks tals will form. the proteins. the protein, which actually belongs to For a long time, it wasn’t known LINE-1, and hitches a ride with it into the cell’s nucleus (gray), where ORF2p FROM STRUCTURE how the two proteins function, but the reverse-transcribes the Alu RNA and TO FUNCTION identification of their spatial structure integrates the resulting DNA into the by the scientists in Tübingen provided genome as a new Alu element. And then it’s time to take a trip: the clarity: ORF1p consists of three sub- Right-hand page Oliver Weichenrieder scientists bombard the crystals with units, and the RNA is able to nestle be- and Elena Khazina prepare a chromatog- intense X-ray light in particle acceler- tween them. In addition, the ORF1 raphy column (top). They inject a purified cell extract into the apparatus and then ators in Zurich or Hamburg. The atoms proteins always occur in bundles of separate the protein mixture into its of the proteins diffract the X-rays dif- three ORF1 protein molecules. “By all constituents (bottom). ferently, producing a characteristic dif- indications, the LINE-1 RNA is wound fraction pattern. From this, computer around the trimers of this protein to programs determine the electron dis- protect it from the cell’s defense weap- tribution in the crystal and, to a cer- ons,” Weichenrieder explains. The cell tain extent, the chemical structure of is by no means completely at the mer- the protein molecule. “Nevertheless, cy of a transposon; it can switch off there’s still plenty of manual work for the copying process in various ways, us to do. We need a great deal of chem- for instance with the help of proteins ical knowledge to reconstruct the en- that destroy the transposon’s RNA or tire protein from the fragments in the attack ORF1p. The ORF1 protein pro- computer.” This is how the researchers tects the LINE-1 RNA from these in Tübingen uncovered the structure countermeasures so that the RNA is of the LINE-1 proteins and of Alu RNA. able to go on to produce ORF2p. LINE-1 requires two main proteins ORF1p also resembles proteins that to replicate successfully: ORF1p and allow cell membranes to fuse. Accord- ORF2p – that much was already ingly, ORF1p might also help LINE-1

known. The blueprint for those pro- RNA conquer the nuclear membrane Graphic: MPI for Developmental Biology

22 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 FOCUS_Parasites

to reach the DNA in the nucleus, to which it must return in order to replicate itself.

CUTTING AND TRANSCRIBING

ORF2p is needed for LINE-1 to replicate, and the researchers now have a more detailed understanding of its spatial structure, as well. It consists of two subunits: an endonuclease and a reverse transcriptase. The endonuclease first cuts the DNA. In doing so, it recognizes specific DNA structures that occur during the duplication of DNA or shortly before cell division, which clears the way for incorporation of the retrotransposon sequence. The reverse transcriptase then converts the RNA back into DNA and incorporates it into the genome. The researchers’ findings could lead to the development of drugs for forms of cancer in which the genome is damaged by transposons. Such drugs could block LINE-1 proteins, preventing transposition. However, Oliver We- ichenrieder first wants to gain a thor- ough understanding of the underlying process, and Alu, being a parasite of a parasite, is particularly suitable for this

Graphic: MPI for Developmental Biology Photos: Wolfram Scheible (2) purpose. “The Alu RNA evidently iden-

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 23 FOCUS_Parasites

The crystal structure of an Alu ribonucleo- tifies ribosomes that are currently pro- His results suggest that Alu may recog- protein particle (RNP). The Alu RNA (blue) ducing ORF2p without directly recognize a sort of stuttering that occurs consists of ribonucleotides (adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil), which fold nizing the protein,” he explains. during the synthesis of ORF2p on the into a well-defined structure stabilized by “Once the ribosome has completed the ribosome. Some of the amino acids two proteins: SRP9 (red) and SRP14 ORF2p protein, Alu strikes and fishes that are incorporated into the ORF2p (green). The actual molecular parasite is it out.” The Alu RNA then uses the hi- protein during production are lysines, therefore the folded RNA. jacked endonuclease and reverse tran- which don’t readily pass through the scriptase to insert its own DNA into ribosome’s production channel. If they the genome. “So it depends on your occur frequently, the assembly line can point of view,” Weichenrieder says, falter and stutter. It is very likely that “because strictly speaking, the actual Alu recognizes such stuttering and parasite isn’t the transposon DNA but then arrives in time to pick up the fin- the LINE-1 or Alu RNA read from it.” ished ORF2p. To date, no researcher has observed STUTTERING ASSEMBLY LINE this process live, but all the evidence the scientists have gathered by analyz- It is estimated that only about one in ing protein structures points to this twenty newborn babies carries a new conclusion. In addition, the Alu retro- Alu copy and passes it on to his or her transposon is closely related to anoth- descendants. The reason transposition er particle known as the signal recog- isn’t that common is that transposons nition particle (SRP), which regulates are usually inactivated by cellular de- the production of specific proteins on fense mechanisms. The transposition of the ribosome. Alu only emerged from LINE-1 is also fairly rare. “Alu RNA thus SRP with the evolution of primates, needs to be able to sense very precisely which was a very recent event in evo- where LINE-1 is currently active and lutionary terms. The researchers in synthesizing ORF2p on a ribosome,” Tübingen have found that Alu RNA Weichenrieder says – like a parasite that has retained substantial parts of the

unerringly tracks down its host. SRP structure and must also bind two Graphic: MPI for Developmental Biology

24 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Graphic: MPI for Developmental Biology

Photo: Wolfram Scheible

nome andattheorganism’s expense. ly withthehelpofanorganism’s ge sities, thatcanstillreplicate successful- RNA, pareddowntothebarestofneces- find the“ultimateparasite”–apieceof way, hehopestoachievehisgoaland number ofproteinsinvolved.Inthis gradually reducestheirsizeandthe er theycanreplicate.To this end,he testing Aluvariantstodeterminewheth still function.Weichenrieder istherefore and simple a parasite can actually be and information onproteinconstruction.” mously complexwiththeirwealthof comparison, evenvirusesareenor elseitneeds.By priates everything teins thatfoldtheAluRNA.Itappro- RNA segment and two small SRP pro- “Alu issosimpleinstructure:ashort by theideaofamolecularparasite: nor bad.Nevertheless,heisintrigued are, inandofthemselves,neithergood successfully asaretrotransposon. small SRPproteinsforittoreplicate

For Weichenrieder, transposons This raises the question of how small This raisesthequestionofhowsmall (av www.tin ailable onlyinGerman) yurl.com/y79ad2 yp yp

- - -

of how parasitic DNA can spread in our genome. genome. our in spread can DNA parasitic how of understanding an gain to hope left) (from Khazina Elena and Weichenrieder Oliver Wagner, Gabriele proteins, transposon analyzing By goal: one scientists, Three

l l l POINT TO THE selves into the genome of the host, but can also leave it again as complete viruses. complete as again it leave also can but host, the of them genome the insert into also which selves retroviruses, to rise gave also probably Retrotransposons retrotrans posons. termed are molecule, DNA new a building for template a as pro also but producing teins, for only not used is RNA DNA-derived whose Transposons contain genes. often multiple transposons complete However, genes.” “jumping as to referred sometimes Transposons: version. DNA a produce must transcriptase reverse the genome, incorporated host’s be to the in it for order In RNA. of consisting genome a have which discovered first retroviruses, was in enzyme The genome. the into reincorporated RNA, then is its copy from the copy and DNA a transcribe to enzyme this require Retrotransposons sequence. DNA corresponding the into RNA transcribe to used Reverseenzyme transcriptase: An GLOSSARY

RNA molecules are the actual molecular parasites. tr other of machinery copying the exploit RNA, Alu as such molecules, RNA Some cou ac which transposons, these from developed have genome the of parts Large pe ex the at replicate to able are that segments DNA are molecules DNA Parasitic are no longer active. longer no are ansposons, making them parasites of parasites. nse of the organism. In the case of LINE- of case the In organism. the of nse nt for more than 80 DNA segments that can change their location in the genome. They are are They genome. the in location their change can that segments DNA percent of the genome of some plants. Most, however, however, Most, plants. some of genome the of percent 1 and Alu, however, the corresponding corresponding the however, Alu, and 2 | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch - - -

- - 25 A Stickleback Full of Worms

Around 40 percent of all species on Earth are parasitic – apparently a highly successful way of life. Even a fish such as the three-spined stickleback is plagued by up to 25 different parasites. One of them particularly appealed to Martin Kalbe, Tina Henrich and Nina Hafer from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology in Plön: the tapeworm Schistocephalus solidus. The scientists are researching the numerous tricks that host and parasite use to outdo each other. Photo: MPI for Evolutionary Biology Photo: MPI for Evolutionary Biology in the fish’s abdominal cavity, where it can become as heavy as the fish itself. fish the as heavy as become can it where cavity, abdominal fish’s the in tapeworm the with stickleback three-spined A grated tofreshwaterfollowingthelast itant oftheoceans,itprobablyfirstmi- is infestedwithSchistocephalus . scale: outof4,000animals, onlyone in moretowardthebottomendof fish isinfected.TheinPlöncome percent, whileinothers,notasingle rate insomepopulationsisalmost100 Norway, forexample,the infection ered someastoundingdifferences.In regions formanyyearsandhasdiscov- lebacks andtheirwormsindifferent Martin Kalbehasbeencollectingstick- the fish.Together withTina Henrich, many peststhatmakelifedifficultfor Schistocephalus, then,isjustoneof LOCAL DIFFERENCES other –evenitseyelenses. asahomeforoneparasiteoran- serves partofthestickleback’severy body its gillsandfeedonblood.Almost lice attachthemselvestoitsskinorin at theexpenseofthissmallfish;carp worms, nematodesandtapewormslive omnipresent infreshwater, too:round- lakes. Justasintheoceans,parasitesare ice age and now lives in rivers and T TEXT HARALD RÖSCH HARALD sphere. Originallyaninhab- the entirenorthernhemi- graphic rangeextendsacross is acosmopolitan.Itsgeo- he three-spinedstickleback Schistocephalus solidus Schistocephalus flow ofwater, sotheyarelesscommon asites arequicklywashedawaybythe es ishabitat.Inriversandstreams,par- One ofthereasonsforthesedifferenc- termediate host.Nextcomesthestick- the tinycrustaceanisonlyfirstin- stage.How to thesecondlarval its singleeye–theycontinuetodevelop – alsoknownasaCyclopsbecauseof come preyandareeatenbyacopepod hatch.Iftheybe swimming larvae water, microscopicallysmall,actively the winteratbottomofabody cle andproduceeggs. the righthostcanitcompleteitslifecy cause onlywhenthewormendsupin the abundanceofSchistocephalus,be- also play a key role when it comes to sites. Andfinally, thefishes’predators ulations are also less afflicted by para- backs that live in small, scattered pop- there thanincalmerwaters.Stickle stage inthefish’s abdominalcavityand the stickleback. cean for13to15daysandthenenter candevelopwithinthecrusta larva chances of success are greatest if the the fish.Thetimingisimportant: bores throughtheintestinalwallof the fish’s stomachwithoutharm,it managestopassthrough and thelarva leback. If the latter eats the Cyclops The larva reaches the third larval reaches thethirdlarval The larva Initially, oncetheeggshavespent : The parasite larva has bored through the intestinal wall and is growing growing is and wall intestinal the through bored has larva parasite The : ever, - - - -

massively increasesinsizeandweight. ly revealedwhenthree-spined stickle- site strugglewitheachother is indirect defensive gripreadyforeachnewattack. two wrestlerswhohavetheappropriate nently aim to outdo each other – like race inwhichtheopponentsperma other. arms Theresultisanevolutionary gains isimmediatelycounteredbythe other. advantageoneof them Every permanent competitionagainsteach The sticklebackanditswormareina EVOLUTIONARY ARMSRACE here,” explainsHenrich. is why so few sticklebacks are infected cycle thusendsinacul-de-sac,which such asperch andpike. Theparasitelife backs fallvictimtocold-bloodedspecies Lake Plön,forexample,moststickle worms, findapartnerandmate.“In mature into fertilegrees can the larvae ambient temperature of at least 38 de- kingfishers and cormorants. Only at an are fish-eatingbirdssuchasherons, warm-blooded animal.Asarule,these that meansthedigestivetractofa land intherightstomach.Inthiscase, it isalsocruciallyimportantthat for the host iseaten.Thisvitallyimportant Then it must wait once again untilthe The degreetowhichhostandpara- larva. However,Schistocephalus larva. 2 | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch FOCUS_Parasites 27 - - - The three-spined stickleback owes its name to the three spines on its back, which it can position upright in case of danger. During spawning, the back of the otherwise inconspicuous males turns turquoise, and the throat and chest glow red. The males occupy a breeding ground and build a nest on the riverbed using parts of plants. After oviposition, they drive off the females and guard and take care of the eggs alone.

backs and Schistocephalus solidus from have gained another surprising insight: “So far, however, we haven’t discovered different areas meet: the tapeworms if a Norwegian worm and a German such hybrids in any body of water. We have even adapted to the small region- worm both infect a fish from Lake still don’t know why the two species al differences between the fish. Henrich Plön, the Norwegian worm remains don’t mix in nature even though they and Kalbe have caught sticklebacks and smaller than if it infects the fish alone. could,” says Henrich. their parasites in Canada, Norway and This is only to be expected – after all, The scientists in Plön aren’t the only Germany and brought them together in it must share the nutrients. But oddly, ones researching the arms race between various combinations in their laborato- the German worm, in contrast, grows the three-spined stickleback and Schis- ry in Plön. The worms are similarly in- larger than normal. The Norwegian tocephalus solidus. The stickleback and fectious and grow to the same size when worm seems to somehow benefit its its tapeworm have been investigated in they have infected fish from their re- competitor’s growth – what remains the laboratory since the 1960s. Today, a spective home. “Schistocephalus from unclear is how. number of research groups worldwide Norway, however, seems to be more ag- Differences in adaptation also ex- use this fish and its parasite as a model gressive than its German conspecifics, plain why Schistocephalus solidus infects system. One reason for this is that both because it infects fish from Lake Plön exclusively the three-spined stickleback: reproduce relatively easily in the labo- more often and grows faster in them “It has simply become so specialized in ratory. The sticklebacks are especially than a German worm does in Canadian this species that it can no longer over- easy to keep; they aren’t too demand- or Norwegian fish,” says Henrich. come the defensive strategies of other ing, and they easily lay eggs in commer- fish,” says Henrich. Those of the close- cially available aquariums. AGGRESSIVE WORMS ly related nine-spined stickleback, for instance, which lives in the same waters LABORATORY LIFE CYCLE The researchers don’t yet know why as its cousin and is parasitized by Schis- some local forms of worms are more tocephalus pungitii. Although the two As for the worm eggs, Henrich can aggressive than others, but one thing tapeworms evolve only in their “own” store them in the dark for extended pe- is clear: parasite and host have adapt- species of fish, they can interbreed in riods at four degrees. The larvae hatch ed to each other in such a way that the the laboratory and produce fertile off- when exposed to light. The scientist aggressive worms can exploit the dif- spring. The hybrid worms that emerge places each larva, together with a Cy- ferences between the fish populations from this interbreeding infest both the clops, in the well of a laboratory cell

to their benefit. And Kalbe and Henrich three- and the nine-spined stickleback. culture plate and waits until the little Photo: Michael Schwarz/MPI for Evolutionary Biology

28 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Photo: Michael Schwarz/MPI for Evolutionary Biology

Graphic and photo: MPI for Evolutionary Biology produce eggs.Becausethe birdisn’t can nolongergrow, butonlymateand mediate host.Inabird,Schistocephalus host thantodevelopanartificial inter intestine. “It’s easiertosimulateafinal fool itintobelievingwas inabird’s managed tooutwittheparasiteand sands ofeggs. produces and eventually releases thou- 38 degrees,awormcouplewillinglyre- suitable nutrientsolutionatapleasant worms. Inthesebags,submergedina emit substances that are harmful to the al hours.Onlythendotheyceaseto rich mustboiltheminwaterforsever- hold tissuesamplesinmedicine,Hen- the bagswereoriginallyintendedto a specialnutrient solution. Although small bagofnylongauzesurroundedby a replacementforthebird’s intestine:a Instead, Henrichandhercolleaguesuse in themwouldbetootime-consuming. waterfowl andmultiplyingtapeworms ates fromitsnaturalmodel,askeeping cean toastickleback. va. Shethenfeedstheinfectedcrusta- copepod haspickeduptheparasitelar feces. the via water the enter which eggs, duce pro- worms adult the intestines, bird’s the inside Once host. final parasite’s the then is bird fish-eating A plerocercoid. a becomes and wall intestinal the through bores larva worm the fish, the In stickleback. spined three- the for meal preferred a is crustacean The cavity. abdominal crustacean’s the in procercoid, the stage, second the into ops devel- it (Cyclops), copepod a by eaten is larva free-swimming the If eggs. worm the from hatches (coracidium) stage larval first The In thisway, theresearchers inPlön Only the last step of the cycle devi- - -

host (stickleback) host intermediate second Plerocercoid fred Milinski,DirectorEmeritus ofthe sites’ stringslikepuppets,” says Man- mote controlled. such cases, the host is practically re- so thattheparasitecanreproduce. In as an organism sacrificing its own life hosts’ behavior. Thiscanevengoasfar is theirabilitytoreprogram – and simultaneously most unnerving possible. But what is most intriguing – themselves getasmanynutrients metabolism insuchawaythatthey they frequentlymanipulatetheirhosts’ their hosts’defensestrategies.Then their meals.Theymustfirstovercome their hostsandlettingthemprovide stowaways, livingattheexpenseof But parasitesaremuchmorethanjust REMOTE-CONTROLLED HOSTS says Henrich. ficult toreproduceitinthelaboratory,” tionship thatitwouldbeextremelydif contrast, ithassuch an intimaterela must adapt.With the stickleback, in defensive measurestowhichtheworm harmed bythis,ithasn’t developedany “Some hostshangontheir para in the the in - - - than an uninfected conspecific. conspecific. uninfected an than smaller remains stickleback the so nutrients, of it deprive they but fish, the kill don’t parasites The host. the of that than greater than more cases some in – stickleback single a within grow larvae tapeworm several Sometimes intermediate(copepod)host Procercoid host (aquatic bird) (aquatic host in worm theAdult final 20 . Their final weight can be be can weight final Their . 2 | in the first MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch FOCUS_Parasites Egg Co

r acidium 29 been exposed to parasites, are affected. are parasites, to exposed been never have which fish, the degree what to and whether investigate to researchers the enables This Lake. Plön Great the in cages in laboratory the in raised backs stickle- place left) (from Gahr Christoph Right tapeworms. the with infected deliberately thus and Cyclops infected with fed are (center) tanks small the in fish the Plön, in Institute Planck Max the At aquarium. an in bred Left FOCUS_Parasites 30 MaxPlanckResearch 2 MaxPlanckResearch Sticklebacks can be easily kept and Daniel Martens, Tina Henrich and | 18

