Science& Technology Trends

��

� Life Sciences

��

��  � �� Necessity of Research and Development �� of the Structural Genome Analysis Technology

� ��  Necessity to Promote Glycoinformatics � �� Information and Communication Technologies

� Towards Human-Centered Ubiquitous Computing � �� – Using a Paradigm Change as a Chance to Strengthen � International Technological Competitiveness – ��  Research and Development Trends in Robot � �� Technology – Toward Promoting the Commercialization of Personal Robots – � �� Nanotechnology and Materials

� �� Current Conditions and Issues in International Strategy from the Perspective of the International �� Standardization of Materials

Energy The Necessity, Actual Situation and Challenges

�� of Human Resources Training in the Nuclear Field

Manufacturing Technology

�� Trend in the Introduction and Development of Robotic Surgical Systems � ��

��

QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

F o r e w o r d

his is the latest issue of “Science and Technology Trends — Quarterly T Review”.

ational Institute of Science and Technology Policy (NISTEP) established N Science and Technology Foresight Center (STFC) in January 2001 to deepen analysis with inputting state-of-the-art science and technology trends. The mission of the center is to support national science and technology policy by providing policy makers with timely and comprehensive knowledge of important science and technology in Japan and in the world.

TFC has conducted regular surveys with support of around 3000 experts S in the industrial, academic and public sectors who provide us with their information and opinions through STFC’s expert network system. STFC has been publishing “Science and Technology Trends” (Japanese version) every month since April 2001. The first part of this monthly report introduces the latest topics in life science, ICT, environment, nanotechnology, materials science etc. that are collected through the expert network. The second part carries insight analysis by STFC researchers, which covers not only technological trends in specific areas but also other issues including government R&D budget and foreign countries’ S&T policy. STFC also conducts foresight surveys such as periodical Delphi surveys.

his quarterly review is the English version of insight analysis derived from T recent three issues of “Science and Technology Trends” written in Japanese, and will be published every three month in principle. You can also see them on the NISTEP website.

e hope this could be useful to you and appreciate your comments and W advices.

T ERUTAKA K UWAHARA Director Science and Technology Foresight Center

Contact us: Science and Technology Foresight Center National Institute of Science and Technology Policy Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) 2-5-1, Marunouchi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-0005, Japan Telephone +81-3-3581-0605 Facsimile +81-3-3503-3996 URL http://www.nistep.go.jp/index-e.html E-mail [email protected]

QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Executive Summary

1 Necessity of Research and Development of the Structural Genome Analysis Technology p.11 Life Sciences

In the Human Genome Project, whole genome sequencing was completed in April 2003, about two years earlier than previously expected, thanks to the rapid growth of analysis technology. As we enter the post genome era, the object of study expands from structural genome analysis for sequencing DNAs into functional genome analysis, in which gene positions and functions are characterized based on DNA sequences, and applications in medicine and pharmacy. Yet, structural genome analysis remains crucial. The Human Genome Project has revealed only a single set of the human genome. We need to statistically analyze a number of human genomes in order to clarify the genome sequences related to diseases and drug sensitivity. Therefore, technology for realizing high-speed and low-cost analysis is essential. Structural genome analysis has been carried out by sequencing the DNA from an end (sequencing by DNA sequencers) and detecting hybridization between unknown and known sequences (microarray and DNA chip). The analysis capacity of the DNA sequencer has grown astonishingly along with technological innovation based on the Sanger method invented in 1977. However, technological improvement based only on the Sanger method is thought to be inadequate to fully realize the high-speed and low-cost analysis as described above, and, as such, invention of new technology is highly required. Under such circumstances, researchers are pursuing research and development of technologies with improved conventional methods and the introduction of new principles. Although they are in the experimental stage, some of their fruits may be put into practical use in the future. Genome analysis technology has been emphasized in Japanese policies as well. Recently, indeed, the government came to vigorously encourage research and development of structural genome analysis. It is necessary to continuously back up basic research that unveils new principles and applied research that exploits the fruits of basic studies in order to further promote research and development. Moreover, it is crucial to support development until devices that are practicable in laboratories and applied fields are invented. (Original Japanese version: published in August 2003)

2 Necessity to Promote Glycoinformatics p.19

The carbohydrate chain, which binds to the protein and lipid of the eukaryotic cell, is focused on as the third chain molecule following nucleic acid and protein. Chief objectives of present carbohydrate chain research are analysis of structures, expression and roles of carbohydrate chains, invention of a carbohydrate chain synthesis method, and clarification of the relation of carbohydrate chains to diseases. If such studies are promoted, we can exploit the fruits of research in various fields such as the development of preventives

3 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

against infections, control of infections and the immune system, application to cancer immunotherapy using carbohydrate chains, manipulation of development and differentiation, and solution to immunological rejection in (artificial) organ transplantation. Yet, in order to obtain such benefits, we must develop functional carbohydrate chain analysis at the molecular level. That is, we need to seek substances interacting with carbohydrate chain molecules and unveil the information transmission mechanism at the molecular level. However, very little functional carbohydrate chain research at the molecular level has been attained, because it is difficult to identify functioning carbohydrate chains and their binding positions in proteins. In order to clear such obstacles, we need to deal with a new field of study called glycoinformatics. Glycoinformatics aims to promote structural and functional carbohydrate chain research and its applied studies by obtaining, accumulating and exploiting data on both the structures and functions of carbohydrate chains. Glycoinformatics will accelerate functional carbohydrate chain research at the molecular level. As the first step in founding glycoinformatics, we must compile a database of carbohydrate chains that will serve as the basis of studies. It is necessary to compile a database with which the glycome, i.e., the total of carbohydrate chains of the cell and individual, can be analyzed and compared between cells or individuals. Although a database including the detailed structure of each carbohydrate chain would be useful, its compilation will require much time due to the difficulty in structural carbohydrate chain analysis. Therefore, it is our technical task to determine what kind of information to collect. We may, for example, accumulate data on mass spectrometry and the affinity of carbohydrate chains with specific proteins. In order to initiate and develop glycoinformatics, we must first establish a methodology by determining what kind of information to collect and how to compile the database, and, following this, consider how to continuously operate the database. (Original Japanese version: published in September 2003)

Towards Human-Centered Ubiquitous Computing Information and 3 – Using a Paradigm Change as a Chance to Strengthen p.26 Communication International Technological Competitiveness – Technologies

Now that communications “anytime anywhere” are enabled thanks to the advances in broadband and mobile technologies, many people expect an ubiquitous information society is just around the corner. However, simply placing a large number of computers around people's living environments and connecting them to a network would not realize a world where users are given easy access to the right information at the right time. A mechanism and technology to exploit the potential of networks and computers are essential. This is why ubiquitous computing, a technology to provide information services “for individuals anytime anywhere, according to the situation” is sought. Information and communications technology (IT) is reaching a turning point as the fast-paced growth in performance and speed in this sector is slowing down. To allow further penetration of IT among users, IT must undergo a transition “from enable technologies for specialists to usable technologies for everyone” and “from computer-/network-centered to human-centered.” One of major technologies

4 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

toward realization of this world is "Ubiquitous computing”. Technologies that are required to realize ubiquitous computing include ultra-small computers, sensor networking, position detection technology, situation recognition technology, ubiquitous system technology and security/privacy protection technology, many of which would not be achieved through conventional approaches for advancing performance of computers and networks. While the U.S. assumes a dominant and leading position in the area of Internet and software technologies, Japan now has a chance to win the leadership in ubiquitous computing with its technological edge in mobile devices and intelligent home appliances. Government research funds have traditionally focused on hardware infrastructures such as the construction of computers and networks. As studies on software and applications are the important elements of research into ubiquitous computing, government should shift their focus in allocating research investments into these fields. Technological innovation in the IT sector is ongoing at a dizzy speed. Research and development in a spiral model in which basic research leads to experimental and applied studies, where next challenges are discovered to be addressed to the basic research stage, should be conducted in a short cycle. In recent years, research strength in the business sector has weakened because of the IT slump, while universities are still concentrating primarily on basic research activities far away from the practical world. In spite of the promotion of industry-academia collaboration, there has been no remarkable effect as far as the number of joint research papers presented in the academic society of this field is concerned. In the IT sector, in particular, greater investment should be shifted in the area of “basic researches that could be extended to future applications,” with the view of bridging the gap between industry and academia. The goal for Japan is to lead the world in the development of ubiquitous computing technology by promoting and accelerating research and development in a spiral model through joint efforts of industry and academia. (Original Japanese version: published in July 2003)

Research and Development Trends in Robot 4 Technology – Toward Promoting the Commercialization of Personal p.37 Robots –

Recently, some companies have announced their plans to commercialize vacuum cleaning robots for households, while others have already begun marketing robots that can guard and protect homes. There are considerable expectations that the market for these personal robots will grow into a large sector. Personal robots are significantly different from industrial robots that have been supporting Japanese industry, in terms of required technologies, expected functionality as systems, and work environment. From the technical point of view, further progress is needed in areas such as sophistication of the sensors to generate input signals, information processing capability on the basis of input from the sensors, and smaller and refined actuator or output systems. For its large share in the production of industrial robots in the world, Japan is generally considered to have a competitive edge over Europe and the U.S. in

5 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

the development of overall robot technologies. In fact, however, in the area of personal robot technology, an advanced robotics field, Japan does not assume a dominant position even in constituent technologies. Given that Japan’s current strength in the industrial robot arena is based on the basic technologies developed over 20 years ago, it is questionable whether Japan can be technically competitive in the personal robot sector, where largely different types of technologies are required. There are two major challenges for robotics research in Japan: vagueness of development objectives and target systems; and a large gap between industry and academia in the directions of development, a problem that is resulting in little connection between the two worlds. Amid fierce international competition, private companies, the major contributor to the past commercialization of robots in Japan, are concentrating their development efforts only on projects that can directly benefit their business, while university researchers often stick to the invention of new functions that would allow them to write academic papers. At least where commercialization is concerned, Japan has yet to take advantage of the technological development capacity in academia, where vast human resources are available for robotics research thanks to the discipline’s popularity among students as a result of the promotional effects of robot contests. In Japan, as a rapidly aging nation, a need for personal robots will certainly persist for a long time into the future. In particular, promoting the commercialization of robots that can serve the public sector through assistance in the nursing care and independent lives of the elderly will likely facilitate widespread use of personal robots among individuals. Since businesses tend to hesitate entering the market of personal robots for public services because of its relative smallness and lack of established safety standards, the government and local public bodies should encourage the development and commercialization of personal robots by purchasing a considerable number of robotic systems or subsidizing purchases of such systems. (Original Japanese version: published in September 2003)

Current Conditions and Issues in International Nanotechnology 5 Strategy from the Perspective of the International p.50 and Standardization of Materials Materials “Materials” deserve to be so named only when they are actually used in practice. Their relationship to design standards is an important criterion in the market acceptance of advanced materials. The effective reflection of science and technology in industrial and economic activities, particularly in the preparation of an intellectual infrastructure for the materials sector, and the improvement of international competitiveness are urgent tasks in the revitalization of Japan’s economy. Standards are an important part of this intellectual infrastructure. Europe had already worked on international standards, and the formation of the European Union has strengthened that momentum. In recent years, the United States has also reevaluated the importance of international standards and is now taking an active role in their development. Japan's position has become relatively weak. Many cases have occurred in which Japan had superior technology, but the technical standards in international markets had already been captured by the technology of other countries. Since the World Trade Organization’s Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade

6 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

came into effect in 1995, the influence of international standards on markets has been markedly altered. Products that do not conform to international standards cannot be exported. In addition, the adoption of standards is a slow process, and enhancing the right to speak on important matters requires long-term measures. Sufficient results cannot be expected from piecemeal, short-term responses. A nationwide change in consciousness on the part of industry, academia and government is needed, so that standards are seen as an investment that brings good returns rather than as restrictions imposed from outside. The possession of sufficient background data is essential in enhancing Japan’s right to speak on international standards. Japan is in a position to respond fully in sectors such as advanced materials in which the element of research is important. The country has been actively participating in joint research as part of the Versailles Project on Advanced Materials and Standards (VAMAS). The lack of regard in society for Japan’s international standardization activities, however, is contributing to a downward trend. The funding for coordinating science and technology promotion that supported domestic activity in VAMAS, which is an international project based on international summit meetings, has ended. Policies to revitalize the standardization activities of corporations and government research institutes are needed to break out of this state of affairs and to avoid falling behind not only advanced nations but also other Asian countries. We offer the following three policy proposals: independent administrative institutions and other research institutions should include work on international standards as part of their medium-term plans; principles for evaluating contributions to, and influence on, the proposal and adoption of international standards should be decided as part of the preparation of an infrastructure for standardization activities; and government bodies, industry, and academia should collaborate to form a national response committee on international standards. (Original Japanese version: published in July 2003)

The Necessity, Actual Situation and Challenges p.61 6 of Human Resources Training in the Nuclear Field Energy

In recent years, the nuclear industry in Japan has been diminishing in scale. The generation that has played the most important role in developing the nuclear industry is now aging. Therefore, it is generally recognized that the younger generation needs to take over the inheritance of nuclear technologies as soon as possible. For the time being, however, it is difficult to predict if the nuclear industry will be short of human resources as a whole. Under these circumstances, the challenges in the Japanese government’s policy related to human resources in the nuclear field are to acquire and train the “key human resources” indispensable for controlling and regulating the safety of the existing plants, especially excellent specialists who can take the most important roles in the industrial, governmental and academic circles, respectively, take over the intellectual properties accumulated in the nuclear field, make long-term R&D efforts, and so forth. It will take a long time to train the key human resources in the nuclear field, and, depending on the short-term trend of the nuclear industry, it is difficult to replenish the nuclear sector with the necessary human resources from the other sectors. Now, let us direct our attention to the actual situation of human resources training in the Japanese nuclear field. In the departments of universities and

7 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS colleges, more importance is attached to education in the basic engineering subjects than to that in specialty subjects. The graduate schools of universities increasingly tend to consider nuclear engineering as a wide-range of disciplines including the use of radiation and quantum beams. Thus, Japanese universities do not make enough provisions for the educational curriculums related to nuclear power generation. On the other hand, atomic energy research institutions and other related organizations are gradually improving and developing atomic energy-related education and providing research assistance for students in graduate schools and technical personnel in the nuclear industry as well as with the qualification system for technical personnel in the industry. Under these circumstances, the author believes that the Japanese government should cope with the following challenges to acquire and train key human resources in the nuclear field:

(1) Establishment of a human resources training base by using the equipment and human resources in the two nuclear corporations An abundance of human resources and equipment exists in the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) and the Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute (JNC). It is essential to make the best use of them not only for the most advanced atomic energy research and development activities, but also for the nuclear education of students in graduate schools and technical personnel in the nuclear industry. The new corporation to be established by incorporating the two institutes will be required to fill the role of human resources training base in the nuclear field. It is necessary not only to further improve and develop the existing graduate school partnership system as well as the education and training system for technical personnel in the nuclear industry, but also to consider the establishment of graduate schools for professionals by using the human resources and equipment in the new corporation.

(2) Promotion of R&D activities for the commercialization of the next-generation atomic energy system It is generally considered that the nuclear industry has matured. In the medium and long terms, however, the industry is expected to introduce the next-generation atomic energy system excellent in economy, safety, resistance to nuclear proliferation and other features, and to develop new uses for atomic energy such as the production of hydrogen. In recent years, R&D efforts have been more active internationally. To build up the future base of atomic energy technologies in Japan and to train human resources in the nuclear field, it is important for the Japanese government to actively support R&D efforts in developing the new atomic energy system, which is worthy for young researchers to challenge and is expected to be introduced on a large scale into the nuclear industry. (Original Japanese version: published in September 2003)

8 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

7 Trend in the Introduction and Development of Robotic Surgical Systems p.75 Manufacturing Technology Recently, medical robotics, in particular the technology for robotic surgical systems, has appeared on the practical stage and attracted attentions. It has been already demonstrated that the robotic surgical systems are very useful for the most operations using conventional endoscopic tools. More than several-thousand cases of robotic surgery have been reported by foreign surgeons only for the period from 2002 to 2003 in the world. These systems are expected to offer a potential for bringing changes in quality into the total medical service, including minimized patients’ strain by less-invasive curatives, remote operability enabling even curatives in the isolated districts, and simulation-based education for residents. Some of Japanese surgeons have affirmed that in the aspect of dexterity, the skill of the robotic surgical systems is comparable to that of superior surgeons. Moreover, new functions with added-values, for example, superimpose display of associated real-time information on the organ image, are being developed. Japanese robotic researchers have also been eagerly tackled to these enabling technologies. On the other hand, since some kinds of restrictions in medical services retard the introduction of the robotics into the actual medical scenes, they are at a standstill as a future subject. The enabling technologies in the robotic surgical systems are regarded on an extension of the development of industrial robots, because they focus on the functions of human eyes and hands. On the other hand, these systems never aim alternatives of the operators, because all behaviors of these robotic systems should reflect the operator’s determinations. In this context, it is a rather modest robot than autonomous humanoid robots which are proactively being developed in Japan. Relevant projects and grant researches for medical robotics tend to be small scaled and too distributed in Japan. The fruitful results from these projects and researches have been limited within enabling technologies, which have not reach to appear on the actual medical stage as an integrated system which surgeons are eager to use. For this reason, the robotic surgical system would be one of the curative equipments that Japan has to import. To create new medical innovation in Japan, as typified by the medical robotics, it is essential to establish clear responsible objectives that cover translational engineering researches with strong medical-engineering collaboration. To improve the research environment, it is required that rooms for choice by the operators and the patients to attempt new technologies should be left, supporting with some insuring systems against incidental risks. And positive discussions for roles of the approval institutions and the intellectual property rights related to medical services are also desired. (Original Japanese version: published in August 2003)

QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 1 Necessity of Research and Development of the Structural Genome Analysis Technology

JUNKO SHIMADA AND SHIN-ICHI MOGI Life Science and Medical Research Unit

have become widely used. Yet, in this era of 1 Introduction post genome research, “high-speed and low-cost analysis” is further required. It is thought that Completion of the Human Genome Project the application of conventional technology is was announced on April 14, 2003, as the whole insufficient to meet such requirements and the human genome was sequenced. The Human invention of new technology is necessary. Genome Project was proposed in the mid-1980s In this report, we will discuss the current aiming to sequence the whole human genome. status of research and development of structural Yet, its realization was thought to be almost genome analysis technology and the necessity for impossible since a considerable amount of time their promotion. was required to complete the whole genome sequencing with the analysis technology at that 2 Structural and time. Later on, however, the human genome functional genome analyses research advanced rapidly and the international Human Genome Project started in 1990 with Genome analysis comprises of structural and the U.S. playing the leading role. When the functional studies. project was launched, it was planned to sequence In structural genome analysis, the sequence the whole human genome of about 3 Gbp of DNA’s four bases is clarified. The genome is and identify all of the 30,000 genes by 2005. the total of the genetic information. The human However, early completion of the whole genome genome, for example, is contained in the 24 sequencing was proclaimed in April 2003, mainly chromosomes consisting of 22 autosomes and because of the great improvements in analyzers[1]. two sex chromosomes. DNA carries the genetic Some people regard the structural genome information and has four bases of adenine (A), analysis technology as fully matured because it guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). The has developed dramatically through the Human total size of the human genome is about 3 Gbp. Genome Project in recent years and sequencers DNA sequences vary among individuals and this

Figure 1:Structural and functional genome analysis

11 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS phenomenon is called genetic polymorphism. the Maxam-Gilbert method almost at the same Structural genome analysis has been carried time in 1977, as the principles for sequencing the out by sequencing the DNA from an end and single-strand DNA. At that time, DNA sequencing comparing the unknown sequence with already had been carried out manually using radiation known sequences. detection, so a researcher could sequence 1,000 In contrast, in functional genome analysis, bp at most in a year[2]. Since the Sanger method genome sequences are correlated with was more suitable for automation than the phenotypes. In other words, the gene that has Maxam-Gilbert method, the Sanger method came the information for producing a protein and to be used widely. the domains that control the production of the In 1982, Akiyoshi Wada of the University protein are identified and the function of the of Tokyo proposed the development of the protein is characterized. automated sequencer and invention of element technologies for its realization started. In 3 Development of the 1986, Leroy Hood, Lloyd Smith and colleagues structural genome analysis disclosed the first automated sequencer. Then, technology in 1987, Applied Biosystems Inc. marketed the first automated sequencer with Hood’s principle Structural genome analysis has been carried applied. Furthermore, in 1990, sequencers based out by sequencing the DNA from an end (DNA on capillary electrophoresis were developed by sequencing technology) and comparing the three groups led by Lloyd Smith, Barry Karger sequence of a DNA sample with already known and Norman Dovichi, respectively. Meanwhile, sequences fixed on a substrate based on the from 1992 to 1993, Richard Mathies and a binding activity of the hybridized DNAs. group led by Hideki Kambara of Hitachi Ltd. Frederick Sanger disclosed the Sanger method*1 unveiled sequencers based on the capillary-array and Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert disclosed electrophoresis. Molecular Dynamics and PE

Table 1: Chronology of genome-related technology

1953 Discovery of the double helical structure J. Watson and F. Crick 1972 Invention of the DNA recombination technology P. Berg and S. Cohen Invention of the DNA sequencing method F. Sanger, A. Maxam, and W. 1977 (Sanger method, Maxam-Gilbert method) Gilbert D. Botstein, R. Davis, 1980 Proposal of genome mapping by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) M. Skolnick, R. White 1982 Proposal of the automated sequencing system A. Wada 1984 Development of the pulsed field gel electrophoresis C. Cantor, D. Schvartz 1985 Invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) K. Mullis

1986 Development of the autosequencer Invention of a heat-resistant enzyme for PCR L. Hood, L. Smith, Mullis, K. Saiki Development of the yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) D. Burke, M. Olson, G. Carle 1987 Autosequencers marketed Applied Biosystems inc. 1989 Development of mapping with the sequence tagged site (STS) Olson, Hood, Botstein, Cantor 1990 Invention of the capillary electrophoresis Karger, Smith, N. Dovichi 1992 Development of the bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) M. Simon 1993 Development of the capillary array electrophoresis H. Kambara 1995 Invention of the DNA microarray P. Brown 1996 DNA chips marketed Affymetrix 1997 Capillary DNA sequencers marketed Molecular Dynamics 1998 Capillary DNA sequencers marketed PE Biosystems Inc.

Source: Authors’ compilation on the basis of information provided by Prof. Yoshinobu Baba of the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University of Tokushima and the reference[3].

12 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Biosystems Inc. brought capillary sequencing machines to market in 1997 and 1998, 4 Structural genome analysis respectively[3]. Capillary sequencing machines technology in are the most widely used among sequencers post genome research today. Assay, detection and analysis of a sample are As the Human Genome Project was completed automated in the capillary sequencing machine. and post genome researches have been launched, Since electrophoresis, which is the sample the object of study has developed from structural assaying process, is conducted in capillaries, high genome analysis to clarification of the entire speed and an advanced separation property are biological phenomena and applications of genome obtained. We can sequence as much as 748,800 studies in medicine and pharmacy. bp a day with today’s capillary sequencing As the next step to structural genome analysis, machine (The Applied Biosystems 3730 DNA researchers are pushing forward functional Analyzer is equipped with 48 capillaries. genome analysis, in which the position and According to its standard protocol, about 650 function of genes are characterized based bp can be sequenced with a capillary at a time on the DNA sequence, biomolecular studies, and an hour is required for this process)[4]. In such as characterization of protein structures this way, the sequencing technology has been and functions and research on sugar chains, innovated based on the Sanger method and and studies at the cell, tissue and individual analysis capacity has been boosted. levels. We still need to analyze the structure In the meantime, in order to detect single of related genes in such studies. Moreover, nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and screen gene besides researches on individual molecules, we expression, we use the microarray and the DNA need to pursue comprehensive studies such chip*2, in which the sample is hybridized with as transcriptome analysis, in which the whole the DNA fixed on the substrate, the difference mRNAs existing in a cell at a certain stage are in sequence between the sample and the fixed analyzed, and proteome analysis, in which DNA is detected, and the sequence of the production of all proteins in a cell is studied. sample is analyzed. We can also directly analyze Technology for realizing highly efficient analysis the sequences that genetically vary between is essential in these studies. individuals such as SNP by decoding the sequence Also, researchers are promoting research and one by one from an end and comparing the development for boosting functional analysis sequence with a known sequence. Yet, such based on decoded genome sequences and for analysis can be done much easier with the exploiting its fruits. For instance, the difference microarray or the DNA chip: We can analyze in genome sequences between individuals is said a number of SNPs at the same time with these to be a genetic factor related to the incidence methods. However, they are still imperfect of diseases and drug sensitivity. Researchers technologies and there are hurdles to be are pursuing the development of new ways overcome such as the noise caused by unspecific of diagnosis, treatment and prevention of adsorption to the substrate. diseases by accumulating information on genes In connection with this, Patrick Brown and involved in complex diseases such as cancers colleagues published in 1995 the first paper on a and lifestyle-related diseases and by clarifying microarray in which cDNA probes are applied to the mechanism causing their development. a glass plate, and Affymetrix produced DNA chips Furthermore, researchers are striving to for commercial use in 1996[3]. invent new pharmaceuticals by unveiling the characteristics of genes related to drug sensitivity. In order to achieve such objects, it is necessary to statistically compare genome sequences of individuals and search for genes related to diseases and drug sensitivity. Therefore, we

13 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS need to analyze statistically a number of human huge amounts of genomes more efficiently than in genome sequences. We have only clarified a conventional methods. single set of the human genome in the Human Furthermore, lowering the analysis cost is Genome Project. As shown in Figure 2, although essential in order to realize medical treatment the number of sequences registered in the DNA using genomic information and to employ it Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ), which is a major in clinical use and for individual treatments as international DNA database, has increased genomic-based testing tools, for example. exponentially from the 1970s up to now, it has In the meantime, there are various fields other only reached 30 Gbp as of March 2003, including than medicine and pharmacy that may benefit not only human genomes but also genomes of from the development of structural genome all other organisms like Escherichia coli and analysis technology. nematodes[5]. Since a set of human genome is 3 Breeding of plants and animals based Gbp, we understand well that we need massive on genomic information and invention of analysis for statistical use, and it is crucial to health-promoting foods are being pursued invent technology for analyzing structures of in the agriculture and food industry. The

Figure 2:Roadmap of DNA sequencing

Source: Provided by Prof. Yoshinobu Baba of the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University of Tokushima.