Evolutionary EcologyDepartmentat Evolutionary cats. Today, Toxoplasma istransmitted ordomestic intestines ofpredatory site canproduceneweggsonlyinthe reach itsfinalhost,becausethepara- mans asintermediatehoststohelpit people andcatstogether. Itneedshu- it can to bringample, does everything single-celled nipulation fromtheirparasites:the Not evenhumansareimmunetoma- MANIPULATES HUMANS SINGLE-CELLED ANIMAL is externallycontrolled.” organism’s actualbehaviorisandwhat sites, youhavetoaskyourselfwhatan no livingcreatureexistswithoutpara- 1980s. “Ifyouconsiderthatvirtually stickleback anditswormssincethe April. Hehasbeenresearching the the MaxPlanckInstituteinPlönsince of bigcatsintheearlydays theirde when humanswerestillfrequent prey end roadfortheparasite. However, mice andrats,humans are adead- to domesticcatspredominantly by Toxoplasma gondii,forex- - sequence beingthatpeople infected defy socialnorms,withapossible con action timesincreaseandpeople often system insuchawaythatre- nervous gle-celled organismmanipulates the cording tothesestudies, thissin- man behaviorinotherways,too.Ac- shown thatToxoplasma influenceshu attracted tothesmellofthem. they smell acat, infected mice areeven head straightfor the nextexitwhen and rats:whiletherodentsgenerally pears to have the same effect on mice fected subjectsdo.Thepathogenap mestic catsmorepleasantthannon-in men findthesmellofurinefromdo- cats. Accordingtoonestudy, infected lose theirinnatecautiontowardall gram thehumanbrainsothatpeople tor cats, Toxoplasma appearstorepro- host tobemoreeasilyeatenbypreda- to cats.Inorderforitsintermediate individuals feelparticularlyattracted ma gondii. quent intermediate hosts for Toxoplas- velopment, theymayhavebeenfre- A numberofstudieshavenow This wouldexplainwhyinfected - - - -

Photos: MPI for Evolutionary Biology (2) Photos: MPI for Evolutionary Biology (2)

Photo: MPI for Evolutionary Biology their hosts,someseemingly prepos understand howparasitesmanipulate bodily reactiontoit.Ifwe can better morethanjusttheimmediate about “An infectionbyaparasite brings behavior oftheirhostsin favor. how parasitesmanagetochangethe thing that remains largely unknown is are likelytobediscovered.Another tion arenowknown,andmanymore Numerous casesofparasiticmanipula THE FIGHTFORCONTROL asite alone,”saysMilinski. yearmaybecausedbythispar- every infected, sothousandsofroaddeaths 30 percent oftheworld’s populationis matic: “It’s estimatedthatmorethan place accidents. quently involvedinroadandwork with parasites. their investigate to example, for snails, aquatic collects Kalbe Martin solidus Schistocephalus The consequencescouldbedra- Toxoplasma gondiiare more fre isn’t the only nuisance in the Great Plön Lake. Almost every water dweller has its own parasites. - - - - from greaterhostactivity. they becomeinfectious, profit parasites dyingwithit.But as soon prevent itfrombeingeaten andthe fore beasinconspicuous possible to this phase,thecrustaceanshould there before theycaninfectafish.During velop inthecrustaceanforsometime lacustris. Bothparasitesmustfirstde with anematodeknownasCamallanus worm can beinfestednotonlywiththetape- Lake Plönandelsewhere,thecopepods ment investigatedonesuch case. In control overthehost,”saysMilinski. es, wecanspeakofaveritablewarfor host butalsoeachother. “Inthesecas- ferent parasitesthataffectnotonlythe fested withnotjustonebutseveraldif sense,” saysMilinski. behaviormightperhapsmake terous In addition, manyorganisms are in Nina HaferfromMilinski’s depart- Schistocephalus solidus,butalso - - - - If this development runs in parallel, all ences intheactivityofCyclops that allows hertoidentifypossible differ ing thatasticklebackisattacking. This then tricksthecrustaceaninto believ- onds withacamera.Plate vibration two sec- determines its position every and cell cultureplatesinthelaboratory She keepstheinfectedCyclopsin CONFLICT OFINTERESTS gated todate,”saysHafer. ture, but this has scarcely been investi - ferent speciesmustbetheruleinna- est betweenparasitesofthesameordif- development? “Suchconflictsofinter- infected by worms at different stages of But whathappenswhenthecopepodis placid andlaterasactivepossible. pepod insuchawaythatitisinitially the sameobjectiveandcontrolco- is harmonious:bothwormspecieshave

2 | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch 31 - she has infected with different combi- ings. “Perhaps the infectious parasite nations of infectious and non-infec- is more interested in rapid transmis- tious thread- and tapeworms. sion to the fish than we thought. After all, the copepod could also simply die SABOTAGE IN THE CYCLOPS prematurely without being eaten. This would also seal the fate of the worm,” Her measurements clearly show that the Hafer says. However, it may simply be crustaceans are always more active if easier for the worm to outsmart its they are infected with an infectious competitor; after all, an infectious par- worm – even if a non-infectious parasite asite was, at one time, not infectious is counteracting it. The infectious para- and manipulated the behavior of the site sabotages the manipulations of the crustacean. It appears obvious that it smaller, non-infectious worm. Howev- subsequently simply switches off old er, this isn’t a consequence of size, be- sabotage mechanisms – and, almost Top The secret subletters become visible cause an infectious animal can also sup- coincidentally, that of the non-infec- under suitable magnification: Several press two non-infectious worms that, tious competitor. parasites often infect one and the same crustacean, such as the tapeworm Schisto- together, bring more mass to the scales. In experiments using a variety of cephalus solidus seen here (green) and the The biologist hadn’t anticipated this intermediate host and parasite popu- tapeworm Camallanus lacustris (blue) in a result. “The infectious worm actually lations from Germany and Norway, copepod. If the parasites are in different need only wait a while until it reaches Hafer also discovered that the infec- stages of development, a conflict of interests results. the next host and can reproduce. The tious Schistocephalus larvae from Ger- non-infectious parasite, on the other many manipulate the Cyclops to a Bottom Copepods are the first intermediate hosts for the tapeworms. The approxi- hand, inevitably dies if eaten too soon. greater degree – regardless of where the mately one-millimeter-long crustaceans It has so much more to lose and would crustaceans originate. In addition, dif- can be easily observed in a drop of water have to try to outwit its competitors at ferent combinations of Cyclops and under the microscope. any cost,” explains Hafer. worm larvae from Germany and Nor- Hafer doesn’t yet have a definitive way also display a comparable level of

explanation for the surprising find- host manipulation. The larvae have Photos: N. Hafer/MPI for Evolutionary Biology (top), Michael Schwarz/MPI (bottom)

32 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Ernst Haage Prize Ernst Haage Prize call for proposals 2018 FOCUS_Parasites call for proposals 2018 call for proposals 2018

Established in 2006 the Ernst HaageEstablished Prize inhonors 2006 the Ernst Established in 2006 the Ernst youngHaage scientistsPrize honors for Haage Prize honors outstandingyoung scientists achieve- for young scientists for mentsoutstanding in the achieve-field of outstanding achieve- chemistryments in theand fieldfosters of ments in the field of chemistryyoung academics and fosters in chemistry and fosters particular.young academics in young academics in Theparticular. award is given in particular. honorThe award of the is Mülheimgiven in The award is given in entrepreneurhonor of the Mülheim Ernst honor of the Mülheim Haageentrepreneur (1901-1968). Ernst entrepreneur Ernst

TheHaage prize (1901-1968). is awarded by the Ernst Haage- in Chemistry Award Research Haage (1901-1968). FoundationThe prize is awardedand is endowed by the Ernstwith €Haage- 7,500. in Chemistry Award Research The prize is awarded by the Ernst Haage- in Chemistry Award Research Foundation and is endowed with € 7,500. Foundation and is endowed with € 7,500.

Nominees must be scientists who hold a doctor- Nateominees from a mustGerman be scientistsresearch whoinstitution/universi- hold a doctor- Nominees must be scientists who hold a doctor- ty.ate They from shoulda German have research their primary institution/universi- residence in ate from a German research institution/universi- apparently not adapted their ability to manipulation and thus prevent the Germany,ty. They should be no havemore theirthan primary40 years residence old and not in ty. They should have their primary residence in manipulate to different populations of spread of infection,” explains Hafer. haveGermany, a permanent be no more employment than 40 years contract. old and not Germany, be no more than 40 years old and not intermediate hosts. Mosquitoes infected with malaria par- have a permanent employment contract. have a permanent employment contract. asites, for example, sting less frequent- DISEASE PROTECTION ly if the pathogens aren’t yet ready for The prize recognizes outstanding scientif- transmission to humans. The tricks icThe achievements prize recognizes in all fieldsoutstanding of fundamental scientif- The prize recognizes outstanding scientif- Hafer has thus demonstrated for the used by the parasites may thus provide researchic achievements in chemistry. in all fields of fundamental ic achievements in all fields of fundamental first time that a parasite sabotages a infection biologists and doctors with research in chemistry. research in chemistry. species of parasite that isn’t closely re- ideas for new treatment methods. The award ceremony will take place during the lated to it. This may influence the ErnstThe award Haage ceremony Symposium will takeat Schloss place during Broich the in The award ceremony will take place during the spread of diseases. “For example, it MülheimErnst Haage in November Symposium 2018. at Schloss Broich in Ernst Haage Symposium at Schloss Broich in may be possible for a parasite to par- www.tinyurl.com/y9fd2l6y Mülheim in November 2018. Mülheim in November 2018. tially or completely disable pathogen (available only in German) Nominations may be submitted to the Founda- tion‘sNominations Board of may Trustees be submitted by September to the 14th Founda- 2018 Nominations may be submitted to the Founda- andtion‘s should Board ofinclude Trustees the by following September documents: 14th 2018 tion‘s Board of Trustees by September 14th 2018 and should include the following documents: and should include the following documents:

- Two pages of laudation - CurriculumTwo pages ofvitae laudation in table form - Two pages of laudation TO THE POINT - CompleteCurriculum publication vitae in table list form - Curriculum vitae in table form l The tapeworm Schistocephalus solidus develops into a fertile parasite exclusively - UpComplete to three publication reprints of listworks by the - Complete publication list in the three-spined stickleback. The parasites are best adapted to the fish from - nomineeUp to three reprints of works by the - Up to three reprints of works by the their own region of origin. nominee nominee l If larvae in different stages of development infect a Cyclops, conflicts of interest Personal applications cannot be considered. between the parasites may arise over how they manipulate their shared interme Personal applications cannot be considered. Personal applications cannot be considered. diate host. Here, an infectious worm larva prevails over a non-infectious one. Ernst Haage Prize Ernst Haage Prize call for proposals 2018 GLOSSARY call for proposals 2018 call for proposals 2018 Tapeworms: A class of parasites belonging to the flatworms. Around 3,500 species are known globally. As fertile worms, they generally live in vertebrate intestines, including in humans. Their larvae develop predominantly in arthropods, leeches, For further information on the snails and vertebrates. They have no intestines and absorb their food over their entire ErnstFor further Haage information Prize, the Founda- on the For further information on the body surface. The smallest species are just a few millimeters long; the fish tapeworm, Ernsttion Haage and award Prize, ceremony, the Founda- Ernst Haage Prize, the Founda- in contrast, can be up to 15 meters long. tion andplease award visit ceremony, tion and award ceremony, Toxoplasmosis: Fatigue, fever or headaches are usually the most common symptoms please visit please visit http://www.cec.mpg.de of a Toxoplasma gondii infection. Following the acute phase, the immune system http://www.cec.mpg.de http://www.cec.mpg.de encapsulates the protozoa permanently in cysts. These cause local inflammation in the affected tissues, including in the brain. In weakened immune systems, a severe, acute infection that can lead to fatal meningitis can develop from the latent infection. If infected immediately prior to or during a pregnancy, the pathogens can be transmitted from the mother to the child and lead to malformations of the fetus. The infection paths include the consumption of raw, pathogen-infected meat, the ingestion of eggs, contaminated vegetables and water, and bodily contact with infected domestic cats. Toxoplasma may potentially also be transmitted sexually. Max Planck Institute forMax Chemical Planck Institute Energy Conversion Max Planck Institute Photos: N. Hafer/MPI for Evolutionary Biology (top), Michael Schwarz/MPI (bottom) Attn.for Chemical Ms. Christin Energy Ernst Conversion for Chemical Energy Conversion Stiftstr.Attn. Ms. 34-36 Christin Ernst Attn. Ms. Christin Ernst D-45470Stiftstr. 34-36 Mülheim an der Ruhr Stiftstr. 34-36 Catchword:D-45470 Mülheim Ernst Haage an der Ruhr D-45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr Email:Catchword: [email protected] Ernst Haage Catchword: Ernst Haage Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] FOCUS_Parasites

Perilous Puddles

Admittedly, the research subject isn’t particularly appetizing: Strongyloides stercoralis – small parasitic worms that live in their host’s intestines and have the potential to cause severe problems. Nevertheless, Adrian Streit from the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology in Tübingen is fascinated by this threadworm. It has a unique life cycle, and to this day, no one really understands why.

TEXT CATARINA PIETSCHMANN

eferring to nematodes as un- tines by parthenogenesis. “They pro- tion estimates that more than 300 mil- usual is almost an under- duce both male and female eggs, which lion people worldwide are infected with statement, as strange behav- are excreted with the feces,” explains the threadworm, especially in northern ior is completely normal for Streit. “Either infectious larvae develop South America, Central Africa and Asia. them. Pristionchus pacificus, from the female eggs, which then im- A warm, humid climate and a lack of whichR lives, among other places, on the mediately crawl back into the host, or hygiene are an El Dorado for worms! Pacific island of La Réunion, seeks out free-living worms that mate with males In healthy people, the infection a beetle larva, climbs up onto it and are produced.” usually goes undetected, as they harbor then stops developing. As soon as the only comparatively few worms. In im- beetle dies, the worm continues its de- PARASITIC FEMALES munocompromised patients, however, velopment, gorges itself on the carcass the larvae in the intestines can infect and multiplies (MaxPlanckResearch The male worms are exclusively free-liv- other organs and cause a life-threaten- 2/2014). ing. If males and females reproduce in ing infection called strongyloidiasis. “If But compared with Strongyloides, the soil, only parasitic female off- the parasite isn’t detected in cancer pa- that’s almost boringly conventional. At spring are formed. This second gener- tients, for example, chemotherapy can the Max Planck Institute for Develop- ation of larvae thus needs to find an- end in disaster,” emphasizes Streit. mental Biology, Adrian Streit explores other host to be able to multiply – which Organ recipients are also at risk. how this worm can survive in two then once again takes place without a Even in Western countries, deaths have worlds. Between parasitic generations, male partner. occurred after transplants as a result of Strongyloides can also form free-living Many terrestrial vertebrate species the worms. In the Netherlands, two cas- generations. Parasites are exclusively fe- have their own Strongyloides – including es were reported in which the infection

males that multiply in the host’s intes- humans. The World Health Organiza- was proven to have been transmitted Photo: Kay Maeritz/LOOK-foto

34 MaxPlanckForschungMaxPlanckResearch 2 1| 18| 18 Photo: Kay Maeritz/LOOK-foto reproduces in the intestines and returns to the environment via the feces. the via environment the to returns and intestines the in reproduces threadworm the as such parasites, Some costs. all at avoided be should excrement human and animal with contaminated is soil the where barefoot Walking Strongyloides stercoralis Strongyloides , bore through their hosts’ skin. The worm worm The skin. hosts’ their through bore , FOCUS_Parasites

Fertile female (parthenogenesis)

Embryo Embryo L4 (parasitic)

Self-infectious L1 L1 cycle Host L3 (infectious) L2

Environment L3 (infectious) L2 L2

L2 Direct development L3 L3 L1

Embryo L4 L4 Adult Adult

Indirect development

Strongyloides stercoralis life cycle: In a host, all worms are female. They produce female and male progeny by parthenogenesis (L 1 to L4: larval stages 1 to 4). Females can enter one of three cycles: direct, indirect or auto-infectious. In the latter, the host is reinfected by parasites already present in the body. Males, in contrast, live exclusively in the indirect cycle and are free-living. All progeny from the indirect cycle are female and become parasites.

via donated organs – the donor had mals – dogs, for example – to humans. Nematodes survive for weeks in the lived in South America 20 years previ- If this is the case, worms with identi- moist, feces-contaminated soil. The lar- ously. “In this country, the worms are cal DNA would have to be found in vae bore into the skin and advance at not yet a major medical problem, but both dogs and their owners. ten centimeters per hour – pretty fast these cases are reason enough to take a for creatures less than one millimeter closer look,” says Streit. FIELD STUDY IN CAMBODIA long! That’s why medical experts re- It isn’t unusual for the infection to spectfully refer to them as “racing lar- remain undetected for a long time, as it To learn more about the transmission vae.” Skin irritations usually occur in can be completely symptom-free. In ad- paths, Streit has teamed up with the the vicinity of the worms. dition, the classic symptoms – skin Swiss Tropical and Public Health Insti- They then bore through the wall of rash, nausea, diarrhea, abdominal tute in Basel and the Cambodian Na- a blood vessel and are flushed into the cramps – are unspecific, so it’s easy to tional Center for Parasitology, Ento- lungs with the blood. Here, they pene- overlook the worms. The tragedy is that mology and Malaria Control. The two trate the tissue and migrate upward common worm remedies would have institutes maintain a field laboratory in through the trachea. “First coughed up, been sufficient to kill the parasites. northern Cambodia. The rural region is then swallowed – that’s how they enter A lack of sanitary hygiene results in ideal for this purpose: the farmers’ the digestive tract,” explains Streit. the worm being transmitted from per- houses are built on stilts – the family In the small intestine’s mucous son to person. But is this really the lives upstairs, and the animals, general- membrane, each female lays up to a only way? Adrian Streit is driven by ly pigs and dogs, live below. The sani- thousand unfertilized eggs per day. The the question of whether strongyloidi- tary facilities are anything but hygien- majority are excreted in the feces. How- asis is one of the zoonoses, meaning ic and residents go barefoot or wear ever, this human parasite has the un-

that it can be transmitted from ani- open sandals. pleasant characteristic that a percent- Graphic: MPI for Developmental Biology

36 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Top A free-living Strongyloides papillosus female, about one millimeter long: The mouth opening with the esophagus is at the top end. The intestine is connected to this. The animal lays its eggs through the vulva, located at the right center of the image. Bottom The copulation organ of a free-living male Strongyloides papillosus. The small rod-shaped structures are bacteria clinging to it.

there,” says Streit, smiling. “Many came populations overlap, so dogs must be to help.” People were treated free of seriously considered as carriers. charge by staff from both institutes, As a next step, Streit wants to in- and it was explained how they could vestigate whether dogs are the only protect themselves from infection. carriers for humans. Water buffalo may The samples collected were first in- also be candidates, as peasants in many cubated for two days and placed in wa- areas still plough their rice fields with ter, after which the worm larvae swim- the animals, and do so barefoot. Water ming in the water were separated out. buffalo are already known to be carri- However, genetic analyses weren’t pos- ers of other zoonotic diseases; studies sible in the poorly equipped field lab- in southern China, for example, re- oratory in the village. The scientists vealed that the animals were the main thus had to fly the worms out to Ger- carriers of schistosomiasis, a disease many, placing each one into a small caused by trematodes. tube containing ethanol. “Customs “Although treatment of the patients wasn’t overly enthusiastic, but the of- was quite successful, the worms could age of the embryos develop into in- ficials were reassured once it became hardly be suppressed by treating hu- fective larvae within the host. These clear that the worms weren’t being mans alone. Nevertheless, the infection penetrate the intestinal wall or bore shipped alive and were in sterile pack- was brought under control in China, through the anal mucous membrane aging,” explains Streit. but only once the water buffalo were and reenter the body. This is why, if left Streit and his colleagues then exam- also dewormed,” says Streit. untreated, the infection can persist for ined the worms’ genetic material in Could this be a model for dealing a very long time. their laboratory in Tübingen. The anal- with strongyloidiasis? To find this out, In Cambodia, with the consent of ysis revealed that one of the two Stron- Streit is planning a project similar to the villagers, Streit’s doctoral students gyloides populations that the research- the one in Cambodia, but this time in Tegegn Jaleta and Siyu Zhou took fecal ers had identified in the dog feces was southwestern China. Here, not only are samples from humans and animals. genetically identical to that in their there rural areas where the thread-

Graphic: MPI for Developmental Biology Photos: Jürgen Berger/EM laboratory MPI for Developmental Biology (2) “This was a huge event for the people owners’ excrement. In other words, the worms are abundant, but there are also

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 37 Top left For their field study in Cambodia, the researchers from Tübingen collect stool samples from villagers, mix the samples with sawdust and cultivate them in Petri dishes. This allows the worms in the samples to continue their development. Top right In a field laboratory, Siyu Zhou and Tegegn Jaleta prepare the samples for transportation to Germany, where the worms can be genetically analyzed. Bottom Village life in northern Cambodia: People and animals live in close quarters and constantly come into contact with each other’s excretions, allowing intestinal parasites to be easily transmitted. FOCUS_Parasites

» A warm, humid climate and a lack of hygiene are an El Dorado for worms.

highly qualified scientists with well- species don’t lead to long-lasting, self- two protein families that suppress the equipped laboratories. sustaining infections. However, these host’s immune response than their A worm infection can be identified species, which can also live outside the free-living relatives do. “We don’t yet under the microscope. With more than host, are suitable as study objects for know what role these genes play in a 25,000 species worldwide, nematodes basic biological research. parasitic lifestyle,” Streit emphasizes. are hardly distinguishable for the lay- Streit also wants to investigate wheth- “For this, we would need to switch off person, but not for biologists. “Apart er the threadworms possess something the individual genes – not very easy in from Parastrongyloides, a close relative, like “parasite genes” – that is, a group an organism that lives in a host every Strongyloides is the only nematode in of genes that are necessary for this life- second generation.” which the infective larvae have a very style. In 2016, scientists decrypted the An additional peculiarity of these long esophagus typical of these species. genomes of four different Strongyloides worms is that the free-living, bisexual However, the fecal samples contain and two other closely related species, generation produces exclusively female predominantly other nematodes, such one of which occasionally lives parasit- offspring, while the unisexual parasitic as hookworms, as both humans and an- ically, while the other is free-living. A generation produces both males and fe- imals in Asia are often infected with genome comparison revealed that the males through parthenogenesis. De- various worm parasites. It remains un- parasitic worms have more genes for pending on the Strongyloides species, clear whether the different parasite species compete in the intestines. “But one thing is certain: in a further infection, worms can suppress new arrivals of the same species,” explains Streit. “We PARASITES AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM don’t yet know how, but this could of- Many parasites suppress their hosts’ immune system, thus hindering a fer an approach for future treatment.” defense response. Long-standing host-parasite relationships can lead to an evolutionary race. This also applies to humans, who activate their im - RELEVANCE TO VETERINARY mune system as a precaution to compensate for the suppressing effect of MEDICINE intestinal parasites. This can become a problem if the immune system is constantly insuffi- To discover the worms’ tricks, Streit ciently challenged, for example in countries with high standards of hy- keeps two other Strongyloides species in giene. Scientists suspect that the immune system may then turn against Tübingen, where they live in rats or its own body. This may explain why autoimmune diseases and allergies sheep (or, in the lab, in rabbits). Toge- continue to increase in industrialized nations but are barely a problem in ther with the University of Hohen- regions with many worm diseases. This is also suggested by the fact that heim, which maintains an animal bree- parts of the immune system normally involved in parasite defense are ding station in the Swabian Alb, he can overactive in autoimmune diseases and allergies. also analyze the natural sheep parasite This knowledge could be exploited medically. Some worm species are population for comparison. already being used to treat such autoimmune diseases as rheumatism, In contrast to parasitic nematodes, asthma, multiple sclerosis and Crohn’s disease, but there have not yet been Strongyloides doesn’t play a major role any large-scale studies. in veterinary medicine. Unlike Strongy-

Photos: MPI for Developmental Biology (3) loides stercoralis, other Strongyloides

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 39 Left Adrian Streit spends most of his time researching in his laboratory in Tübingen. But in order to familiarize himself with the environmental conditions under which the threadworms live, he also conducts field studies – a welcome change from the daily routine at the institute. Right Global distribution of Strongyloides stercoralis. The map shows that infection rates vary widely from country to country: more than 70 percent of the population may be infected with the worm in certain regions of some countries.

Thanks to the two life cycles, a single, self-reproducing parasitic individual can » establish a new population without sacrificing the benefits of sexual reproduction.

one chromosome must be completely “While we didn’t find mature sperm mals, such as the previously men- or partially degraded so that males can leading to males in sheep worms, there tioned worm living on a beetle. “Once develop without a father. The con- are sperm with and without an X chro- such a larva is attached to an animal, trolled degradation of genetic informa- mosome in rat parasites,” Streit ex- the step to get inside the animal is no tion is called chromatin diminution and plains. Some of these sperm would longer that great. This may lead to a was first identified in the equine round- therefore have to lead to males, since life cycle similar to that of Strongyloi- worm. Such degradation is a rare occur- an egg cell always carries an X chromo- des, where the worm is either parasitic rence in nature – outside of nematodes, some. In contrast to the sheep, there or free-living,” explains Streit. Howev- it occurs, for example, in copepods, cil- are actually male worm embryos in the er, in the majority of parasitic nema- iates and lampreys. rat. However, they apparently die off, todes, every generation is parasitic. because neither of the two worm spe- Thus, in the course of evolution, the GENERATION WITHOUT MALES cies forms male larvae. Still, when the free-living phase may have been sacri- male-designated sperm or the early ficed in favor of a purely parasitic one Different Strongyloides species also ap- male embryos are screened out rein many parasites. pear to have different means of pre- mains a mystery. Strongyloides may be following the venting males from developing in the Why is a parasite’s life so compli- same path. But has it possibly taken a progeny of the bisexual, free-living gen- cated? As Adrian Streit sees it, the com- wrong turn? After all, the females mul- eration. Similar to many nematodes, the plex life cycle emerged gradually from tiply in their hosts exclusively by uni- females of the rat parasite also have two a simpler one: numerous free-living sexual parthenogenesis, so “rejuvena- X chromosomes, whereas the males nematodes occasionally form perma- tion” of the genome by gene recombi- have just one. A Y chromosome as in nent stages to survive hard times. They nation doesn’t take place in the

humans doesn’t exist in these species. often attach themselves to other ani- parasitic generation. Photo: Axel Griesch

40 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Photo: Axel Griesch

Graphic: Schär et al. (2013) PLOS Negl Trop Dis 7(7):e2288. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002288 Frequency and sometimescurious,solution. ty today. Evolution alwaysfindsanew, plicated, can’t bepredictedwithcertain its life cycle will become even more com- ever becomeapureparasite, or whether benefits ofsexualreproduction. new populationwithoutsacrificingthe ing parasiticindividualcanestablisha two lifecycles,asingle,self-reproduc- ideal solutionforitself:thankstothe scind thesexualfree-livingcycle. making itimpossiblefortonowre- maneuvered itselfintoacul-de-sac, other words, tion isthebeginningofend.In tion toalifewithoutsexualreproduc- that they can’t age, because the transi- ally young. It may even be assumed asexually reproducing lines are gener- terms,unisexuallyor In evolutionary will Whether andhowStrongyloides will But maybe the worm has found an ≥ 11 ≤ information No 31 21 71 10 % - % % - % % - % % % 20 30 70 % % % may haveStrongyloides may

l l l POINT TO THE are therefore genetically identical to their mother. their to identical genetically progeny the therefore and are reproduction asexual of form a is it words, other In recombination. by in occurs Strongyloides as such parthenogenesis, mitotic In animals. female by produced eggs ized Parthenogenesis: GLOSSARY www.tinyurl.com/yczguvf9

but it can end in death in individuals with a weakened immune system. immune aweakened with individuals in death in end can it but humans, in harmless usually is infection The feces. animals’ the through people There are more than 50 than more are There wi compared genes more have worms parasitic that revealed have analyses Genetic stercoralis Strongyloides with infected be also can Dogs Strongyloides stercoralis Strongyloides the with infected are worldwide 300 estimated An vertebrates. terrestrial of range awide infect th free-living species, potentially reducing the host’s immune response. immune host’s the reducing potentially species, free-living th , diploid oocytes are formed without meiosis, and the genome isn’t remixed remixed isn’t genome the and meiosis, without formed are oocytes diploid , This type of unisexual reproduction leads to progeny from unfertil from progeny to leads reproduction unisexual of type This sp ecies of parasitic Strongyloides parasitic of ecies (available onlyinGerman) . Th worm. (a threadworm) that e parasites can infect infect can e parasites 2 | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch million people people million FOCUS_Parasites -

41 SPECTRUM

Dramatic Decline of Bornean Orangutans

The number of great apes in Borneo has plummeted by more than 100,000 in the last 16 years

The extinction of species on Earth continues unabated: the latest data from a research team that includes scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Evo- lutionary Anthropology in Leipzig indicates that the total number of Bor- nean orangutans dropped by more than 100,000 between 1999 and 2015. That leaves just 70,000 to 100,000 of these animals in Borneo, of which only a fraction live in viable populations. Persecution by humans is likely one of the main reasons why the greatest loss of great apes has occurred in selective- ly logged and primary forests. Many of them are killed for their meat and for the pet trade – but many also to protect crops from them. Although the numbers show that there are more orangutans than was previously thought, and that they can survive even in oil palm plantations, the rapid decline must be stopped. As a previous study showed, if only one in 100 adult orangutans is removed from a population per Habitat loss and poaching are the main causes of the disappearance of orangutans. In Borneo, for year, that population is very likely to go example, 10,000 orangutans live in forests that are slated for conversion into oil palm plantations. extinct. (www.mpg.de/11939623) If this happens, most of these animals will die.

Fighting Malaria with Chemistry The active ingredient artemisinin can now be produced more efficiently and economically and with less environmental impact

Millions of people – especially in devel- Systems in Magdeburg and of Colloids oping countries – who are infected with and Interfaces in Potsdam by refining a malaria may soon be able to access the process the chemists in Potsdam pre- key active ingredient against this dis- sented a few years ago. They now no ease more easily. Currently, 650,000 longer need to clean the raw materials people die every year from the effects used to produce artemisinin, which is of malaria; of those, nearly 600,000 are obtained from waste from sweet worm- children. Now we have the opportuni- wood (Artemisia annua), an annual ty to prevent many of these deaths. Ar- plant. In addition, they use the chloro- temisinin, the key ingredient in the phyll from the plant as a catalyst, almost effective anti-malaria drugs, can lowing them to forgo the expensive now be produced significantly more ef- and environmentally harmful photoac- Developed in the lab, suitable for large-scale ficiently and economically and with tivators they previously needed for this. production: Obtained from plant waste, less harm to the environment than be- ArtemiFlow, a startup founded by Max the source materials for manufacturing artemisinin (white powder) now no longer fore. This was made possible by re- Planck researchers, is now working to need to undergo cleaning, and the plant’s searchers at the Max Planck Institutes implement the process on an industri-

own chlorophyll can be used as a catalyst. for Dynamics of Complex Technical al scale. (www.mpg.de/11958775) Photos: Serge Wich (top), MPI of Colloids and Interfaces (bottom)

42 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 SPECTRUM

The Nose Knows

Study shows cognitive performance of dogs when tracking a scent

Dogs are well known for their excellent Each dog underwent a total of four tri- search even though they had obviously sense of smell, be it in searching for peo- als in which they followed, unaccompa- noticed the toy. However, this “surprise ple or for a variety of substances. The nied, a scent trail marked using one of effect” disappeared in the subsequent question of how well dogs understand two of the dog’s favorite toys. At the end test runs. Nevertheless, the results indi- what they perceive with their sense of of the trail, some of the dogs found, not cated that dogs have a mental represen- smell, though, remains largely unexplo- the toy that was used to lay the track, tation of the target when tracking a red. Scientists at the Max Planck Institu- but the other one. Many of the dogs scent. In other words, they have a speci- te for the Science of Human History seemed to be surprised by this, especially fic expectation of what they will find at therefore subjected 48 dogs to a test: in the first test run. They continued to the end of the trail. (www.mpg.de/11966983)

Star Migration Maelstroms in the Heart

Our Milky Way is an average spiral galaxy. Most of its stars orbit the center within a disk, but some are also found in the surrounding halo, which is made up of dark matter. Many halo stars are grouped together in giant structures. These structures are considered to be signatures of our galaxy’s tur- bulent past – debris from the many smaller galaxies that evidently collided with our Milky Way time and again, and that were torn apart in the process. A team of researchers headed Getting to the core of ventricular fibrillation: From ultrasound by Maria Bergemann at the Max Planck Institute for Astron- images (left), Max Planck researchers reconstructed how omy studied two groups of halo stars and discovered that the heart muscle contracts in a vortex-like manner in cardiac their chemical composition is similar to that of the galactic arrhythmia (center). In this way, they can also localize the disk. This is regarded as evidence that the stars they have filaments at the center of the vortices (right). now analyzed originated from within the disk and not, for instance, from trapped satellite galaxies. The scientists sus- Every five minutes in Germany alone, someone dies of sudden pect that this stellar migration is caused by oscillations in cardiac arrest resulting from ventricular fibrillation, the most the Milky Way disk as a whole, which in turn may have re- common cause of death worldwide. A new diagnostic method sulted from the tidal interaction between the disk and a pass- could help make future treatment of ventricular fibrillation and ing massive satellite galaxy. (www.mpg.de/11959728) other types of cardiac arrhythmia more effective. An international team working with physicists and physicians at the Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization and the Heart Center at the University Medical Center Göttingen developed a technique that allows them to use common ultrasound devices to produce 3-D images of the vortex-like con- tractions that lead to the heart muscle spasms that occur in ventricular fibrillation. The researchers can even localize the eyes of the vortices and track them as their positions in the muscle change. A precise image of the vortex cores is crucial for stopping the ventricular fibrillation more gently than is currently possible. Today, this type of cardiac arrhythmia is treated with strong and very painful electric shocks from a defibrillator. This is why some patients with recurrent cardiac arrhythmias decline to have a defibrillator implanted, especial- A view of the galaxy: Illustration of a simulation of the Milky Way disk, ly since these devices often emit electrical pulses unnecessar- perturbed by the tidal interaction with a dwarf galaxy. The locations of ily. If the electrical shocks could be applied at the vortex cores, the two halo star structures the researchers studied – the Triangu- lum-Andromeda (Tri-And) and the A13 overdensities – above and below they could be much weaker, as they are particularly effective

Photos: Serge Wich (top), MPI of Colloids and Interfaces (bottom) Photos and graphic: MPI for Dynamics and Self-Organization (right), T. Mueller/NASA/JPL-Caltech (bottom) the galaxy disk are indicated. there. (www.mpg.de/11953915)

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 43 SPECTRUM

A Millirobot with a Talent for Movement

A magnetic drive allows a tiny vehicle to walk, crawl, jump and swim through a complex environment

Soon, tiny robots will be able to master any obstacle course. Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Sys- tems in Stuttgart developed a four-millimeter-long strip of elastic silicone that can run, jump, crawl and roll through difficult terrain, as well as transport small loads and swim on and in liquids. The tiny vehicle owes its ability to perform these different types of movements to magnetic particles the researchers embedded in a sophisticated arrange- ment in the silicone strip. As a result, the rubber can be de- formed in various ways depending on the orientation and strength of an external magnetic field. The researchers hope it will one day be possible to use this master of motion as a model to build tiny robots that perform medical proce- dures in the body. They could transport drugs to the source of an illness, for instance, or stop minor hemorrhages. (www.mpg.de/11895964)

The millirobot presented by the Stuttgart-based Max Planck researchers can move on land and in water. Jellyfish and caterpillars are just two of the natural role models that inspired the scientists who developed it.

Interconnected Sensory Impressions Colonial-Era Pathogen Identified After the indigenous population in America came into con- It is estimated that one in 25 people have synesthesia, a tact with Europeans, numerous deadly epidemics swept union of sensory perceptions that are normally separate. through the New World. To date, contemporary reports have Synesthetes may see or taste sounds, for example, or per- proved insufficient for identifying the causes. Now, for the ceive them as geometric shapes. The phenomenon often oc- first time, an international research team with significant curs in multiple members of a given family, so it is likely he- participation of scientists from the Max Planck Institute for reditary. Researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Psycho- the Science of Human History has used DNA analyses to mi- linguistics and the University of Cambridge have now ana- crobiologically identify the pathogen behind such an epi- lyzed the DNA of three families in which several family demic. The genetic material the researchers used was ex- members across various generations see colors when they tracted from 29 skeletons in a cemetery associated with the hear sounds. They were able to identify genetic variants and epidemic in the abandoned Mixtec town of Teposcolula-Yu- see how they were passed on from one generation to the cundaa in Mexico. The individuals buried there were victims next. While the highlighted DNA variants differ between of what is known as the cocoliztli epidemic, which took mil- the three families, they also have one thing in common: a lions of lives in Guatemala and Mexico between 1545 and concentration of genes that are involved in axonogenesis 1550. The team analyzed genetic material from the human and cell migration. Axonogenesis is a key process that en- skeletal remains using a novel computer program that enables brain cells to connect with the right partners. This tal- ables them to examine the samples for non-specific bacteri- lies with findings from imaging studies that showed that the al DNA. Ten of the samples contained evidence of Salmonella brain circuits in adults with synesthesia are wired somewhat enterica bacteria, which cause enteric fever – a disease that, differently than in people who don’t experience these kinds similar to typhoid, causes fever, diarrhea and vomiting. The of sensory couplings. (www.mpg.de/11964360) scientists consider it possible that the pathogen was intro-

duced from Europe. (www.mpg.de/11884269) Graphic: MPI for Intelligent Systems

44 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 SPECTRUM

A Relic of the Big Bang Brains of Jazz and

Astrophysicists calculate the original magnetic field in our Classical Pianists cosmic neighborhood Work Differently

Viewing the invisible: This sky A musician’s brain differs from that of map shows the Harrison mag- a non-musician: making music re- netic field strength, aver- quires a complex interplay of various aged across a sphere skills, and this is also reflected in the with a radius of approx- imately 300 million brain structures. Scientists at the Max light-years. The two re- Planck Institute for Human Cognitive gions with particularly and Brain Sciences have now discov- strong magnetic fields ered that even the style of music plays are the Perseus Pisces galaxy cluster (left) and the a role: they observed that the brain ac- Virgo cluster (top). tivity of jazz pianists differed from that of classical pianists – even when they play the same piece of music. One major difference is in how they plan The first fractions of a second follow- resulted in vortex movements in the movements. While pianists generally ing the birth of the universe saw the plasma of the early universe, produc- have to know what they will play – that emergence of not only elementary par- ing electrical currents and thus induc- is, which keys they will press – and ticles and radiation, but also magnetic ing magnetic fields. Subsequently, the how they will play it, meaning which fields. A team headed by the Max scientists translated these fields back fingers they will use, the weighting of Planck Institute for Astrophysics has into the present and into our cosmic these two steps varies depending on now calculated what these magnetic neighborhood, enabling them to pre- the music genre. Classical pianists, for fields in our vicinity should look like dict the structure and morphology of instance, focus particularly on the today – in great detail and in 3-D. To the original magnetic field in the sur- “how” – on their finger placement – in do this, the researchers first analyzed rounding 300 million light-years. Un- order to play a composition perfectly the distribution of galaxies around us fortunately, this theory can’t be tested and with feeling. Jazz pianists focus and, based on this, calculated the dis- through observation: the calculated primarily on the “what” so that they tribution of matter at the time of the magnetic field is 27 orders of magni- can improvise. (www.mpg.de/11881616) Big Bang. This is where the Harrison ef- tude smaller than that of the Earth, fect came into play: friction from what and thus far below the current measure- was then a very strong radiation field ment threshold. (www.mpg.de/11991394)