Figure 3: Applications of genome analysis technology

Source: Partly Compiled by the authors on the basis of information provided by Prof. Yoshinobu Baba of the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University of Tokushima.

14 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

genetically modified crops popularized so far time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS). bring such advantages as decreasing the amount Mass spectrometry of proteins and DNA of agrichemicals, alleviating farm work and molecules became practicable as the electrospray increasing harvest with herbicide and vermin ionization (ESI) and the matrix assisted laser resistance added. Today, researchers are desorption ionization (MALDI) were invented accelerating research and development of crops in the 1980s and ionization of these molecules with high productivity, resistance to soil stresses became possible. Today, MALDI-TOF-MS is often and nutritional value. Meanwhile, it is hoped used in DNA sequencing. While the principle that microbe genomes will be used in medicine, of sequencing is based on the conventional pharmacy, chemical production and processing, Sanger method, separation of DNA fragments and environmental conservation. Functional is conducted by the mass spectrometer. In this analysis of microbes using their genomic method, separation, detection and analysis of information is promoted to exploit microbe DNA fragments are completed on the second genomes in chemical production and processing time scale, and, moreover, only a few hundred and bioremediation, i.e., removing pollutants and nanoliters of the sample are required. Yet, so far, restoring the environment using microbes. only about 100 bp can be analyzed in one course Accordingly, highly efficient structural genome of analysis[2]. analysis will also greatly contribute to research and development in such fields. •Sequencing by microchips In sequencing by microchips, a microchip 5 Recent studies on electrophoresis device in which minute channels DNA sequencing technology are formed on a glass or plastic substrate is used. This sequencing technology has the same Technological innovation in DNA sequencing principle as the capillary electrophoresis. Since has been made on the basis of the Sanger method, the microchannels have very small heat capacity, achieving the invention of the capillary DNA high voltage can be applied. Thus, speedy sequencer that is widely used today. Yet, research analysis with high separation performance can and development of technologies with principles be conducted, and little amounts of samples are other than the Sanger method applied are also necessary for analysis. In addition, semiconductor advancing. Although such technologies are still technology is applied in the production of in the experimental stage, some may be put into this chip, so the experimental system can be practical use. In this section, we will introduce parallelized through integration with sample to you some of these new technologies. preparation and detection carried out on one chip. This concept is called “micro total analysis 5.1 Technologies with the Sanger method system (µTAS)” or “lab-on-a-chip”[2]. Today, the applied experimental course of amplifying DNAs by the Sequencing by mass spectrometry and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and separating microchips have been reported as technologies its products according to their molecular weights for highly efficient analysis using the Sanger with electrophoresis can be conducted on several method, as its basic sequencing principle with samples in parallel on one chip. However, a chip the analyzers devised. on which DNA can be sequenced has not yet been invented. •Sequencing by mass spectrometry A mass spectrometer can characterize the 5.2 Technologies with other principles applied mass of molecules precisely and quickly. Ionized Researchers are striving to sequence DNAs molecules are introduced into a vacuum space directly without using the Sanger method with a magnetic field and the mass of the as in microscopic sequencing and nanopore molecules is calculated from the drifting time sequencing. Also, DNA sequencing technology of the ionized molecules. This method is called using DNA chips has been proposed.

15 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

•Microscopic sequencing sequencing with DNA chips may be put into Direct observation of DNAs has become practical use if a large variety of sequences can possible along with the rapid improvement be fixed on the chip and hybridization can be of electron microscopes and scanning probe detected electronically[6]. microscopes (SPM). Some research groups are endeavoring to sequence DNAs by directly 5.3 Technology supporting DNA sequencing observing bases on the DNA chains, and there Since sequencers today can deal with only a are reports on the observation of the DNA double limited length of samples, we need to fragment helix and distinction between adenine and DNA when we analyze long sequences like thymine[2]. genomes. However, fragmentation is carried out in vitro and the order of the DNA fragments •Nanopore sequencing becomes random. Thus, after sequencing In nanopore sequencing, DNA is sequenced each fragment, we need to ascertain overlaps when it passes through a nanopore, or a between fragments by computer analysis and nano-level pore, with a diameter slightly larger rearrange them. This step takes time and tends than the molecular diameter of the DNA. When to cause mistakes. As a method to overcome such the DNA molecule enters the pore, the electrical disadvantages, single-molecule DNA sequencing property of the nanopore changes depending has been proposed. on the DNA bases passing. Researchers are attempting to sequence DNAs using this base •Single-molecule DNA sequencing dependency of the electric current. Since a Researchers try to realize single-molecule DNA DNA molecule passes a nanopore in several sequencing, in which a single DNA molecule, milliseconds, rapid sequencing can be realized i.e., one DNA strand, is physically fixed linearly if this nanopore sequencing becomes feasible. and fragmented from an end one by one, and the So far, there has been a report describing the fragments are amplified by PCR and sequenced difference in change in electrical property with the Sanger method. This procedure is between polyadenine and polycytosine[2]. favorable in that we do not need to rearrange the DNA fragments after sequencing, because •Sequencing with DNA chips the fragments are aligned according to the In this method, all kinds of oligonucleotides order in the original sample. There is a report of a specific length are fixed on a DNA chip, and that a sample was successfully extended, fixed, the sample to be analyzed is fluorescence-labeled fragmented and isolated. Another report says a and applied to the chip. The oligonucleotides sample could be amplified with PCR from a single hybridized with the sample indicate that their molecule only[2]. sequences exist in the sample. Accordingly, the sequences of all hybridized oligonucleotides 6 Conclusion are compared and the whole sequence of the sample is estimated based on the overlaps of the Development of the genome analysis technology oligonucleotide sequences. However, there is has been emphasized since the start of the Human a disadvantage that only a sample with length Genome Project. For example, in the U.S. Human corresponding to the square root of the number Genome Project, certain numerical targets of oligonucleotides fixed on the substrate can be for analysis speed and costs were set to boost sequenced. For example, there are 65,536 kinds genome sequencing capacity. Also in Japan, many of oligonucleotides with a length of 8 bp, and government proposals for promoting human even if a chip contains all these oligonucleotides, genome analysis since 1987 have stressed that the the maximum length that can be sequenced is nation should advance DNA analysis technology. only 256 bp. When a longer sample is sequenced, As a matter of fact, the Special Coordination far more various kinds of sequences must be Funds for Promoting Science and Technology loaded on the chip. There is a report that of the former Science and Technology Agency

16 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 supported “Research on development of DNA In addition, the Ministry of Education, Culture, extraction, analysis and synthesis technology” Sports, Science and Technology organized a panel from 1981 to 1983 and “Research for development on the development of forefront technologies of of common basic technology for cancer studies” measurement and analysis in June 2003, and is from 1984 to 1989. Moreover, RIKEN promoted scrutinizing how to practically promote research “Development of the Human Genome Analyzer and development of devices. (HUGA)” from 1987 to 1994. In such a current, we need to encourage It is notable that the concept of the further research and development with attention autosequencer was proposed by a Japanese to several points as follows. researcher. Japan has obtained and exploited As we enter the post genome era and research fruits of research and development of element objects will expand from structural genome technologies. However, in reality, most of the analysis into functional genome analysis and sequencers that Japanese laboratories purchase clarification of the relationship between are produced by foreign companies. For example, genes and diseases for medical applications, the market share of the capillary DNA sequencers genome analysis technology is expected to of foreign companies in Japan was 99% by value grow vigorously. Taking this circumstance into in FY2001[7]. consideration, we need to continuously back Forefront research starts from device up basic research, unveiling new principles and invention, and innovative measurement applied research to exploit the fruits of basic technologies activate new spheres of study. studies. Thus, if we have domestic bases for developing Furthermore, we should support technologies state-of-the-art analyzers, we can enhance the in the development stage until devices applicable quality of research and development more and in laboratories and medical treatment are more. Structural genome analysis technology invented. We must develop such devices as contributes to improvements in medicine, systems including reagents and analysis software. pharmacy, agriculture, the food industry, chemistry, environmental studies and so forth. Acknowledgements Therefore, progress in structural genome analysis This report has been compiled based on technology will elevate the standard of research “Trends and Prospects in Next Generation and development of many studies. Nanodevice Research,” a lecture by Dr. Yoshinobu Recently, the Japanese government announced Baba, professor of the Faculty of Pharmaceutical new programs for developing analyzers. The Sciences at the University of Tokushima and chief Biotechnology Strategy Guidelines adopted of the Single-molecule Bioanalysis Laboratory on December 6, 2002 by the Biotechnology of the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Strategy Council of the Japanese Cabinet, which Science and Technology, held on May 12, aims at applying and industrializing fruits 2003 at the National Institute of Science and of biotechnological research, enhancing the Technology Policy and by adding the results nation’s quality of life and bolstering industrial of our investigations. Our sincere gratitude to competitiveness, advocates the promotion of Prof. Baba, who provided us with invaluable cooperation with information technology and suggestions and information. nanotechnology and intensified investments to the development of biotechnological devices. Glossary Moreover, the policy for distributing resources *1 Sanger method such as budgets and talent in science and A method for sequencing a single strand technology in FY 2004 adopted by the Council DNA. When a polynucleotide chain with for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office a sequence complementing a single strand on June 19, 2003 sets development of forefront DNA is synthesized with enzymes, the technologies and devices for analysis of genes synthesis can be stopped artificially at a and proteins as a prioritized target in life science. proper position of the nucleotides. That is,

17 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

although deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates and the DNAs on the substrate is detected (dNTPs) serve as the substrate for synthesizing with a fluorescence detector and analyzed complementary sequences, a small amount with a computer. of dideoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (ddNTPs) is added to dNTPs. Enzymes References incorporate dNTPs and ddNTPs into the DNA [1] Homepage of the Human Genome Project of strand without distinguishing between them. the U.S. Department of Energy, : When a ddNTP is incorporated, DNA synthesis http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human stops. The polynucleotides produced are _Genome/home.html electrophoresed, separated according to their [2] Hirano, Ken and Baba, Yoshinobu, “Next molecular weights, and detected. Generation DNA Sequencer,” Bio Venture *2 Microarray and DNA chip[6] 2002, 2 (3): 38-44 (in Japanese). In a microarray and DNA chip, particular [3] Roberts et al., “A History of the Human DNAs are aligned at high density on a Genome Project,” Science 2001, 291 (5507): substrate of glass or polymers. In the 1195. microarray, DNAs are dripped onto the [4] Homepage of Applied Biosystems Japan Ltd.,: substrate. On the other hand, in the DNA http://www.appliedbiosystems.co.jp/website chip, oligonucleotides are synthesized on the /jp/home/index_g.jsp surface of the chip and DNAs can be aligned [5] Homepage of DDBJ, at higher density than in the microarray. :http://www.ddbj.nig.ac.jp/Welcome-j.html When the DNA sample to be analyzed is [6] Brown, T. A., “Genomes 2 (Japanese fluorescence-labeled and reacts with the version),” Medical Science International, DNAs on the substrate, hybridization occurs 2003. if there are complementary sequences of the [7] R&D Corp., “Scientific Instruments sample. Hybridization between the sample Almanac,” , 2002 (in japanese).

(Original Japanese version: published in August 2003)

18 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 2 Necessity to Promote Glycoinformatics

SHUICHI TSUJI (Affiliated Fellow) AND JUNKO SHIMADA Life Science and Medical Research Unit

Figure 1: Carbohydrate chains on the surface of the cell membrane 1 Introduction

Sugar as biological energy resources, such as glycogen, starch and cellulose, and components of cells and tissues has been widely known. Yet, there is another type of sugar: carbohydrate chains existing mainly on the cell surface and bound to proteins and lipids. Recently, the carbohydrate chain is being focused on as the third chain molecule following nucleic acid and protein. Trends Source: Partly compiled by the authors based on Reference[5] in carbohydrate chain research was reported in “Sugar chains as the Third Biomolecule, and constituting the chain has several binding sites. Post-genome Research”[1] in the fourth issue of Moreover, its component monosaccharides and Science & Technology Trends-Quarterly Review. chain length vary. Accordingly, the carbohydrate Since this report was published, research projects chain has an immensely complicated structure. have been launched promoting carbohydrate The diversity of the carbohydrate chain structure chain studies. This time, we will discuss that, in is thought to have great significance for the order to obtain abundant fruits from carbohydrate carbohydrate chain function. chain research, we need to boost not only the current projects for promoting carbohydrate 2.2 Roles chain studies but also glycoinformatics, a The carbohydrate chain has three chief roles. new field of study for accelerating functional First, the carbohydrate chain helps its binding analysis of the carbohydrate chain at the protein or lipid to obtain stability, adjust molecular level. solubility, control intracellular localization and avoid decomposition by enzymes. 2 Structural features and roles Second, the carbohydrate chain serves as an of the carbohydrate chain [1-4] antenna in intercellular signaling. For instance, the carbohydrate chain plays a crucial role in 2.1 Structural features intercellular recognition and cell adhesion. Also, Most proteins and lipids of eukaryotic cells viruses and bacteria recognize their targets have carbohydrate chains bound to themselves. of infection through carbohydrate chains of Protein and lipid with carbohydrate chains are the hosts. In addition, the carbohydrate chain called glycoprotein and glycolipid, respectively. relates to the initiation of cell differentiation. The carbohydrate chain structure has remarkable Furthermore, the carbohydrate chain is involved features different from nucleic acid and protein in development, morphogenesis and fertilization, structures. A nucleic acid or a protein has a and, moreover, in proliferation and metastasis of single binding pattern with a linear structure. cancer. Yet, most of these phenomena have not In contrast, a carbohydrate chain has a ramified been analyzed at the molecular level. structure because the monosaccharide Third, the carbohydrate chain helps in the

19 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

recognition of individuals. Although the basic Figure 2:Comparison of nationality of patent applicants in basic biotechnology structure of the carbohydrate chain is preserved in each species, its additional structure varies among individuals or sometimes among populations. For example, the ABO blood types are determined by the difference of carbohydrate chains. If we can analyze these carbohydrate chain functions at the molecular level, we can exploit the fruits of research in various fields such as the development of preventives against infections, control of infections and the immune system, application to cancer immunotherapy using Based on the analysis of patent applications filed all over the carbohydrate chains, solution to immunological world with their priority dates between 1991 and 2000.

rejection in (artificial) organ transplantation and Source: Partly compiled by the authors based on Reference[7] manipulation of development and differentiation. Figure 3: Percentage of the number of genes of glycosyltransferases cloned in each region 3 Current status of or country carbohydrate chain research

3.1 History of carbohydrate chain research[1-6] In the late 1980s, it was clarified that the human erythropoietin, a regulator of erythrocyte production that is synthesized by bacteria

through genetic engineering, is inactive because Source: Partly compiled by the authors based on information human-type carbohydrate chains are not bound provided by Dr. Hisashi Narimatsu of the Research Center for Glycoscience, the National Institute of to the erythropoietin produced by bacteria. Such Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. research made the carbohydrate chain regarded as the third biological chain next to nucleic acid clone these genes. As shown in Figure 3, 59% and protein. of the genes of glycosyltransferases have been Carbohydrate chain research is entering a new cloned by Japanese research groups. In addition, stage as cloning of the genes of carbohydrate-chain Japan’s advantage in carbohydrate chain research -related enzymes, i.e., enzymes for synthesizing, is supported by the high percentage of Japanese decomposing and modifying carbohydrate chains, researchers making presentations in the two has been successfully achieved one after another main international conferences related to the thanks to the development in the Human Genome carbohydrate chain held once every two years. Project and studies using these genes have Japanese researchers accounted for 24% of all become feasible. In other words, researchers presenters in the International Carbohydrate have come to promote studies for unveiling the Symposium held in Cairns, Australia, in 2002 roles of the carbohydrate chain. and 28% in the International Symposium Japan has greatly contributed to the progress on Glycoconjugates held in The Hague, the in carbohydrate chain research. Actually, the Netherlands, in 2001. number of patent applications from Japan in glycoengineering is far larger than that in other 3.2 Current works fields of basic biotechnology and Japan accounts Carbohydrate chain research currently has four for 55% of all applications in glycoengineering chief tasks as shown in Figure 4 and are tackled (Figure 2). Meanwhile, it is thought that there in the following projects. are at least 300 genes related to glycosylation The Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and and researchers in the world are striving to Industry launched in FY2002 the “Glycoengineering

20 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Figure 4:Research objectives in current projects

Source: Partly compiled by the authors based onReference[1]. project (Development of structural carbohydrate function and the development of analyzers such as chain analysis technology)” as a part of the the mass spectrometer and fluorescence-activated “Biotechnology foundation research program cell sorter (FACS), and so on. for health maintenance and improvement”. The ministry allocated about 1.1 billion yen for 4 Tasks in carbohydrate chain this project in the extra budget of FY2002 and research 900 million yen in the FY2003 budget. This project aims to invent systems and devices In carbohydrate chain research, we need for establishing novel structural carbohydrate detailed molecular studies to identify functioning chain analysis technology and the method for carbohydrate chains and to understand what characterizing the carbohydrate chain structure, substances the carbohydrate chains interact and for easily synthesizing standard samples with and how the information is transmitted. of carbohydrate chains for carbohydrate chain Although the current carbohydrate chain studies characterization and glycoproteins necessary for have been improving as research projects functional analysis. proceed, very little analysis at the molecular On the other hand, the Ministry of Education, level has been accomplished. If we do not have Culture, Sports, Science and Technology has knowledge at the molecular level, we cannot been advancing the “Support for promoting new effectively exploit carbohydrate chain functions. industry using carbohydrate chain functions” as Indeed, why is the functional analysis of the a part of the “R&D project for revitalizing the carbohydrate chain at the molecular level so economy (Leading project)” and allocated one hindered? Glycolipid and glycoprotein researches billion yen in the extra budget of FY2002. Also, have different hurdles. Yet, from a broader the Core Research for Evolutional Science and perspective, the difficulties in glycolipid studies Technology (CREST) of the Japan Science and coincide with those in glycoprotein studies. Technology Corporation (JST) set the research Therefore, we shall discuss the obstacles in area of “Clarification of carbohydrate chain glycoprotein studies in this chapter. structures and functions” and basic studies are promoted with research themes applied from the 4.1 Necessity of an effective database public from FY2002 to 2004. of structure Meanwhile, American and European researchers Researchers have been trying to clarify what have also come to work vigorously on the kind of carbohydrate chains a particular protein research themes shown in Figure 4 along with has by cutting out binding carbohydrate chains, an increasing interest in the carbohydrate chain isolating and purifying each carbohydrate

21 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

chain and characterizing its structure. In of the carbohydrate chain. characterization of the carbohydrate chain By the way, not every kind of carbohydrate structure, an automatic sequencer of the chain functions; in fact, only a few carbohydrate carbohydrate chain has not been invented yet, chains function. It is often difficult to identify enzymes cutting particular bindings need to be the carbohydrate chains that really function. collected and the researcher needs to acquire Candidates of functioning carbohydrate chains complicated skills. Accordingly, in many cases, sometimes cannot be selected from a group of few fruits can be obtained in spite of the labor carbohydrate chains that is complex and difficult and expenses. Several months are often required to handle. In addition, several carbohydrate to characterize the structure of one carbohydrate chains are sometimes related to one function, chain molecule. Since a glycoprotein usually has making it extremely difficult to identify the two to ten carbohydrate chains, it takes two to functioning carbohydrate chains. three years to characterize the structures of all If only the functioning carbohydrate chains carbohydrate chains of a glycoprotein. Data on can be identified, their mass production can about 50 carbohydrate chains of glycoproteins become feasible and we can search for proteins have been accumulated and part of them have by recognizing the information from them. been put into the database. Yet, the database Then, we can finally realize functional analysis lacks practicability because its scale is small and of the carbohydrate chain at the molecular level the search function for a carbohydrate chain with to understand how information is transmitted a particular structure is very limited. between carbohydrate chains and proteins.

4.2 Necessity of information on 4.4 Summary of the hurdles carbohydrate-chain binding positions in carbohydrate chain research Upon characterizing carbohydrate chain Structural characterization of each carbohydrate structures, carbohydrate chains bound to a chain requires time and labor. Thus, if we can glycoprotein are cut out, isolated and purified. identify functioning carbohydrate chains and At that time, unfortunately, we cannot obtain their binding positions in the protein prior to positional information as to which amino acid structural analysis, we can later conduct isolation, of the protein each carbohydrate chain has purification and structural characterization been bound to, and, therefore, such data have of carbohydrate chains that are not directly been barely accumulated. For example, there involved in functioning, thereby saving time and are reports that the correct functioning of cost. In this way, we can efficiently characterize erythropoietin (a glycopeptide hormone) and the structures and functions of carbohydrate chains protein involved in immune deficiency syndrome and, thereby, develop this field of study. depends on whether proper carbohydrate chains are bound to specific amino acids. The positional 5 Necessity of research information as to where carbohydrate chains in glycoinformatics are bound is absolutely necessary in molecular – A way to overcome the hurdles studies on the carbohydrate chain function. in carbohydrate chain research

4.3 Necessity to identify functioning If we can clear the obstacles as described carbohydrate chains in Chapter 4, that is, if we can establish the In biological phenomena, the carbohydrate methodology for identifying carbohydrate chain chain functions not only by itself but through binding positions and functioning carbohydrate cooperation with other proteins recognizing chains, molecular analysis of carbohydrate chain the information of the carbohydrate chain. functions will advance and carbohydrate chain Therefore, in functional carbohydrate chain research will be boosted. For this purpose, we analysis, we need to unveil the mechanism as to need to approach glycoinformatics, a new field of how the receptor molecule reads the information study.

22 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Now we have two tasks: 1. Determining what 5.1 Concept of glycoinformatics kind of structural information to accumulate; 2. Glycoinformatics aims to promote structural Considering and developing a way to put data and functional carbohydrate chain research and into the database and search for information from its applied studies by obtaining, accumulating and the database, and studying how to operate the exploiting data on both structures and functions database. of carbohydrate chains. The basic technology In the first task, the conventional method to of bioinformatics can be applied to this field of characterize each carbohydrate chain structure study. requires much time and money as described Bioinformatics is defined as research, above, so it is impractical to collect data on development and application of computer tools carbohydrate chain structures themselves. Thus, and approaches for obtaining, accumulating, we need to scrutinize as to what we should use systematizing and analyzing data on biology, as information substituting for the carbohydrate medicine, ethology and health, making their chain structure that can be obtained speedily database and developing the data including their with small quantities of samples. visualization.[8] Today, bioinformatics mainly For instance, we may use mass spectrometric deals with DNA and protein, and researchers are data of glycoproteins. We can obtain information compiling databases and developing forecasting on the carbohydrate chain binding position in the programs. Bioinformatics is advancing other protein, molecular weight of the carbohydrate fields of life science as well. chain and component monosaccharide sequences Although the term glycoinformatics has not by using the matrix-assisted laser desorption yet become popular, some researchers are ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass endeavoring to establish databases to bolster up spectrometer*1, which is thought to be useful glycoinformatics. This move can be seen not only in glycoprotein analysis. However, isomers of in Japan. As we see the resumes of meetings monosaccharides cannot be distinguished by of societies concerning mass spectroscopy, the mass spectrometer, so we need additional we can surmise that the research group led information to recognize them. For example, by H. Freeze of The Burnham Institute, for we may use several proteins that distinguish example, has begun studies with an eye to the isomeric structures of carbohydrate chains and compilation of a new database of carbohydrate bind to them at different strength depending chains. on their structures. Lectin*2, antibodies against carbohydrate chains and enzymes synthesizing or 5.2 Technical tasks in developing cutting carbohydrate chains are examples of such glycoinformatics proteins. We can distinguish between isomers by We need to establish the methodology for comparing the affinity between each protein and identifying carbohydrate-chain binding positions carbohydrate chain. and functioning carbohydrate chains and On the other hand, the problem in accomplishing compile a database of carbohydrate chains in the second task above is not the technical issues order to overcome the hurdles in carbohydrate but is the fact that it has not been dealt with chain research. It is necessary to compile a until now. This task needs to be tackled in database with which the glycome (i.e., the total cooperation with information scientists. of carbohydrate chains of the cell and individual) can be analyzed and compared between cells 5.3 Benefit of glycoinformatics or individuals. Although a database including When glycoinformatics has proceeded and detailed carbohydrate chain structures would be a basic database has become solid, structural useful, its compilation will require much time due and functional information on carbohydrate to the difficulty in structural carbohydrate chain chains can be applied to the full extent. Then, analysis. Therefore, it is our technical task to functional carbohydrate chain analysis at the determine what kind of information to collect. molecular level will progress and existent

23 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Figure 5:Glycoinformatics and its roles

research projects as shown in Figure 4 will be functions of carbohydrate chains can be searched boosted further. and used. As a consequence, it will become possible to To achieve this objective, researchers of not develop (preventive) drugs against infections, only glycoscience but also other fields must control infections and the immune system, improve attack the problems together and seek effective cancer immunotherapy using carbohydrate chains, measures. We need to draw up an intensive overcome immunological rejection in (artificial) project plan preferably for five to eight years with organ transplantation, manipulate development and 40 to 50 researchers participating. differentiation and develop artificial receptors of carbohydrate chains. Also, if it becomes possible (2) Second phase: continuous operation to accumulate information on glycomes, or the Data are accumulated in the database, total of carbohydrate chains, of individuals and controlled and utilized in this phase. As the trace them temporally, a new type of individual DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ) accumulates health screening will be realized. Carbohydrate and controls the data on DNA sequences, we chains change dynamically in the progress of need to consider establishing and administering cancer, aging, development and differentiation. a database management organization that Accordingly, by temporally tracing the glycome data accumulates and controls the data on the of individuals, we can realize a new monitoring structural and functional information on method for detecting cancers, clarifying metastasis carbohydrate chains. of cancer or estimating the progress of aging. 6 Conclusion 5.4 Projects for developing glycoinformatics We can divide the process for the practical As the post-genome era has opened, carbohydrate foundation and development of glycoinformatics chain research is entering a new stage toward into two phases as follows. functional analysis at the molecular level. In such a situation, we need to promote glycoinformatics, a (1) First phase: establishing the methodology new field of study. Glycoinformatics will accelerate In this phase, we modify the mass spectrometer functional carbohydrate chain analysis at the for obtaining structural information of the molecular level. carbohydrate chain and determine what kind The important thing is to handle not just a part of data to collect and how to accumulate them of carbohydrate chains but carbohydrate chains in the database. The final goal is to establish as a whole, i.e., glycome of the cell and individual. a database where data on both structures and We need to obtain comprehensive data rather