The Spread of the Bell Beaker

DNA studies solve mysteries surrounding the spread of special ceramic vessels in prehistoric Europe

During the transition from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, A popular burial object: Beaker vessels were people in western and central Europe increasingly used pot- often placed in the grave with the deceased. tery in a new, bell-shaped style. It was long debated whether Today, scientists can determine how the pottery spread based on the skeletal DNA. the spread of the beaker ceramic style was due to migration or merely to the spread of new ideas. To shed light on the matter, an international team of researchers including members gions differs significantly. In ancient Britain, in contrast, from the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human His- among the dead who were buried with beaker vessels, the re- tory analyzed the DNA of 400 prehistoric skeletons that were search team found genetic material from inhabitants of the buried together with beaker vessels. According to their find- eastern European steppe who migrated across central Europe ings, both explanations may be correct depending on the re- to the British Isles some 4,500 years ago. At that time, they region. The beaker pottery must have initially spread between placed more than 90 percent of the original population of Brit- central Europe and the Iberian Peninsula without any appre- ain. Beaker pottery was not found in that region before the ar-

Graphic: MPI for Intelligent Systems Photos: MPI for Astrophysics (top), Museo Arqueológico Nacional/CC BY-SA 4.0 (bottom) ciable migration, as the DNA of the skeletons in the two re- rival of these immigrants. (www.mpg.de/11953055)

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 45 Neanderthals asArtists A JigsawPuzzleofPlantCells SPECTRUM isotopes intothoriumandfacilitates on the radioactive decay of uranium mans. Thisdatingtechniqueisbased than 20,000yearsbeforemodernhu and creatingcaveartinEuropemore objects morethan115,000yearsago, thals werealreadyproducingsymbolic according totheirfindings,Neander different results: has now obtained very Anthropology in Leipzig Evolutionary tists fromtheMaxPlanckInstitutefor national research teamincludingscien as uranium-thoriumdating,aninter- ing anewmeasurementmethodknown humans firstsettledthecontinent.Us some 40,000yearsago,justasmodern Europe showed that they were created Previous analysesofsuchartifactsin ures, decoratedbone tools and jewelry. ble ofcreatingcaveart,sculptedfig that only modern humans were capa- Anthropologists previouslybelieved 46 scientists attheMaxPlanckInstituteforPlantBreeding come upwithawaytokeepfrombursting.According Plant cells are under tremendous pressure, so they had to New method yields older age of artwork in Spanish caves Spanishin artwork of age older yields method New Their irregular shape enables epidermal cells to withstand the high pressure in their interior their in pressure high the withstand to cells epidermal enables shape irregular Their MaxPlanckResearch MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 - - - - - years old and therefore must have been created by Neanderthals. by created been have must therefore and old years 64,000 than more is cave Pasiega La the in lines vertical and horizontal of composed painting ladder-like the measurements, new the to According prints. hand and signs geometric dots, animals, of groups show black, in also sometimes but red, in mostly paintings, The Spain. in caves three of walls the on paintings over formed had that samples carbonate analyzed Researchers years ago. humans, morethanhalfamillion ancestor ofNeanderthalsandmodern therefore goback to thelast common man perception and cognition must mans. Theoriginsoflanguageandhu ly indistinguishablefrommodernhu think symbolicallyandwerecognitive- that Neanderthals,too,wereableto From this,theresearchers conclude mine theminimumageofcaveart. pigment and were thus able to deter- ings and on seashells with remnants of tists datedcarbonatecrustsonpaint- carbon method.Inthisway, thescien- in time thanthecommonly used radio age determinationmuchfurtherback (www.mpg.de/ from bursting. from them prevents what is size small Their exception. an are gas, and water of exchange plant’s the regulate help which stomata, the of cells guard interspersed The pressure. greater withstand can they pieces, puzzle like shaped are thaliana ) (Arabidopsis cress thale of cells epidermal the As ( such asrootsandstems,usuallyhavecylindricalcells. plant organsthathaveapreferreddirectionofgrowth, all directions,resemblepiecesofajigsawpuzzle,while grows: epidermalcellsofleaves,whichgrowuniformly in these surface cellsisdeterminedbyhow a plant organ large, openareas,whichtendtobulgeout.Theshape of can withstandturgorpressurebetterbecausetheyhave no show thatlong,thincellsorthosewithanirregularshape in cellsofvariousshapes. The researchers’ calculations er model,thescientistssimulatedpressureconditions than roundcellscan.Usingaspeciallydevelopedcomput shape canwithstandthepressureintheirinteriorbetter Research inCologne, epidermalcellswithanirregular www.mpg.de 11948095) /11956824) - - -

Photos: P. Saura (top), MPI for Plant Bleeding Research/Smith (bottom) Photos: P. Saura (top), MPI for Plant Bleeding Research/Smith (bottom)

Photos: Franz Lanting/Fotolia (top), MPI of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics/J. Rink (bottom) Humans LimitAnimalMovements Axolotl andPlanarianFlatwormGenomesDecoded of these animals to regenerate animals to these of abilityastounding the understand researchers helping is analyses DNA these from data The can form a complete worm. complete a form can one Each life. worm’s the throughout active remain that cells stem to regenerate to ability this owes worm The mini-flatworm. complete a into back regenerates piece each pieces, tissue tiny into cut is ranea flatworm the when Even Biologists identify decline in migration in areas with a high human footprint humanhigh a with areas inmigration in decline identify Biologists humans. species altertheiractivitytimesandterritoriestoavoid mals: theresearch findingsshowthatwildboarsandother Human huntingandleisureactivitiesalsoaffecttheani human presence,sodon’t needtocoverasmuchdistance. stance, canfindfoodmorequicklyinareaswithastrong behavior inthepresenceofhumans.Urbanfoxes,for and alpinesports.Inaddition,someanimalschangetheir man footprint,forinstancewithskilifts,aerialcableways as grouse,completelyavoidregionswithasignificanthu that aresurroundedbyhumaninfrastructure.Others,such boars thenincreasinglyretreattosmallerwoodlandareas man settlementsandroads.Speciessuchasdeerwild One reason for this is that the animals are impeded by hu mans moveonlyonethirdtohalfasfarinthewild. showed that mammals in areasthatare influenced by hu Index oftheareas through whichtheymove.Theresults 800 animalsandcompareditwiththeHumanFootprint Frankfurt analyzedtheGPSmovementdataofmorethan enberg NatureResearch SocietyandGoetheUniversity Planck InstituteforOrnithologyinRadolfzell,theSenck is becomingevermorerestricted.Resear ver evergreaterdistances,animals’freedomofmovement While humanstravelmoreandfrequentlyco ( www.mpg.de Schmidtea mediter- Schmidtea /11892788) chers attheMax weeks. The planarian flatworm The flatworm planarian weeks. few a just within back it grows it part, body a loses axolotl Mexican the When h fawr gnm ae lo com also are genome flatworm the of portions Large segments. petitive re long, many of consists it Moreover, sequence. to difficult especially it ing times than larger that of humans, mak ten than more is genome axolotl the With Dresden. in Genetics and Biology Cell Molecular of at the Max Institute Planck researchers with together cases both in – these animals of both of genome the decoded ly al research teams have now complete internation two techniques, quencing se new to into Thanks pieces. tissue cut small is it when mini-flatworms can mediterranea tea even form new 32 the animals able to resume their migrations. their resume to able animals the were removed was obstacle the after Only Botswana. in Delta Okavango From Africa. in mammal other any than more – migration annual their during kilometers around to up travel example, for Zebras, humans. of vicinity the in found be longer no can they so ranges, large require species animal Some billion base pairs, pairs, base billion Schmid to 1968 ------, a fence blocked the zebras’ migration in the in migration zebras’ the blocked fence a 2004, oe o tee ery dnia se identical nearly these of posed www.mpg.de/ andbodyparts. organs can regenerate narian flatworm pla and axolotl the why study to data re searchers plan The to use the new genome chromosomes. of number same the receive cells daughter both that division, ensure cell during that, genes universal two missing is hand, other the on flatworm, The missing. pletely genevelopmental named PAX de widespread and important an that striking also is It tissue. generating re in expressed are that and phibians am in only occur that genes several discovered researchers the axolotl genome, the In researchers. the for lenge chal great a posed too, it, so quences, 2 11886639 | MaxPlanckResearch MaxPlanckResearch 18

( www.mpg.de/ ) SPECTRUM 3 11886544 is 500 com 47 ------, PHYSICS & ASTRONOMY_Personal Portrait

In the Cosmic Chemistry Lab

As a young girl, she was a talented painter and had a keen interest in art. The course for her future seemed set. Then she happened upon a book − a book that transported her into the vastness of space and ultimately decided her career aspirations. Paola Caselli thus became, not an artist, but an astrochemist. As a Director at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Garching, she is still just as fascinated by cosmic clouds as she was when she was 12.

TEXT ALEXANDER STIRN

n the beginning was a book: The investigates which molecules exist in when the famous British astrophysicist Black Cloud, a science fiction nov- interstellar clouds, which chemical pro- wrote his book, experts knew of no el about a monster made of gas and cesses take place there and how they more than a few simple organic mole- dust that, to astronomers’ amaze- could give rise to stars, planets and per- cules (CN, CH, CH+) in interstellar ment, would later turn out to be an haps even life. Caselli − black hair, clouds, let alone any manner of life. The intelligentI life form. It was written to- black glasses and words flowing like a field of astrochemistry, in which Casel- ward the end of the 1950s by Fred waterfall – is driven by an overwhelm- li is at home today, didn’t even exist. Hoyle, an astrophysicist who was as ing sense of curiosity and an almost Science has since come a long way. brilliant as he was controversial. Prussian sense of discipline. Since the early 1990s there has been lit- At the age of 12, Paola Caselli was tle doubt that molecules exist almost blown away when her teacher handed A BOOK BY FRED HOYLE everywhere in the cosmos: in the black her the book. The mere thought of peer- DETERMINES HER CAREER clouds of gas and dust that stretch being into the depths of space through a tween the shining stars, both in our gal- telescope, studying clouds and possibly “Fred Hoyle was a visionary, an idol,” axy and in the depths of the universe. discovering extraterrestrial life captivat- Caselli says with a twinkle in her eyes Chemists have also succeeded in study- ed the schoolgirl. Finally, Caselli real- that leaves no doubt as to the fascina- ing the properties of these molecules in ized, she had found the mission she had tion that must have captivated her then detail in the lab. dreamed of – her calling in life. − and how strong that enthusiasm re- Of particular interest to astrono- Now, 40 years later, Caselli is sitting mains today. “His book opened my mers is how the molecules behave in a bright, tidy corner office just out- eyes. I connected the dots and I knew: when excited by radiation and colli- side Munich. Nevertheless, dark black Okay, that’s exactly what I want to do. clouds are omnipresent. Using the I want to use the short time I have in world’s biggest and most powerful tele- this universe to better understand it.” Ambitious: Even as a young girl, Paola Caselli scopes, the Italian scientist, a Director Though peppered with physics for- was fascinated by the cosmos and doggedly pursued a career in science. Today, she is a at the Max Planck Institute for Extrater- mulas, Hoyle’s first work was science fic- Director at the Max Planck Institute for Extra -

restrial Physics in Garching since 2014, tion through and through. In 1957, terrestrial Physics in Garching. Photo: Axel Griesch

48 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Photo: Axel Griesch PHYSICS & ASTRONOMY_Personal Portrait

My parents taught me a great deal, especially about how to make ends meet. » But science – that I had to learn myself.

sions with other molecules, particularly by a phenomenon known as the most of the molecules are organic in ly hydrogen (H2), the most abundant Doppler effect − similar to how the pitch nature, as Fred Hoyle predicted: they molecule in the cosmos: following ex- of an ambulance siren changes as it consist of carbon and, in many cases, citation, molecules can rotate, vibrate races past at high speed. “If a cloud col- nitrogen − the basic requirements for and emit electromagnetic waves of a lapses, as occurs before the birth of a life as we know it. Some molecules are precisely known frequency. A “glowing star, we can detect such movements just one step away from the simplest fingerprint” emerges that is character- from Earth,” Paola Caselli says. amino acid, glycine, an important istic of each molecule. building block of proteins. Fatty acids, “These fingerprints allow us to study AMMONIA SERVES AS A which are required for cell membranes, the physics in cosmic clouds from a COSMIC THERMOMETER as well as nucleobases, which make up great distance,” says Caselli. Although our genetic code, also exist in the pri- the clouds appear dark and usually only But molecules can do even more. Ow- mordial material of our solar system. shimmer faintly with low energy, large ing to its structure, a gas such as ammo- And water is ubiquitous, too. “Basical- telescopes can detect their characteris- nia has various transitions. Several ra- ly,” Caselli says, “we see everything tic radiation. The data obtained gives diation lines emerge whose relative that is needed to make up prebiotic ma- astrochemists information about the intensity depends on the ambient tem- terial, everything needed to create a life composition of the clouds. perature. Astrochemists therefore use form – and even from a time before life And not only that: the data also re- ammonia as a thermometer for measur- existed on Earth.” veals a lot about conditions in space. ing the temperature of distant clouds. In the Tuscan seaside town of Fol- For example, if the molecules are mov- The chemical composition of the lonica, where Caselli grew up, all this is ing relative to the Earth, the frequen- cosmic structures is also intriguing. A at least as distant as the nearest stars and cies of the fingerprints are shifted slight- close look at the signals shows that galaxies. Here, the closest they come to

A valuable tool: To obtain data and gain insights into cosmic molecular clouds, Paola Caselli and her team make observations using the world’s biggest and best telescopes, including ALMA, an array of 66 radio antennas in the Atacama Desert in Chile (left) and the 30-meter telescope on Pico Veleta in Spain, which is operated by IRAM. Photos: Clem & Adri Bacri-Normier (wingsforscience.com)/ESO/IRAM

50 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 My parents taught me a great deal, especially about how to make ends meet. But science – that I had to learn myself.

The cosmos in a lab: It’s not easy to replicate the conditions of cosmic gas clouds in an experimental setup, as they are extremely thin and very cold compared with the Earth’s atmosphere. But Paola Caselli and her colleague Luca Bizzocchi succeeded in producing and studying reactive molecules. The light they emit can then be compared with observations of real molecular clouds in space.

exotic are the foreign tourists who stop ed, I would completely lose myself in their pale light comes from molecular off in Follonica on their way to the is- my work and only after five or six hours gas and dust that heats up and glows land of Elba just off the coast. Caselli’s realize: Oh, maybe I should eat some- while raining down on the newly cre- mother works there as a seamstress, thing,” Caselli says with a laugh. ated protostars. mostly from home, at the same table Yet the local conditions and the as- where little Paola did her homework. PROTOSTARS FORM AT THE sociated chemical reactions aren’t easy Her father also came from a family CENTER OF DARK CLOUDS to understand. At first, there are just a that wasn’t blessed with wealth. He had few thousand molecules in every cubic no education, repaired shoes, worked A difficult step came toward the end of centimeter of space, in molecular clouds. in bars and shops, and eventually be- secondary school. Fred Hoyle’s book In the end, when a protostar is born, came a barber − an occupation that had long since made its impact and the there are one septillion particles per Caselli’s younger brother still pursues previously indecisive student knew in cubic centimeter. “We need to under- today. “My parents are from a humble her heart that she wanted to become an stand an enormous number of physi- background,” Paola Caselli says. “They astronomer. “I decided to quit painting cal steps that occurred between those taught me a great deal, especially how entirely,” Caselli says. “If you want to two states,” Caselli says. to make ends meet. But science – that I do something, you must commit your- And that’s not all: the remains of had to learn myself.” self fully – or just let it be.” the original gas and dust clouds sur- Initially, however, her focus was on Now, her attention is focused on round the newborn stars like a dough- art. Little Paola loved to paint, mainly the birth of stars and star systems: in nut. It is precisely in those regions that with oils. She mostly painted colorful the center of dark clouds, molecules planets are most likely to emerge, and landscapes, birds and almost micro- gradually grow in complexity. The first with them entire star systems. The scopically detailed insects. Later, in sec- delicate star structures form, known same processes that led to the birth of ondary school, she produced precise as protostars. They aren’t yet dense our solar system were at work. For black-and-white images, abstract and enough to ignite the fire of nuclear fu- Caselli, this is an extremely fascinating

Photos: Clem & Adri Bacri-Normier (wingsforscience.com)/ESO/IRAM Photo: Axel Griesch with a calligraphic flair. “When I paint- sion that lights up conventional stars; process: “Basically, it’s about under-

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 51 PHYSICS & ASTRONOMY_Personal Portrait

Looking at our own history: Gigantic gas and dust clouds full of molecules roam the universe. So far, astrophysicists have identified around 150 chemical species, including organic compounds such as formaldehyde, formic acid and methanol. These and many other building blocks of life also accumulated in the material from which our Sun and the planets – and ultimately we humans – were formed.

standing our own history,” the astro- have to go abroad to study. One eve- “If you want to do research, you have to chemist says. And all this with noth- ning, Caselli was working with a tele- seize every opportunity you’re offered,” ing to go on but the ghostly light from scope near Bologna. The weather was she says. “Under no circumstances distant molecules. bad and there was nothing to do, so she should you be afraid to move again and sent two e-mails to American professors again.” Not even if − as in Paola Casel- E-MAILS SENT OVERSEAS whose names she had found in the as- li’s case – you have a daughter who you TO TWO PROFESSORS trochemistry publications she liked have raised alone since she was three best. “Those may have been the first and a half years old. “Of course things Thirty-five years ago, when Paola Casel- e-mails I ever sent overseas,” Caselli re- are difficult sometimes, and you have li finished secondary school and opted calls. Both professors replied to the Ital- to organize your life very efficiently. But for science instead of art, astrochemis- ian student. Both invited her to study children adapt quickly to new environ- try itself was still in the “protostar in the US. ments,” says the 51-year-old. “As long stage.” It didn’t sparkle; it barely exist- Paola Caselli first went to Ohio and as the parents are happy with what ed. Caselli went to Bologna, to one of later to Harvard, where she completed they’re doing, it’s okay for the kids.” only two astronomy departments in It- her doctorate at the age of 28. A year Finally, in April 2014, now a Max aly at the time. It quickly became clear later, she returned to Italy for the sake Planck Director, she moved to Munich. that astrophysics alone wouldn’t lead of her family. There, she obtained a per- There, in Caselli’s corner office over- her to her goal, so Caselli also attended manent researcher position at Arcetri looking a stream flowing through the chemistry classes, took the examina- Astrophysical Observatory. “That was middle of the institute campus in Gar- tions for those and met people with great, as I was close to my family, and ching, there are no pictures of colorful whom she still works today. She com- my colleagues there were brilliant,” she nebulae or dark clouds. Instead, large- pleted her studies in overdrive. “Since recalls. But it proved to be a constant format photos of telescope systems my parents weren’t rich and couldn’t battle there for students and research adorn the walls. These are the tools of support me forever, I felt an obligation funding. So she returned to Harvard, astrochemists, and Paola Caselli needs to not waste any time,” says the Max and finally moved to Leeds, England, a lot of them. Depending on what ex- Planck Director. where she was offered a professorship. cites the faraway molecules − cosmic But for a master’s degree in astro- In other words, the usual nomadic wan- rays, pale starlight or violent explo-

chemistry, it was clear that she would derings of a scientist. sions − they emit radiation of different Photo: Axel Griesch