24 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 than only detailed data. Informatics and the Technology Trends – Quarterly Review No. database with which such data can be compared 4., December 2002. and studied will help molecular analysis. [2] “Carbohydrate chain: mystery of life beyond In carbohydrate chain research, Japan has genomic information.” Memoir of the 16th high potential and has been a front-runner in symposium of “University Science,” Kuba the world. In order to make good use of such Pro., 2003. (in Japanese) potential, we must promote glycoinformatics to [3] “Functions of Glyco-chains: As the Third boost carbohydrate chain research even further. Chain Molecule Next to Nucleic Acid and Protein,” Protein, Nucleic Acid and Enzyme Glossary (extra number), 2003. (in Japanese) *1 Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization [4] “Essentials of Glycobiology,” edited by Varki, time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometer A. et al., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory This ionization method was invented by Press, 1999. Koichi Tanaka of Shimazu Corporation and [5] “Feature article: How does the carbohydrate enabled mass spectroscopy of biological chain determine the biological function?,” polymers. Development of this technology edited by Tsuji, S., Cell Technology, Vol. 15, contributed to Tanaka’s winning of the No. 6, 1996. (in Japanese) Nobel Prize in chemistry in 2002. [6] “Handbook of Glycosyltransferases and *2 Lectin Related Genes,” edited by Taniguchi, N. et Herman Stillmark discovered this protein in al., Springer-Verlag, Tokyo, 2002. 1888 from the fact that extract from castor [7] “Trends of Industrial Property Right beans serve as agglutinin of erythrocytes Applications and Registrations in Life of various animals. Lectin is the total of Science,” Technological Trend Research proteins that recognizes specific structures Section, Technology Research Division, of carbohydrate chains. General Affairs Department, Japan Patent Office, April 24, 2003. (in Japanese) References [8] “Bioinformatics,” edited by Sugawara, [1] “Sugar chains as the Third Biomolecule, H., Kyoritsu Shuppan Co., Ltd., 2002. (in and Post-genome Researches,” Science & Japanese)

(Original Japanese version: published in September 2003)

25 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS 3 Towards Human-Centered Ubiquitous Computing – Using a Paradigm Change as a Chance to Strengthen International Technological Competitiveness–

MASAO WATARI Information and Communications Research Unit

a transition “from enable technologies for 1 Introduction specialists to usable technologies for everyone” and “from computer-/network-centered to The word “ubiquitous” has come to be often human-centered,” and this is what is about heard these days. “Ubiquitous” is derived from to begin now. One of major technologies the Latin word that means “existing everywhere.” toward realization of this world is “Ubiquitous It is said that a ubiquitous information society computing”. in which computers and terminals can be Ubiquitous computing is a technology that connected to a network from anywhere will intends to provide information services “for become a reality, bringing people convenient individuals anytime anywhere, according to the and enriched lives. The evolution of computers situation” through computers and networks existing from large-scale models to smaller ones and everywhere around people. This article describes eventually to personal computers has made it the current status of ubiquitous computing commonplace that a single person uses multiple technology and the challenges it faces. Since computers. Networks have also made progress ubiquitous computing involves highly potential driven by mobile broadband technologies almost technological fields to Japan, such as mobile to the point where communications are enabled technology and home information appliances, and anywhere. Only constructing networks and requires technologies that are not direct extensions installing computers everywhere, however, are of technologies in which European nations and not enough to provide users easy access to the the U.S. maintain strong positions, such as the necessary information whenever and wherever Internet and techniques to enhance computer you need to get it. A mechanism and technology performance, it presents an excellent opportunity to exploit the potential of networks and for Japan to improve its international technological computers are essential in order to let them make competitiveness. To gain actual competitive good use. strength through this opportunity, research and As the diffusion of PCs has reached a level development in a spiral model in which basic of saturation, the industry, which has been research leads to experimental and applied studies, enjoying rapid growth, is approaching a where next challenges are discovered to be turning point. In addition, while networks addressed to the basic research stage, must be have been growing in terms of speed and conducted with a fast pace. Hurdles involved in capacity, the demand for communications has this process are described below. not indicated an increase as great as expected. Information and communications technology 2 The vision of ubiquitous (IT) is in a transition now. Even when people computing are surrounded by a variety of devices, these devices have not penetrated into their lives as The word “ubiquitous computing” was first technologies with true utility. IT must undergo advocated by Mark Weiser at the Xerox Palo Alto

26 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Research Center in 1991[1]. He did not intend and processors exist in everyday life environment for a superficial computing system in which so that sensed information and identified “computers are everywhere” but “an environment locations are used to track people’s activities and where computing capability is embedded in assist them in whatever they are doing. In the various instruments and components of offices future world, for example, computers will be and homes to allow people to use it without able to sense your preferences to let you watch even thinking about it.” Ubiquitous computing your favorite TV programs wherever you are, is beyond carrying a notebook PC and having and you will be able to use a terminal, whether access to information via a wireless LAN. What you are at home, in the office or any other place, he proposed was research on a human-centered just like your own PC, which can remind you computer system in which people can use about something you have forgotten. There will computers without being aware of them, rather also be assistance systems readily available that than a computing environment where individuals support for everyone including the elderly and have to struggle to learn how to use computers. people with disabilities to access easily transport In ubiquitous computing, numerous sensors facilities or public institutions. The goal of

Table 1:Examples of ubiquitous computing research projects

Project Research body Time period Description

Home automation experiments. Systems for air Sakamura &, Intelligent conditioning, security alarming, lighting and AV TRON Intelligent House 1988–1990 house research group equipment are interconnected and operate in a coordinated fashion. Studied as part of a research project on Position Detection System Oki Electric Industry, 1988 an intelligent building but stopped short of by Personal Card Takenaka Corp. commercialization. Tracks user activities and controls/manages devices Easy Living Microsoft 1999– in the room. Keeps logs of users’ daily activities and displays GIT (Georgia Institute of Aware Home 1999 the degree of activity (for activity assistance to the Technology) elderly). A handheld device (Handy 21), An invisible MIT Laboratory for Oxygen 1999– computer (Enviro 21), and An environment-aware Computer Science network architecture (Network 21). Built a prototype sensor device of a 5mm square (30¢) consisting of a computer, a sensor and Univ. of California, Smart Dust 1999– communications capability, based on MEMS Berkeley, and Intel technology. Demonstrated 800 sensors using multi-hop routing. Built an experimental system for Smart Space. Prototype systems for location/situation recognition, Smart Space Keio Univ. 1999– roaming service, personal message boards, automatic library access control, etc. Built a 150m2 experimental system. Prototyped a location sensor (Dolphin), a mobile STONE ROOM Univ. of Tokyo 1999– terminal with a laser pointer (Smart Tact), and a pilot communications device of a 10cm cube (U-cube). National Institute of Prototyped a compact battery-less information CoBIT Advanced Industrial 2001– terminal (CoBIT) consisting of a solar cell, an Science and Technology earphone and a reflective sheet. Situation recognition with sensors attached to objects in living environments. Smart-its Tag Univ. of Karlsrule 2001– Capability of actions such as generation of an audible alarm when the distance between two tags exceeds 3m. A large-scale experimental system to provide AT&T Laboratories Sentient Computing 2001– location-based services to individuals in the office Cambridge (UK) with handheld devices (Bats).

27 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS ubiquitous computing technology is to provide Figure 1:Technologies of Ubiquitous Computing “services to individuals anytime anywhere, according to the situation.” Information and communications technology, which has been making remarkable progress, is now reaching a point where technology-oriented perspectives will be replaced by the pursuit of technologies that are friendly to users and can support user activities in the background. So far studies on office automation, home automation, user interfaces and so forth have challenges of the technologies in each layer are been underway in order to support human discussed below. A report published in June 2002 activities as described above. However, in the by the study group on the future outlook for early days, such a system requires large-scale ubiquitous network technology in the Ministry computers and a heavily wired network, of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and rendering a huge unrealistic system. Recently, the Telecommunications (MPHPT) outlines the emergence of smaller computers and network future of ubiquitous computing as follows. By equipment has made human support technologies 2005, information adapted for the user situation easier to employ and such technological advance such as the time and place will be accessed or has allowed attention to be paid again to studies transmitted through specific network services. on ubiquitous computing as a research field The services will be made accessible to people directed toward an ideal system to support with disabilities and the elderly via customized human activities. As Table 1, in particular many terminals. By 2010, information selected for each studies were launched in around 1999 funded user based on the user’s activity log will become by the Defense Advanced Research Projects available and transmissible via a personalized Agency (DARPA), stimulated from the challenge terminal over any network. The present state of papers[2] proposing ubiquitous computing in the these technologies and the future challenges in U.S. scientific societies in around 1998, stemming researches on them are described below. from researches on the next-generation Internet and the next-generation mobile technologies. 3.1 Sensors, terminals, and user interfaces The concept of human-centered computing For ubiquitous computing, which starts with described above is referred to as ubiquitous gathering information in the real world, different computing in Japan, while in Europe and the types of sensors and terminals are being studied. U.S. the same concept is sometimes known as User interfaces to exchange information with “pervasive computing” or “invisible computing” users also need to be devised to accommodate from the perspective of computers operating diverse practical situations. in the background, and also as “proactive computing” or “sentient computing” in terms of (1) Sensors empowering users’ ability. The device that sensors real-world situations must have three functions in compact form: 3 The current status and sensing (sensing the situation), computing challenges of ubiquitous (information processing), and communications computing technology (communications with the network). In the Smart Dust project[3] of the University To implement ubiquitous computing, of California at Berkeley (UCB), MEMS (Micro technologies in different categories, namely, the Electrical Mechanical Systems) technology terminal/device layer, the network layer, the has been employed to create a sensor device application layer, and the security layer as shown of a 5mm square that contains the sensing, in Figure 1, are needed. The current status and computing, and communications functions.

28 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

A lot of these devices have been placed in a technology is quickly finding wide application target space in order to gather environmental in areas such as distribution management. In information. To conduct an ecological survey addition, when linked with a guidance system, on birds’ habitats on the Great Duck Island, the RFID can assist individuals in their daily lives. For Smart Dust sensors were left in nests of storm example, an RFID tag attached to an airline ticket petrels to remotely monitor nest temperature, could guide the ticket holder from the check-in humidity, etc., in real time. counter to the gate in an airport equipped with Keio University, the National Institute of navigation displays having built-in RFID readers. Advanced Industrial Science and Technology Similar user assistance systems that are friendly and others have been developing in the SELF even to the elderly could be built into transport (Sensorized Environment for LiFe) project[4] and other public facilities. In the future, we a system that consists of a number of sensors will see user-friendly systems based on RFID embedded in the living space to observe their technology. physiological conditions and activities to provide Meanwhile, sensor device researchers face assistance to them. If the sensors are connected challenges such as the development of long-life to a network, they detect blood pressure, sensors with power control capability that temperature, the pulse rate and so forth which operate only when requested, ultra-low power can be recorded for management of fundamental sensor devices, ultra-small computers, and health data. The researchers are seeking to apply super-micro chip technologies. this technology to remote assistance services for elderly people, specialized medical services (2) Terminals and user interfaces and emergency medical services in areas such The major candidate for the terminal used as medicine, nursing care and welfare. To give a for ubiquitous computing is the cellular phone, feeling of security and confidence to the people which has come into wide use. However, various who would receive such services, technology for forms of terminals may be used. One of them is the rigorous management of personal information the wearable terminal (the wearable computer). is certainly essential. Moreover, if the sensors R&D for this type of terminal is ongoing were installed in a wider range of public spaces aiming at a terminal “to wear” rather than “to and connected to the network, safety and carry.” While products such as head-mounted, security in public spaces could be improved wristwatch, and pocketable models have been through their applications for environment introduced, they have yet to find wide application monitoring, traffic monitoring and control, and besides some particular applications. crime prevention. Further development in this The terminals are expected to offer ease of research field is much awaited. use (usability) and a user interface fitted for the Studies on sensor devices have been usage. A computer typically interfaces with users actively conducted in Japan as well. Recently via the display and the keyboard. Even a terminal commercialization of a radio frequency that does not have such user interfaces can be a identification (RFID) tag without a battery user-friendly terminal as long as it is supported (see the article in the nineth issue for details), by an adequate information system (ubiquitous which is the simplest form of sensors, was computing environment). For instance, the demonstrated. The RFID tag contains an IC National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science chip and an antenna and responds to external and Technology has developed some prototype radio-wave signals. Its processing capacity, ultra-small mobile devices that combine simple though not comparing to that of a computer, is user interface components including a button enough to read and write simple information such called a MyButton[5], audio input/output, and as product identification codes. The captured optical communications. The Institute is now information is transferred to the network through working on the application of the devices for a a reader/writer to help identify the location and guidance system for railway stations and airports. the condition of the object it is attached to. The They have designed a pocketable model as well

29 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

as an earphone type (Figure 2) that is intended Figure 2: An earphone-type CoBIT, a compact battery-less information terminal primarily for audio communications. In another project, AT&T Laboratories Cambridge has built a prototype of a small mobile device called a Bat[6] (Figure 3), which has two buttons, two LEDs and a beeper for input and output. This project indicates that even a system with a simplified interface can be useful in supporting office operations such as schedule notification and Source: National Institute of Advanced call forwarding to personnel wherever they are. Industrial Science and Technology These researches suggest that, depending on the Figure 3: A Bat, a compact handheld terminal consisting situation, terminals do not always need a display of 2 buttons, 2 LEDs and a beeper and a keyboard for the user interface. What Japan is waiting to see as a world-leading nation in mobile communications and home information appliances technology are advances in the research on user interfaces that are derived from innovative ideas generated by thinking outside of the traditional computer box. Source: IEEE Computer, Aug. 2001 So-called “smart furniture,” a concept of embedding computers invisibly in furniture words, person-to-object and object-to-object and building components, is another research communications are to be performed in addition subject in this field [7]. Researchers seek to to traditional person-to-person communications. allow computer functions, which are not in the The number of such objects may far exceed the traditional form of the computer, to be used as number of persons. A compatible technology with part of everyday life without making people the Internet that can provide communications aware of them. They have prototyped a lighting between a person and many objects is IPv6, fixture that is on while someone is present and which allows for a large address space. However, a chair that automatically turns on the TV when communications protocols designed for the someone sits on it. Collaborative research efforts Internet require relatively large processing with designers are critical in this area. power, which would be an overload for a miniature device like a sensor. Therefore, lighter 3.2 Network technology communications processing methods need to Important and necessary technologies in the be developed for networks to connect sensors. Network field for ubiquitous computing are Where no communication beyond the local communications method for sensor information range is needed, which is often the case, a sensor (sensor networking), information services that network does not have to be a global network can follow changes in the user situation (seamless such as the Internet. Smaller and lighter operating services), and the optimal network structure systems to run on sensor devices are also including the internet and new sensor networks demanded. (network architectures). Researches in these In an environment where a multitude of fields are ongoing as described below. sensors with wireless communication capability exist, an ad hoc network is often deployed to (1) Sensor networking link them. In an ad hoc network, information Communications in ubiquitous computing to be communicated is relayed from device to involve not only person-to-person communications device until it reaches the destination, forming a through PCs and mobile terminals but network at this session only. This technique has also interactions with devices (objects) the advantage of being adjustable to variations that contain embedded sensors. In other in the location and the number of sensors. A

30 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 challenge for the ad hoc network, a technology is no need for the sensors around user spaces to that has been developed for military purposes be given equal access to anywhere in the world in the U.S., is to reduce the communications as would be given on the Internet. Moreover, processing requirements to enable applications to from the viewpoint of personal information smaller sensors. Other popular research themes management, a network is required to hold in this field are communications routing control personal information within the local network and high-efficiency communications systems. and to prevent such information from being released to the global network. (2) Seamless services and roaming service Networks have been developed in order to In ubiquitous computing, it is desirable that access to every kind of content throughout the same service be provided over dissimilar the world. They, however, can access only to networks. A video conferencing system, for computers and mobile terminals connected to example, should be available on your desktop the Internet. The architecture of overall networks PC and also on your cellular phone without poses a major challenge in terms of what kind of interruption of service while you are switching network should be used to access information from one terminal to another. The goal here is close to us, or information within the so-called to implement the video conferencing system on “first 10m,” and how to connect the local network any terminal, whether through a fixed line or to the global network. wireless communications, which is a concept As the Internet has begun to handle more being studied under the name of roaming service diverse content and networks have been (enabling services to move across heterogeneous given greater functionality such as video networks) or seamless services (services without streams that must be transmitted in real time interruption). In the STONE Room project[8] at and content management to protect security the University of Tokyo in collaboration with the and privacy, a fear that may become a reality Smart Space Lab project[9] of Keio University, the is that requirements for the Internet, could research on roaming service has been conducted go beyond the current capacity of Internet as field testing to transfer moving picture technology. In the U.S., research on new network services from a cellular phone to projection architectures has begun with an eye beyond equipment in the room. For seamless services, the Internet limitations. In these activities, whose commercialization is anticipated by users, however, few researchers have paid attention there are a number of difficult hurdles that to ubiquitous computing. In Japan, network must be crossed before they become practical, architectures have been studied in relation to partly because of the technologies of network mobile communications and home networking architectures and the business models of network of information appliances. These activities services. The first step forward would be the should broaden their horizons and address the development of technically-efficient systems such architecture of overall networks including those as systems to detect available services and to for ubiquitous computing. transfer services across heterogeneous networks. In such research activities on network architectures, for which proposals of new (3) Network architectures architectures in the basic research phase To implement ubiquitous computing over and the construction of pilot networks in the networks, the current network architecture needs experimental phase are essential, efforts in both to be redesigned. The Internet, the mainstream the basic and the application stages are equally network of today, has been designed based on a important for progress. system to enable “equal communications between end user sites,” a design principle dating back 3.3 System technology to the 1970s. In ubiquitous computing, on the In the application of ubiquitous computing, other hand, the focus is on facilitating smooth technologies for position detection, situation communications around user spaces, where there recognition, personalization and dynamically

31 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS adaptable software are used to construct systems. not only from straightforward information but also from interactions with multiple sensors (1) Position detection and situation and multiple users. As systems are expected to recognition technologies coordinate to multiple-user environments and By capturing the location and the status of make decisions with reference to ambiguous users, a variety of services could be provided conditions, researchers need to tackle in the in accordance with the situation. A number future would be techniques for interaction of position detection techniques have been analysis, mediation/consensus building and under investigation, including GPS-based cooperative problem solving. systems, locating with sensors that can detect For the objective of building up and disseminating RFID tags carried by users, and a system that ubiquitous computing software, the development identifies the location by analyzing images of middleware for common use and application captured by cameras. In the Sentient Computing program interfaces (APIs) is crucial. Since Project by AT&T Laboratories Cambridge[6], for standardization competition is highly likely in this example, each user carries a Bat, a compact domain, future movements toward this direction handheld device that helps track the user should be carefully monitored. through interactions with ultrasonic sensors installed across the building. The user’s location 3.4 Other essential technologies information and schedule are used to determine In ubiquitous computing, personal information what the person is doing (on the road, attending is collected to provide assistance to users. To a meeting, on the phone, etc.) in real time. The give the users a sense of security, protecting system can automatically forward incoming the collected information and preventing it calls to the person’s extension number to the from unauthorized use, or security and privacy telephone nearest to his/her current location protection technology, to be more specific, are unless the person is in an important meeting. essential. In managing personal information, The office service system built for the project administration rules (the privacy policy) that is now in pilot operation with 50 participants. must be followed need to be set according to There is another ongoing project, EasyLiving[10] the nature of the target information. Elements by Microsoft, which seeks to predict the location that should be taken into account during the and the situation of users through the analysis of development of a privacy policy are said to be images taken by cameras. announcement of collecting personal data, choice and consent about the usage of data, anonymity, (2) Personalization technology localization of the usage of data, and adequate Personalization technology helps systems security management for personal data[11]. In predict user preferences and customizes them addition, as there may be cases where password to individual users. Institutes such as MIT (the protection is not applicable such as when services Context-Aware Computing project), the NTT are provided for passers-by, how to conduct Software Research Laboratory and NEC have authentication and security management in such developed techniques to record and analyze cases also poses a challenge. users’ Web access logs to generate their profiles, Another possible requirement for ubiquitous which are used to suggest the next page they computing systems is the capability of cutting off would open while they are browsing the Web and connections with global networks. Also returning to pick up the specific information they desire. individuals’ medical information to the patients Research themes in the field of system as soon as they recover completely and removing technology were used to address part of the it from the medical facilities would be desired in research on artificial intelligence and have led order to prevent their sensitive data from being to commercialization of some systems to deal diverted for other purposes. In addition, needed with simple situations. In practical applications, is technology to ensure that the information however, the user situation should be determined temporarily released to a third party has been

32 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 deleted. As mentioned above, enhancement of hardware-based infrastructures such as the such privacy management techniques should be construction of broadband and mobile networks. sought. Since management of security and privacy However, studying software and applications is is a race against abusers, it is essential to be aware indispensable for the research into ubiquitous of the need to deploy up-to-date security/privacy computing. Although investments in research on protection techniques. software and applications have been gradually increasing since 2002 as shown in Table 3, they 4 Status of the projects should achieve further growth in the future. in Japan and other countries By contrast, in the U.S., spurred by the 1999 proposal of the research strategy on Proactive In Japan, many of the national projects, led Computing by the Defense Advanced Research mainly by the Ministry of Public Management, Projects Agency (DARPA), ubiquitous computing Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommunications has become a major research subject. To be (MPHPT) and the Ministry of Economy, Trade more specific, studies on sensor devices and and Industry (METI), have focused on building ubiquitous computing spaces (Smart Spaces)

Table 2:Technological challenges to Ubiquitous computing

Technology layer Technological challenge Low-power/long-life sensors Ultra-small computers, Super-micro chips Sensors, Terminals, User interfaces Various kinds of mobile terminals, Smart building components User-adaptable interfaces Light processing for communications, Light operating systems Sensor networks, Ad-hoc networks Network technology Seamless services, Roaming service Technology to find the communications destination (naming technology) New network architecture Position detection technology System technology Situation recognition technology, Personalization technology Dynamically adaptable software technology Security technology, Privacy protection technology Information access control technology Essential technology Network disconnection technology Reliability technology, Fault-tolerant technology

Table 3:Major national projects concerning ubiquitous computing in Japan

Leading body Time period Program name Project themes • Super-micro chip networking technologies Ministry of Public • Control/management technologies for ubiquitous Management, R&D in the information 2003– networks Home Affairs, Posts and and communications field • Authentication/agent technologies for ubiquitous Telecommunications networks Part of the R&D on Super Internet Platform Telecommunications 2000– Innovative Network Project technologies Advancement s(construction of ubiquitous applications) Organization of Japan R&D to extend research R&D on human-centric ubiquitous network 2002– achievements infrastructures The Program for Ministry of Economy, Upgrading the Advanced network: service systems and platforms 2002– Trade and Industry Telecommunications in ubiquitous environments Foundation New Energy and Industrial Industrial Technology Basic ad-hoc networking software for embedded Technology Development 2002– Research Grant Program devices to realize a safe ubiquitous society Organization Ministry of Education, Special coordination funds Research on basic technologies for distributed Culture, Sports, Science 2000 for promoting science and real-time networks for human assistance and Technology technology

33 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Table 4:Major national projects concerning ubiquitous computing in Europe and the U.S.

Region Leading body Time period Project 1999– SenseIT,MEMS DARPA 2000– Smart Spaces U.S. 2001– Scalable information infrastructure for pervasive computing and access NSF 2002– Sensors and Sensor Networks 2003– Ubiquitous/Pervasive computing, Distributed sensor networks Disappearing Computer Initiative • Global Smart Space • Designing Interactive, Intergenerational Interfaces for Living Together EU Information Society • Multiple Intimate Media Environments Europe Technology (IST) 2001– • Dynamic Information Controls in a Hybrid World Research Program • Smart Its • Situating Hybrid Assemblies in Public Environments ETC have been launched. In January 2002, with a ubiquitous computing that can provide adequate view to strengthening measures against terrorism, assistance as well as usability for users. The the Information Awareness Office (IAO) technological challenges in implementing was established, which since then has been ubiquitous computing mentioned in Chapter 3 integrating and enhancing existing technological include many technologies that would not be development programs concerning information achieved through the conventional pursuit of detection and management. The IAO has higher speed and performance. While the U.S. been pressing ahead with the development assumes a dominant and leading position in of technologies for activity tracking, situation the area of Internet and software technologies, recognition and privacy protection. The Japan now has a chance to win the leadership National Science Foundation (NSF) has also been in ubiquitous computing with its technological contributing by funding research projects on edge in mobile devices and intelligent home Pervasive Computing and Sensor Network in appliances. 2001. The overwhelming presence of the U.S. in In Europe, the Disappearing Computer Internet technology can be attributed to a solid Initiative was launched in January 2001 to pursue link between basic and applied researches ubiquitous computing studies through the enabled through business-academia collaboration. Information Society Technologies (IST) Research The Internet originates in the research network Program, which is funded by the EU. Projects in for universities created by DARPA, and then this initiative will last for two to three years, with evolved as the ideas generated through basic a total of 300 researchers annually participating researches were verified on pilot networks. from 37 research institutes across 13 countries. Similarly, the use of Web browsers started within About 50% of the projects’ funds will be provided research communities before they came into by the EU. widespread use. Although Japanese researchers tend to consider that field testing is synonymous 5 Future challenges with applied research and thus is the issue to be addressed by industry, such empirical studies In a time when communications “anytime allow them to discover future research challenges anywhere” are enabled thanks to the advances in each component technology and play a key in broadband and mobile technologies, one role of feeding such issues back to the basic may expect a ubiquitous information society research stage. In some IT segments including is just around the corner. However, ubiquitous ubiquitous computing, where concepts in basic computing cannot be realized simply by placing a researches must be tested on relatively large-scale large number of computers around people’s living systems without delay to keep up with fast-paced environments and connecting them to a network. technological advances, close cooperation We have a long road to travel to implement between industry and academia is indispensable.