52 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 wavelengths: some secrets are revealed For astrochemists, this means that they by radio waves or short microwaves, are constantly on the move, visiting and others by infrared light. X-ray tele- such far-flung corners of the Earth as scopes are also needed in order to com- Chile and Hawaii. “That can be pretty

plete the picture. tough sometimes. You travel a lot and Brightness you have to stay up through the night HUGE VIRTUAL TELESCOPE and immediately comprehend what’s Speed ON THE COMPUTER going on. After all, you don’t want to waste valuable telescope time,” Caselli But an assorted mix of radiation wave- says. Now the researcher avoids this lengths isn’t the only thing that can stress: she sends students and junior shed light on the molecules and their scientists – to learn, to familiarize them- movements. To study the phenomena selves with the telescopes, but also to in detail, astrochemists also link nu- have a little fun exploring exotic places In the stellar nursery: The Rho-Ophiuchi merous telescopes together to form during their trips. complex in the constellation Ophiuchus (top) what is known as an interferometer. By After all, having fun is crucial: “One is a shining example of the birthplace of stars. Researchers like Paola Caselli search overlaying multiple signals, they can of the most important things for young such clouds for molecules. The smaller create a giant virtual telescope in a scientists is having motivation − com- illustration shows the first evidence of water computer with immense resolution. In bined with a willingness to dedicate vapor – represented by the spectral curve – doing so, however, the big picture is precious time to science,” Caselli says. within the thick cloud in which a star will lost, which is why individual tele- For example, she herself had to ob- soon form. The region, named Lynds 1544, is located in the Taurus constellation and was scopes are still needed. “Because we’re serve the skies two Christmases in a captured using in the infrared range with unable to touch the clouds, it’s ex- row. The Italian researcher shakes her the Herschel Space Observatory. The amount tremely important to get as much com- head. “Who would do that sort of of water found in the cloud could fill around plementary information as we can,” thing if they weren’t highly motivat- 2,000 terrestrial oceans. Caselli says. “The only way to do that ed?” So grades and letters of recom- is by examining as many electromag- mendation aren’t everything for the

Photo: Axel Griesch Photos: Jim Misti and Steve Mazlin (acquisition), Robert Gendler (processing); ESA/Herschel/SPIRE netic frequencies as possible.” astrochemist: “People can be as smart

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 53 PHYSICS & ASTRONOMY_Personal Portrait God’s law?

Back to the beginning: The group led by Paola Caselli – shown here with Bo Zhao – is concerned with the origin of stars and planets in theory and practice, on the The future of a research team comparing computer and at the telescope. The bot- Islamic family and inheritance law was at tom photo was obtained with the ALMA radio interferometer and shows a young stake. The Foundation bridged a funding protoplanetary disk embedded in the larger cloud in which it formed. Our solar gap at the Max Planck Institute for Foreign system looked similar to this image and International Private Law, enabling around 4.6 billion years ago. Nadjma Yassari to continue a vital con tri bution to research – and do more to show how changeable Islamic law applies in Germany. ADVERTISING

300 AU

as they want, but if they’re not enthu- too much, you don’t notice how crazy own hypotheses. One of his most fa- siastic, it won’t work.” it all is.” Almost every day begins with mous is that simple life forms are dis- In selection interviews, Caselli exercise: on an exercise bike or stair tributed throughout the universe, and The Max Planck Foundation has sup therefore tries to gauge candidates’ in- stepper, but in any case, with stretch- thus also reached Earth – a theory terest in the research subject and wheth- ing for the back. Even on trips, her known as panspermia. “I don’t believe ported the Max Planck Society for more er they have a real zeal for astrochem- gymnastics mat must accompany her. in it,” Caselli says tersely. “It’s interest- than ten years by providing targeted istry. If not? No problem. “As long as To save time, and because Caselli has ing, but we need proof.” So far, the only young people find a field they’re pas- no time for reading anyway, she listens thing that is certain is that water and funding for toplevel innovative and sionate about, they’ll be successful.” to audiobooks while working out. organic molecules regularly ride piggy- cuttingedge research at the more than She is also disciplined when it comes back to Earth in meteorites. In the fu- THE DAY BEGINS to eating: healthy, not too much, and ture, Caselli wants to team up with bio- 80 institutes, enabling breakthroughs WITH PHYSICAL EXERCISE above all, fast, please. In Italy, she relates physicists to determine whether that is in frontier science. As a patron, you can with sweeping gestures, half an hour enough for life to emerge from the When it comes to motivation and dis- was often wasted before everyone was building blocks formed in space. make a crucial difference by creating cipline, Paola Caselli sets the same high ready to march off together to the cafe- That won’t be easy, and it will take additional scope to keep this research standards for herself. When it all be- teria. Here in Garching, you set off at the time. It is, the astrochemist muses, a ahead of the curve in the international comes a bit too much − with work, with agreed time. End of story. “I like the Ger- puzzle – a project for future genera- her daughter, who is about to graduate man way, the order, the rules,” Caselli tions. “It will be important to not get scientific competition. Join us! from secondary school and whose pic- says, laughing. “I like clear messages.” lost in the details,” she says. “We must ture occupies a place of honor on Casel- Fred Hoyle, the idol with the black always keep the important questions li’s tidy desk − the scientist relies on cloud, was different. The brilliant but foremost in our minds, the questions Max-Planck-Foundation good organization: “If you plan your controversial astrophysicist liked to we would really like to answer. Only

daily routine without worrying about it make his own rules and formulate his that will keep the motivation alive.” Photos: Axel Griesch; MPI for Extraterrestrial Physics Deutsche Bank www.maxplanckfoundation.org IBAN DE46 7007 0010 0195 3306 00

54 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Photos: Axel Griesch; MPI for Extraterrestrial Physics

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God’s scientific competition. scientific ahead of the curve in the international additional scope to keep this research by creating make difference crucial a in frontier science. apatron, As you can institutes,enabling breakthroughs 80 cutting Germany. in applies law Islamic changeable how bution to research –and do more to show Nadjma Yassari to continue avital con and International Private Law, enabling gap at the Max Planck Institute for Foreign funding a stake. Foundation bridged The at was law inheritance and family Islamic futureThe of aresearch team comparing IBAN DE46 7007 0010 DE46 7007 0195IBAN 00 3306 Deutsche Bank Max-Planck-Foundation top for funding than ten years by providing targeted theported Max Planck Society for more The Max Planck Foundation has sup edge research at the more than level innovative and and innovative level

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MATERIALS & TECHNOLOGY_Polymer Research

Plastics – Kind to the Environment

Plastics are practical – not least because they last. But when they find their way into the environment, this is precisely what becomes a problem. The amount of plastic waste in the environment is constantly increasing. A team headed by Frederik Wurm at the Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research in Mainz is therefore developing polymers that can be broken down by microorganisms once they have served their purpose. The researchers are applying what they’ve learned from their work on biodegradable polymers for medical use.

TEXT KARL HÜBNER

very year, 380 million tons of Once synthesized, most polymers are Easy pickings for microbes: plastic enter the material cy- virtually indestructible. Even exposing These phosphate-based plastic cle. If it were to be loaded into them to weathering and light causes no plates can be broken down by microorganisms –plastics 40-ton trucks, the line would more than slight discoloration. And mi- like these wouldn’t accumulate encircle the Earth nearly four croorganisms that use many other main the environment. times. E This figure includes plastics for terials as food sources are at a loss when bags, food packaging and cosmetic bot- it comes to dealing with most plastics. tles, toothpaste tubes and tights, as well Depending on the type of polymer and as plastics for computer monitors and the conditions it is exposed to, it can smartphones, CDs, linoleum and lami- take decades or even centuries before nate flooring. Similarly, car and aircraft the giant molecules are fully broken manufacturers are continuously increas- down into carbon dioxide, water and ing the proportion of plastics in their other residues. Until then, they contin- products – to reduce weight and thus ue to represent a potential hazard to lower fuel consumption. fish, seabirds and many other animals. The reason plastics are so omnipresent is quite simply because they offer 4.9 BILLION TONS OF so many advantages. Not only are they PLASTIC WASTE lightweight and strong, they are also versatile and long-lasting. The key For many applications, the longevity of chemical characteristic of plastics is that plastics is one of their major advantag- they are made by joining basic building es, but today it is also considered to be blocks – monomers – to form enormous one of their greatest disadvantages. chains, sometimes thousands of mono- About a year ago, a team of researchers mers long. Chemists use different types in the US published some shocking fig- of monomers to modify the properties ures on the fate of plastics. According of a plastic, such as hardness, ductility, to their calculations, between 1950 and tensile strength, thermal stability and 2015, 8.3 billion tons of plastic were much more. manufactured worldwide, of which 6.3

56 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Photo: Thomas Hartmann 2 | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch 57 Almost indestructible: Plastic waste can contact with the microorganisms re- Phosphate groups in the PE chain whet endure for hundreds of years. Finding its way quired to break it down. the appetite of certain microorgan- into a landfill, as here in the Maldives, must Frederik Wurm and his colleagues isms, giving them something to sink be considered a good outcome, as particularly in countries without a functioning waste develop polymers with customized their metaphorical teeth into. A PE collection system, colossal volumes of plastic properties, one of which is biodegrad- molecule with phosphate groups in- end up directly in the environment. ability. “This needn’t necessarily involve corporated into it would therefore be the use of renewables,” explains Wurm, readily broken down in the environ- clearing up a popular misconception: ment. All that would remain are the billion tons have already become waste. “Firstly, not everything that’s based on many small PE sections between each Of that amount, just over a fifth has biological materials is automatically bio- pair of phosphate groups. In contrast been recycled or incinerated. The re- degradable,” says Wurm. “And second- to the giant chains in normal poly maining 4.9 billion tons have ended up ly, not everything that’s biodegradable ethylene, if these sections are short as waste either in landfills or directly in is necessarily of biological origin.” His enough, they, too, says Wurm, are read- the environment. The corresponding group is doing a lot of work with phos- ily biodegradable. line of trucks would encircle the Earth phates and phosphonates, for instance, But does incorporating phosphate almost 50 times. and although these substances are geo- alter polyethylene’s other properties? Although some plastics are readily logical in origin, polymers produced “Our aim is to make materials that can biodegradable, they currently make up from them are fully biodegradable. be used like PE, but are also biodegrad- only a very small proportion of total able,” explains Wurm. The mechanical plastics. Polylactic acid, for example, is PE MOLECULES WITH BUILT-IN properties are decisive here, and the key used in bags for compostable waste and CLEAVAGE SITES to these is how the polymer chains line plastic tableware for street festivals. up with each other. In pure PE, for ex- However, if they are to actually decom- “The idea is actually very simple,” ample, it is known that the long mole- pose after use, the material must be Wurm says in reference to one of his cules are folded like an accordion. The correctly disposed of. “Little is gained current projects. “We make normal PE chemists in Mainz therefore wondered when polylactic acid beer cups end up molecules, but we incorporate a few whether the polymer would behave in in normal household waste or in the phosphate groups into them as cleav- the same way with the added phos- recycling container,” explains Frederik age sites.” PE stands for polyethylene, phate groups. With respect to biode- Wurm, Research Group Leader in Kath- one of the most widely used plastics in gradability, there was another import- arina Landfester’s department at the the world. It’s used for making plastic ant point to consider: “To be accessible Max Planck Institute for Polymer Re- films for the food industry and agricul- to microorganisms and their enzymes, search in Mainz. Only when disposed ture, as well as for shopping bags and the phosphate sections need to be on of in the organic waste bin or com- containers for shampoo, cleaning agents the outside of the kinks in the chain,”

poster will polylactic acid come into and cosmetics. explains Wurm. Photo: Shutterstock/Mohamed Abdulraheem

58 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 MATERIALS & TECHNOLOGY_Polymer Research

H H C C

H H n

Above Standard polyethylene consists of The researchers used transmission elec- isn’t yet high enough for most practi- thousands of repeat units consisting of only tron microscopy to confirm that both cal applications,” admits Wurm. In carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). To make the of these requirements are met. They other words, the molecular chains the plastic biodegradable, the chemists in Mainz add phosphate groups, consisting of phos- found that their polymers folded in ex- chemists produce in the laboratory phorus (P) and oxygen (O), at the kinks in actly the same way as pure polyeth- aren’t as long as standard PE chains. the polymer. ylene, and that the phosphate groups This is because, in order to incorporate Below Hisachi Tee, a member of Frederik were located, as they had hoped, at the the phosphate groups, they use a dif- Wurm’s (right) research group, is using phos- kinks in the chains. ferent technique to manufacture their phorus chemistry to develop new polymers. The team isn’t yet completely satis- polymer than that used to produce in- The researchers are also trying to reproduce properties of common plastic films. fied, though. “Our molecular weight dustrial polyethylene.

PAYING A BIT MORE FOR A BETTER ENVIRONMENT

Nevertheless, the team in Mainz now has a general approach to producing biodegradable PE. Frederik Wurm is, of course, well aware that not all PE users will immediately switch over to the PE-phosphate polymer. After all, the low cost of pure PE is currently unri- valled. Few manufacturers can afford to pass on the extra costs to their customers, especially when it comes to bulk products like packaging materials. But Frederik Wurm can imagine that some customers might be prepared to pay a little more for the environmental benefits – customers who shop in organic grocery stores or other relevant chains, for example. In medical applications, in contrast, material costs are almost completely

Photo: Shutterstock/Mohamed Abdulraheem Graphic: MPI for Polymer Research; photo: Thomas Hartmann irrelevant, and it is precisely for the

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 59 medical sector that Wurm’s team developed the first phosphate-based biodegradable polymers. Their success in doing so is what gave the chemists the idea of incorporating phosphate groups into other common plastics, such as PE. For medical applications, the primary focus is on polymer-drug conjugates. This involves embedding drugs, such as anti-cancer drugs, in nanoparticles. The particles, or sometimes the drugs themselves, are then coated in innumerable polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains, which flutter about the conjugate like fringes. These PEG chains act to hide the nanoparticles from the body’s immune defenses, preventing them from being broken down prematurely. As a result, the conjugates circulate much longer in the blood than the drug alone, which also increases the duration of action. In addition, most conjugates are chemically programmed to de- liver the drug to specific cells. This enhances the desirable effects while reducing side-effects. “The market for such conjugates is already worth billions,” notes Frederik Wurm. To date, however, the long-term fate of the PEG units remains unclear. Within the body, they are believed to be nondegradable; this, Wurm notes, is a good thing, as the monomer, ethylene glycol, is harmful to health. “If the PEG chains are short enough, they are excreted via the kidneys,” explains Wurm. For longer chains, however, it

Polymers for testing: Max Planck researchers polymerize monomers, added via the turquoise syringe (top), in a reaction vessel heated in a water bath. They test the elasticity of their polymers using tension experiments (bottom). Photos: Thomas Hartmann Photos: Thomas Hartmann

Photos: Thomas Hartmann conditions. It’s conceivable,forexam- able intermsofwaterandthus blood phate thathasprovenparticularly suit- less,” explainsWurm. Onepolyphos the body, which isthenentirelyharm- broken downintophosphate within for certainthatpolyphosphates canbe for useasmedicalpolymers?“We know these substancesparticularlysuitable phosphate groups.Butwhatmakes constructed almostexclusivelyfrom the PE chains, here they use polymers only isolatedphosphategroupsinto PE, in which thechemists incorporate col. In contrast to the above-mentioned as analternativetopolyethylenegly phorus-based polymerscouldbeused rently investigatingwhetherhisphos- Medical CenterMainz,Wurm iscur In collaborationwiththeUniversity DOWN IN THE BODY POLYPHOSPHATES AREBROKEN tals atcertainsitesinthebody. - ple, that PEG chains could form crys problem inthecaseofdrugsforchronic late inthebody, whichcouldposea should beassumedthattheyaccumu- - - -

as compared with pure PE. So, once the as comparedwithpurePE.So,oncethe easier forenzymestobreakthesebonds and iscollaboratingwithFrederik Wurm PEG withreadilydegradable polymers currently researching ways to replace is Medical CenterMainz.The physician Volker MailänderfromtheUniversity emphasizes hiscollaboration partner great interestforfurtherdevelopment,” portant and makes these polymers of im- and eveninindividual cells is very explainsWurm. neys,” cules are easily excreted via the kid- chain. “Thesesmallphosphatemole- monomer afteranotherfromthePEEP cleave payload tothetarget,enzymes vectorhasdeliveredits drug delivery and oneoxygenatom,mak is sandwichedbetween one phosphorus chain, inPEEPeachethylenemonomer the ethylenemonomersformanendless nique forsynthesizingthepolymer. has alreadydevelopedaclevertech PEEP forshort.FrederikWurm’s Group poly(ethyl ethylenephosphate),or solubility, as well as biodegradability, is In contrasttopolyethylene,in “The degradabilityintheorganism oneethylethylenephosphate ing it much ing itmuch MATERIALS & TECHNOLOGY_Polymer Research which which - of questionsthatW al medicalpractice,thereareanumber tacked byimmunecells,”saysWurm. long time,provingthattheyaren’t at- these alsocirculate inthebloodfora particles. “We wereabletoshowthat attached their PEEP fringes to these tiny porters forthedrugpayload,andthen researchers created stand-innanotrans get undetected.Fortestpurposes,the polymer-drug conjugatetoreachitstar the samestealtheffect,allowing er polymerssuchasPEEPcanachieve still need to answer. For example, wheth immune cellstoattackmelanomacells. substance isdesignedtoreprogramthe delivering adrugtoimmunecells.The current goalsistodevelopvectorsfor to achievethis.Oneoftheresearchers’ recognizethepayload asaforeign body. to fail defenses immune body’s the result, a As vectors. delivery drug tiny their to proteinsendogenous themselves attach that discovered Wurm Frederik and pictured) (not Landfester Katharina (left), Mailänder Volker data, spectrometry mass analyzing By uncovered: effect Stealth medically speaking. The key thing is the medically speaking.Thekeything isthe time inthebloodisofnogreat benefit, to circulate unhindered. gates asortoffreepass,allowing them body’s ownproteins,givestheconju- Mailänder. Thisshell, made upofthe that attachtotheconjugate,”explains recruit fromthebloodspecificproteins polymer chains,whetherPEGorPEEP, the stealtheffectactuallyworks.“The Mainz havesincealsodeterminedhow mass spectrometry, theresearchers in But beforePEEPcanbeusedinactu- In and of itself, the long dwelling With thehelpofaspecialtype 2 | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch urm andMailänder

61 - - -

It’s all in the mix: When a variety of endoge- nous proteins attach to particles camouflaged with polymer fringes, the potential drug delivery vectors are absorbed by the cells and, enclosed in membranes, transported into the interior of the cell, as shown on the right in this image. If, in contrast, the particles attract only one type of protein, they remain unable to enter the cell.

ing a kind of bone cement such as sur- geons use for minor bone repairs, for instance. At present, the main types of adhesives used in this area are acrylic acid polymers. An adhesive that would disappear without a trace after a certain time would be a big plus.