34 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Figure 4: The number of papers presented by Universities/Public institutes and Private corporations in the General Conference of IEICE

Note: “Universities/public” represents universities and public research institutes, and “Joint” represents joint presentations by universities/public bodies and private corporations.

In Japan, industry-academia cooperation is still a relatively new concept and immature. The 6 Conclusion recent IT slump has weakened IT businesses’ research strength. On the other hand, universities Research on the realization of ubiquitous have acquired greater amounts of research funds computing is aiming at shifting computers mainly as a result of the Science and Technology and networks from “machine-centered” to Basic Plan. To investigate the recent status of “human-centered.” This translates into creating industry-academia joint research activities, computers that are safe and easy to operate from the number of papers presented in the general the users’ point of view. There are many technical conference of a major academic society in hurdles that must be overcome before reaching communications and systems/information, the this goal because it requires technologies for fields that are the basis of ubiquitous computing miniaturization, situation recognition and so technologies, was counted. As shown in Figure 4, forth, which will not be achieved through since the latter half of the 1990s, the percentage conventional approaches for advancing of papers presented by authors from universities performance of computers and networks. While and public research institutes has been on the the U.S. assumes a dominant and leading position rise while the percentage of those by researchers in the area of Internet and software technologies, of private corporations has been declining. Japan now has a chance to win the leadership in The percentage of papers jointly presented by ubiquitous computing with its technological edge universities/public research institutes and private in mobile devices, intelligent home appliances corporations has shown a slight increase but and other areas, at a time when the IT sector is still remains low. While the business sector is reaching a turning point. withdrawing from the basic research domain Technological innovation in the IT sector affected by the IT slump, universities are still is ongoing at a dizzy speed. Research and concentrating on basic research activities far development in a spiral model in which basic away from the practical world. Despite the research leads to experimental and applied recent encouragement of industry-academia studies, where next challenges are discovered to collaboration, remarkable joint research results be addressed to the basic research stage, should have not been appeared. Government should take be conducted in a short cycle. In recent years, steps to facilitate more effective collaborative IT businesses’ research strength has weakened research activities between industry and because of the IT slump, while universities, academia. which are forming organizations to promote

35 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS industry-academia collaboration, have been K.S.J. Pister, “Smart Dust: Communicating engaged primarily in basic research activities far with a Cubic-Millimeter Computer,” IEEE away from the practical world. To move beyond Computer, Jan. 2001. the status quo, not only should both communities [4] Nobuyuki Yamasaki and Toshio Hori, jointly work on more specific research themes, “Processor for Distributed Real-Time the focus of government research funds should Network and Its Application,” IPSJ Magazine, also be shifted toward “basic researches that Vol. 44, No. 1 (Jan. 2003 in Japanese). could be extended to future applications.” [5] Hideyuki Nakashima, “Situated Human The goal for Japan is to lead the world in the Support with ‘My-Button’,” Journal of development of ubiquitous computing technology Japanese Society for Artificial Intelligence, by promoting and accelerating research and Vol. 16, No. 6 (Nov. 2001 in Japanese). development in a spiral model through joint [6] M. Addlesse, R. Curwen, S. Hodges, efforts of industry and academia. J. Newman, P. Steggles, A. Ward, and A. Hopper, “Implementing a Sentient Acknowledgements Computing System,” IEEE Computer, Aug. The author would like to thank the following 2001. people for providing their valuable opinions on [7] Soko Aoki, Masana Murase, Kenta ubiquitous computing research trends for the Matsumiya, Jin Nakazawa, Nobuhiko Nishio, preparation of this report: Assoc. Prof. Hiroyuki Kazunori Takashio, and Hideyuki Tokuda, Morikawa, University of Tokyo; Prof. Hideyuki “Smart Furniture: Improvising Ubiquitous Tokuda, Keio University; and Dr. Hideyuki Hot-spot Environment,” The Fourth Nakashima, Director of Cyber Assist Research Workshop of the Information Appliance Center of the National Institute of Advanced Computing SIG, Information Processing Industrial Science and Technology. Society of Japan (Nov. 2002). [8] Hiroyuki Morikawa, Masateru Minami, and References Tomonori Aoyama, “Towards Ubiquitous [1] M. Weiser, “The Computer for the 21st Networking,” IPSJ Magazine, Vol. 43, No. 6 Century,” Scientific American, Sept. 1991. (Jun. 2002 in Japanese). [2] For example, G. Banavar, J. Beck, E. [9] Hideyuki Tokuda, Jin Nakazawa, Masayuki Gluzberg, J. Munson, J. Sussman, and D. Iwai, Junichi Yura, and Masana Murase, Zukowski, “Challenges: An Application “Issues on Networking Technologies Model for Pervasive Computing,” ACM/IEEE merging Ubiquitous Spaces,” IPSJ Magazine, International Conference on Mobile Vol. 43, No. 6 (Jun. 2002 in Japanese). Computing and Networking (MobiCom [10] Easy Living, : http://research.microsoft.com/ 2000); D. Tennenhouse, DARPA ITO easyliving/ (Information Technology Office), “ProActive [11] Marc Langheinrich, “Privacy by Computing,” Luncheon Speech, MobiCom Design-principles of Privacy-Aware ‘99, Aug. 1999. Ubiquitous Systems,” Proc. UbiComp 2001, [3] B. Warneke, M. Last, B. Leibowits, and Oct. 2001.

(Original Japanese version: published in July 2003)

36 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 4 Research and Development Trends in Robot Technology –Toward Promoting the Commercialization of Personal Robots–

HIROSHI KOMATSU Information and Communications Research Unit

of memorizing the contours of human faces, 1 Introduction identifying and recognizing up to about ten persons, and reporting emergencies. 1.1 The birth year of Astro Boy In 2003, a variety of events were held across 1.2 Hopes and concerns about robot Japan to celebrate Astro Boy’s birthday, which technology falls on April 7th in the famous comics featuring Since the 1990s, Japan’s output of robots, the robot hero. Similar enthusiasm was seen in most of which are for manufacturing, has been “ROBODEX (Robot Dream Exposition)[1],” the hovering at approximately ¥500 billion[2]. The world’s largest-scale exhibition of partner robots. majority of them are industrial robots designed Showcasing about 80 models of human-friendly primarily for the automobile and electric robots, the four-day event attracted nearly 70,000 machinery industries, while very few have been visitors. Through its history of three shows, used in the non-manufacturing sectors. However, ROBODEX has seen steady growth year after year the appearance of AIBO [3] on the market in in the number of presenters, many of which are 1999 changed the traditional trends. The proven private corporations and universities (Figure 1). popularity of AIBO, a dog-shaped pet robot One of the demonstrations in ROBODEX capable of quadruped walking, called attention 2003 featured a humanoid biped walking robot to the personal robot market. As more businesses which, if it loses balance by external forces moved into the field, robots for home use now from different directions and falls, can execute a form a market that outputs ¥5 billion annually. break-fall to reduce the impact of the crash and Figure 2 shows a long-term forecast of then stand up without help. Another exhibitor the robot market made by the Japan Robot presented a robot that can serve as a home guard Association[4]. It predicts particular growth in during the owner’s absence with its capability the household sector, whose scale in value is

Figure 1:Trends in the number of presenters at the ROBODEX robot exhibition

Source: Author’s compilation based on the official website of ROBODEX[1].

37 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Figure 2:Forecast of the future robot market in value

Category Work Area Major Applications Homes, Household chores, security, pets, Household living entertainment, communication, spaces education, therapies Diagnosis, surgical assistance, rehabilitation, assistance in the Medical/Welfare Hospitals care and independent lives of the sick or elderly General public services, fire Public fighting/disaster prevention, Public facilities disaster relief, nuclear/space development Bio-related Pharmacy, auto-analysis Bio-related facilities technology, automatic synthesizers Industries such as automobile, electric machinery, steel, precision Manufacturing Factories machinery, optical equipment, and semiconductors

Source: Author’s compilation based on “Summary Report on Technology Strategy for Creating a ‘Robot Society’ in the 21st Century”[4]. forecasted to reach ¥1.5 trillion by 2010 and as industry, an area where Japan is generally much as ¥4.1 trillion by 2025. considered to have the overwhelming technical There is no doubt that Japan will face a competitive strength. Despite such a boom, fast-paced aging of the population and a sharp however, some, especially experts, are in doubt decline in birthrate earlier than any other nation about the future of Japan’s robot technology. in the world during this century. To be ready for In contrast to the general expectations on such a future society, the country is increasingly robots and the superficial sophistication of longing for domestic robots that can support, in robot technology, there is a sense of frustration particular, the health care and daily life of older particularly in the industry over robot technology, persons. In addition, as people in Japan, a country where no innovative technological advancement that used to be known as the safest in the world, has been made. become more and more concerned about security This article describes the trends in robot and safety of their daily life, the application of technology, focusing on personal robots that robots such as the one that allows the owner are intended for coexisting with humans, and to monitor the house during his/her absence is identifies challenges in this field. attracting attention. Another potential benefit of robots is to assist those who have limited access 2 What is a robot? to information as an advanced next-generation information terminal that can more easily 2.1 Basic elements interface with humans than keyboard-based A wide range of machines including toys systems. are called robots*1, and are being actively Some even expect robots to contribute to the produced today. This trend is even mentioned creation of new industries and have launched as a “Cambrian explosion” in connection with regional development projects in regions such as biological evolution. Since robots are currently Kinki, Gifu and Kyushu[5-7]. undergoing such diversification, there is no Given these recent developments in robotics, established definition of a “robot” as of now. you can safely say that Japan is now in the first Table 1 compares the basic elements of robots robot boom since the early 1980s, a period when discussed here and those of a human. What industrial robots became widely available in the the author refers to as a robot in this report is nation. It is therefore reasonable that Japan places machinery that contains at least a computer such great expectations on the future of the robotics as a CPU to process input information and a

38 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 mechanical actuator system for output*2. such as automated factories. On the other hand, Recent models of sophisticated computers the robots in the third-generation or later are are sometimes enabled to accept audio or image intended for use in unstructured environments. input. Robots are different from these computers This requires them to be able to understand and in that they produce mechanically-driven output. identify the surrounding environment including You may also regard a robot as a fusion of non-artificial objects before they can decide on traditional mechatronics, a computer as the brain actions to conduct. Speaking of generations, it is and sensors as input organs. common that the emergence of new-generation In Table 2, robots are divided into three systems eliminates the older systems. However, generations based on the presence of sensors the fact that technological development of that act as the input devices, their work the manipulator, a first-generation robot, is environments, and their information processing still ongoing[8] indicates that in robotics a new method employed to determine their movements generation does not necessarily expel earlier on the basis of the former two conditions. The generations. first-generation consists of robots that can repeat predefined actions, such as playback robots. The 2.2 Development History second-generation robots contain sensors so that Table 3 shows major events in past robotics they can adjust their own movements in accordance research and development. Robotics research with the input from the sensors within their given originates in the 1947 launch of the research on ranges. The robots in the third-generation or later manipulators for nuclear facilities in the U.S. The are capable of learning from work experience to project aimed at the creation of a master-slave reflect the results into the following actions or of manipulator on which the operator’s control recognizing environmental changes and defining of the master arm outside the wall guided the their next actions. The first- and second-generation mechanical hand of the slave arm existing in robots are designed to operate in 100% artificially the radiological environment on the other side arranged environments (structured environments) of the wall. In the U.S., following this initial

Table 1:Comparison of the basic elements of a human and a robot

Input Information Processing Output Five senses Kinematic system Human Brain, nerves Sight, touch, etc. Arms, legs, muscles, etc. Instructions, sensor information, etc. Actuating system Robot Computer Programs, vision, pressures, etc. Arms, mobile mechanism, actuators, etc.

Source: Author’s compilation based on the “Robot Handbook”[2].

Table 2:Robot generations on the basis of their decision making process

Operating Sensors Method to decide actions Type Examples environment Human operators supply Sequence control the sequence, position, or First generation robot, playback Spot welding, No other information through (playback) robot, numerically manipulator Automated instructions or numeric values controlled robot factories, and language. etc. Have sensors and use sensor Sensory Arc welding, Second generation input to adjust own actions controlled robot, wire bonder, (sensor-based) within a predefined range. adaptive robot SCARA robot Normal Accumulate and learn from Leaning Yes Pet, environment work experience to reflect controlled robot, Third generation vacuum cleaner, containing the results into next actions. intelligent robot, (learning/ intelligent) autonomous non-artificial Make decisions according to Distributed humanoid robot entities changes in the environment. multi-robot

Source: Author’s compilation based on Reference [9] and other material.

39 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS attempt, studies on controlling manipulators well as in various sensor technologies, followed through computers were conducted. By the latter by the launch of the research activities toward the half of the 1960s, the Massachusetts Institute intelligent third-generation robots in the 1980s. of Technology and others successfully invented One of the recent events that attracted attention robot hands and wheeled mobile robots, among was the 1996 presentation of the world’s first others, and further robotics development efforts humanoid robot capable of autonomous biped continued mainly for use in experiments to dynamic walking*3 named P2 by Honda Motor demonstrate theories on artificial intelligence. Co., Ltd. Compared to P2, standing 1.8m tall and In Japan, where computers had not yet weighing 210kg, ASIMO[11], one of the succeeding flourished as much as in the U.S. at the time, models, is significantly smaller and lighter at 1.2m in sequence control was utilized in engineering height and 43kg in weight. Primary contributors to research on mechanical fingers. In the area of the downsizing were lighter materials for the robot, industrial robots, Japan initiated the development smaller-sized, higher-performance motors used of its own models motivated by American robots, as the actuators, and the shrunk and lower-power which were patented and commercialized in the control system including the LSI circuits. Even with U.S. and imported to Japan in the latter half of such a compact body, however, ASIMO’s battery the 1960s. This later led to the advancement and lasts only about 30 minutes, highlighting the power spread of industrial robots in Japan. issue as a challenge not limited to ASIMO but also In the 1970s, further progress was made in the common across all kinds of mobile robots. research into the second-generation robots as

Table3 :History of robotics research and development

Decade Year Generation Major R&D activity Related issue 1940 47 Start of research on the manipulator (U.S.)

54 Grant of the first industrial robot patent (U.S.)*1 1950 Creation of the first prototype industrial robot 58 (U.S.)*2 First 61 Computer-controlled manipulator (U.S.) 62 Playback robot (U.S.)*3 Technical tie-up with Unimation 1960 (Kawasaki Heavy Industries) 67 Import of industrial robots from the U.S., 68 followed by widespread development activities in Japan 70 Visual computer control (Hitachi) 1970 73 WABOT-1 (Waseda Univ.; the first humanoid Second capable of biped static walking) 80 Dawn of the robot age (Proliferation of industrial robots in Japan)

1980 83 SCARA*4 robot Foundation of the Robotics Society of Japan 85 Public presentation of robots at the Tsukuba Expo P2 Third (a humanoid capable of autonomous biped 1990 96 dynamic walking from Honda) 99 Release of a pet robot AIBO (Sony) 01 Release of a home vacuum cleaning robot 2000 (iRobot, U.S.)

*1: The patent was filed by G.C. Devol of the U.S. *2: Consolidated Control Corporation of the U.S. *3: Unimation Inc. and AMF Corporation, both of the U.S. *4: SCARA stands for “Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm” (horizontally articulated).

Source: Author’s compilation based on Reference [10].

40 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

that are intended for security, communication, 3 What are personal robots? mental therapy, education, entertainment and so forth. While robots in these application 3.1 Robot classification by purpose, and fields, collectively called the household field, development examples of personal robots are often used by individuals in homes, some Figure 3 shows different types of robots classified find application in the medical/welfare field by purpose. Figure 4 is a two-dimensional chart and public facilities in the forms of electric of the application fields of robots categorized by wheelchairs, RT (Robot Technology) beds, and the two primary aspects: the control method and even RT houses and RT hospital rooms in which mobility. the entire facilities can operate like a robot. Personal robots are any type of robot that The traditional robots used for manufacturing can assist people in their daily life, including are enabled to perform preprogrammed tasks ones that are aimed at helping people live in structured environments such as automated independent lives by partially performing factories. By contrast, personal robots work household and cooking chores and nursing alongside humans and provide a variety of care such as rehabilitation therapies, and ones services as in interacting with humans.

Figure 3:Robots categorized by purpose

Source: Author’s compilation based on the handout of a meeting of the Council for Science and Technology Policy[12] and other material.

Figure 4: Major robotic capabilities and their application fields

41 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Table 4 shows the application fields of personal conventional industrial robots are typically in a robots along with examples and the development shape optimized for the assigned task. status in each category. On the other hand, personal robots are expected to work in the same space that humans 3.2 Technologies Essential to Personal Robots live in. This is where personal robots differ In the two aspects indicated in Figure 4, considerably from the conventional industrial functional requirements for personal robots robots, which are required by law*4 to operate are significantly different from those for in spaces completely separate from humans’ for conventional industrial robots. Although some the protection of industrial safety and health. industrial robots such as automatic transfer Personal robots need to move autonomously in systems are enabled to move through space, accordance with human movements. The need their actions occur only within the designated to operate in the human living space makes areas in a factory. The second-generation robots, it extremely difficult for robots to recognize which can autonomously adjust their actions their environment. Unlike automated factories, on the basis of input signals from sensors, are human living environments vary widely. This also categorized as robots for manufacturing. means a tremendous increase in the volume Since these robots are given relatively simple of information a robot must identify and make information and options when they make decisions from. Moreover, since appearance decisions on their next movement, programs is an important element of personal robots in input by operators are not complex. In this way, interactions with humans, some are designed to industrial robots are basically assigned a single resemble pets or humans. Based on these aspects, function and, therefore, far exceed humans in the functional requirements for personal robots terms of work processing speed, accuracy and so are summarized as follows. on, as far as that specific task is concerned. These

Table 4: Examples of personal robot development projects

Example Purpose Form of service Robot Developer Development status Hospital rooms (patient Univ. of Tokyo Graduate Nursing care RT hospital room Under development monitoring, etc.) School Meal assistance My Spoon SECOM On sale Assistance to the vision Robotic guide dog Yamanashi Univ. Under development impaired Nara Institute of Science Independent lives Electric wheelchair WATSON 2 Under development and Technology Gait training, Gait training machine Hitachi Under development rehabilitation Home health care Hopis SANYO To be released in ’05 National Institute of Therapy Animal therapy Paro Advanced Industrial Developed Science and Technology Housework Vacuum cleaning Roomba iRobot (U.S.) On sale Security Guarding BANRYU tmsuk On sale Mitsubishi Heavy Communication Wakamaru To be released in ’04 Human interface Industries Information interfacing PaPeRo NEC On sale Pet companion robot AIBO Sony On sale Entertainment Reception, guiding and ASIMO Honda Available for lease other services

42 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Table 5:Commercialization status of home vacuum cleaning robots

Size Weight Robot name Developer Status Price Features (cm) (kg) Approx. $200 iRobot (available in Japan 34 in Random travel, touch Roomba On sale 2.7 (U.S.) by mail order at diameter sensor, rechargeable around ¥40,000) Obstacle detection, 1,500 euros collision avoidance, Electrolux (available in Japan 35 in Trilobite On sale 5 automatic recharging, (Swedem) at a street price of diameter Available from Toshiba in ¥290,000) Japan Random travel, touch sensor for collision Robo Cleaner KARCHER 1,100 euros 28 in On sale 2 avoidance, automatic RC3000 (Germany) (approx. ¥150,000) diameter recharging, automatic bin emptying Special nozzle for corners, Under ¥200,000 25 in automatic recharging, Undecided Hitachi 4 development (estimated) diameter automatic bin emptying; to be released in 2 to 3 years Crossover-pattern travel, Under ¥100,000 range N-ROBO Matsushita 37 x 30 9.8 square shape; to be development (target) released in 2 to 3 years

Prices as of July 2003

(1) Mobility in the human living space 4 Recent trends in personal (unstructured environments); robots (2) Capability of recognizing and comprehending their environment, Vacuum cleaning robots for households have including changes as they move; been marketed abroad since 2001, and since (3) Capability of determining their next the latter half of 2002 in Japan. They are the actions on the basis of their environment; second type of personal robots with autonomous and mobility after pet robots that have found their (4) Safety in not harming humans and way into homes. Since the beginning of 2003, reliability in not having to depend on more consumer electronics manufacturers have humans. expressed their intention to enter this market. Table 5 shows the commercialization status of In contrast to industrial robots, which are autonomous vacuum cleaner robots. in principle single-function robots that can As long as its task is limited to vacuum cleaning, efficiently perform only specific tasks, personal a robots’ shape and mobile mechanism may be robots are required to offer versatile functions relatively simple, thereby allowing this type of as well as to adapt to versatile environments. autonomous mobile robots to be usable in homes. Personal robots will need to incorporate, in Although their functions and prices vary widely addition to sensors that act as input devices, depending on the models, vacuum cleaning sophisticated artificial intelligence to process robots are already available at affordable prices input information and make decisions based on for many consumers. While some doubt whether the results. Furthermore, not to mention safety vacuum cleaners as expensive as ¥200,000 will to humans, high reliability of systems to allow sell, demand for such products could be high these robots to operate independent of human among older persons who feel floor cleaning assistance is demanded. is too exhausting or among double-income couples who want to save time in household chores. The fact that some consumer electronics manufacturers have recently announced their

43 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

plans to market vacuum cleaning robots also development, output, and the application to suggests that businesses are foreseeing potential production factories. It is safe to say that the growth in this market. Given that companies introduction of robots to production facilities has who have already released their first model are served as the basis of the Japanese manufacturers’ working toward more advanced successors, it is international competitiveness. Even today, Japan highly likely that vacuum cleaning robots will contributes approximately 60% to the worldwide come into widespread use and become available production of industrial robots, demonstrating at lower prices, resulting in the rapid expansion solid technological dominance as far as of the market. production for the industrial sector is concerned. The popularity of pet robots is somewhat What should be noted is that most of the reliant on consumers’ curiosity and the rarity technologies used for industrial robots are value of the products as seen at the time of the second-generation or earlier robot technologies, release of AIBO for limited sale. Their toy-like which were fundamentally developed during nature makes their sales highly sensitive to the period between the 1960s and the first half enthusiasm among consumers. Since vacuum of the 1980s. Discussions on future international cleaning robots, unlike pet robots, are purchased competitiveness in robot technology should focus for their “usefulness,” they will steadily penetrate on third-generation robot technologies in the into society once accepted. household sector, where considerable market Aside from pet and vacuum cleaning robots, growth is forecasted toward the future. In fact, some other types of robots are already available the U.S. and Europe, where robotics development on the market or are scheduled to be available: has primarily been driven by national projects, a guard robot (Sohgo Security Services Co., Ltd., reportedly hold a competitive edge over Japan in Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., and tmsuk Co., advanced robots for use in extreme environments Ltd.) and a household robot with the capabilities in such fields as space exploration, nuclear of voice/image recognition and reading e-mail development, and disaster response[5]. According messages (NEC Corporation and Toshiba to the Japan Robot Association (JARA), while Corporation). In the area of home security, with Japan is competitive in the application of robots a view to taking greater advantage of robots as for manufacturing and construction, the U.S. and physical entities, a company has made a prototype Europe maintain strength in applying robotics robot that can provide physical services such to the nuclear energy, space, marine, probing, as carrying out initial fire suppression with its and welfare fields. As Table 6 shows, the JARA built-in fire extinguisher by remote control, in concludes that Japan has a competitive edge in addition to sending alerts upon detection of leg- and wheel-based mobile technologies as well unusual events and generating audible or light as in visual recognition and sensor technologies. alarms[13]. In comparison with the U.S. results, however, there are no fields where Japan surpasses 5 The Current status and the rival except for wheel-based mobile challenges of robotics technology. research and development Today it is a reality that Japan is about to lose its lead to the U.S. in advanced robot 5.1 Technological competitiveness technology, despite Japan’s current large share Japan began importing robotic products and in the production of industrial robots. Japan technologies from the U.S. in the late 1960s was the world’s leader in the development and initiated its own development efforts of the second-generation robots, which were concurrently. This move was followed by the sensor-based and therefore permitted visual development of second-generation robots recognition and sensor technologies to form the from the beginning of the 1970s, which has core of the systems. However, Japan already lags allowed the nation to lead the world in the field behind the U.S. in human interfaces, networking, of industrial robots in terms of technological media and software, which are the technologies

44 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Table 6:International competitiveness in advanced element technologies in robotics

Application field Japan U.S. Europe

Manipulation △ ○ △ Mobility (legs) ○ ○ △ Mobility (crawlers) △ △ ○ Mobility (wheels) ○ △ △ Multi-fingered hands △ ○ △ Remote-controlled devices and associated controllers △ ○ ○ Micro- and nano-level devices △ △ △ Simulation △ ○ ○ Human interfaces △ ○ △ Intelligent control technology △ △ △ Sensors ○ ○ △ Visual recognition ○ ○ △ Networking technology △ ○ △ ○ ; Competitive Media technology △ ○ △ △ ; Average level

Software △ ○ ○ × ; Not competitive

Source: “Summary Report on Technology Strategy for Creating a ‘Robot Society’ in the 21st Century”[4]

essential to the third-generation robots, the system and a concrete goal to achieve with that robots that are a critical element in determining system so that the original theme can be divided future technological strength. into constituent technologies. This would help Japan should be aware that its dominant the project team identify its target level and time competitive strength in robot technology, a limit, thereby promoting systematic development. widely accepted assumption, comes from the One of the challenges Japan currently faces in production volume of industrial robots and robotics development activities, as in the past that robots for household purposes, which is projects shown in Table 7, is the vagueness of the a prospective growth sector, require different development objectives and of the target systems. sets of technologies. From this perspective, This may sometimes be unavoidable depending it is questionable whether Japan can remain on the design of the project and the technological competitive in robot technology in the future level to start with. Nevertheless, the system to over a long period of time. be achieved should be clearly defined for future projects, now that examining technical prospects 5.2 Challenges in research and development is easier than in earlier times. Table 7 shows past major national projects Constituent technologies must be intended concerning robot development. Since these for integration into a certain system. However, previous projects centered on the development the national projects in the past and many of the of constituent technologies, none of them were ongoing robotics research activities at universities designated to achieve a specific final system in have not gone beyond the development of the first place. Each project aiming at a different constituent technologies, often stopping short set of constituent robotics technologies was of constructing any practical systems. Even in further divided into detailed projects, resulting the rare case where such a system has been in little connection between the project built, problems remain such as that researchers teams. It is no doubt that the development of fail to fully ascertain problems concerning the constituent technologies is an essential element robustness and reliability of the resulting system to be considered in the beginning of a project. because they do not emphasize field trials. However, what is equally important is to provide If a project aiming at developing a system the project team with the concept of the final involves field testing, it could be a long-term,

45 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Table 7:Major national projects for the development of robot technology

Year Project Budget (¥100M) Items developed Articulated / multi-fingered manipulators, ’82 – 89 Advanced Robot Technology 180 intelligent / high-presence remote control Autonomous robotic inspection system for pipes ’91 – 00 Micro machine Technology 250 (micro robots, integration of functions), sensor catheters, micro factory technologies Humanoid biped walking robot ’98 – 02 Humanoid Robotics 50 Platforms (Motion simulator, remote control cockpit, sophisticated hands, etc.)