PHOSPHORUS CHEMISTRY YIELDS NEW FLAME RETARDANTS

Of course, for that kind of application, the material needs to exhibit a certain robustness. “The first materials we made were as brittle as cold candle wax,” Wurm recalls with a smile. To refine their phosphate polymer bone cement, the chemists once again had to reach for their box of chemistry tricks. “On the one hand, we needed to increase the molecular weight,” explains Wurm. The chains needed to be made much longer than the fringes for the drug vector, the maximum length of which was a little over a hundred phosphate groups. On the other hand, to make the cement both more elastic and hard- er, the chemists needed to tinker with address label that the PEEP-nanotrans- ing to Wurm, it isn’t all that easy, for ex- the design of the side chains. porter conjugate uses to reach its in- ample, “to strike the right balance be- The possibilities for this kind of tin- tended target. In the cooperative proj- tween adequate camouflaging and kering are exactly what Frederik Wurm ect with the University Medical Center sufficient pinpoint accuracy.” loves about phosphorus chemistry. Ow- Mainz and other researchers in Land- Because phosphate-based polymers ing to their nature, phosphorus atoms fester’s department, sugar groups serve are so readily biodegradable, the re- are able to form one more bond than as address labels, as they stick to very searchers in Mainz want to use them in carbon – the backbone of traditional specific immune cells. But there are still other areas, too. In one project with a polymers. This gives synthetic chemists

a few details to be fine-tuned. Accord- commercial partner, they are develop- like Wurm more leeway. With poly- Graphic: Nature Nanotechnology 2016

62 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 MATERIALS & TECHNOLOGY_Polymer Research

phosphates, for example, chemists can mental conditions. Existing flame retar- perform tests both with individual en- attach one more chemical group to the dants tend not to be, and may even be zymes and with mixtures,” says Wurm. phosphorus atoms than they would be toxic. Against this backdrop, new solu- The team also uses real-life fluids, such able to with the carbon atoms in anal- tions based on phosphates or related as blood plasma and sewage sludge. ogous carbon-based polymers. “We can phosphorous compounds have a cer- Frederik Wurm is aware that the ap- design this group any way we need to tain attraction. proaches his group is taking aren’t go- in order to achieve a particular proper- ing to revolutionize the world of plas- ty, such as stickiness,” gushes Wurm, MANY ALTERNATIVES TO tics on their own. But they do offer a describing the possibilities this opens LONG-LASTING PLASTICS few possibilities among many others up as an “enormous playground.” that, together, could ensure that plas- The Max Planck researchers in Mainz The researchers are testing how quick- tics will one day no longer be a prob- also want to use their expertise in phos- ly their compounds really break down lem for the environment. “There’s not phorus chemistry to develop new flame using the types of enzymes microor- going to be just a single solution,” says retardants. Phosphorus compounds are ganisms release in the environment. Frederik Wurm. The problem of long- already used as flame retardant addi- These include lipases, proteases and de- lasting plastics in the environment will tives, as they release flame retardant polymerases, as well as phosphatases require a range of alternative materials. substances upon burning, while they and phosphodiesterases, which specif- His group, for its part, is working on a themselves merely carbonize. Until now, ically target phosphorus groups. “We few of them. these additives have generally simply

been mixed with existing plastics. “We are working on incorporating such phosphorus groups directly into other TO THE POINT polymers to make them flame resistant,” l More than 8.3 billion tons of plastics have been produced since 1950. Of these, says Wurm. 4.9 billion tons have ended up in landfill or elsewhere in the environment. The chemist admits, however, that The majority of these plastics are not readily biodegradable.

for the time being this solution isn’t go- l Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research are developing ing to be used in areas where the em- biodegradable polymers. To achieve this, they incorporate phosphate groups phasis is on price, simply because such into polyethylene (PE). These groups can be attacked by enzymes present in plastics are too expensive. But epoxy the environment, cleaving the polymer molecules. resins and epoxy adhesives used for glu- l In addition, the researchers in Mainz are producing polyphosphate polymers for medical use. They are also working on biodegradable polymers with flame ing floors, for instance, are a different retardant, adhesive and other properties. matter. Here, the plastics being produced in Wurm’s laboratory could well have a role to play. “We are currently looking at whether we can improve GLOSSARY flame retardancy in such products,” Mass spectrometry: A technique for identifying unknown substances. Large mole- says Wurm. A further side effect would cules such as polymers are split into often characteristic fractions. An electric charge be that it would remove the need to use is applied to these fractions and they are then sorted according to their mass-to-charge ratio by deflecting them in an electric field. This produces a characteristic spectrum. bisphenol A. This is currently an important starting material for the produc- Polymer: A molecule consisting of chains of a basic building block (monomer), often thousands of monomers long. Polyethylene (PE) consists of long chains of ethylene tion of epoxy resins, but it is controver- molecules, whereas poly(ethyl ethylene phosphate) (PEEP) consists of long chains of sial, as it can be harmful to health. ethyl ethylene phosphate monomers. As even the work of flame retardant Polymer-drug conjugate: A conjugate in which a drug – generally embedded in a products will one day be done, and nanoparticle – is coated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) or poly (ethyl ethylene phos- they too will end up as waste, it would phate) to hide it from the immune system. These conjugates remain in the body of course be good if they were readily longer and can have chemical address labels attached to send them to specific cells.

Graphic: Nature Nanotechnology 2016 biodegradable under normal environ-

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 63 ENVIRONMENT & CLIMATE_Meteorology

Climate Slashing

Public debates on global warming focus on one main cause: CO2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels. But humankind is also changing the climate by clearing forests and through farming, forestry and animal husbandry. Together with her Research Group at the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology in Hamburg, Julia Pongratz is investigating the consequences of these activities for the climate – and how these interventions could be used to counter global climate change.

TEXT UTE KEHSE

large map of the world on Earth. “Three-quarters of the ice-free hangs on the wall in Julia land surface is anthropogenically influ- Pongratz’ office. The oceans enced,” says Julia Pongratz. On around on it are white, the conti- a quarter of the world’s continents, hu- nents multicolored. A mo- mans have destroyed the natural vege- saicA of violet, green, brown and gray tation over time to create cropland, rice shades covers the land areas. “This map fields or pastures. This process has ac- shows the world’s different land use sys- celerated since 1950, as heavy defor- tems,” explains the researcher from the estation in the tropics testifies. Around Hamburg-based Max Planck Institute half of the land surface is still covered for Meteorology. Dark green represents by the original type of vegetation, but virgin forest, and light green, forests in even here, some form of management which forestry is carried out. The pur- takes place. Studies show that humans ple and pink shades symbolize different thus account for almost a quarter of the types of farmland, while orange shades global terrestrial net primary produc- are grasslands with different levels of tion, or more specifically, 24 percent of livestock farming. The lighter the shade, the annual renewable plant biomass. the more heavily the land is used. Humankind has, one might say, tru- It is apparent that humans have tak- ly subjugated the planet – and this

en over the great majority of the land comprehensive exploitation of nature Photo: iStockphoto/AVTG

64 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Photo: iStockphoto/AVTG

Photo: shutterstock atmosphere than a spruce monoculture (left). (left). monoculture spruce a than atmosphere the with energy and water gases, house green- of quantities different exchanges page) (this deadwood of lot a and ages different of trees with forest unmanaged An impacts: climate different with Forests

2 | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch 65 isn’t without consequences for the climate. A total of one-third of the carbon dioxide ever released by humans – including historic deforestation – can be attributed to the original vegetation of the land surface being altered. Current- ly, changes in land use cause about 10

percent of human CO2 emissions.

GREENHOUSE GASES FROM FERTILIZERS, LIVESTOCK AND RICE

The effect is even greater when climate-changing gases such as methane and nitrous oxide from agriculture are included in the balance sheet. These greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere through fertilizers, animal husbandry and rice cultivation, for instance. “If we add methane and nitrous oxide to carbon dioxide, the share of land use in today’s greenhouse gas emissions increases to about one-third,” reports Julia Pongratz. On the balance sheet of individual countries such as Brazil, land use emissions play an even greater role than fossil fuels. When humans turn forests into fields, for example, they not only intervene in biogeochemical cycles, such as the carbon and nitrogen cycles, and al-

ter the atmospheric CO2 balance, they also influence various biogeophysical processes, such as albedo – the propor-

Complex climate factor: When a forest is cleared, not only does a carbon sink disappear – the albedo and other physical properties change, as well (top). However, how vegetation influences the climate also generally depends on which crops – corn or wheat, for instance – are cultivated on a field (center). These multifaceted effects should be taken into consideration, for example, when cultivating elephant grass as a substitute for fossil fuels (bottom). Photos: shutterstock, Julia Pongratz, shutterstock (from top to bottom)

66 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Photos: shutterstock, Julia Pongratz, shutterstock (from top to bottom)

Graphic: Julia Pongratz/MPI for Meteorology by observational data,” says Winckler.by observational ignored becausetheyweren’t captured “The non-localeffectswere previously worldwide andlocally, andfoundthat the effectsofmassivedeforestation However, hesucceededin unraveling phys the remoteeffectsofthesebiogeo- first tomakeacleardistinctionbetween cian inJuliaPongratz’s group,wasthe sphere furtherdownwind. and hydrologicbalancesoftheatmo thechangesinheat currents carry regions, ontheotherhand,becauseair the onehand,butalsoinmoreremote fects: atthesiteofdeforestationon But therearealsobiogeophysicalef long term,fosteringglobalwarming. able toabsorbCO is thattherearenowfewerforestsavail- of aforestintocropland.Thefirsteffect ly simpleexample:thetransformation tions are is demonstrated by a relative- tion locallythanitdoesglobally. times itcanalsotakeadifferentdirec- and asifthatweren’t enough,some the assemblageofvegetationspecies– dependingonthelatitudeor can vary climate balanceofthevariousfactors the effects of burning fossil fuels. The farlesswellthantheydo interventions derstand theclimateimpactsofsuch and forestry, researchers currentlyun- land useisalteredthroughagriculture factors interactincomplexwayswhen of anincreaseintheCO hance orcounteracttheclimaticeffect spheric warmingorcoolingandthusen physical contributionscanleadtoatmo land andatmosphere.Thesebiogeo- change ofheatandmoisturebetween tion ofreflectedsunlight–ortheex Johannes Winckler, a mathemati Just howcomplicatedtheconnec- Because biochemicalandphysical ical changesandthelocaleffects. 2 andstoreitoverthe 2 concentration. ------mapshow. by clear-cutting. as more sunlight is reflected back into Clear-cutting thushasacooling effect, other words,itsalbedo increases. ically makesthesurfacebrighter –in because thechangeinvegetation typ- of deforestationaren’t easytoassess, even locally, the climate consequences relevant thanthelocalclimate.And the globalmeantemperatureisfarless caused bytheCO pensate forsomeoftheglobalwarming local biogeophysical effects thus com- cooled more-distantregions.Thenon- deforestation carriedouttodatehas (top). latitudes 40 around northern high only the However, and tropics the of sections large covers Forest forestry: Ample For actual living conditions, though, For actuallivingconditions,though,

Latitude Latitude 90 N 90 60 N 60 90 N 90 60 N 60 30 N 30 30 N 30 60 S 60 60 S 60 30 S 30 30 S 30 180 W 180 180 W 180 0 0

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ENVIRONMENT &CLIMATE_Meteorology 0. 0 0

leads towarming. dominates, anddeforestation herethus in contrast,thetranspiration effect to localcooling.Inthehumid tropics, stronger, sodeforestationtendsto lead Europe, thealbedoeffect is usually At high latitudes, such as in northern ence dependsmainlyonthelatitude. deeper roots. normally hasalargerleafsurfaceand off lessmoisturethanaforest,which leaf surface. A field of grainoften gives transpiration, orevaporationfromthe duce awarmingeffect,sinceitreduces space. But deforestation can also in- 0. 6 Which impact has the greaterinflu

0. 60 60 60 60 7

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68 MaxPlanckResearch 2 MaxPlanckResearch | 18 grazing landorfields–thatis,when Climate Computing Center in Hamburg. in Center Computing Climate German the at supercomputer Mistral the of towers the of few a between left) (from Nabel Julia and Sonntag Sebastian Pongratz, Julia tools: their and researchers climate The sees bothfactors,andarepoliti- “This isimportant,becausetheclimate pects oflanduse,”saysJuliaPongratz. geochemical andthebiogeophysicalas group isthatweconsiderboththebio- “One thingthatisspecialaboutour the land cover changes. The forests, forexample,mustgive ble ofmodelingwhathappenswhen ant tools.Theyhavelongbeencapa- the climateresearchers’ mostimport- in Hamburg. tem ModeloftheMaxPlanckInstitute processes intotheMPI-ESMEarthSys- corporate somepreviouslyneglected the tenresearchers areworkingtoin climate changemitigation.To thisend, tent land management can be used in the group aims to discover to what ex- and especiallyinforestry. Inaddition, processes thatplayaroleinlanduse, biogeophysical andbiogeochemical working toinvestigateclimate-relevant teamhavebeen her interdisciplinary Noether GroupinJuly2013,sheand Since theestablishmentofherEmmy IN FORESTRY CLIMATE-RELEVANT PROCESSES ularly attractive. oriented towardbasicresearch, partic- her research topic, which is essentially she findsthepoliticalsignificanceof cally relevant.”Ageographerbydegree, Such Earth system models are among Such Earthsystemmodelsareamong way to

more - -

Photo: Tom Pingel Photo: Tom Pingel

Graphic: MPI for Meteorology dedicated tothetaskofintegrating var more intensiveinthefuture. and forestry, whichwilllikelybecome count theconsequencesof agriculture deforestation, butalsotake intoac address merelyfossilfuelemissionsand mate mitigationstrategiesshouldn’t sius. Theteamthusconcludedthatcli- average warmingoftwodegreesCel compared, bothactivitiesproducedan changes inlandcover. affect temperaturesjustasstrongly vation ofdifferentcropspecies–can forest toamanagedone, or theculti- such asthetransitionfromavirgin that achangeinlandmanagement, gratz was also a member – reported C Yvette. InthejournalN Environmental SciencesinGif-sur- forClimateand the FrenchLaboratory headed bySebastiaanLuyssaertfrom 2014 studybyateamofresearchers mate modelswasdemonstratedina changes inlandmanagementcli land management. cover andthosethatconcernonly changes inlandusethatalterthe team takesbothintoconsideration: factors. ThisiswhyJuliaPongratz’ ness, carbonuptakeandotherclimatic ables, suchasalbedo,surfacerough geophysical andbiogeochemicalvari- cycles andgrazing.Theyinfluencebio as fertilization, irrigation, harvesting ables inagricultureandforestry, such the models.Therearenumerousvari- changes, hasn’t yet been covered by the formofmanagementinanarea common case,however, whenonly hange Julia Pongratz’groupistherefore At thelocationsthatresearchers The importanceofconsidering , theteam–ofwhichJuliaPon ature C limate ------

“For example,themodels don’t cur- model landmanagementrealistically. emissions todatebecausethey didn’t have apparentlyunderestimated these control oftheEarth.Vegetation models carbon dioxidesincehumans took a thirdtotheincreaseinatmospheric therefore have contributed more than factor intheclimatesystemwould past thanwaspreviouslythought.This released morecarbondioxideinthe in thejournalN ruhe Institute of Technology reported ers ledbyAlmutArnethattheKarls ferent typesoflandmanagement. realistically simulatetheeffectsofdif- key role, shows that the models didn’t study, inwhichJuliaPongratzplayeda climate models. A recently published ious aspectsoflandmanagementinto degree. similar a to climate the influence change of types Both pastures. as start grasslands people use to when as such management, of type different a is however, to common, More forest from cropland. example for cover, land changes also that way a in surface. land altered are ice-free regions the of Often, quarter a around only on found is Wilderness changes: land-use Diverse land useandmanagementlikely In January 2017,ateamofresearchIn January to cropland Grass/shrub transformed to transformed Forest pasture to transformed Forest cropland Urban ature G eoscience that

ENVIRONMENT &CLIMATE_Meteorology - study, theresearcher, togetherwith a forestry,” Naudtssays.Inanearlier well asregionalvariations. between vegetationandatmosphere, as for modelingthediverseinteractions ing onthesupercomputer isessential Computing Center. Efficientcomput - supercomputer attheGermanClimate sures thatthemodelsrunonlarge plex Earthsystemmodel.Shealsoen- Planck InstituteforMeteorology’s com- processes beingstudiedintotheMax computer scientist,incorporatesthe group’s scientific programmer, Nabel, a models, assistedbyJuliaNabel.Asthe land management into the climate is workingonintegratingtheeffectsof Julia Pongratz. vested inaforest,andifso,how,” says rently addresswhethertimberishar- Post-doctoral studentKimNaudts “We studyprimarily theeffectsof Wilderness land managed Other Managed forest grazing for used Grass/shrub 2 | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch 69 Non-local Local

Globally, deforestation leads to warming due to the loss of a carbon dioxide (CO2) sink. However, global deforestation has a cooling effect (blue) across large areas due to non-local biogeophysical effects. Locally, the biogeophysical factors can increase °C temperatures (red) or decrease them (blue). (Scale in degrees Celsius) -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 -0.1 0.1 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Sonntag, for example, is researching how well reforestation could mitigate climate change. Together with Pon- gratz and other colleagues, he found

that reforestation reduces the CO2 level in the atmosphere more than was previously thought: in some scenarios, the growth of forests on land no longer needed for farming could lower the

CO2 increase by 85 ppm by the year 2100 – current calculations show an increase from today’s 400 ppm to around 700 ppm. Consequently, the average global temperature would increase, not by 3.7 degrees Celsius by 2100, but by just 3.4 degrees. “The novelty of our study was that we incorporated feedback loops with the carbon cycle into the model – for example, that increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere stimulate plant growth,” explains Sonntag. How- Extreme differences in albedo occur when – as here in Zillertal – snowy, well-reflecting surfaces ever, even the new model doesn’t in- meet dark coniferous forest, which absorbs most of the light. clude all conceivable factors. In the future, for example, droughts or a shortage of nutrients could affect tree growth. team from the French Laboratory for not played a role. The Belgian-born re- “It’s fairly unlikely that we underesti- Sciences of Climate and Environment searcher therefore investigated different mated forest growth, but it could also (LSCE), investigated how species selec- harvesting methods – and showed that be less than in our model,” says the tion by humans affects a forest’s climate there are significant differences in the physicist. The reason is that many mod- impact. For example, as coniferous trees amount of stored carbon or in albedo els don’t sufficiently account for the re- have been cultivated in Europe in recent when forest age is taken into account in action of the forest to climate extremes. centuries for economic reasons, the veg- their management. “To properly assess Droughts, for example, can cause for- etation has absorbed more heat. Al- how much forestry can contribute to ests to die, and their impact continues though the conifers stored more carbon mitigating global warming, climate for decades: they reduce carbon storage than the deciduous trees grown previ- models must also incorporate the age of in vegetation until young forest has ously, the albedo effect had a greater im- the forests,” says Kim Naudts. been reestablished. “In the model, this pact. “Coniferous trees are probably not legacy doesn’t exist yet as such,” reports the best species for mitigating climate HOW WELL CAN REFORESTATION postdoc Lena Boysen, whose work clos- change in Europe,” says Kim Naudts. MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE? es this gap. Now she is looking at what influ- In another paper, Sebastian Sonn- ence a forest’s age has on the exchange In addition to investigating the conse- tag compared the reforestation scenar- of carbon, water and energy with the at- quences of land use changes, Julia Pon- io with another geoengineering meth- mosphere. In most climate models to gratz and her team are also investigating od: ocean alkalization. “The idea is

date, the age structure of the forests has climate mitigation strategies. Sebastian based on the fact that the oceans can Graphic: MPI for Meteorology; photo: Julia Pongratz