Source: Author’s complation based on “Robot Handbook”[2] large-budget project. What type of robot robot contests*5 [14], there are roughly 100 robotics should be pursued is still an important issue laboratories in universities across Japan*6 [15]. If in such a project. Considering social needs in these laboratories continue to seek different the approaching aged society of Japan and the academic goals on an individual basis, their ripple effect that technologies could have, it is research activities will become dispersed and recommended that robotics projects in Japan scaled-down. A common goal should be set to be directed toward the commercialization of prevent these research and development activities robots for application to public services such as from scattering. supporting nursing care and the independent The personal robot market for the public sector lives of the elderly. has not shown significant growth so far, even Another challenge in the research and though the sector is expected to serve as an development of robot technology in Japan is a engine for the diffusion of robots for households. gap between industry and academia stemming The development of robots for public facilities is from the difference in their directions of efforts. hardly a task that can be conducted solely by the In Japan, the development of robot technologies, private sector, because there are hurdles before particularly that of industrial robots, has been their commercialization such as setting safety conducted by private businesses. This may seem standards. The development of robots in this area reasonable in a country where more than 250 should be facilitated by the national government firms, the peak number, were involved in the and local public organizations through production of robots and their components as of procurement of robotic systems or subsidization 1985, when the application of industrial robots to promote purchases of such systems. For swelled, and where over 150 firms still exist example, a public body can place a relatively large in the industry at present. In reality, however, order for robots to a private corporation and have businesses are narrowing the scope of their them delivered with designated specifications research and development to concentrate on within a set time limit. The public body can then potentially profitable areas in a shortsighted let the manufacturer compile field problems over response to intensifying international the next few years while having them perform competition. Honda’s development of humanoid maintenance of the robots. If the project is robots is one of a few examples against such too large to be met by a single company, it will trends. On the other hand, university-led research inevitably lead the company to seek partnerships activities focus on autonomous mobile robots, with other companies and universities. As among other third-generation robots, and often different organizations work together toward seek to add new capabilities to them. University a single project under the initiative of the researchers’ intention to pursue new techniques company that assumes responsibility for the and concepts on which they can write academic overall construction of the system, laboratories papers have widened the gap between industry with outstanding development capacity will be and academia. naturally connected with each other. Since robotics is a popular research discipline Other than such procurement projects, the among Japanese students, perhaps encouraged by government should establish safety standards

46 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 concerning robot technology. Although national actuators and power consumption per unit safety standards for industrial robots already weight, robotic systems do not substantially differ exist, they basically regulate how to isolate the from automatic teller machines and washing operating areas of robots from those of humans machines. For the combination of electronic and are, therefore, not applicable to personal and mechanical components used in them, the robots. In addition to the development of safety robot may be regarded as an interdisciplinary standards and regulations, the government should technology. However, each constituent robotics also take the initiative in the standardization of technology is the same as the ones used for a robot technology. purely electrical or mechanical system. Based on the awareness that robots do not consist of 6 Robotics development high technologies and other special components, in the future researchers should seek steady progress in constituent technologies and in the performance Computers have proven themselves far superior achieved as a system. to humans in speed and accuracy when it comes According to Hans Moravec at Carnegie Mellon to performing the four fundamental operations University, the current computer’s computing of arithmetic. Their high ability combined with power per cost is 1,000 MIPS per $1,000, which reduced prices has made them prevalent among is equivalent to the visual processing power of ordinary citizens and a must in people’s daily life. a lizard or a lower fish and is inferior to humans For the same reason, robots for the manufacturing by about five orders of magnitude[16]. Under such industry have rapidly taken the place of human circumstances, only for the reason that biped workers in limited operational areas. Robots in the walking is most suited for robots that share household sector, which are mainly designed to the same living spaces with humans would be perform tasks that could otherwise be handled insufficient to justify giving a high priority to by humans, should also move toward the same the research on humanoid robots for domestic goal, that is to say, functionality and performance use. Such prioritization would cause imbalances outside of human reach. In continuous patient among different technologies. A more preferable monitoring and 24-hour security guarding, for development process should start with the example, robots might prove superior to human optimal shape for a specific task, as was the case counterparts in that robots never become tired, with the vacuum cleaning robot, followed by if their operating accuracy could improve. gradual evolution in shape and the addition of However, before people can take advantage functions. If the development of robots is aimed of mobile robots over traditional surveillance at providing end users with useful equipment, cameras, further technological development emphasis should be placed on the systematic is needed in order to reduce their power creation of systems intended for general users. consumption, to sophisticate the batteries, and This is the most important perspective in to enhance the information processing capacity developing technologies for the household sector. including artificial intelligence to recognize the Encouraged by the robot boom in the country, conditions of the environment. the population of robotics researchers, many of It is often the case that ordinary people or them university researchers, has grown to the even robotics developers assume a robot must largest-ever level. At a time like this, failure to be something special, such as a showcase of produce robots that can substantially benefit state-of-the-art technologies or a dream to people as more realistic entities might mean be pursued. In fact, however, today’s robots failure to measure up to social expectations and generally employ the same technologies as used could result in disappointment across society. in daily electronic appliances such as camcorders. Preventing this from happening is a common Even in terms of the number of sensors and challenge to all researchers in robotics.

47 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

to purchase a considerable number of robotic 7 Conclusion systems or subsidize purchases of such systems as part of a promotional program. Personal robots are completely different from industrial robots that have been supporting Acknowledgements Japanese industry, with respect to the required This article was written based on research technologies, expected functionality as systems, results of the National Institute of Science and and work environment. From the technical point Technology Policy and the lecture “Challenges of view, areas that need further progress include and Prospects toward the Promotion of Robotics” sensor technology to generate input signals, delivered by Dr. Masakazu Ejiri, former chairman information processing capability on the basis of of the Robotic Society of Japan, on July 17, 2003 input from the sensors, and smaller and refined at the Institute. Dr. Ejiri also provided assistance actuator or output systems. in preparing this article by offering reference Because of its large share in the production of material. The author would like to express his robots for the manufacturing industry, Japan is sincere thanks to Dr. Ejiri. generally considered competitive in the robotics field. However, this is no longer true even of Notes constituent technologies, as far as advanced robot *1 Karel Capek (the Czech Republic, 1890-1938) technologies are concerned. was the first to use the word “robot” in his The author earlier cited two problems in play “Rossum’s Universal Robots (R.U.R)” in current robotics research in Japan: vagueness 1920. The word was coined from the Czech of development objectives and target systems; word “robota,” which means “to be forced to and a large gap between industry and academia work,” or from the Slovak word “robotnik,” in the directions of development. While private representing a worker, to imply “slave companies, the major contributor to the past machinery.” commercialization of robots in Japan, are *2 Although recently there are robots that being forced to concentrate their development virtually operate on the Internet, known efforts only on prospective business fields, as “virtual robots,” only physically existing university researchers often stick to the robots are considered in this article. invention of new functions that would allow *3 In dynamic walking, the center of gravity them to write academic papers. At least where is not always maintained within the bottom commercialization is concerned, Japan has yet to area of the supporting foot. By contrast, in take advantage of the technological development static walking, the center of gravity is always capacity in academia, where vast human somewhere within the sole area of the resources are available for robotics research supporting foot. thanks to the discipline’s popularity among *4 Stipulated by Article 150 of the Industrial students as a result of the promotional effects of Safety and Health Law. robot contests. *5 Reference [14] indicates that 10 domestic In Japan, as a rapidly aging nation, a need for contests have already been held through personal robots will certainly persist for a long June 2003, with an additional 25 scheduled time into the future. However, the personal robot before the end of the year (as of July 11, 2003). market for the public sector, which is expected *6 The count is based on the number of links to serve as an engine to drive the growth of to university laboratories’ websites provided the consumer market, remains relatively small by Reference[15] in the section about Robotics and, therefore, has not succeeded in attracting Research in Japan. The exact count is 96 many businesses for lack of profitability in the laboratories at 38 universities as of July 2003. market. An effective measure to invigorate the development of robots for the public sector is References for government agencies or local public bodies [1] Website of ROBODEX. :

48 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

http://www.robodex.org/ Faculty of Engineering, Gifu University. : [2] “Robot Handbook,” Japan Robot Association, http://robo.mech.gifu-u.ac.jp/index.html March 2001 (in Japanese). [10] Ejiri and Kinoshita, “Robotics as the [3] Website of Sony Corporation. : Trans-disciplinary Science and Technology,” http://www.sony.net/Products/aibo/aiboflas Keisoku to Seigyo, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. h.html 209-214, March 2003 issue (in Japanese). [4] “Summary Report on Technology Strategy [11] Website of Honda Motor Co., Ltd. : for Creating a ‘Robot Society’ in the 21st http://www.honda.co.jp/robot/ Century,” The Japan Machinery Federation, [12] Handout 5-1 of the 24th meeting of the Japan Robot Association, 2000 (in Japanese). Council for Science and Technology Policy : http://www.jara.jp/jp/07_books/Rt.pdf held on January 28, 2003 (in Japanese). : [5] “Report on next-generation robots in the http://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/siryo/haihu24/s Kinki region,” Kansai Bureau of Economy, iryo5-1.pdf Trade and Industry (in Japanese). : [13] Website of tmsuk Co., Ltd. : http://www.city.kobe.jp/cityoffice/27/kogyo http://www.tmsuk.co.jp/jap/s_agent/index.h u/rt/index.htm tml [6] Website of Gifu Robot Project (GPR21). : [14] Website of ROBOCON Magazine from http://www.stp.pref.gifu.jp/htmlstpc/grp21/ Ohmsha, Ltd (in Japanese). : [7] Website of Kyushu Bureau of Economy, http://www.ohmsha.co.jp/robocon/ Trade and Industry on the next-generation [15] Links to Robotics Research in Japan on the industries and manufacturing. : website of the Robotics Laboratory, Graduate http://www.kyushu.meti.go.jp/seisaku/seizo School of Information Science, Nara Institute /frame.htm of Science and Technology. : [8] Okuwada, “Trend in the Introduction and http://robotics.aist-nara.ac.jp/jrobres/index-j Development of Robotic Surgical Systems,” .html No.10, Science & Technology Trends - [16] Website of Carnegie Mellon University Field Quarterly Review. : Robotics Center. : http://www.nistep.go.jp/index-j.html http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/_hpm/talks/revo. [9] Website of the Kawasaki Laboratory of the slides/2030.html

(Original Japanese version: published in September 2003)

49 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS 5 Current Conditions and Issues in International Strategy from the Perspective of the International Standardization of Materials

TOSHIO OGATA, (Affiliated Fellow) AND YOSHITAKA TAMOU Materials and Manufacturing Technology Research Unit

lead in Asian standardization will increase. 1 Introduction “Standards” are a structural element of an intellectual infrastructure. With respect to the The development of a material with new intellectual infrastructure, decoded genomes characteristics and advanced performance have recently been recognized as a type of can be a major scientific and technological industrial intellectual property, the rights to breakthrough, however, no matter how which can be secured, and which are seen as good the new material may be, in itself it is important means of securing future profits. merely a “substance.” Only substances that are In the materials sector as well, promotion of widely used in the market deserve the name database preparation and standardization are “material.” Design standards are a major factor in being asserted, and their issuing to global society determining whether or not a material is used. In is taking place. Possession of independent data is recent years, Europe has been attempting to set vital for these activities to receive international new design standards, and materials development recognition. and preservation technology development are In this article, we will examine how international proceeding in accordance with them. There standardization can be used as a tool that is concern that in the future they may hold a more effectively reflects Japanese science dominant position. In relation to materials, a and technology in industrial and economic high quality is not sufficient in itself for market activities. We will review European and American acceptance. It could be said, “Whoever controls standardization strategies relating to materials, international standards, controls the world.” summarize Japan’s activities, and propose In various foreign countries, “international concrete remedies for problems related to standards” are recognized as an important trade standardization. strategy and are used as a means of protecting limited markets and of capturing new ones. 2 Trends in While Japan is a major economic power, it international standards remains a minor power in terms of international standards. Awareness of international standards 2.1 Types of international standards within Japan remains low. Although there are Broadly speaking, there are “de facto standards” sectors, such as the development of fuel-cell (standards by common acceptance) and “de batteries and advanced materials, in which Japan jure standards” (standards by law), as shown is engaged in intense competition with Europe in Table 1. De facto standards are often based and the USA, and is seeking to expand its market on the attainment of a dominant position by share and to develop standards, such areas are a corporation competing with others for a few in number. There is also concern that in particular market. In contrast, de jure standards the near future the number of sectors in which are set by national and international agreements. countries like South Korea and China take the Because industry and consumers in a country that

50 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 does not respond fully can face disadvantages, “international standards”). countries respond to standards strategically. Although it can sometimes be difficult to 2.2 Recent trends in international standards distinguish between de facto standards and Overviews of trends relating to the de jure standards, in the process of creating international standards of the International international standards, European countries and Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the the USA-and their corporations-attempt to have International Electrotechnical Commission their own technologies made into international (IEC), and the importance of the measures that standards in order to leave competitors behind Japan takes in relation to them have already been and to place themselves in advantageous published[3-9]. In this article, we will emphasize positions in markets. This article will primarily an examination of measures that can improve the discuss the importance of “de jure standards” (or situation to obtain favorable results for Japan.

Table 1: Definition and characteristics of standards

Type De jure standard De facto standard Set by a standardization institution, a de jure A standard that has come about as a result of a standard is based on a clearly designated process Definition high market share captured through corporate and is set through the wide participation of relevant competition. members.

Microsoft Corporation's Windows personal computer Examples JIS standards, ISO and IEC standards operating system (1) The designation process is faster than with de (1) The designation process is transparent, and the jure standards. standards are clear and open. (2) Standards and products disseminate Characteristics (2) In principle, a single standard is provided. simultaneously. (3) Membership is relatively open. (3) Those whose standards are adopted can dominate the market. (1) Information is not fully open. (1) Decision making is by consensus, so time (up to • There is no guarantee that all interfaces will be open. 5 years) is required for standardization. • The company that developed the standard may Defects (2) There is a time lag between dissemination of limit access. standards and products. (2) Membership tends to be closed. (3) Technology is diverted. (3) The revision process is not transparent.

Source: Authors’ compilation from reference[3].

Figure 1: Change in the number of secretariats (TC/SC) undertaken by the countries[10,11]

51 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

(1) A period of upheaval for standards leader in this respect since 2000. Since the World Trade Organization’s Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade came (4) Trends in Japan into force in 1995, member countries have agreed The need for unified implementation of in principle to bring their national standards [for standardization activities and research and example, Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) in development is pointed out in documents such Japan] into accord with international standards, as the November 1997 report of the International such as those of the ISO and the IE. The intent Subcommittee of the Japan Industrial Standards is to improve the freedom of the flow of goods Committee to the then Minister of International across national borders by making standards Trade and Industry, Optimal Future of Japan’s identical in each country. International standards International Standardization Policy, the National have been acknowledged by international treaty Industrial Technology Strategy announced in April as a means of eliminating trade barriers, so 2000, and the Science and Technology Basic Plan international trends related to standardization decided by the Cabinet in March 2001. There is activities have entered a period of upheaval. an annual budget of ¥1 billion for international standardization, including grants from the New (2) Trends in Europe Energy and Industrial Technology Development Through its support for the European Organization for the international standard-creation Committee for Standardization (CEN) and sector, and the assignment of international the European Committee for Electrotechnical standards development in the form of support Standardization (CENELEC), the European Union for new industry. Moreover, as part of the 1998 (EU) has made clear its policy of presenting a emergency economic countermeasures, the then unified European view to organizations such Ministry of International Trade and Industry’s as the ISO and the IEC. The EU has signed technology-related budget allocated ¥16.1 billion for agreements with the ISO and the IEC, and has the improvement of the intellectual infrastructure built an aggressive policy that aims to spread and the accelerated promotion of international European technology around the world through standardization: however, although the number enactment of international standards based on of times Japan undertakes secretariat country European standards (EN Standards). work at the ISO has gradually been rising since 1992, this figure is still less than half that achieved (3) Trends in the USA by the United States and the leading countries The USA had given preference to the American of Europe. While this large gap remains, Japan Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and cannot be considered highly active in international MIL Standards (US military standards), but it standardization. With standards being formed in sensed danger from the European standardization 1,000 cases each year, policies to close the gap are strategy and started to take de jure international needed. standardization more seriously. In September 2000, the American National Standards Institute 2.3 The necessity of dealing (ANSI) released the National Standards Strategy with international standards for the United States, which called for aggressive If JIS are revised to match international action to ensure that the ISO, the IEC, and other standards, products manufactured in accordance international standardization organizations enact with JIS will have to change. If standards such standards in which US technology is reflected. as those of the ISO and the IEC are adopted as This trend can be seen in the increased amount national standards in many countries, export of technical work undertaken by the USA as the corporations in the particular country that technical committee secretariat country. The originated the standards will have an advantage number of technical committees in which the over those of other countries. In other words, USA participates as the secretariat country has trends in international standards influence increased sharply since 1992, and it has been the market conditions and can deliver heavy blows

52 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Table 2:Cases where Japan did not obtain international standards

Case Summary Watt-hour meters The electric meter technical committee was led by Europe, where indoor meters are the norm. IEC 60521 Technical knowledge regarding the requirements of the outdoor meters widely used in Japan was IEC 61036 lacking, and standards for weatherproofing were not considered. Japan’s banks and manufacturers had led the world in card development. In Japan, Cash cards a magnetic stripe was placed on the front of cards, as was then the strongest proposal for an (bank ATM cards) international standard. For design reasons, however, cards with magnetic stripes on the back ISO 7810 ID card physical became the international standard. Because cards with magnetic stripes on the front were already features so widespread in Japan, it was not economically feasible to switch. Cases of Asian countries directly adopting IEC standards are increasing. From the perspective of strictly following the WTO/TBT Agreement, almost all countries prohibit the import of Japanese products for noncompliance with IEC standards. Washing machines (This is different from a stoppage due to safety standards.) (drying function) Japan’s proposal to the IEC TC 61 of adding JIS standards was rejected. It has been resubmitted. IEC 60335-2-4 The following are the two reasons Japan was not successful. Japan exported 17 million • JIS was widely accepted in Asia, and Japan mistakenly believed there was a market for products vertically separated with superior technology that met the needs, even without following international standards. washing machines annually. • Because they did not recognize the importance of international standards, Japanese corporations thought attendance at standard-setting conferences was burdensome and they did not have the personnel for such tasks. to the competitiveness of Japan’s manufacturing markets is under way. The USA, Japan and Germany industry. As can be seen in Table 2, there are control the world market for pressure vessels, and many cases in which Japan did not obtain which country will set the international standards international standards, even though it was has been a matter of international attention. advanced in the development of the particular The standard proposed by the USA and Japan product and technological areas. Although was approved at a meeting attended by experts Japanese standards were only slightly different from various European countries; however, in an from international standards for mobile international vote, European nations collaborated to telephones, these form another area in which oppose it, so that it did not become the international Japan lost the competition over international standard. standards, with the result that Japanese mobile Japan has taken leadership in activities relating telephones can only be used in Japan. In sectors to the Versailles Project on Advanced Materials and like information technology-related industries, Standards (VAMAS) in sectors related to advanced technical progress is remarkably swift and quick materials, such as ceramics, superconducting response to standardization is needed. Quality materials, and surface chemical analysis. and environmental management standards such as ISO 9000 and ISO 14000, respectively, have (2) The right to speak become areas for business growth. Although the To demonstrate its contribution to international measures to be taken on international standards standards and to ensure its right to speak, Japan in other sectors will differ, it is vital that the in 1996 sought permanent membership on the lessons of the past be applied to future activities. Council Board of the IEC, but was initially turned down on the grounds that Japan was behind Italy (1) The case of materials and only in fifth place in undertaking work as a In the past, the calculation of the standards secretariat country. (Finally, the amounts of funds for the strength of pressure-vessel materials was contributed were taken into consideration.) performed according to the American Society When a standard is proposed, there must of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) code. Japanese obviously be data to support it. There must also materials were ignored, and Japan was unable to be a technical basis when opposing a proposal, build its own nuclear reactors. Today, the quality of and without such data opposition cannot be Japanese materials is recognized but competition voiced. to set international standards, such as ISO TC 11 To increase its ability to propose new standards (pressure vessels), and to capture international and to enhance its right to speak out on standards

53 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Figure 2:The ISO standard setting process and the VAMAS liaison

proposed by other countries, Japan needs to and that standards do not earn money. By simply make steady efforts to accumulate research data, using the standards given, Japan puts itself on the to undertake work as a secretariat country, and same level as developing countries; it is controlled to make international contributions. It must by standards. build networks among Japanese data gatherers In contrast, European countries and the United and people in foreign countries who are States view standards as a type of trade weapon. understanding and cooperative. They try to use the international standards that In ISO debates, Japan often has a different they set to eliminate the trade barriers posed by the stance to Europe or the USA and, being midway standards of other countries. They also give priority between the two powers, it is often sounded to making “standards that sell” (those that will be out about taking on secretariat work. Because of used by many companies). Furthermore, industry language barriers and other issues that make the leaders from Europe and the USA consistently work tedious, Japan often declines such offers. attend international standardization meetings, Serving as the secretariat for, or chairing of, demonstrating the effort that European and USA technical committees (TCs) or subcommittees corporations put into international standardization. (SCs), however, offers opportunities to take They regard standardization as more important leadership by putting Japanese proposals on to the future development of their companies the agenda, or by deciding on the location of than short-term profits, and consider it to be an meetings. investment that gives full returns.

(3) Differences in awareness 2.4 The process of in Japan and other advanced countries international standardization Even when the necessity for activity relating to International standards are like international international standards is pointed out, as we have treaties in that they have great efficacy and pass above, Japanese industry has long and strongly held through a process of debate and consensus on the views that industrial technology is something their way from proposal to establishment. The that comes from overseas, that exports should be process by which a proposed new ISO standard is adjusted to the standards of the importing country, enacted is shown in Figure 2.