70 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Graphic: MPI for Meteorology; photo: Julia Pongratz under unchecked emissions by amaxi- mitigate theincreaseinCO order toreplacefossilfuels, this would grass, werecultivatedonsuch landin other plots. ed asaresult of intensified farming on ios, Mayerusesonlyarablelandvacat- pact Research. Therefore, in her scenar- the PotsdamInstituteforClimateIm- previous studieswithcolleaguesfrom Boysen impressivelydemonstratedin displace naturalecosystems,asLena ily competewithfoodproductionor problems becauseenergycropscaneas this kindoflandusepresentsitsown consumption offossilfuels.”However, heating energyandthusreducethe mass wouldbeconvertedintofuelsor Dorothea Mayer. bio “Theharvested vating energycrops,”saysbiologist ture, largeareascanbeusedforculti- models, itisassumedthat,inthefu- warming. “Insomesocioeconomic cussed as a measure to combat global plantations havealsorecentlybeendis- In addition to reforestation, bioenergy HELP REDUCEEMISSIONS BIOMASS PLANTATIONS CAN fect asalkalization. order toachievethesamecoolingef- the atmospherewithreforestationin toremovemoreCO necessary cially at high latitudes, it would be ests also have a warming effect, espe- efficient thanreforesting:becausefor- reveal thatthismethodmaybemore stone. Theresultsofhisinvestigation enormous amountsofgroundlime ocean alkalinitycouldbeincreasedby stances,” saysSonntag.Inpractice, crease the amount of acid-bindingsub bind more carbon dioxide if we in- If biomasscrops,suchaselephant 2 projected 2 from - - - - mum ofone-third–ifallthematerial slowing downtheincreaseinCO plantations canplayacertainrolein So accordingtoherstudies,biomass not that good yet,” Mayer points out. fuels. “However, currenttechniquesare wereabletoreplacefossil harvested system models,integratingkeytypesof cludes, byconstantlyimprovingEarth to arriveat.AsJuliaPongratzcon to mitigatingclimatechangeisn’t easy can contribute agriculture and forestry pletely istoforegofossilfuels. as before,theonlywaytostopitcom-

l l l l TOPOINT THE differently than previously.than differently managed be simply also can – example for forest, a – However,area cropland. an to forest from example cover,for land in changes to lead can use land in Changes soil. and vegetation area’s an in intervene humans which in ways the all Land useencompasses acidic. more water the make would that pH in changes resist to words, other in or acids, buffer to capacity the is Alkalinity atmosphere. the warming without space into reflected is that sunlight of amount the of measure a is Albedo GLOSSARY A finalverdictonwhichformsof

effects of land management in Earth system models. effects oflandmanagementinEarth in landcover. This iswhy JuliaPongratz’ teamisalsoworkingonrepresenting the owing totherelease ofCO land-use changes,suchasdeforestation. due toreduced transpiration. high latitudesduetoincreased albedo,whilewarmingusuallyoccursinthetropics heat andwaterfluxes.Atthesiteofdeforestation, though,itmay cause coolingat Replacing fossil fuelswithbiomass energy sources wouldreduce thepredicted andcanaff surface Different typesofagriculture andforestry land prevail onabouthalfoftheice-free the conv The effects ofchangesinlanduseare oftendifficulttoassess.Forexample,date, oftheCO At leastone-third increase intheC ersion offorests intoagricultural landhasledtoadditionalglobalwarming O 2 concentration byamaximum ofone-third. ect theclimateandatmosphericCO 2 , which,however, hasbeen mitigatedbychangesin 2 emissionscausedbyhumanstodateoriginatefrom 2 , but ENVIRONMENT &CLIMATE_Meteorology -

ploited tomitigateclimatechangeat argue whetherlanduseshouldbeex ers remaindifficult.“Onecancertainly ever, recommendationsforpolicymak of changesinland use. At present, how ogists canbetterunderstandtheimpact both localandglobaleffects,climatol- land management,andconsidering do itwisely.” anyway, there’s noreasonweshouldn’t siderations are useful. “We usethe land er. Inheropinion,however, thesecon- stood,” saystheResearch GroupLead- complex andoftennotwellunder all, asmanyprocessesareextremely 2 levels asmuchchanges 2 | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch

71 - - - - Anti-Espionage Strategies

The competition isn’t sleeping, it’s spying. And especially small and medium-sized businesses are increasingly falling victim to criminal competitors or being targeted by foreign intelligence services. Nevertheless, most cases remain shrouded in mystery. Michael Kilchling and his team at the Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law in Freiburg are now attempting to shed some light on the phenomenon. Together with colleagues at the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, they are conducting research into the scale of industrial espionage in Germany, how companies are combating it and how the authorities could better support them in their efforts. Photo: dpa

72 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 CULTURE & SOCIETY_Criminal Law

TEXT BENNO STIEBER

ieder, a company specializ- industrial espionage in Germany and which specializes in this kind of attack. ing in concrete and head- Europe” research project. The perpetra- Still, it was never determined who was quartered in Kolbermoor, tor, objective and motive were all ap- actually behind it. Bavaria, greeted the visiting parent. The case was quickly and suc- Espionage takes place in gray areas, Chinese CEO as a welcome cessfully dealt with and no long-term and it is most successful when it re- partner.R The firm is renowned for its damage was done. The Munich District mains undetected. This makes it excit- innovative building materials – its fi- Court handed down a suspended sen- ing material for films and novels set in berglass concrete slabs turned the Soc- tence to the spy and ordered him to the Cold War era. But also in today’s cer City stadium in Johannesburg into pay damages. globalized and digital world, it offers a an architectural showpiece at the soc- Such outcomes tend to be the ex- highly promising opportunity for busi- cer World Cup in 2010 – and it was de- ception in cases of economic espionage ness competitors or governments in lighted to have found a local partner by foreign intelligence services and, both industrialized and emerging coun- for a Chinese construction contract above all, spying by competitors. These tries to keep pace with leading-edge worth millions. No one in Kolbermoor kinds of attacks are often launched via developments from rival research labs suspected that the Chinese company fiberoptic cables, and victims don’t no- abroad. However, in times of open mar- was really only interested in stealing tice that a remote computer has stolen kets and international corporations, cutting-edge know-how from Germa- valuable data until it’s too late. Rarely the conditions for such espionage have ny in order to take over the contract is it established whether the aim was changed tremendously – largely unno- on its own. sabotage or actually to steal know-how. ticed by politicians and scientists. While the CEO from the Far East Was the attack sponsored by foreign in- was touring the plant, Rieder employ- telligence services, or were the hackers SPECIALIST LITERATURE FROM ees spotted a mini-camera attached to hired by direct competitors? In many THE COLD WAR ERA their guest’s belt. Instead of allowing cases, it isn’t even possible to quantify their visitor to continue exploring the the damage caused to the company at- When the research team at the Max company’s inner sanctums, they called tacked. Particularly when attacks are Planck Institute for Foreign and Inter- the police. Analysis of the belt cam- carried out from cyberspace, the perpe- national Criminal Law in Freiburg and era’s data later revealed that the mate- trators, background details and fre- the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and rial would have been sufficient to copy quently even the actual purpose of the Innovation Research ISI in Karlsruhe, and reproduce the high-tech compo- strike remain shrouded in mystery. headed by Michael Kilchling and Esther nents in China. The damage to the This was the case in an attack on the Bollhöfer, started work on assessing the medium-sized company would have German Aerospace Center (DLR) in scale of the current threat to medium- been immeasurable. 2014, when all of its operating systems sized businesses, the researchers were The attempted espionage in the Ba- were infiltrated by trojans over the surprised by how little substantiated varian province is a fortunate excep- course of several months. The IT ex- empirical knowledge there was on eco- tion compared with other cases exam- perts from the organization’s cyber de- nomic and industrial espionage in Eu- ined by the “WiSKoS – Economic and fense unit discovered Chinese charac- rope. “We realized that it’s a real blind ters in the trojans’ code, but this may spot,” says Kilchling, a Senior Research- have been a diversion tactic by another at the Max Planck Institute in Freiburg. Attacks from the web: The perpetrators are er intelligence agency. At the time, the And it’s not just spy thrillers that are often in far-away places such as Russia, India German news magazine Der Spiegel re- set in the Cold War period; most of the or the Caribbean. It is difficult for German investigators to track them down; they are ported that the DLR had called in the specialist literature on economic espio-

Photo: dpa often defeated by national borders. National Cyberdefence Centre in Bonn, nage is from that era, too. The insights

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 73 Dangerous insights: Trade secrets are often worth millions. Small and medium-sized businesses in particular need more support from the government to protect themselves. were obtained before borders were The team initially conducted a survey tute. Her colleague who carried out opened and the European single mar- to obtain as comprehensive an over- the survey was surprised by the will- ket created, during a time when nation- view as possible of the threats facing ingness of medium-sized companies al economies still existed and were medium-sized companies in Germany. to provide information about their widely regarded as an asset worthy of The researchers then examined the le- shortcomings with respect to securi- state protection. gal situation in Europe and how the ty: no fewer than 612 out of 8,300 The joint WiSKoS research project authorities deal with the issue, so as to randomly selected SMEs returned the aims to close this gap. The Max Planck develop defensive strategies for com- questionnaire to the research group. Institute carried out the legal and panies and public authorities. One in five companies admitted they criminological analysis of the cases and Esther Bollhöfer, an academic staff didn’t have an anti-espionage strate- conducted expert interviews in other member at the Fraunhofer ISI, is man- gy in place. Many of the companies European countries, while the Fraun- aging the project modules that are would like to see the government hofer Institute used its extensive con- under the responsibility of her insti- provide more support with preven- nections with industry to conduct the survey of companies. “The collaboration proved extremely fruitful, as we have good access to public authorities and the Fraunhofer Institute enjoys an excellent reputation in industry,” says Michael Kilchling. Nevertheless, the project was a challenge for everyone involved. The researchers used very different approaches and methods to analyze the status quo and, on the basis of their findings, to establish not only a core body of knowledge, but also a set of practical recommendations.

The team in Freiburg: Elisa Wallwaey, Michael Kilchling and Susanne Knickmeier (from left) are working on the WiSKoS project at the Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International

Criminal Law. Photo: CCO (top), Markus Herb (bottom)

74 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 CULTURE & SOCIETY_Criminal Law

Act immediately The investigation may take Immediately contact the a long time, but you can experts at the State Office check on the current status Regularly update your of Criminal Investigations with your designated The perpetrator preventive measures You become suspicious or the local police police contact at any time is caught

Use information from Immediately take defensive/ Your concern/case You benefit from the expertise a variety of sources protective measures, is immediately dealt of professionals and quickly even if the damage appears with confidentially receive advice on modi operandi to be minimal and discreetly and preventive measures

Specific recommendations: The scientists advise companies to develop an anti-espionage strategy before it’s too late. This includes suitable preventive measures and a plan governing how employees and management should respond in the event of an attack.

tion. Only ten companies rejected the ic crimes, depending on the offense. ered in the investigation files. A large idea of state intervention. These authorities incidentally also often German company discovered that con- Despite the anonymity of the sur- compete for the scarce number of spe- siderable amounts of data were being vey, few companies were willing to dis- cialists available in the field. pulled from its datacenter. Instead of close how they deal with suspected cas- The researchers identified the legal plugging the data leak, the employees es internally. “This may mean that distinction between economic and in- responsible for the matter tried to set a they don’t wish to discuss it, but it dustrial espionage under German crim- trap for the cybercriminals. They al- could also indicate that they have no inal law as the biggest stumbling block lowed the data thieves to carry on with strategy in place,” says Esther Boll- to criminal prosecution. This is also a what they were doing while at the same höfer. Of those who responded, the relic from the Cold War period, when time setting up a new system where majority undertake their “own mea- the state had to focus primarily on pro- they could secure important data. This sures” – in other words, they conduct tecting its own economy against espio- led the spies to believe they could con- private investigations. Only a very few nage from the Eastern Bloc. Currently, tinue their activities undetected, and indicated that they would cooperate if a foreign intelligence service is be- gave the authorities enough time to with the Office for the Protection of hind an attempt at espionage, the se- trace the data flows to another country. the Constitution, while cooperation cret service may be responsible in addi- with the police scored slightly higher. tion to the police. The Federal Attorney THIN FILE DESPITE INTENSIVE The research team believes this re- General is then generally responsible INVESTIGATION luctance to turn to the authorities is ex- for criminal prosecution, assigning the plained by the fact that it isn’t easy in case to either the federal or state police There, however, they were unable to Germany to determine which authori- authorities for criminal investigations. intervene. The Federal Police Office ty to contact for which type of espio- If there is no evidence of the involve- was unable to identify the real culprits nage. Responsibility for the prevention ment of foreign intelligence services, it is behind the attack, and the Federal At- and criminal prosecution of espionage a case of industrial espionage, for which torney General dropped the investiga- in industry is divided between the fed- the local public prosecutor’s office is re- tion. The local public prosecutor’s of- eral intelligence service and their 16 sponsible with the support of the local fice then took over the case and tried counterparts at the state level (intelli- police force. Often, the perpetrators have to determine exactly who was behind gence services of the federal states), the vanished or covered their tracks, and the the attack – also in vain. The proceed- Federal Police Office (Bundeskrimi- investigation must be terminated. ings were eventually terminated. nalamt), the Federal Attorney General This is precisely what happened in “There is only a thin file,” says Su- (Generalbundesanwalt) and the local a case that Susanne Knickmeier at the sanne Knickmeier, “but we know from

Photo: CCO (top), Markus Herb (bottom) Graphic: MPI for Foreign and International Criminal Law public prosecutor’s offices for econom- Max Planck Institute in Freiburg discov- the interviews with the investigators

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 75 ECONOMIC ESPIONAGE INDUSTRIAL ESPIONAGE

Prevention Prevention

Federal intelligence Federal Police Office/ service State Security Service Local police authorities

Intelligence services State police authorities/ Federal Police Office/ State police authorities/ of the federal states State Security Service economic crime unit economic crime unit

Local police authorities

Criminal prosecution Criminal prosecution

Federal Attorney Local Public Local Public Prosecutor’s Office General Prosecutor’s Office Local police authorities Federal Police Office/ State police authorities/ State Security Service State Security Service Federal Police Office/ State police economic crime unit authorities/economic crime unit Local police authorities

Complex distinction: Depending on whether an intelligence service (economic espionage) or a competitor (industrial espionage) is spying, different authorities are responsible for prevention and criminal prosecution. The scientists recommend bundling these areas.

the great lengths they went to, despite They want the leak to be plugged as concerned, says Michael Kilchling. In ultimately failing to achieve a positive quickly as possible, the perpetrator to France, where the two sectors tradi- outcome.” The case shows that the in- be prosecuted, and to claim compensa- tionally have close ties, the “Econom- vestigators’ remit is restricted by nation- tion, if possible. This is also reflected in ic Warfare School of Paris” was estab- al borders, which can only be resolved the survey: the companies are willing lished in 1997. At this postgraduate by international cooperation agree- to cooperate with the authorities if the institution, 50 students spend ten ments. However, it also indicates that cost-benefit ratio is reasonable and if months learning about the principles much time is often lost during investi- they themselves believe there is a gen- of economic warfare – that is, how to gations due to the different scopes of re- uine chance of resolving the matter. obtain strategic information about sponsibility of the German authorities. Anonymity when notifying the author- competitors – as well as about how to Following their interviews with com- ities, on the other hand, was important protect against espionage. Those who panies and authorities, the research to only a small number of the compa- complete this postgraduate program team from the Fraunhofer ISI and the nies surveyed. often go on to work for security con- Max Planck Institute in Freiburg believe sulting firms or in the strategy depart- that the legal distinction between eco- BREAKFAST MEETINGS ON ments of major corporations. nomic and industrial espionage and the ESPIONAGE PREVENTION With regard to prevention, Germa- various areas of competence associated ny could learn a great deal from the UK with it are outdated. In particular, they Kilchling and Bollhöfer see prevention and Denmark. In the UK, espionage recommend a legislative reform that as another key factor in protecting prevention is conducted primarily in puts the focus on the companies that companies effectively, and suggest informal groups and breakfast meet- suffer damages. “In the era of the Euro- adopting approaches used in other Eu- ings to which companies gain access pean single market, the national econo- ropean countries. Just how differently only once they have completed ad- my as a legal asset no longer exists,” says the issue is dealt with from one coun- vanced training courses funded by the Michael Kilchling, and the companies try to the next reveals a great deal government. Business leaders, security attacked aren’t concerned about the po- about the relationship between gov- experts and public prosecutors get to litical motives. ernment and business in the country know one another here and establish Graphic: MPI for Foreign and International Criminal Law

76 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 CULTURE & SOCIETY_Criminal Law

networks of trust. Trust is vitally im- hands of dozens of research assistants. Max Planck researcher Susanne Knick- portant to successful cooperation in the This makes protection quite difficult. meier. Visiting professors and students event of an actual attack. Spies also try to steal research data via from abroad obviously can’t be placed Denmark has also been successful the internet. under general suspicion. On the other with informal networks. Here, there is hand, the intelligence service also also an extensive informal flow of infor- RESEARCH INSTITUTES warns that countries such as China ex- mation between authorities and the TARGETED BY SPIES pect their students abroad to maintain business community, with SMEs also contact with their embassies, enabling participating. The Danish government The Max Planck Institutes themselves the intelligence service to enlist them also requires all listed companies to doc- are constantly being targeted by hack- at any time. ument and assess their espionage risks ers. Rainer Gerling, an IT Security Offi- Universities could therefore be ex- and anti-espionage security measures. cer at the Max Planck Society, can recall pected to show some degree of aware- As a result, general security stan- many ingenious attacks. The spies ness. However, when the WiSKoS re- dards have become prevalent in Den- weren’t only interested in discoveries in searchers were looking for universities mark – and not just in listed companies. biomedicine or new developments in willing to discuss the dangers of espi- Numerous German companies would materials research. “Researchers who ex- onage, Elisa Wallwaey from the Max also voluntarily comply with these gov- amine political and economic relation- Planck Institute recalls this reply from ernment requirements. More than half ships and who possibly offer consulting one institution: “We would be pleased of the companies surveyed deemed a in these fields are targets, too,” reports to discuss this matter with you. But kind of state espionage certification to Gerling. “When social scientists delve what makes you think that we could be “very good” or at least “good.” They into the social structures of minorities be at risk?” would also like to see more information in certain countries, there is always in- The WiSKoS team has since finished events organized by the government terest in obtaining this information.” evaluating the results. In May, the re- and have personal designated contacts The fact that science depends on in- searchers presented their findings at a at government agencies. ternational exchange complicates ef- closing conference in Brühl, near Bonn, But a comparison with other Euro- forts to protect research data. Visiting under the aegis of the Federal Police pean countries also shows that German scientists from all over the world spend Office. At the same time, they also pub- companies aren’t spied on more often several weeks or months at research in- lished their own guidelines with practi- than firms in other countries. This is re- stitutes, work in their laboratories and cal recommendations for companies, assuring, in one respect, but also some- take part in meetings, obtaining insight police authorities and scientific orga- thing of an affront in view of German into technologies, methods and ap- nizations. After all, the project’s stated industry’s reputation for innovation proaches that have not yet been pub- goal is to apply the findings as directly worldwide. Companies that have not lished. “Many research institutes aren’t as possible so as to make the work of the only a production facility abroad, but even aware of the danger,” points out spies at least a bit more difficult. also research and development depart-

ments, are spied on more often. These branches, which are usually smaller and less secure than departments at the head office, are particularly vulnerable. TO THE POINT “Conversely,” as Esther Bollhöfer inter- l Industrial espionage, especially via electronic means, poses an increasing risk prets it, “this also suggests that spies to small and medium-sized businesses in Germany; very few are equipped to deal find it hard to penetrate headquarters with this. in Germany.” l The legal distinction between economic and industrial espionage under German criminal law makes it more difficult to prosecute the perpetrators. It would be An often-underestimated risk, as better if the authorities joined forces. also revealed by the WiSKoS Research l To improve prevention, the researchers recommend government-defined security Group, is espionage at universities. standards and better networking between authorities and industry before Researchers and students, particularly espionage occurs.

at technical universities, often work l Academic and research institutions should also protect themselves against espionage. with confidential data from industry,

Graphic: MPI for Foreign and International Criminal Law which frequently passes through the

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 77 FLASHBACK_Microscopy

Molecules – On Ice

Cryo-electron microscopy facilitates the precise imaging of tiny structures, such as molecules, right down to the atomic level. For their contribution to the development of this technology, British molecular biologist Richard Henderson, German-born American researcher Joachim Frank and Swiss biophysicist Jacques Dubochet were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2017. At the Max Planck Society’s Fritz Haber Institute in Berlin, former Research Group Leader Friedrich Zemlin was also involved when the method carved out a place for itself in biology in the 1980s.