54 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

(1) Proposals Because of the need to take responsibility for 3 The meaning and current the costs of several years of discussion before a status of VAMAS in standard is established, a standards organization the international standardization from an ISO member country must normally of materials adopt a proposal. 3.1 Formation (2) Conditions required Science and technology were major subjects for a new proposal to be adopted at the G7 summit held in June 1982 at Versailles, A majority in the relevant technical committee where it was agreed that they are keys to a must approve a new proposal, and at least vigorous world economy, and that they should five countries must be willing to put forward be actively promoted through international members and funds to deliberate on the proposal cooperation. Representatives of the summit in a working group. (Responses in each country nations and the EC signed a memorandum of are determined in light of the need for the agreement on VAMAS activities, to be continued standards body to support the costs of meetings every five years by the signatures of the and personnel. In Germany, for example, whether participating countries. In 1997, a nonexpiring the standard will “sell” is the criterion for agreement was signed. Japan’s representatives judgment. If requested by the Central Secretariat on the VAMAS Steering Committee are the to deliberate, Germany will decline unless at director of the Office for Materials Research least five German corporations make clear their and Development of the Ministry of Education, willingness to fund the deliberations.) Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, the chief of the Advisory Group for Materials (3) Creating drafts Research Policy of the National Institute of Draft standards are examined in the order Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, of; working draft, committee draft, and final and the supervising researcher of the National committee draft. To be accepted, they must be Institute for Materials Science. changed to comply with the comments of each country and, in principle, there must be no final 3.2 Objectives opposition. Draft international standards (DIS) VAMAS is positioned as an international require the approval of two-thirds of active collaboration project on standards for participants and three-quarters of all members. advanced materials. It promotes international Each vote takes at least three months, and it standardization related to advanced materials, ordinarily takes three to five years to turn a including technology and special testing proposal into a finished standard. methods, and supports trade in advanced technology products. (4) Review Established standards are reviewed every five 3.3 Results years, and unworkable ones are eliminated. The results that VAMAS has achieved include The results of this system are that a standard national standardization, through submissions will not be created without the agreement and to each nation’s standardization body, as well understanding of experts and industry from as international standardization, through several countries, and that transient data or submissions to bodies such as the International passing fads will be weeded out during the Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the course of the process. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Because the creation of international standards takes years, VAMAS is only now beginning to show results after ten years of activity. It has contributed to the formulation of about 60 ISO,

55 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Table 3: Summary of standards initiated by VAMAS TWAs [14]

TWA Standards TWA 01 Wear Test Methods CEN: 1 TWA 02 Surface Chemical Analysis ISO: 11, ASTM: 2 TWA 03 Ceramics for Structural Applications ISO: 5, CEN: 8, ASTM: 4, JIS: 2 TWA 05 Polymer Composites ISO: 3 TWA 13 Low Cycle Fatigue ISO: 4, BSI: 1, JIS: 1 TWA 14 Unified Classification System for Advanced Ceramics ISO: 1, CEN: 1, ASTM: 1 TWA 16 Superconducting Materials IEC: 8 TWA 17 Cryogenic Structural Materials ISO: 1 TWA 21 Mechanical Measurements for Hardmetals ISO: 1 TWA 22 Mechanical Property Measurements of Thin Films and Coatings ISO: 3, CEN: 1 TWA 25 Creep/Fatigue Crack Growth in Components BSI: 2, ASTM: 2

BSI: British Standards Institution

ASTM, and other standards. (See Table 3.) a year to discuss overall policy, the progress of As VAMAS’s international reputation has grown each TWA, the creation of new TWAs, and the in recent years, cooperation with the ISO has dissolution of existing ones. The 2002 meeting strengthened, and VAMAS and ISO have formed was held in Japan and hosted by the National a relationship in which each respects the Institute for Materials Science. The 2003 Steering other’s results, so that the results of VAMAS, Committee was held on May 12-14, and was which comprises the G7 nations, are being hosted by the EU at the European Joint Research promoted in ISO standardization. As shown Center in Petten, the Netherlands. As described in Figure 2, Technology Trends Assessment below, each country presented reports on (TTA) reports based on VAMAS’s international aspects of materials research to which it is paying round-robin tests can shorten deliberation particular attention. Development and assessment times. In these tests, identical test materials are of nanomaterials and biomaterials were given distributed to each country’s participating body research priority by all the countries, and for tests and the results are then compared. proposals for their international standardization were made. 3.4 Characteristics • Canada: Major trends in materials research VAMAS tests and evaluates a wide variety are eco-materials, biomaterials, nanomaterials, of materials, including metals, inorganics, virtual materials, fuel-cell batteries, and titanium macromolecules, and biomaterials. As shown in foam for medical applications. Table 4, there are currently 18 technical working • Germany: The proportion of ferrous materials areas (TWAs). Japan serves as international chair in automobiles is decreasing, while those of for four of these. Collaboration with VAMAS, aluminum and polymers are increasing. Like lead and aggressive action related to international and mercury, the use of cadmium and chromium standardization of advanced materials and (VI) is prohibited. Testing the service life of over their testing methods, contributes to a stronger 3,000 parts is also an issue, so Germany proposed Japanese voice in the ISO. This makes it easier to the testing of the short-term decay of automobile propose standards led by Japan. (Japan’s voice materials as a new area. or vote counts as one of more than twenty on • Italy: Interests include materials database ISO technical committees; in VAMAS, it is one of languages, fuel-cell batteries (an EC priority), and seven.) nanomaterials. • Japan: The four major categories of life 3.5 Recent trends in VAMAS sciences, nanotechnology, environmental science, The VAMAS Steering Committee meets once and information technology, from the eight

56 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Table 4: Active technical working areas in VAMAS (TWAs)

TWA 01 Wear Test Methods TWA 02 Surface Chemical Analysis TWA 03 Ceramics for Structural Applications TWA 05 Polymer Composites TWA 07 Biomaterials TWA 10 Computerized Materials Data* TWA 13 Low Cycle Fatigue TWA 15 Metal Matrix Composites* TWA 16 Superconducting Materials* TWA 17 Cryogenic Structural Materials* TWA 20 Measurement of Residual Stress TWA 21 Mechanical Measurements for Hardmetals TWA 22 Mechanical Property Measurement of Thin Films and Coatings TWA 24 Performance Related Properties for Electro-Ceramics TWA 25 Creep/Fatigue Crack Growth in Components TWA 26 Full Field Optical Stress and Strain Measurement

TWA 27 Characterization Methods for Ceramic Powders and Green Bodies TWA 28 Quantitative Mass Spectroscopy of Synthetic Polymers

* Japan serves as chair.

science and technology categories decided by the summit nations to one that is responsive to global Council for Science and Technology Policy, were standards in every part of the world, it should presented. Japan’s system for domestic response deepen participation of, and collaboration with, to VAMAS through NIMS was also presented, and countries that are not part of the G7 summit titanium dioxide photocatalysts were introduced meetings. A response from each country is being as a topic. sought. In practice, this will allow South Korea, • United Kingdom: Nanomaterials, biomaterials, which has been participating as an observer and functional materials, software, modeling, quantum has been actively working with VAMAS, to join it physics, light metal alloys, foam materials, single as a full member. crystals, polymers, powders, and liquid metals were presented. 3.7 Issues in VAMAS participation • United States: Nanomaterials classification VAMAS was agreed upon at a summit meeting and target materials, nanotubes, titanium dioxide as an international cooperation project relating films for photocatalysts and windows, biomaterials, to standards. It requires large amounts of modeling verification, micromagnetism, funding for the procurement and evaluation photoelectron semiconductors, thermoelectrons, of advanced materials and for international thermal shock, magnetic measurement, and fuel-cell coordination. Japanese participation was batteries were presented. funded as part of the science and technology • EC: Biohealth, information technology, food promotion-coordinating fund of the former safety, nanomaterial/nanotechnology, multifunctional Science and Technology Agency. It involved up materials, aerospace safety and reliability, and to 50 domestic institutions with 200 researchers, fuel-cell batteries were among the subjects and received annual funding totaling ¥100-¥300 presented. million. Each TWA received large amounts of international cooperation funds from Japan. 3.6 VAMAS international Sustaining it through promotion-coordinating It has been proposed that to transform VAMAS funds was judged difficult, however, and funding from an activity associated mainly with the ended in fiscal year 2001. Replacement funding

57 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

has not been found, so the level of activity published in important journals. Work related has fallen. It is difficult to find funds for the to standards is unlikely to be highly valued. activities of Japanese contact persons, and the Because operating budgets are nonexistent, number of Japanese people serving as chairs or institutions doing standardization-related work participating in TWAs has also fallen. For a time, are disappearing. Many of them depend on the Japan reluctantly considered withdrawing from willingness of volunteers, who work without G7-VAMAS. Because continued participation in proper sleep because they believe themselves to VAMAS offers a favorable path to developing be irreplaceable. Furthermore, even though they international standards, it is considered effective work on the frontline in international committees in promoting other international standardization by presenting the opinions of Japanese industry, activities. Participation in VAMAS is being treated defending existing Japanese domestic standards, as an international standardization enterprise of and holding their ground against the arguments the National Institute for Materials Science, which of foreign countries, they receive no more than responds piecemeal to TWAs, and the national meager travel expenses. This makes it that much VAMAS response committee is currently being more difficult to find the next generation of able restructured. successors.

4 Issues in 4.2 Corporate responses international standardization Corporations in the manufacturing sector are spinning off subsidiaries in testing and 4.1 Developing personnel measurement. For example, domestic steel Ordinarily, it takes about five years from manufacturers are creating subsidiaries the proposal of an international standard to to outsource mechanical testing. Separate its adoption. To respond responsibly to this companies are formed because of the demand fact, researchers from corporations or national for detailed cost rationalization. This results research institutes, who transfer less often and in a decrease in the resources that can be put can join in technical discussions, are preferred into experimentation and investigation not as attendees for working groups and technical directly related to income. For example, in the committees over bureaucrats from government case of the coordination of Certified Reference ministries. However, corporate restructuring Materials (CRM) being advanced by Eurolab, over the past few years has reduced and and experimentation on the influence of the eliminated laboratories, which reduced the speed of tension tests on such materials, it would numbers of personnel along with the amount seem necessary that Japan should also perform of data generated that could serve as a basis for experiments in this area because of its exports discussion. The Agency of Industrial Science and of ferrous materials. However, there is neither a Technology of the then Ministry of International body to sponsor the work nor is there any budget Trade and Industry had industrial testing labs to coordinate joint experiments on CRMs and that provided a foundation for testing work, but Japan’s matching ferrous materials. most testing labs became research labs during restructuring about ten years ago and most test 4.3 University responses personnel became researchers. Furthermore, VAMAS designates contact persons in each with the exceptions of the Agency of Industrial country, who are expected to gather relevant Science and Technology, institution working domestic researchers and arrange round-robin mainly on standards, and the National Institute tests. In most cases, a university professor will for Materials Science (described below), most represent a sector. Since they receive no payment national laboratories have become independent for such activities, however, there are some administrative institutions, so the results sectors in which there is no Japanese contact that they value are the numbers of articles person.

58 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

there is no way of quantitatively measuring such 4.4 Government agency responses steady, concrete activity, it is not highly regarded In the VAMAS Steering Committee, when outside of the NIMS. a proposal for a new TWA, for example, is discussed on the basis of national science and 5 Conclusion technology policy or standardization policy, a statement is expected from the government We have examined the trends regarding officer representing Japan. Expounding Japan’s international standards, which will greatly position in such a situation is Japan’s contribution, influence the Japanese economy’s ability to secure and it will have a major impact on subsequent markets, primarily in terms of the international technical proposals. standardization of advanced materials. Our findings can be summarized by the following three points. 4.5 Research institute responses-the example of the National Institute • The relevant departments and bureaus of for Materials Science the ministries and agencies concerned need An independent administrative institution, the to recognize the importance and urgency National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS) of international standards. However, budget maintains a materials basic information station measures are individualized and short-term, with the following major functions: and long-term measures, including personnel development, are inadequate. • obtaining materials data and • In principle, industry should lead the responses creating materials datasheets; to international standardization, but the • pre-standardization research, urgency and necessity of such response international standardization research; and varies by sector. When industry cannot • coordination and opening of materials databases. provide sufficient support, in many cases it is necessary, for the sake of future national For over 30 years, since its days as the National interest, that the government provides Research Institute for Metals, NIMS has created heightened-active interministerial support and published datasheets on creep and fatigue as part of an intellectual infrastructure characteristics, and has distributed them to about strategy. In other words, rather than viewing 400 Japanese organizations and over 200 overseas standardization as something that is imposed, organizations. These data are used in European the government should see it as an investment and US standards databases, and are reflected in bringing valuable returns. Industry, academia, design standards. Beginning this year, datasheets and government must join together to raise on corrosion and space-related materials consciousness regarding standards and the will be included, which will make important scientific and technical contributions that contributions to the compilation of data on they make. National research institutions must corrosion resistance in structures older than ten provide more research data that can be linked years and to improving the reliability of Japanese to new proposals, giving an increased ability rockets. The pre-standardization research and to speak out on the frontlines of international international standardization research, which standardization activities. are among NIMS’s major functions, have been • To promote international standardization included in medium-range plans because of NIMS’ activities more aggressively in the future, s success in materials research and its strong expanding cooperative relationships with collaboration with VAMAS and the leadership Asian countries, as well as with Europe and there. Evaluation of NIMS personnel is based on the United States, would be useful. the “3 P’s,” (papers, patents, and products), with datasheets and activities related to standardization Among the possible policies for handling these considered as the products. However, because issues, the following could be implemented using

59 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS the current systems. and Answers, : http://www.jisc.go.jp/qa/a-in tl-std.html (1) Inclusion in the medium-term plans [4] “Regarding the ‘Standardization Strategy”, of independent administrative institutions Report of the Standardization Subcommittee, Include activities related to international Japan Industrial Standards Committee (in standards within the medium-term plans of Japanese), : http://www.meti.go.jp/discussio government research institutions relevant to n/topic_2001_11/kikou_03.htm international standardization. Recognize that [5] “Current State of International Standardization” obtaining data that can be the basis of proposals, (in Japanese), : http://www.meti.go.jp/repor debates, and committee activities is a part t/downloadfiles/g10831h13j.pdf of their work. This could bolster activity in [6] Summary of the Proceedings of the International industry, academia and elsewhere, and foster the Subcommittee, International Department, development of new personnel. Japan Industrial Standards Committee, : (2) Preparation of an infrastructure http://www.meti.go.jp/kohosys/committee/ for standardization activities oldsummary/0000646 Policies on the evaluation of contributions to, or [7] “Why is standardization important now: Japan influence on, proposed or adopted international stalls with no sense of how to standardize” (in standards should be set, and work should be Japanese), : http://www.ecology.or.jp/isoworl actively evaluated. We also recommend that the d/iso9000/globstd3.htm relevant institutions secure long-term operating [8] Masahiro Fujita and Yuzo Kawahara, funds related to domestic and overseas committee International standards besiege Japan, Nihon activities and the application of existing research to Keizai Shimbun Co. (1998), 37, 39, 133 (in standards. Japanese) (3) Formation of a national response committee [9] The future direction of industrial technology on international standards policy: Industrial technology strategy Responding on and individualized, one-at-a-time [analysis], April 26, 2000, Agency of basis to international standards cannot be expected Industrial Science and Technology, Ministry of to bring about effective results. Relevant government International Trade and Industry (in Japanese), bodies, industry, and academia should cooperate to : http://www.aist.go.jp/www_j/guide/gyou form a national response committee to deal with the mu/singikai/saigishin/41siryo/siryo5.pdf situation regarding international standards. [10] “Examples of successes and failures in obtaining international standardization”, Third References Working Group on Standards, Ministry of [1] Regarding the Intellectual Infrastructure Economy, Trade and Industry (in Japanese) by the Council for Science and Technology [11] “Economic Effects of International Policy (29th), : http://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/ Standardization Activities), Japanese siryo/haihu29/siryo2-2.pdf Standards Association (in Japanese) [2] Japan Industrial Standards Committee, [12] FY 2001 MITI White Paper, : http://www.me Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, ti.go.jp/hakusho/tsusyo/soron/H13/Z04-02-1 “Public Release of the Report of the Special 7-00.htm Committee to Examine the Optimal Form of [13] ISO website, : http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/stds Standard/Certification Systems”(in Japanese), : development/tcpartip/SubscriberMemberList http://www.meti.go.jp/kohosys/press/0004154 .MemberParticipationList /1/030617kikaku-houkokusyo.pdf [14] J. Early, “VAMAS Contribution to Standards [3] Japan Industrial Standards Committee Web Development,” VAMAS Bulletin, No. 24, pp. site, International Standardization Questions 12-16 (2001)

(Original Japanese version: published in July 2003)

60 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 6 The Necessity, Actual Situation and Challenges of Human Resources Training in the Nuclear Field

RYOTA OMORI Environment and Energy Research Unit

various views on its long-term outlook. Under 1 Introduction these circumstances, it seems that any clear consensus has yet to be reached on the grounds In recent years, there have been internationally for the necessity of training human resources shared concerns about the training of human in the nuclear sector, the concrete concepts in resources and the inheritance of technologies. which human resources should be trained, and Atomic energy-related organizations in Japan the actions to be taken in training. and abroad are undertaking investigations on Considering various factors such as the trend the actual concerns and reviewing measures to of the nuclear industry, therefore, this article be taken against them[1-4]. In the background of discusses the necessity from which the Japanese these concerns, there are to be found the aging government should commit in the training of personnel in the nuclear field and the young human resources in the nuclear field and the generation turning away from atomic energy in concepts in which human resources should society. A report[2] published by the International be trained. Furthermore, it describes the Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) presents these actual situation of efforts made by the Japanese concerns as follows: government and universities in training human “Many of the personnel working in the nuclear resources and discusses the challenges that the field are aging and close to their mandatory future policies for training human resources retirement age. On the other hand, there are should cope with. only a few young personnel of high quality who Here, the author defines the scope of have the intention of entering into the nuclear “human resources in the nuclear field (atomic field. In universities and colleges, there are energy-related human resources).” The “nuclear decreasing numbers of students studying atomic field” may be defined as the nuclear power energy-related subjects. Furthermore, nuclear generation-related field (in a narrow sense), or education programs have been closed in an otherwise as the nuclear field including also the increasing number of universities and colleges.” use of radiation, quantum beams and nuclear In Japan as well, people have a stronger interest fusion (in a wide sense). However, this article in these problems. Especially this year, more and mainly covers the problems of human resources more active discussions are being made on the in the nuclear power generation-related field (in problems of human resources in the nuclear field, a narrow sense). This is simply due to the author’ particularly in the reports published by Japanese s awareness of certain problems. Some of the organizations including the Japan Atomic discussions and statistical data as described in Industrial Forum, Inc. (JAIF) as well as various this article may cover the nuclear field in a wide technical magazines and symposiums[4-7]. sense. On the other hand, the nuclear industry in “Human resources” may include a variety of Japan has been diminishing in scale. It is difficult personnel such as researchers and engineers to predict if this industry will largely develop in charge of services such as research in the short and medium terms, while there are and development, and plant designing;

61 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

technicians in charge of repairing plants; Figure 1: Age-bracket distribution of Atomic Energy Society of Japan membership and officials responsible for regulations and disaster prevention in the local and central governments. However, this article mainly focuses on researchers and engineers. For detailed information concerning the problems of technicians, refer to references 4 and 8. As the background necessary to consider the problems of human resources in the nuclear field, Chapter 2 in this article describes the actual situations of the nuclear industry diminishing in scale and having aging personnel, and Chapter 3 describes the results of investigations made in Japan and the U.S. on the balance between the number of university students specializing in atomic energy and the number of recruits being sought by companies. Based on this information, Chapter 4 discusses the government’s necessity for training human resources in the nuclear Source: Provided by the JAES field and the concrete concepts in which human resources should be trained. Chapter maintain the number of human resources and the 5 describes the actual situations of nuclear level of technological force as before.” education in universities and colleges, Chapter 6 A report[3] published by the Japan Atomic describes those of nuclear education and research Industrial Forum, Inc. (JAIF) also describes as assistance by atomic energy research institutions follows: “In our country, atomic energy-related and related organizations, and Chapter 7 provides personnel in private-sector companies increased information about those of education and training from about 28,000 in 1973 to more than 60,000 and the existing qualification system for technical in 1992, and afterwards maintained a stable personnel in the nuclear industry. Finally, level of employment until 1995. However, Chapter 8 discusses the challenges that the future power companies have since begun to decrease policies for training human resources in the their equipment investments including the nuclear field should cope with. construction of nuclear plants as well as their research and development costs. The Japanese 2 Diminishing scale and aging government also has reduced its nuclear R&D personnel in the nuclear costs year by year since the peak reached in industry 1995. Under these circumstances, the number of atomic energy-related personnel in private-sector 2.1 Japan’s nuclear industry diminishing in scale companies decreased to less than 60,000 in 1996 In recent years, the nuclear industry in Japan and further to about 54,000 in 1999” (partly has been diminishing in scale. In this regard, the omitted). Long-Term Program for Research, Development and Utilization of Nuclear Energy in 2000 [9] 2.2 Aging personnel in the nuclear field describes as follows: “The nuclear industry in In the nuclear field, aging personnel is Japan is entering its maturing period. In recent observed behind the concerns about the years, a decreasing tendency has been observed inheritance of technologies. Figure 1 shows the both in the number of researchers, engineers age-bracket distribution of the Atomic Energy and technicians and the expenditure for atomic Society of Japan (AESJ’s) membership as of energy-related research activities. In the future, November 14, 2001. Of the membership, about therefore, it may be more and more difficult to 40% belonged to the nuclear industry, about 40%

62 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 to research institutions such as the JAERI and the JNC, and about 20% to universities and colleges. 3 Balance of supply and demand The age bracket of 51 to 55 years showed the for students specializing in peak number of members, and the number of atomic energy-related subjects members was much smaller as the age bracket lowered. Thus, this figure shows that a large part One of the most important factors that of the membership was remarkably older. determine the number of university and college The average age was 46 years for all the students who want to specialize in atomic members of the AESJ. It was 45 years for all the energy-related subjects or the number of young members of the Japan Society of Mechanical persons engaged in the nuclear field is the Engineers as well as the Institute of Electrical number of recruits being sought by atomic Engineers of Japan. Therefore, the aging energy-related companies, research institutions membership may be considered to be common to and other organizations. The decreasing number all the traditional fields of engineering. of recruits being sought by atomic energy-related In the nuclear field, however, it is pointed out organizations may decrease the number of young that many of the personnel who have played persons working in the nuclear field, and increase the most important roles in developing the the number of students who want to specialize in nuclear mandatory retirement age. A report[4] other disciplines more favorable for employment. published by the Japan Atomic Industrial Therefore, this chapter describes the results of Forum, Inc. (JAIF) states as follows: “The investigations made in Japan and the U.S. on the employees who entered into companies in the balance between the number of university (and early period of LWR development, experienced graduate school) students specializing in atomic in the construction and operation of LWRs energy-related subjects (hereinafter referred to as well as with a number of accidents and as “students specializing in atomic energy-related troubles, and engaged in the improvement of the subjects”) and the number of recruits being related equipment and systems will reach their sought by the nuclear industry. mandatory retirement age in 5 or 6 years. Many companies have concerns about the inheritance 3.1 Japan of their technologies for designing, operating Figures 2 and 3 show the annual numbers of and repairing nuclear facilities between the technical employees by types of organization and generations.” specialty, respectively, recruited by the nuclear departments of 8 electric power companies,

Figure 2: Annual number of technical employees recruited into the nuclear department by type of organization

These data are for 8 electric power companies, 3 manufacturing companies, and 2 research institutions[4].

63 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

3 manufacturing companies and 2 research 1/3 for the manufacturing companies and the institutions [4]. Figure 2 indicates that the annual research institutions). number of employees recruited by the nuclear On the other hand, Table 1 shows the total departments significantly decreased by 1999, number of university and college graduates because the annual number of recruits was specializing in atomic energy-related subjects and decreased by all the sectors of the electric power the number of university and college graduates by industry including the nuclear one during the career choice in each year[10]. The total number same period. of graduates was around 700 to 800 annually, of Figure 3 shows that the annual number of which the total number of graduates employed students specializing in atomic energy-related was around 400 annually, except that the subjects and employed by the above-mentioned numbers of graduates and graduates employed organizations was 38 to 56, which correspond to were lower in 2002. The annual number of about 15% of all the technical employees annually students employed by the nuclear field including recruited by their nuclear departments (about those related to the use of radiation and quantum 10% for the electric power companies and about beams was around 150 or about 40% of all the

Figure 3:Annual number of technical employees recruited into the nuclear sector by type of specialty

These data are for 8 electric power companies, 3 manufacturing companies, and 2 research institutions[4].Data for 1998 do not include 9 employees recruited by the two research institutions.

Table 1: Number of graduates specializing in atomic energy-related subjects and number of graduates by career choice[10]

Number of graduates Total number of Number of graduates employed Total Number Year going on to a higher level graduates employed by the nuclear sector b/a (%) of graduates of education (a) (b) 1987 719 278 441 169 38 1990 726 254 472 160 34 1997 689 321 368 175 48 1998 780 362 418 163 39 1999 756 340 416 153 37 2000 812 379 433 159 37 2001 815 385 430 129 30 2002 578 286 292 129 44

These data are for graduates having studied or majored in nuclear engineering-related subjects from Hokkaido University, Tohoku University, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Musashi Institute of Technology, Tokai University, Nagoya University, Kyoto University, Osaka University, Kinki University, Kobe University of Mercantile Marine, and Kyushu University. The data of graduates from Musashi Institute of Technology, Tokai University, Kinki University, and Kobe University of Mercantile Marine were excluded in 2002 and afterwards.