TEXT ELKE MAIER

In order to make inroads into the tiniest dimensions of life, sci- there is a high vacuum in the interior in which hydrated specimens, entists like to put their research objects on ice: they place them such as cells, would normally dry out immediately and shrivel up on a tiny grid and immerse them at lightning speed in an ethane into unrecognizability. On top of this, there is the damaging effect bath at minus 196 degrees, causing the sample to freeze within a of the radiation: Ernst Ruska, the inventor of the electron micro- few thousandths of a second. They then use electron beams to scope, once even caused a metallic filament to evaporate – not a X-ray their flash-frozen specimen. good sign for the far more sensitive biological samples! Using this cryo-electron microscopy (kyros means “cold” in Richard Henderson, too, who carried out research on mem- Greek), they compile thousands of individual images to form one brane proteins at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in composite image – with spectacular results. Bacteria that attack Cambridge in the 1970s, initially didn’t even consider the electron cells, the most delicate structures on the surface of the Zika vi- microscope. Instead, he tried to ascertain the structure of pro- rus, and incorrectly folded proteins in the brains of Alzheimer’s teins using X-ray crystallography – the method of choice at that » patients are just some of the images they’ve obtained. Research- time. However, he soon reached the limits of this technology: ers can even “freeze” molecules in motion to visualize the compli- some proteins couldn’t be obtained in sufficient quantity, while cated processes in the cell interior, such as the manufacture of others didn’t form any crystals at all. That left the electron micro- proteins in the ribosomes, the protein factories of the cell. scope as the only device capable of displaying the molecules in For a long time, though, no one believed that the electron mi- their natural environment – the cell membrane. croscope would ever be suitable for imaging biological objects: to Henderson’s favorite protein was bacteriorhodopsin – a red ensure that the electrons are diffracted solely by the specimen, pigment that exists in the cell wall of the halophilic (salt-loving) archaeon Halobacterium salinarum and sometimes colors entire salines red. To image the protein in its original state, he and his colleague Nigel Unwin placed the entire membrane in the microscope and selected the lowest radiation dose possible. The trick that helped the researchers was to coat their specimens with a sugar solution, which proved to be effective protection against dehydration. Because the protein had such a regular shape, it was possible to reconstruct its structure in 3-D even with the low-contrast images. The photo appeared in the journal Nature in 1975 and shows how the molecule’s protein chain weaves its way through the cell wall seven times. The resolution is 0.7 nanometers (billionths of a meter) – roughly the length of seven atoms laid side by side. At the time, it was the best depiction of a protein that had ever been achieved with an electron microscope.

Saying goodbye to SULEIKA: Friedrich Zemlin and his team gather one last time in front of the cryo equipment that was used to produce the Nobel Prize-worthy images of bacteriorhodopsin. The famous lens was subsequently removed and installed in a more modern microscope. From left: Friedrich Zemlin, Rolf Meilicke,

Erich Beckmann and Klaus Heinrich. Photo: Bärbel Lehmann

78 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 RÜCKBLENDE_Lockstoffe

100 nm

But Richard Henderson wasn’t yet satisfied. He wanted to show History of a virus: The researchers capture their object from various the precise atomic structure of his molecule. In particular, the angles to get a 3-D view of Herpes simplex. They combine these 2-D work that was being done by a team in the Electron Microscopy snapshots to form a composite image. Shown here are a microscope image (left), the reconstructed and denoised tomogram (center) and Department at the Max Planck Society’s Fritz Haber Institute a 3-D reconstruction (right). (FHI) in Berlin convinced him that there was still room for im- provement: in 1984, Elmar Zeitler and Friedrich Zemlin, together with colleagues from the University of Arizona, published the lished the first programs in 1981. Frank’s SPIDER software pack- structure of the rattlesnake venom Crotoxin with a resolution of age, a comprehensive tool for computer-based image analysis, 0.35 nanometers. was published that same year. “We had a superb microscope at the Institute,” says Friedrich One issue remained outstanding: how to protect biological Zemlin. “In particular, the helium-cooled, superconducting lens samples from drying out in the vacuum of the electron micro- developed at Siemens in Munich by physicist Isolde Dietrich was scope. Richard Henderson used a sugar solution in his bacterio fantastic. It was part of a laboratory setup that we had put togeth- rhodopsin studies, but that wasn’t suitable for all specimens. er at the FHI and dubbed SULEIKA, a German acronym for supra- Some researchers had already tried to freeze their samples, but leitende Kryo-Apparatur – superconducting cryo-equipment.” From ice crystals formed in them, which destroyed the delicate struc- 1984 on, Richard Henderson frequently traveled to Berlin to work tures in the sample and also deflected the electron beam. with SULEIKA. That ice really was the way forward was proven by Jacques On the other side of the Atlantic, at the New York State De- Dubochet, who was researching precisely this issue at the Euro- partment of Health, Joachim Frank had already been tinkering pean Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) in Heidelberg at the with image-processing algorithms for several years. The Ger- time. One idea was to chill the sample so quickly that there was man-born researcher, who later acquired American citizenship, no time for ice crystals to form. Many colleagues considered this to be a utopian dream, as, in order for this to happen, the sample DIE ZEIT, January 22, 1982 would have to reach a temperature of less than minus 150 degrees Celsius within a few thousandths of a second – a cooling rate of It seems that low-temperature microscopy and deep-freezing more than 10,000 degrees Celsius per second. herald a new chapter in molecular biology: the direct » But Dubochet managed to achieve the seemingly impossible. observation of the most elementary vital processes under To do this, he cooled water in fractions of a second in an ice-cold the microscope. ethane bath, freezing the liquid as a glass-like mass – a state researchers call vitrified water. The method proved to be ideally had been a doctoral student at the Max Planck Institute for Pro- suited to keeping biological specimens from drying out in the vac- tein and Leather Research in Munich, the forerunner to the Max uum of the electron microscope: vitrified water doesn’t form de- Planck Institute of Biochemistry in Martinsried. His mentor was structive ice crystals, and it allows the electrons to pass unhin- Walter Hoppe, an expert in X-ray crystallography who had moved dered. In addition, the low temperature protects against radia- into electron microscopy in the early 1970s. tion damage. “Using cryotechnology, we succeeded in imaging Hoppe’s specialty was the 3-D reconstruction of complex mo- paraffin molecules with an electron microscope in the mid-1980s,” lecular structures, such as enzymes. Using tomographic technol- says Friedrich Zemlin. “That was a real breakthrough, as the long ogy, he imaged one object from various angles and combined the hydrocarbon chains are extremely sensitive to electron beams.” images on the computer to form a three-dimensional composite Soon afterwards, the electron microscope became firmly es- image. The main problem with this was that the harmful radia- tablished in biology, as well. Richard Henderson and his col- tion dose increased as a result of the multiple photos. leagues published the first image of a protein at atomic resolu- Frank tried to avoid this by producing a single snapshot of tion in 1990: after years of painstaking work, the researchers several identical particles in a solution. This reduced the radia- finally succeeded in imaging bacteriorhodopsin at a resolution tion exposure considerably. However, it made analyzing the im- of 0.35 nanometers. To do this, they combined hundreds of indi- age all the more complicated, as the particles were jumbled up vidual snapshots in the computer to form a high-resolution 3-D and crisscrossed and often didn’t stand out well from the back- structure; most of the images came from SULEIKA. Friedrich Zem- ground. Contamination also occurred, which was a huge chal- lin and his colleague Erich Beckmann are two of the co-authors lenge, particularly given the lack of computer processing power of this pioneering work. at the time. The legendary lens that was used to capture the images was Nevertheless, Frank managed to develop algorithms to search later installed in a more modern Philips microscope and is now lo- through the widely scattered particles for recurring structures cated in the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göt- and to form from them a sharp, three-dimensional composite im- tingen. Institute Director Holger Stark, formerly a doctoral student age of the structure. Together with physicist Marin van Heel, who with Friedrich Zemlin and Marin van Heel at the FHI, had “inherit- later also worked as a researcher at FHI and who is considered to ed” the device and taken it with him when he moved to Göttingen Photo: Bärbel Lehmann Photo: Science 302, 1396-1398 (2003) be a pioneer in the imaging of individual molecules, Frank pub- in 2001. It was used successfully there for several more years.

2 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 79 MAX PLANCK COMMUNITY

Countdown to Summer Schools

The courses offered by the Max Planck Institutes will again reach around 900 young scientists this year

The idea of universities offering summer schools during the course-free period originated in the US, but it has since found its place at the Max Planck Institutes, too. Although they are not universities, programs like these still open the doors to young academics and offer insight into research. Frequently organized by the International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) for doctoral education and with other partners, this summer, more than 15 such specialized courses are being offered. The courses differ from one institute to the next, both in duration and content. Group sizes can also vary according to focus, and there is generally a selection procedure for each program. Such is also the case for the 8th IMPRS Neuro- Com Summer School at the MPI for Hu- As here at the MPI for Computer Science Summer School in Saarbrücken last year, man Cognitive and Brain Sciences in the MPG will again offer more than 15 such specialized courses in 2018. Leipzig, where around 140 participants are expected. For three days in late June, The Max Planck Summer Academy for schools of thought in the field of legal lecturers will introduce and expand on Legal History will be hosted at the MPI history research. In the second part, the cognitive neuroscience techniques and for European Legal History in Frank- focus will be deepened and students’ tools; two of the focus topics are “Mod- furt/Main for the fifth time. The motto own research discussed. eling the Mind” and big data. In the of this two-week course is “The world And like many of the MPI Summer words of the organizers: “We’ve invited and the village – the global and local di- Schools, the curriculum in Frankfurt leading international experts as well as mensions of legal history” and it is ful- isn’t restricted solely to academic activ- lecturers from Leipzig and around Ger- ly booked with around 30 participants, ities. It also includes, for instance, par- many.” Together with other building mostly doctoral students. Material will ticipation in the institute’s summer fes- blocks, such as the Summer School Post- be conveyed in two stages: the first tival, a group tour of the city and a vis- er Award, they aim to offer an “unforget- block provides insight into the scientif- it to the university campus. table experience with inspiring lectures, ic study of sources, including use of the discussions and icebreakers to help par- institute’s library, and into basic meth- https://www.mpg.de/10704527/ ticipants get to know one another.” odologies, theories and controversial summer-schools

German-Chinese Exchange in Shanghai

Varied program addresses trends in research and provides career advice

Max Planck Partner Groups reinforce the bond between internation- etti, Director at the MPI of Colloids and Interfaces, who also main- al researchers who return to their homeland after their stay at an tain contact with young Chinese researchers through the Partner MPI and their former institute. One focus of this program is China, Group program. In addition to the opportunity to network, several which is why the Partner Group leaders there were offered the op- panels were held in which individual research projects were dis- portunity to get to know each other better. The opening keynotes cussed. The Chinese scientists work at facilities of the Chinese Acad- were delivered by chemists Klaus Müllen, Director Emeritus of the emy of Sciences (CAS) or at universities such as Shanghai Jiao Tong

MPI for Polymer Research (photo: back left), and Markus Antoni- University, where this meeting took place. Photo: Oliver Dietze / MPG

80 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18 Photo: Oliver Dietze / MPG

Photo: Denise Vernillo (top), PR (bottom) Minerva FellowsMeet Ph MP tion, willcontinuetobeamainconcernofPhDnet. working conditions,suchasvacationtimeandcompensa- prehensive onetodate–showsthatstrivingimprove among MPG doctoral students – the most com- This survey Jana LasseroftheMPIforDynamicsandSelf-Organization. egy is so wellreceived by the institutes,” saysspokesperson survey. We are pleased that the PhDnet communication strat “Of 4,525doctoralstudents,2,218participatedinthe2017 F and cosmopolitan.” communicative, humorous, day as “very tion officerLouBohlendescribesthe talks roundedouttheprogram.Founda Jewish lifehere.Aseriesofscientific terest withregardtopastandpresent ist highlights,alsoincludedplacesofin ed citytourthat,inadditiontothe Munich. Together, theywent on aguid- raelis workinginGermanygathered invited tothemeetinginIsrael,Is- ployed atlocalresearch institutionsare Fellowsem While theGermanMinerva ally linkedtoaframeworkprogram. Berlin. Thisworkingsessionistradition Rehovot andonceineitherMunichor year, onceattheWeizmann Institutein The selectioncommitteemeetstwicea representative Severin Daiss and treasurer Greta Giljan (left to right). to (left Giljan Greta treasurer and Daiss Severin representative CPT El-Brolosy, Mohamed General Secretary row: Second Section. HS the for (right) Misersky Julia and (left) Bulca Ezgi representative BMS with (center) Lasser Jana Spokesperson board: PhDnet The ifteen young scientists receive new scholarships from the Foundation the from scholarships new receive scientists ifteen young G D d octoral net VisitsAdministrative student representation - - - - - s a presents gave one of the lectures. the of one gave MathematicalPhilosophy,MunichforCenter LMU the at Fellow Minerva a Jonas, Silvia founding in1959. under theaegisofMPGsinceits Foundationhasbeenoperating Minerva years, respectively–wereawarded.The scholars foruptothreeyearsortwo students andpostdocsfundedasvisiting Arches Prize. Schools,andtheawardingof nerva German-Israeli conferences,theMi applications forscholarshipsand tor StefanOffermanns,discussedthe mittee, headedbyMaxPlanckDirec- The followingday, theSelectionCom Fifteen new scholarships – doctoral Fifteen newscholarships–doctoral comprehensive - the constructivedialoguewith thePresident. 20, theteamvisitedAdministrative Headquarterstocontinue as well as the introduction of the childcare allowance. On April Administrative Headquarters in the future of doctoral students, man Resource DevelopmentandOpportunitiesDepartment at the PhDnet board welcomed the important role of the new Hu ty ofplanningandreconcilingsuchacareer. Inthiscontext, little interestinascientificcareer–mainlyduetothedifficul - PhDnet stronglysupports. has beencompletedatalmostallMPIs–adevelopment that clearly revealsthattheswitchfromscholarshipstocontracts also cupational healthmanagementmeasures.Thesurvey ports thefact that theMPGhasnow implemented initial oc- least onestress-relatedsymptom.Accordingly, PhDnetsup- thirds ofdoctoralcandidatesstatethattheysufferfrom at ty ofsupportandstress-relatedsymptoms.Morethan two- reveal asignificantstatisticalcorrelationbetweenthequali - doesindeed achieve ahealthywork-lifebalance.Thesurvey the relationshipbetweensupportqualityandabilityto Among otherthings,histeamofninewantedtoinvestigate group, MiguelBorgesoftheMPIforPsycholinguistics. health andcareerstrategies,”saystheheadofworking all, “buttheyalsohighlighttopicssuchassupport,mental satisfiedover- and theenvironmentatMPIsarevery In general,thedoctoralstudentsvalueexcellentfacilities inMunich Headq Furthermore, 45percent ofrespondentsstatethattheyhave analysis uarters of - - the

doctoral MAX PLANCK COMMUNITY MAX PLANCK de 2 gre | MaxPlanckResearch 18MaxPlanckResearch e situation 81 - MAX PLANCK COMMUNITY

When the Senate Gets together with Iron Researchers

After the meeting, a special surprise awaited

“100 years of cutting-edge research in The Senate members were impressed, the MPIE scientists do in the laborato- Düsseldorf” – a fitting motto for cele- too – by the venue and its industrial ries and workshops to develop and im- brating the anniversary of iron re- charm, as the meeting took place in the prove materials. In the company of ex- search (MPIE) in 2017, as the MPG Sen- middle of a production hall that hous- ternal guests, such as State Secretary ate was able to verify for itself when es laboratories with high-resolution Cornelia Quennet-Thielen, President the high-ranking representatives of transmission and scanning electron mi- Martin Stratmann also took the oppor- public life once again gathered togeth- croscopes. These are used mainly by the tunity to take part in the tour. “It is a er at an MPI. “It’s a great pleasure to Department of Nanomechanics to ana- special pleasure for me to be back here have such an eminent body as our lyze, test and optimize various metals in my workplace of many years and to guests and thus to support the discus- down to their atomic structure. discuss the future of basic research. sion of current topics pertaining to ex- Following the session, a tour of the After all, the Max-Planck-Institut für cellence in research,” said Dierk Raabe, laboratories allowed the Senate mem- Eisenforschung, with its 100 years of Director at the MPIE. bers to paint their own picture of what integrating science and industry, is also a very special think tank, in the truest sense of the word,” said Stratmann. During the tour, Michael Rohwerder introduced the Kelvin sensor, which was originally enhanced by Stratmann to detect corrosion processes at an early stage. Today, it is additionally used to detect hydrogen in metals and to understand the phenomenon of hydrogen embrittlement. Afterwards, doctoral student Pri- yanshu Bajaj explained to the Senate members the principle of additive manufacturing, or 3-D printing of metals. Here, a laser beam repeatedly passes through a metallic powder. The powder layer melts, cooling shortly there- after, and a new layer of powder is applied, creating the desired 3-D product layer by layer. Bajaj and his colleagues are working on developing new alloys using this method. Following the tour, the Senate members received a 3-D printed shopping chip with the head of Minerva. Bajaj and Group Leader Eric Jägle had the idea for the chip – it was actually intended for Max Planck Day, which invites the public throughout Germany to visit the institutes on September 14.

State Secretary Cornelia Quennet-Thielen during the tour. Doctoral student Priyanshu Bajaj explains how metallic powders can be

improved for 3-D printing. Photo: MPI für Eisenforschung

82 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 18

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