64 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

employed students. recruits being sought by the industry has caused In comparisons between the data shown emerging concerns about the shortage of students in these charts, the total number of technical specializing in atomic energy-related subjects employees recruited by the nuclear departments since 1998. of 8 electric power companies, 3 manufacturing Considering these circumstances, a workshop companies and 2 research institutions were on “Crisis in the Workplace - Manpower Supply annually only 38 to 56 as shown in Figure 3, and Demand in the Nuclear Industry: Imbalance” while the annual number of graduates having was organized mainly by Professor Was studied or majored in nuclear engineering-related (University of Michigan) in the winter assembly of subjects was about 700 to 800 with the annual the American Nuclear Society (ANS) held in 1998. number of graduates employed being about In addition, the Nuclear Engineering Department 400 as shown in Table 1. As described earlier, Heads Organization (NEDHO) sent questionnaires the recruits in the nuclear field in a wide sense on the supply and demand for human resources accounted for about 40% of all the recruits in in the nuclear field to atomic energy-related all the fields. However, some data indicate that universities, colleges and companies in the U.S. in about 75% of all the graduates wanted to enter 1999. The results were reported in the workshop the atomic energy-related fields [4]. From all on “Crisis in the Workplace II - Addressing the the data described above, it can be concluded Growing Supply/Demand Gap in the Nuclear that the annual number of university and Industry” in the winter assembly of the ANS held college graduates having specialized in atomic in 1999. The description of these workshops energy-related subjects and employed by the and the results of inquiry by questionnaire were nuclear industry has been strikingly small and summarized in the NEDHO Report[3]. decreasing year by year [3, 10, 11]. That is the Table 2 shows the annual supply/demand primary reason for students tending to turn balance of students specializing in atomic away from atomic energy-related subjects. It energy-related subjects as the main results of seems that this tendency is inevitable under the the inquiry by questionnaire as described in the actual situation where the nuclear industry is NEDHO Report. This inquiry by questionnaire diminishing in scale. targeted 32 universities and colleges that had nuclear engineering-related departments and 3.2 United States of America specialty subjects as well as 168 companies In the U.S., there has been no new nuclear related to the nuclear industry. power plant constructed in about 20 years. In The students who study mainly the use all the universities and colleges, the number of of nuclear fusion, accelerators and quantum students specializing in atomic energy-related beams account for a considerable percentage subjects has decreased by 72% in the related of all the students studying or majoring in departments and by 46% in the master courses atomic energy-related subjects (about 30% of over 10 years, and many atomic energy-related all the students in the atomic energy-related subjects and programs have been closed [3]. departments and about 50% of all the students Under these circumstances, the annual number in the atomic energy-related master courses). of students specializing in atomic energy-related Except for these students, Table 2 makes a subjects was “decreasingly balanced” with that comparison between the number of students of graduates employed by the nuclear industry specializing in nuclear engineering subjects (such through 1998. In recent years, however, the as reactor engineering, the safety of reactors, economy and operating rates of nuclear power nuclear fuels, nuclear fuel cycles, and health plants have been improved, and the federal physics) in a narrow sense and the number of government has begun to re-appreciate atomic recruits being sought by the nuclear industry. energy as one of the key energy resources for the In addition, Table 2 indicates that the demand future. As a result, the nuclear industry has been for students specializing in atomic energy-related reactivated. In addition, the increasing number of subjects has significantly exceeded the supply

65 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Table 2: Supply/demand balance of students specializing in atomic energy-related subjects in the U.S. [3]

Year Supply Number of Number of Number of B. S. Number of M.S. B.S. except M.S. except (Nuclear (Nuclear those going those going Demand Gap engineering engineering Total on to higher on to higher f g (=f–e) in a narrow in a narrow e (=b+d) education education sense) sense) b d a c (=a x 0.75) (=c x 0.75) 1998–99 103 77 96 72 149 512 363 1999–00 124 93 108 81 174 585 411 2000–01 105 79 114 86 165 587 422 2001–02 174* 627 453* 2002–03 174* 642 468*

* Estimated value in recent years, and it is expected that the strategies considering the industrial trend. supply/demand gap will increase. In contrast On the other hand, the nuclear industry with the Japanese situation as described in in Japan has been diminishing in scale, as Section 3-1 above, the NEDHO Report concluded described earlier. There are various views that the shortage of students specializing in on the future outlook of the nuclear industry atomic energy-related subjects had been caused in Japan. However, it is difficult to predict if by the increasing demand for human resources the nuclear industry will significantly develop from the nuclear industry in recent years. in Japan. Therefore, the demand for human resources from the nuclear industry will probably 4 Government’s necessity decrease (remarkably decrease, especially from for training human resources manufacturing companies that have only a few in the nuclear field orders for new plants). For the time being, it is and the concepts of trained surely difficult to predict if the nuclear industry human resources as a whole will be short of human resources, – Is the nuclear industry short of though it is recognized that the younger human resources? – generation should take over the inheritance of technologies as soon as possible, especially Based on the actual situation in Japan as because the generation that has played the most described in Chapters 2 and 3, this chapter important role in developing the nuclear industry discusses the government’s necessity for is aging, as described in Section 2-2. committing to human resources training, and the If the scale of the nuclear industry enlarges in concepts in which human resources should be the future, companies will probably recruit the trained. required personnel by increasing the number The factors that determine the demand for of new employees and redeploying the existing human resources from an industry are the employees. A report[4] published by the Japan industry’s scale (such as sales or market) and Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc. (JAIF) states the labor productivity, unless the short-term that many companies in the electric power, factors are regarded. The demand for human manufacturing and other sectors do not face any resources varies depending on the industrial serious problem of employment. scale, unless the labor productivity variation In the rapidly advancing disciplines such as with time is taken into consideration. From the life science and information technology (IT), it other point of view, this means that companies is predicted that the related industries will be and other organizations employ and reshuffle enlarged in scale and that concerns will emerge their personnel under their own management about the absolute shortage of human resources,

66 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 and it is considered that the policy challenge is take over these intellectual properties (nuclear to commit to increasing the quantity of human knowledge) and transfer them to the next resources. However, the nuclear industry in generation. Japan is not expected to be in the same situation, (3) Implementing long-term R&D projects as described earlier. In recent years, R&D efforts have been more On what grounds is the Japanese government active internationally to develop an innovative required to cope with the challenge of training atomic energy system excellent in economy, human resources in the nuclear field? safety and resistance to nuclear proliferation as For the time being, it is predicted that the well as the diversified utilization of this system nuclear industry will be diminishing in scale such as in the production of hydrogen. It is and that the number of employees related to generally considered that the commercialization the nuclear field will decrease in this industry. of this system has a high potentiality in the future Under these circumstances, the challenge in or considerably far future. In Japan, therefore, it governmental policies is to acquire and train the is necessary to undertake such R&D efforts with required human resources, from the viewpoints long-term perspectives. of controlling and regulating the safety of nuclear plants and radioactive substances The concrete concepts in which the Japanese (though companies in the electric power and government should train human resources manufacturing sectors, of course, have the from the above-described viewpoints are the primary responsibility of training the safety researchers and engineers who have high and control personnel), conserving the intellectual special knowledge of atomic energy and can fill properties in the nuclear field (nuclear the most important roles in the nuclear fields knowledge), and implementing long-term R&D of the industrial, governmental and academic and other projects. circles, respectively. It will take a long time to These viewpoints will be simply described train the key human resources, and it is difficult hereinafter. for the nuclear industry to replenish them from the other sectors depending on the short- and (1) Controlling and regulating the safety of medium- term trends of the industry. nuclear plants and radioactive substances From the long-term perspectives, therefore, At present, most of the operating nuclear the Japanese government is required to acquire reactors in Japan have a considerably long life and train the key human resources in the nuclear expectancy. In the future, it is imperative to field by involving the activities of universities satisfy the long-term demand for specialists and atomic energy research institutions and having a high level of knowledge and engaged in establishing various systems, in cooperation services such as the safety control and regulation with the industries concerned. The subsequent of reactors and related plants, the management of chapters will describe the actual situations of radioactive wastes and nuclear substances, and nuclear education in universities and colleges; decommissioning. the nuclear education and research assistance (2) Inheriting and conserving intellectual by atomic energy research institutions; and the properties in the nuclear field qualification and continuing education systems In Japan, the government and companies have for technical personnel in the nuclear industry. allotted a vast amount of budgets and human resources to nuclear R&D activities, since the 5 Actual situation of nuclear first Atomic Energy Act was promulgated in education in universities 1955. As a result, Japan now has the top level of and colleges nuclear technologies in the world as well as an enormous accumulation of nuclear knowledge This chapter describes the actual situation of and technologies. The Japanese government is nuclear education in universities and colleges. expected to train the young personnel who will The nuclear departments of industries have

67 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS employed not only many of the students who structures of many universities and colleges that specialized in atomic energy-related subjects, but were vertically divided into departments and also many of those who specialized in electrical graduate schools, and integrated the fractioned engineering, mechanical engineering and other subjects for the engineering departments into scientific subjects, as indicated in Figure 3. several major subjects or systems. In many cases, However, nuclear education in universities and conventional atomic energy-related subjects colleges focused on the atomic energy-related were integrated as courses into such a system, subjects and majors. or otherwise combined with each other in one In recent years, however, subjects having part of a major subject. In these cases, the the respective names with the affix of “atomic keywords such as “energy,” “quantum,” “system” energy” or “nuclear” have been discarded, and “science” were affixed to the names of major especially on the department level. This situation subjects and courses as alternatives to the words is shown in Table 3. The turning point was the “atomic energy” and “nuclear.” organizational reform of universities and colleges At the same time when the organizational that was inaugurated under the fundamental reform was carried out, more importance was principles of university and college establishment attached in the departmental education to the standards laid down in 1991[10]. As a result, this basic engineering subjects - such as electrical, reform largely changed those organizational mechanical, material, information, environmental

Table 3: The actual situation of nuclear education in the departments of universities and colleges

Initial name of subject Current name of subject University or college Department (year of establishment) (year of change) Nuclear Engineering Hokkaido University Engineering Nuclear Engineering (not changed) (1967) Tohoku University Engineering Nucleonics (1962) Quantum Science and Engineering (1996) Main transformation University of Tsukuba Engineering Systems Main energy engineering major (1998) engineering major (1977)*1 System creation science [3 courses of The University of Nuclear engineering Engineering environmental & energy systems, simulation, Tokyo (1960) and bio & information system] *2 (2000) Mercantile marine system engineering Tokyo University of Mercantile marine Engine science (1962) *3 course [nuclear engineering and nuclear Mercantile Marine science system engineering subjects] *2 (1990) Musashi Institute of Basic energy engineering Engineering Environmental & energy engineering (2003) Technology (1997) Nuclear engineering major Applied science [energy engineering major]*2 Tokai University Engineering in applied science subject (2001) (1956) Physical engineering [quantum energy Nagoya University Engineering Nucleonics (1966) engineering course] *2 (1993) Physical engineering [energy science Kyoto University Engineering Nucleonics (1958) & engineering course and nucleonic sub-course] *2 (1994) Electronic information & energy engineering Nuclear engineering [nuclear engineering course] *2 (1996) Osaka University Engineering (1962) [Energy & quantum engineering course] (2003) Science and Reactor engineering Electrical & electronic engineering [energy Kinki University engineering (1961) engineering course] (2002) Kobe University of Mercantile marine Nuclear power science Power system engineering course [nuclear Mercantile Marine science (1972) system engineering lecture] *2 (1990) Kyushu University Engineering Applied nucleonics (1967) Energy science (1998)

*1: Basic engineering on establishment. *2: The words in [ ] indicate the organization in which importance is attached to nuclear engineering in the major subjects. *3: The nuclear-powered ship engineering research room is established.

68 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 and energy engineering - than to the majors, and (and their graduate schools). This situation is a the number of lectures related to nuclear power response adapting to the general change of the generation was largely reduced. These changes engineering education and research system, or occurred in accordance with the engineering otherwise the diminishing scale of the nuclear education reform strategy wherein the industry. Therefore, it is expected that it will be curriculum focused on basic engineering subjects more and more important to improve and develop on the department level, while engineering the nuclear education, qualification and other majors were mainly reserved for graduate systems for technical personnel in the nuclear schools. In some cases, this education reform field in order to maintain or improve the nuclear has been more favorable for students seeking jobs technology level in industries. and allowed companies to employ students more freely. 6 Nuclear education and research On the other hand, the names of majors were assistance by Atomic Energy changed in many graduate schools. However, Research Institutions the number of majors with names not changed and other organizations on the graduate school level are greater than that of subjects with names not changed on the 6.1 Nuclear training for engineers department level, while the number of majors Companies and other organizations have combined with the other(s) are smaller than provided nuclear education mainly in the form that of subjects combined with the other(s). of OJT. To support the OJT, atomic energy Therefore, the educational programs on the research institutions and other organizations graduate school level were not largely changed, have organized training courses for engineers. compared with those for the departmental Table 4 provides a list of key training courses education. On the graduate school level, for Japanese engineers. This list includes a however, there is an increasing tendency to wide range of training courses for beginners to consider nuclear engineering as a wide range of high-level professionals. In recent years, the disciplines including quantum and beam science, number of trainees has increased in the nuclear system engineering, radiation utilization, nuclear disaster prevention training courses for officials fusion and simulation, and it cannot be denied responsible for disaster prevention services in that not enough provision has been made for local governments. the education and researches directly related to The Tokai Training Center of the Nuclear nuclear power generation. Technology and Education Center (NuTEC) On the other hand, industries have changed installed in the Japan Atomic Energy Research its needs for academic education. The inquiry Institute has provided general education and by questionnaire made by the Japan Atomic training in nuclear engineering to train engineers Industrial Forum, Inc. (JAIF)[4] indicated that in the atomic energy sector [12]. At present, it industries required that the students who sought has opened various training courses for reactor for jobs in the nuclear sector should have surely engineering, radiation protection, nuclear fuel mastered and developed the basic academic engineering, radioactive waste management, ability, have been well educated in a wide range nuclear disaster prevention, etc. The training of disciplines in addition to their major of nuclear periods range from several days to 21 weeks engineering, and have a flexible conception, (for the reactor engineering course). The total logical thinking ability, challenging spirit, number of trainees was 30,410 for the period problem-solving ability, and so forth. from 1958 (when the Training Center was Thus, it can be concluded that the conventional established) to 2002. The Tokyo Training Center education and research programs in which of the NuTEC has also opened training courses for importance was attached to the supply of human RI and radiation engineers, and the total number resources to the nuclear power generation sector of trainees has reached 21,267. are disappearing in universities and colleges

69 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Table 4: List of key nuclear training courses for Japanese engineers (some radiometry-related and other courses are omitted.)[13]

Number Number of trainees Description of main training courses of courses in 2002 Training for atomic energy engineers 16 871 Nuclear Technology and Education (Tokai Training Center) Center (NUTEC)/JAERI Training for RI and Radiation engineers 13 228 (Tokai Training Center) Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Nuclear disaster prevention 6 1464 Institute

National Institute of Radiological Radiological nursing & protection, emergency 7 347 Sciences exposure rescue training, etc.

Radiation Application Development International nuclear safety seminar, 10 1336 Association Nuclear experience seminar Nuclear management seminar for parties Japan Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc. interested in the nuclear field, Nuclear power 6 180 generation quality assurance course, etc. Nuclear disaster prevention, radiation control & Nuclear Safety Technology Center 23 2641 measuring, etc. BWR Operator Training Center. Training for BWR operators Nuclear Power Training Center, Ltd.. Training for PWR operators 588 Japan Nuclear Power Generation Basic nuclear technologies, training for radiation 6 74 Training Center, Ltd. controllers, etc.

facilities provided. They may receive advices and 6.2 Education and research assistance for supports from the coordinators in the respective graduate school sstudents and postdoctors receiving research rooms. The JAERI employed The Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute 100 doctors-researchers (including those who (JAERI) and the Japan Nuclear Cycle Development renewed their contracts) in 2003. Institute (JNC) have received graduate school In recent years, atomic energy research students and postdoctors as special research institutions have promoted their cooperation students and doctors-researchers to conduct with universities and colleges by using the researches and receive education by using their graduate school partnership system. Under this facilities. system, researchers in research institutions may The special research students are selected be appointed as regular or guest professors and from graduate school students as well as graduate assistant professors to provide research guidance school student researchers being jobless for 2 to graduate school students in the respective years or less after the completion of the doctoral research institutions with up-to-date equipment course, and conduct researches in the general until the students obtain their master’s degree. atomic energy discipline for one year. Grants The JAERI now has concluded graduate school as well as travel and other expenses are paid to partnership agreements with 9 universities and them. The JAERI received 60 special research colleges. students in the 2003 fiscal year. The doctors-researchers are selected from 7 Qualification and continuing postdoctors of 35 years old at most and employed education systems for under a one-year contract (that may be renewed engineers up to 2 times depending on the required evaluation of their researches). On voluntary 7.1 Establishment of a “nuclear power and and independent basis, these doctors-researchers radiation” division in the consultant conduct their researches in the disciplines engineer qualification system appointed by the receiving organizations In June 2003, the Advisory Committee respectively, by using the experimental and other on Sciences and Technology in the Ministry

70 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and which also is a member of this Conference, Technology submitted its report on reviewing established a Working Group for Continuing the technical divisions in the examination Professional Development (CPD) within for qualified consultant engineers[14]. In this itself. This working group has discussed on report, the council proposed to establish a the following items regarding the continuing “nuclear power and radiation” division as professional development of engineers related a new technical division related to nuclear to the nuclear power generation and radiation technologies. This report provided advices application fields[15]. and recommendations to the inquiries made by the Education, Culture, Sports, Science • The feasibility of studies on the CPD and Technology minister in April 2001. The curriculums common to the academic, ministry will prepare its draft ordinances and industrial and governmental circles and notices based on the council’s report, collect required in the nuclear field as well as the public comments, and promulgate its revised possibility of contribution made by the ordinances and notices. The examination for Atomic Energy Society of Japan. qualified consultant engineers will start in the • Inquiries and discussions on the necessity for 2004 fiscal year. a new qualification system that is expected by The needs for establishing the new “nuclear the nuclear industry. power and radiation” division include the • Inquiries and discussions on the systems and social importance of nuclear technologies, organizations necessary to promote the CPD. the inherent nature of nuclear engineering • Discussions on the frameworks of systems for as a multi-technology discipline, the safety of information exchange and cooperation with nuclear systems (such as improved skills of the other societies and associations. engineers, strengthened safety control systems • Discussions on the framework of the in enterprises, use of engineers in the safety continuing education for those who obtained regulation sector, and improved communication the national qualifications of managers (for with the public on risks), and the international reactors, radiation handling, nuclear fuel use of engineers. handling, etc.). The qualification of “nuclear power and • Discussions on how the maintenance of the radiation” consultant engineer certifies the high consultant engineer qualification system in quality of individual engineers, and it is expected the nuclear division should be supported. that this qualification may probably contribute to training nuclear engineers into excellent 8 Conclusion professionals, which may be also considered as the concrete target for these engineers to pursue Considering various factors such as the trend of their self-training. the nuclear industry, this article has discussed the government’s necessity for committing to training 7.2 Continuing Professional Development human resources in the nuclear field as well as (CPD) the concrete concepts in which human resources In the 2002 fiscal year, the Japan Federation should be trained. In addition, it has described of Engineering Society (JFES) established the the actual situations of nuclear education in Conference for Professional Development of universities and colleges; nuclear education Engineers (PDE) (with a membership of 41 and research assistance given by atomic energy societies and associations) for new engineers research institutions and other organizations; and graduating from universities and colleges. This education & training and qualification systems conference has started discussions on the for technical personnel in the nuclear industry. preparation of continuing education curriculums This chapter summarizes the important points for engineers as well as the qualification system. of what have been discussed and described in The Atomic Energy Society of Japan (AESJ), the previous chapters, and describes the future

71 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS challenges to be coped with. personnel in the nuclear industry, and the In recent years, the nuclear industry in Japan qualification system for technical personnel has been diminishing in scale. The generation in the nuclear industry have been gradually that has played the most important role in improved and developed. developing the nuclear industry is now aging. Considering these circumstances, the Therefore, it is generally recognized that the challenges that the Japanese government should younger generation needs to take over the undertake will be discussed hereinafter. inheritance of nuclear technologies as soon The first challenge is to form a human as possible. For the time being, however, it is resources training base by using the human difficult to predict if the nuclear industry will be resources and equipment in the two nuclear short of human resources as a whole. corporations. An abundance of human Under these circumstances, the challenge in resources and equipment exists in the Japan the Japanese government’s policy is to acquire Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) and train the human resources indispensable for and the Japan Nuclear Cycle Development ensuring the safety of the existing plants, take Institute (JNC). It is essential to make the best over the inheritance of intellectual properties in use of them not only for the most advanced the nuclear field, and implement long-term R&D atomic energy research and development projects, especially the “key human resources” activities, but also for the education and that have a high specialty and can fill the most training of the next generation of human important roles in the industrial, governmental resources including the education for students and academic circles, respectively. It will take a in graduate schools and technical personnel long time to train the key human resources, and in the nuclear industry. The new corporation it is difficult to replenish the nuclear sector with to be established by incorporating the two the necessary human resources from the other institutes will be required to fill the role of sectors depending on the short-term trend of the human resources training base in the nuclear nuclear industry. field. It is necessary to not only further Concerning nuclear education and researches improve and develop the existing graduate in Japanese universities and colleges, greater school partnership system as well as the importance has been attached on the education and training system for technical department level to the basic engineering personnel in the nuclear industry, but also to subjects than to the majors. In graduate consider the establishment of graduate schools schools, there is an increasing tendency for professionals*1 using the human resources to consider nuclear engineering as a wide and equipment in the new corporation. In this range of disciplines including the use of human resources training base, it is possible radiation and quantum beams. Thus, Japanese to train a considerable number of human universities do not make enough provision resources having high specialties of key nuclear for the educational curriculums related to technologies in a concentrated and effective nuclear power generation. This situation is a way. To evaluate researchers in the organizations response adapting to the general change in the related to the training of human resources in engineering education and research systems, or the nuclear field, it is necessary to build up the otherwise the diminishing scale of the nuclear framework of an evaluation system wherein industry. Therefore, it is expected that it will not only the results of researches but also the be relatively important to improve and develop contribution to human resources training are the nuclear education, qualification and other actively evaluated. systems for technical personnel in the nuclear Young and good human resources are gathering field. On the other hand, the nuclear education in potential industries. On the contrary, it is and research assistance given by atomic energy generally considered that the nuclear industry research institutions and other organizations to has matured. In medium and long terms, graduate school students as well as technical however, the industry is expected to introduce

72 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 the next-generation atomic energy system References excellent in economy, safety, resistance to [1] IAEA, Introductory Discussion Paper of the nuclear proliferation and other features, and to Senior Level Meeting on Managing Nuclear develop new uses for atomic energy such as the Knowledge, June (2002). production of hydrogen. In recent years, R&D [2] OECD/NEA, Nuclear Education and Training efforts have been more active internationally. - Cause for Concern? (2000). To build up the future base of atomic energy [3] Nuclear Engineering Department Heads technologies in Japan and train human resources Organization, Manpower Supply and in the nuclear field, it is important for the Demand in the Nuclear Industry (2000). Japanese government to actively support the [4] Report by the Subcommittee on the R&D efforts in developing the new atomic Problem of Human Resources, Committee energy system, which is worthy for young for Strengthening the Infrastructure, Japan researchers to challenge and is expected to be Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc. (2003) (in introduced on a large scale into the nuclear Japanese). industry. [5] Science Council of Japan, Liaison Committee Finally, the birth rate is declining and the on Nuclear Engineering Researches, and population is aging in Japan. In the future, the Liaison Committee on Energy and Resources inheritance of technologies may probably be Engineering Researches, Technical Committee a challenge common not only to the nuclear on Nuclear Engineering, Re-establishment field, but also to many engineering fields. To of Nuclear Science in Harmony with the effectively take over technologies in various Society of Human Beings, March 17, 2003 (in engineering fields including the nuclear Japanese). engineering field, it will be important to [6] Feature Article “Challenges and Perspectives have the knowledge of their features as well of Nuclear Education and Human Resources as an approach to the effective inheritance Training at a Turning Point,” Atomic Energy of technologies. Therefore, it is desirable to eye, Vol. 49, No. 9 (2003) (in Japanese). promote future researches on the inheritance of [7] “Training for the Next Generation of Engineers technologies. Opening Up a New Frontier,” 41st National Symposium of Atomic Energy, Tokyo, Japan, Acknowledgements May 22, 2003 (in Japanese). In writing this article, the author received [8] Toshiro Kitamura, How to Train and valuable advice and the necessary materials from Strengthen Human Resources Mainly for the many individuals including Professor Kazuhiko Reparation of Nuclear Power Plants, Atomic Kudo, Gradutate School of Engineering of Kyushu Energy eye, Vol. 49, Nos. 9 and 13-16 (2003) University, and Mr. Makoto Sobajima, Nuclear (in Japanese). Technology and Education Center of the Japan [9] Japan Atomic Energy Commission, Long-term Atomic Energy Institute. Here, the author wishes Program for Researches, Development and to express his heartfelt gratitude to all of them. Utilization of Atomic Energy, November 24, 2000 (in Japanese). Note [10] Kazuhiko Kudo, Actual Situation and Problems *1 On July 2, 2003, the prefecture of Ibaraki of Human Resources Training in the Nuclear requested the Japanese government to Field, lecture meeting in the National Institute promote the Initiative “Science Frontier 21” of Science and Technology Policy, June 19, for establishing a general nuclear science 2003 (in Japanese). research and development base. In its [11] Haruhiko Fujii, Nuclear Engineering request, it proposed the desired item of Education in a Unfavorable Wind - A Few promoting the establishment of graduate Jobs for Specialists and Concerns about schools for professionals in the nuclear field. the Availability of Human Resources, Energy Review, March 2002, pp. 46-49 (in

73 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Japanese). [14] Advisory Committee on Sciences and [12] Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, Technology, Re Reviewing the Technical Nuclear Technology and Education Center, Divisions in the Examination for Qualified Nuclear Technology and Education Center’ Consultant Engineers, June 2, 2003 (in s Activities (in the 2001 fiscal year), JAERI - Japanese). Review 2003-003 (2003) (in Japanese). [15] Tatsuo Miyazawa, Continuing Professional [13] Provided by the Nuclear Technology and Development in the Nuclear Sector, 41st Education Center, Japan Atomic Energy National Symposium of Atomic Energy, Research Institute (in Japanese). Tokyo, Japan, May 2003 (in Japanese).

(Original Japanese version: published in September 2003)

74 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 7 Trend in the Introduction and Development of Robotic Surgical Systems KUMI OKUWADA Materials and Manufacturing Technology Research Unit

legs and for humanoid robots[5]. For this reason, 1 Introduction many engineering researchers have never suspected the existence of a drawback in the Various problems involved in medical development of robotics in Japan. treatments are one of the subjects, for which The present situation of medical robotics solutions need to be sought eternally, in in Japan is as described above. In this report, particular, they are under closer scrutiny as the robotic surgical system is presented. It is these challenges have become more serious in just one of the curative equipments, but it has Japan, facing the problem of an aging population. attracted great attention, in that it can bring a Although most of the people born and raised change into the existing medical technology. This in Japan don’t know that Japan is not always report focuses directly on the actual situation a medically developed country, European and in the medical world, which is undergoing a American residents in Japan point out that not drastic change by the introduction of robotics. only the level of provided medical services but It will be discussed the reason why Japan, also the technologies for medical treatments are though considered as a robotics developed not commensurated with the national economic country, has fallen behind in its introduction and power[1]. Generally, Japanese tend to believe that development. It may provide useful suggestion for “medical treatments are naturally given to them” the future research and development of medical like water[2] and the quality of the services is engineering technology in Japan. high, and, furthermore, they have no choice in medical treatment even if less satisfied with the 2 Development existing service. of Robotic Surgical Systems Over the past decade, Japan has imported an excessive number of medical equipments, 2.1 Overview of technological development in particular the volume of imported curative In Japan, various endoscopic techniques treatment equipments is twice more than that have already been used widely in curatives and of exported equipments[3, 34, 42]. Besides in the diagnoses in the actual medical scenes. Giving sector of diagnostic equipments where Japan has a familiar example, a photogastroscope is a so far enjoyed an advantage over other countries, kind of optical fiber with a camera attached to a concerned voice has begun to be heard saying, its tip, which is a typical tool for endoscopic “How long can this advantage be retained ?” diagnosis. “Diagnosis” had been a main objective On the other hand, this year is when of the endoscopic technique. The camera “Tetsuwan-Atom (Astro Boy)” was born in that tube was introduced directly into the body to story, so many robotics-related events are being capture images. Then, a next approach has been held in various locations [4]. Japan is a world developed, where manipulators (forceps) were leader in industrial robot holding, is a robotics also brought into the body for “curative”. Since developed country universally recognized as about 1990, endoscopic treatments (also referred a country devoted to the development of the to as laparoscopic surgery) had rapidly spread, technology for bipedal robots walking on two which is said to be the largest change in the

75 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Figure 1:Two stages of development in surgical operation

Source : Author’s compilation based on the materials by Prof. M. Hashizume

Table 1:Functions expected for surgical robotics

Eye functions Manual functions Flexibly like human hands To see the entire scene before eyes (wide view) Extended functions of human hands • Subconscious and unconscious scenes Reconsidering of basic handling To see invisible information • Ablation some new approach • All information visualized • Cutting non-invasive • Real-time update • Knotting auto-suturing • On-demand acquisition • Coagulation ultrasonic coagulation & cutting • Fluoroscopy (structures & functions of organ) • Suture simple single handling • Augmented reality (Extended reality) • Resection only disease focus

Source: Supplied by Prof. M. Hashizume medical world over the past decade. Today, some integrated technology for developing robots capable type of endoscopic technique is used in about of being remote computer-controlled[6]. The typical 30% of all surgical operations. examples of these robots are robotic systems called Paying attention mainly to the manipulator “Da Vinci”[7] and “Zeus”[8], both of which were technology, the development history of the developed by venture businesses in the U.S. robotic surgery by present is briefly shown in These robotic systems are considered to be on Figure 1. the extension of the conventional endoscopic At the first stage, the surgical operation technique surgical method in Japan. On the other hand, this was changed from a direct manual mode to the method is called “telesurgery” based on robotics endoscopic mode, where a major breakthrough in Europe and the U.S., where it seems to be was made in the techniques for imaging using an viewed from an aspect different from the existing endoscope and for introducing a manipulator into endoscopic technique. At the second stage, it the body. It is these techniques at the first stage was a great progress that the function of eyes and that have changed significantly the conventional hands were completely separated from surgical method of surgical operations in Japan. Meanwhile, operators. Table 1 lists such functions of these turning our eyes to the world scene, the second robots, which surgical operators will be eager to stage has already been opened since about 1997, use in the future. where great attention was paid to an advance in

76 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

It has been reported that the hospitals can also 2.2 Significance of the development enjoy the management benefits of the short-term at the first stage treatments like day surgery in that the turnover – from manual surgery to endoscopic surgery – rate of patients is high[12]. The progress at the first stage was in that Simply assuming that the development of both the camera tube and manipulator could medical robotics aims at achieving advanced be brought into the patient’s body. The endoscopic cameras and high-precision world-first, endoscopic cholecystectomy was manipulators, it could be fair to say that the successfully performed in France in 1987. At intended goal had been almost attained at this first stage, where the surgical operation this first stage. Endoscopic surgery seems method was changed from the manual mode to to be favorably accepted by both many the endoscopic mode, the noteworthy feature physicians and patients in Japan. Some cases of minimal invasiveness was given to surgical of academic-industrial collaboration for the operations. The incision on the patient’s development of these enabling technologies body could be minimized to less than several have been reported. Some Japanese companies centimeters, eliminating the need for abdominal stand at cooperative positions in developing the operations in many cases. This brought great technologies in this field. However, turning our benefits to the patients including elimination attention to the timing when a total endoscopic of the need for blood transfusion, relief of surgery-supporting system was accepted as a post-surgery pains, reduction in the duration medical device in Japan, it was a first approval in of hospital stays, and a dramatic decrease in 2002 that the MTLP-1 system (Hitachi, Ltd.). On days until the return to a normal life. Giving the other hand, in the U.S., it was in 1994 that the an example of splenectomy, 30 cm or more Aesop 1000 system (Computer Motion Inc.) was incision was made on the patient’s abdomen in first approved by Food and Drug Administration the conventional technique, though at present, (FDA)[13]. incisions as small as 0.5-1 cm are made at three points only. For this reason, about 95% 2.3 Significance of the development of the applicable cases undergo endoscopic at the second stage cholecystectomy in Japan. The duration of – from endoscopic surgery to remote surgery – postoperative hospital stays has been reduced The most important point of the development at to about four days on the average, achieving the the second stage lies in that individual endoscopic same NHI (National Health Insurance System) technologies have been integrated into one point levels for endoscopic operations as those robotic surgical system beyond the role of medical for general treatments. These minimally invasive tools. This integrated system, not only reduces treatments are expected to reduce the occurrence considerably the time and physical exertion falling of complications, enable older people to undergo on surgeons, but also enables remote surgery. In surgical operations, and decrease the number 2000’s, migration to robotic systems is attracting of patients confined to the bed. So it is said that great attention in Europe and the U.S. such a phenomenon has partially occurred where In the later half of the 1990s, a computer-controlled patients would not go to the hospitals in which and integrated robot-supported treatment system no minimally invasive treatments can be done. with three or more robotic arms composed of The combination of the endoscopic definite surgical tools and endoscope was introduced diagnosis and the advanced curatives minimizes the into the surgical field[14]. In this type of system, need for hospitalization, enabling patients to return a mainframe as equipment and some optional to their homes on the day or next day of the surgical variation of functional parts are prepared. Figure operation. This short-term treatment method is 2 shows the difference in surgical operation called “day surgery”[9]. The day surgery-specific between the procedure using typical robotic operation rooms are being constructed in some surgical systems; Da Vinci (Intuitive Surgical Inc.: university[10] and private[11] hospitals in Japan. approved by the FDA in 2000)[7] , Zeus (Computer

77 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Motion Inc.: approved by the FDA in 2001)[8], and the use of these systems is increasingly spreading the conventional endoscopic approach. With the in 2003, so it is hard to know the exact number robotic surgical system, the operator can perform of the cases . Da Vinci systems have already come surgical operations at the remote site, while only up to 160 or more installed all over the world. an anesthetist and an assistant operator stand by These robotic surgical systems have a the patient on the surgical bed. significant meaning in that they can facilitate Table 2 describes the cases, in which surgical surgical operations being performed on a daily operations have been performed using Da Vinci basis throughout the world, mitigate patients’ or Zeus. It has been demonstrated that these strain, and enable the operators to perform robotic surgical systems can be fundamentally surgical operations remotely. It provides the used in the area almost all endoscopic surgical potential for a great advance in the improvement operations could be preferred. In foreign of the whole medical system. In the field of countries, 7,000 or more cases of robotic surgical cardiac surgery, in particular, great attention operations have been reported up to 2002, and is paid to these systems in that a large benefit

Figure 2:Comparison between operations using conventional endoscope and the robotic surgical system

source : Author’s compilation based on the materials by Prof. M. Hashizume

Table 2:Cases of robot-supported surgical operations

ablation of internal mammary artery, Cardiac surgery coronary-artery bypass surgery (closed), mitral valveloplasty pneumectomy, pneumothorax, mediastinal tumorectomy, mammary gland tumorectomy, Chest surgery thoracic gangliosympathectomy (hyperhidrosis) radical operation for reflux esophagitis, esophagectomy (esophageal cancer), gastrectomy Digestive apparatus surgery (gastric cancer), gastric mucosectomy, pyloromyotomy, colectomy (colorectal cancer) pancreatectomy, splenectomy, proximal gastric transection, hepatectomy, cholecystectomy (cholelithiasis), choledochotomy, lumbar gangliosympathectomy, radical operation for Abdominal surgery inguinal hernia, tubal ligation, hysterectomy, ovariectomy, oophorocystectomy, nephrectomy (renal cancer), total prostatectomy Vascular surgery resection and reconstruction of aorta (arteriosclerosis obliterans) Transplantation (donor operation) Renal transplantation

Source: Supplied by Prof. M. Hashizume

78 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Figure 3:Present and perspective levels of the robotic surgical system

Source : Author’s compilation based on the materials by Prof. M. Hashizume

can be enjoyed from them because the needs shrinking in size and operating in the body of a for thoracotomy and stoppage of blood flow as patient. Clearly different from the conventional well as heartbeat are eliminated and facilitating operations, which are performed through a postperative recovery is imported. It has monitor screen installed by the side of a patient’ been reported that the case of a patient in s bed, the new surgical method using the robotic Keio University, who underwent the surgical surgical system provides the operator with more operation using the robotic system, got back to real and detailed live views of the operative his carpenter’s work about 2-3 weeks after the field throughout the entire operation. The operation. In Leipzig, Germany, about 4,000 manipulator of the robotic surgical system is far robotic operations in cardisosurgy itself were smaller than human hands which rotates by 360 performed for the year 2002. These robotic degrees dexterously, and enables the surgical systems satisfy the ever-increasing demands of operator to perform the operations, which are surgeons working at actual sites, because the several times more precise than those human technologies for them are continuously making hands can do, just as he/she intends, including progress. easy suture of the finest blood vessels. Most Japanese surgeons have already accepted that 2.4 Enabling technologies developed in the robotic surgical systems can perform surgical second stage and their spreading effects operations at the same dexterity level as that of Comparing with conventional endoscopic leading surgeons’ skills. This means that even technologies (Figure 3), enabling technologies inexperienced surgical operators could perform used in these robots have an advantage in that the highest level of operations in the view the imaging technology, which serves as human point of the manipulating skills. It eliminates eyes, has been developed to the extent that real any operator hand tremor and reduces the time 3D images can be acquired. The surgical operator, for operations to less than half of laparotomy. sitting in front of the console of a robotic surgical Even elder operators, who have reached their system and matching the monitor, can perform physical potential, could keep the highest level a surgical operation while having a feeling of of operations. For these reasons, the existing

79 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS unevenness in skills among surgeons would be operability. Surgical operators even in plain able to decrease. clothes can perform the operations on the target It goes without saying that these robotic patient from a neighboring room of the operating surgical systems have some shortages. room and even also on patients overseas by Meanwhile, the study on enabling technologies means of Internet or satellite communications. is being proactively developed to provide Concerning the problem of medical care in surgical operators with support at a higher isolated districts where no physician resides, level than human performance. The cases of remote-controlled diagnoses and curatives studies conducted in Japan include: technology by telecommunications have been expected enabling tactile impression to be transmitted to long before[17], which are one of the proactive the operators using a high-sensitivity sensor to IT-exploiting promotion items among the e-Japan bring close to the feeling of direct operations; Strategy Second planned out by the IT Strategic imaging technology, virtual freeze-frame Head Office in July 2003[18]. Note that in Japan, technology, enabling the operators to perform medical examination had been conventionally operations while showing the still images of confined to the face-to-face system in principle organs by detecting organ movements and (Article 20 of the Medical Practioners Law), transmitting them to the manipulator in sync; but the deregulation has already started; the another imaging technology, augmented reality, application of the remote-controlled medical enabling the update information on intraorgan care system using information communications structures including blood vessels, which varies equipment was approved by the authorities with the progress of operation, to be overlapped in 1997 [19]. Great expectations are put on on the target organ by combining with an remote-controlled medical care from many internal diagnostic equipment; and functionality aspects; health care in isolated districts, as well to feed back to the system the information on as; surgical operations in case of a disaster, team organs, which may deform when the operator collaborative operations by surgical operators makes contact with them. To minimize the in different places, and the need for protecting apprehension of complications and residual against infection during surgical operation[20]. tumors, pre-operative angiography and tumor In the first case of intercontinental surgical site confirmation will allow the operators to operations, an American surgical operator determine with confidence whether these performed an operation using Zeus via an optical events have occurred, though the observations fiber on a 68-year-old French woman (Sep. of them have relied largely on the operators’ 2001). It is called “Lindberg Operation”. With intuitive judgments. In future, robotic surgical only one exception of the problem of securing systems will provide the navigation function to quality communications, he could perform the view images invisible to operators. To promote operation as if he was in a neighboring room of these enabling technologies, the activities of the operating room. international academic associations are made. In the case of brain surgery, since it requires The Japan Society of Computer Aided Surgery a finer special manipulator, any robotic surgical was founded to conduct these studies in a new system has not been able to support such domain of computer-aided surgery[15]. surgical operators. However, such a system was It is expected that these robotic surgical developed that a medical specialist gives advice systems will be used in such operations as organ to the surgical operator actually performing the transplantation and reconstructive surgery in operation on a patient via the remote-controlled the future. Moreover, it is considered in the U.S. system, like a TV conference. It was reported that that they may be applicable to special surgical cases of brain surgical operations were performed domains, such as antenatal care of fetus which by combining this system with the endoscopic has been undertook since 1980[16]. operation method[21]. The study has been started Among the wide variety of advantages, the for achieving a complete remote-controlled brain most promising one lies in the remote-controlled surgical system[22].

80 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Figure 4:perspective of whole medical care system including remote-controlled treatments in the future

Source : Supplied by Prof. M. Mitsuishi

In addition, the computer control system has Figure 4 is the schematic view of an ideal brought out high-speed simulators, allowing medical care system within the 21st century surgical operators to be well clinically trained envisioned by Japanese robotic researchers[20]. in practical operating fields. Also in Japan, where some residents have no experience in 2.5 How are robotic surgical systems laparotomy as the endoscopic operation method accepted in Japan ? has advanced, the introduction of the robotic It seems that the medical robotics have surgical system enables them to be trained advanced in the second stage much more using simulation like intern pilots. In Kyushu higher than most Japanese surgeons expected. University, the Center for Integration of Advanced At present, these systems have not been well Medicine, Life Science and Innovative Technology recognized among Japanese clinicians, some of (CAMIT) was established for education and whom seem to reject them. training [23]. Someday, the need for resident In Japan, Da Vincis were introduced for training using animals may be eliminated. clinical tests in two university hospitals in At present, a remote-controlled educational 2000. Though the tests were finished in June system with realistic sensations is also being 2002, the applications for approval have not developed. In October 2002, an Australia-Canada been submitted. Usually in Japan, it takes a long virtual surgical operation across the Pacific time before approval for medical equipment is Ocean was demonstrated[24] . It suggests that given, especially if the appropriate applicable an international medical e-learning system has provision is not defined in the Medicine Act. For begun. Many Japanese surgical operators have this reason, only two Da Vincis and five Zeuses won international approval for their operating have been introduced into the country, and the skills, so remote-controlled surgical operations number of trial operations remains at a level of and education using these systems would be one about 100 cases. of great contributions to the international society Retracing the historical development stages in the future. of robotic surgical systems in the U.S., as

81 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS described in the following section, these systems be “robot development/demonstration test special were being steadily improved so as to achieve area” and has just approved. They are trying to the performance of medical equipments in add the demonstration tests of operations using 1990’s. Robotic surgical systems with high robotic surgical systems to the proposal. If this quality such as Da Vinci and Zeus did not just application is accepted, as part of the Special suddenly appear. They are the fruits of the great Healthcare Expenditure, a budget will be allotted efforts. The robotic surgical systems are often to operations using these systems as a special misunderstood in Japan in that; it is considered case under the provision of the Health Insurance that the development of the robotics has only Act. It may result in an increase in the number of brought precision-improved manipulators and robotic surgical operations in this area. the performances of these systems are inferior to human’s, or autonomy type of robots will perform 2.6 Venture companies which developed operations at their discretion without respect to robotic surgical systems the operator’s intention. American venture companies, which developed It seems that in the 1990s, the international two typical robotic surgical systems, had been flow of medical engineering technology has been closely related to the research and development overlooked or considered less serious in Japan. activities in universities. According to the 7th Technology Foresight[25] Computer Motion Inc., which has developed conducted by NISTEP in 2000, any keywords Zeus, was founded by a researcher of the concerning this technology were omitted Development of Electrical Engineering, University from the Delphi subjects in medical/health of California, Santa Barbara in 1989. The history and manufacturing fields. Concerning the life of this company’s development[26] is instructive science field, there was one subject, “minimally for us. This company first received approval for invasive surgery applying a micro machine or Aesop 1000, which was an endoscopic operation robot will make up most of surgical operations”. system, by the FDA in 1994. In the period of The average of answers by all the respondents 1991 to 1994, the voice recognition function was to the question “When will it be realized?” was researched in a project style, resulting in Hermes, 2016 to 2017, and that of specialists saying 2014. a system that behaved as instructed by the They both forecast that the moment to realize surgical operator’s voice. Developed on the basis it will come late. This means that even Japanese of this result, Aesop 2000 with voice recognition specialists could not sufficiently grasp the (1996) and Aesop 3000 with increased freedom overseas trends at the point of 2000. Or if so, they of the robot arm axes (1998) were approved by considered that minimally invasive surgery using the FDA, respectively. In addition, a system called a macro machine or robot would be introduced Socrates was devised, which gave operational quite late because of particular circumstances in advices to the surgical operators at the remote Japan. site like a TV conference. As a result, Aesop was Since none of the robotic surgical systems incorporated this remote-controlling system to be mentioned above have been approved as medical Zeus, which was approved in 2001. equipment in Japan, surgical operations using On the other hand, Intuitive Surgical Inc., these systems are confined to clinical tests and which has developed Da Vinci, was founded in the total cost including hospital charges relies 1995 as the foundation of technologies cultivated on surgeons’ research expenses. For this reason, in the Stanford Research Institute (currently SRI the number of domestic operations totals only International) affiliated with Stanford University. about 100 cases. However, the first application Getting behind, the company initially aimed at a which may break through this deadlock in high-quality, large-scaled robotic surgical system. Japan has stepped forward. It has proposed in It was required a short time period of only five the provision of the Special Zones for Structural years from starting up the company to FDA Reform established in 2003[43]. Fukuoka and approval for Da Vinci. It is reported that about 20 Kitakyushu City Governments jointly proposed to billion dollars of research expenditures and 100

82 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

or more PhD researchers were totaled up for the functions is a universal research subject in research and development of Da Vinci. the world medical engineering field. Japanese Both of the original robotic surgical systems engineering researchers have also been attempted do not perfectly satisfy the surgical operators. the application to medical treatments [17]. On the However, they are being satisfactorily accepted other hand, research toward the improvement by the surgeons in many countries, because of of humanoid has not been eagerly conducted in sufficiently taking the need of the operators, any country of the world except Japan. Overseas who perform operations at the actual operating researchers tend to psychologically keep a scenes, into account and improving them in rapid distance from it. It is said that the reasons why response to these needs. The reason that these the research on humanoid robots has prevailed systems were approved at a relatively early stage in Japan include; the national character with seems mainly to be in the initial establishment no religious allergy to robots, and the attractive of the total concept and framework of them. impression “robots are dependable friends” given Enabling technologies for detailed parts could by robots including Astro Boy, which was TV be improved at a later stage. These technologies broadcasted as the first video animation in Japan. include many Japanese technologies with and Strictly defining of robot is not easy. Instead of without patents reserved. the definition, considering from an aspect of the Note that the two companies mentioned comparison between the researches in Japan above, which had been patent-competitors so and foreign countries may help us to understand far, but they were merged together at the end of them. The Japanese researches are characterized June 2003. In the near future, the technologies in that they adhere to the development of cultivated in these companies will be integrated autonomous movement such as bipedal to create a new system. The new company has technology and of intelligence technologies for several technical contracts with many companies understanding and learning. including Japanese ones[27]. In actuality, the perspective of robot researches expected at this point of the 2000s is not so 3 Positioning of medical robots different from that used to in 1980. The theses in the Japanese robotic of many projects for developing robotics were researches to apply the technologies cultivated in the development of industrial robots to future robots, 3.1 History of robotic researches in Japan which could work under extreme conditions, Robot researches of Japan are based on the for example in nuclear reactors, in space and prosperity of industrial robots starting from at the bottom of the sea, and which could supply the 1960s. About 60% of the total industrial such services as housekeeping, nursing/medical robots in the world are being operated in assistance, emergency medical treatment and Japan. Meanwhile, research on humanoid security. Most of these Japanese robot researches robots, is constituted another trend of robot are not practical technologies at present[5], which development[5]. It was said to have started from are still seeking for the future technologies. From WABOT, which was developed in the Ichiro Kato the aspect of the 1980s viewpoint, the robots research laboratory of Waseda University from include pet robots for entertainment and healing the 1960s. The Robot Contest[28] ,which was are attracting greater attention than expected. They first targeted mainly at the students of technical are expected to be developed to a level higher schools, has spread into the world. At present, than that of only playing tools, for example healing robotics is one of the attractive research subjects and health-caring of the elder living alone and for Japanese students of engineering departments. the child staying home alone, of which numbers Nevertheless, the Robotics Society of Japan fell are increasingly growing due to a decrease in unexpectedly behind in its establishment in 1983. the number of children[3]. In Japan, autonomous This year is just the 20-year anniversary. movement functions and mock intelligence tend to The development of alternatives for biological be required in even toy robots.

83 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

taking the responsibility for the operation 3.2 Robotic surgical systems viewed from perform it at their own discretion even if it is the aspect of the history in far distant place. For this reason, precedence of Japanese robot researches was given to remote-operability rather than As mentioned in 2-1, in the U.S. and Europe, independency of robots. Namely, the researches surgical operations using a robotic surgical on the robotic surgical systems neither aim at system are considered to be meaningful as the alternatives for human operators nor require “telesurgery” using the robotics. So, it may be the robots to have autonomous intelligence. This difficult to apply this concept directly to Japanese point is the largest difference from Japanese robotics. At present, however, existing types of current robot researches seeking for autonomous curative equipments for supporting surgery are robots. called as “robotic” surgical systems. They are Although it is said that the Japanese have less developed definitely by the researchers in the allergy to robot researches, they have a resistance robotic field in Japan. Thus, the characteristics of to the introduction of robots into the medical and the robotic surgical systems are described below nursing fields, compared with foreigners. These from the aspect of typical robotics in Japan. fields are strongly related to themselves. The As known from Table 1, the robotic surgical Japanese tend to want any nurses or assistants systems have been developed focusing on being a part of their family rather than others, enabling technologies for simulating the and being female rather than male. Concerning functions of human eyes and hands, while this point, the face-to-face endoscopic those for simulating the functions of feet technologies and diagnostic technologies are far (movement) are less emphasized. From this different from the images of robot technologies viewpoint, it can be said that these surgical the Japanese have. It may be only said that systems are on the extension of the industrial some functions developed in robotics were robot technologies, which have been thoroughly taken in the medical field. Since the Japanese cultivated in Japan. It is in another flow than have less resistance to them, they must be more Japanese current robot researches centering increasingly introduced into this field in the on movement and bipedal functions. Here, future, if even a problem of approval as medical another example in medical robotics, that is equipment is solved. easier to distinguish, is introduced. Robodoc is Thus, the robotic surgical system has advanced orthopedic surgery-supporting system for implant in a different way from that of robot researches arthroplasty. It is an equipment that can grind prevailing in Japan. It is far from the common down into the bone safely at a higher level of images of robots which the most Japanese have, precision with good reproducibility, eliminates being a rather modest technology. Some Japanese the need for blood transfusion, and enables the consider that technologies, which do not seek for patients to start the training of standing on day autonomous movements or intelligence, are those 2-3 after the operation. It more closely resembles for enabling simple mechanical works but not industrial robots. It was developed by a spin-off for robot technologies. This difference in images venture, Integrated Surgical System Inc.[29] and is one of the major reasons why this system has several units have been imported into Japan. not attracted great attention in conducting the Another noteworthy point is that the surgeons researches and developments of robots in Japan. do not desire the autonomous robots to perform operations by themselves. They pay greatest 3.3 Researches for medical robotics in Japan attentions for this point in considering medical As an output from robotics, the medical and robots. It is important for the surgeons that welfare application has an impact on the society the individual behaviors of the robotic surgical in that it is useful for human beings. And it also system should surely reflect the determinations can enjoy a great economic effect. The Robotics made by the operator throughout the operation. Society of Japan has recently paid attention It is a cardinal rule that the surgical operators proactively to the medical and welfare field.

84 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

Table 3:Past and present projects in medical robotics

Japan Society for the Promotion JSPS Research for the Future Program of Science “Development of surgical robotic system”[30] middle or large NEDO project Ministry of Economy, “Less-invasive advanced surgical supporting system using endoscope”[26] Trade and Industry (continued of “System for supporting cephalophyma operation”) Ministry of Education, 15 studies on the medical treatment supporting robotics Culture, Sports, S&T under S&T Research Grant (1984 - 2000) small scale Ministry of Health, 9 studies on the less-invasive surgical supporting system (1997 - 2001) Labor and Welfare

Besides, “Development of body functional analytical/supportive/substitutive devices” was launched from 2003 by Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare

It held its robotics seminar “Medical robotics researches and developments are conducted entering the practical stage” in November 2002. to enable the surgical operators to perform It suggested that these technologies are being put microsurgery in vivo using precise instruments into practical use and do not aim at the far future. and radio communication technologies including Some universities and institutes in Japan have MEMS and micro machines, for which Japan medical robot technologies as the subjects of is said to be superior to other countries. If the researches. They have conducted a significant projects are strengthened to address a relatively number of the projects on these technologies large-scaled robotic surgical system in Japan, it so far (Table 3). Note that the total budget may be significant to build up the medical system allotted to all the projects listed in the figure is integrating curatives and diagnosis[30]. less than 3 billion yen. It is one-digit less than those invested in the developments of Da Vinci 4 Perspective of medical or Zeus mentioned above. This indicates the engineering researches fact that the Japanese researches and projects in Japan on medical robotics are small scaled and too distributed, implying that only enabling 4.1 Change in the environment surrounding technologies are output. In Japan, moreover, medical engineering researches some of the researchers from industrial robotics Many complicated problems have been pointed have not paid attention to the medical and out in the Japanese medical and welfare system welfare field until just recently, for example the and the Government is strongly requested to first remote-controlled surgical trial had not change its direction[2 , 31, 32] , omitting the detailed performed on experimental animals until 2002, descriptions of these problems here. The largest using the results of the project “Development of change in the environment is that in demographic Surgical Robotic System” [30] described in Table 3. percent distribution, namely extremely high Unfortunately, in Japan, no large change may increasing rate of the elder (e.g., 17.4% in 2000). be found in the system where the distributed Japan must proactively bring some qualitative researches are conducted. It is important that the changes, which could be countermeasures results of these projects are not only presented against this large quantitative change in the near in journals or meetings but also led to realistic future. Variety in the requirement for medical results, namely the picture of where equipment care by the Japanese would make the quantitative surgical operators can use conveniently. Even problem more serious. The younger Japanese from the distributed researches, a system with tend to require world leading technologies in the reasonable cost for small-scaled hospitals can infant or in incurable disease treatment and to be built up as an output. In addition, some require day surgery and a reduction in health care operations requiring more precise works cannot cost in adult disease treatment, while the elders be treated by any existing robotic surgical often require humanistic health care services system such as in the brain surgery and some rather than advanced medical treatments. The orthopedic surgery fields. It is meaningful that attempt to respond to such a variety in user’s

85 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS requirement in the existing medical system will are proactively accepted is established in Japan, certainly lead to a shortage in the number of any advanced medical equipments developed healthcare professionals and an increase in the in this country would remain at their research number of errors in medical treatment. Some stages. kinds of rationality must be necessary to respond Note that as intellectual property rights, the variety in the near future. such as patents, concerning advanced drugs Meanwhile, turning the viewpoint, the medical and medical equipments are widely interpreted business field is expected to have a great for their use in foreign countries. It gives one perspective in Japan where the elders have strong incentives for launching a new venture occupied a large percentage of the population. It business. It is being discussed whether patent constitutes the background for large expectations rights should be admitted in Japan as well[44], to bio technologies. concerning their activities for the practical use. On the other hand, not so clearly being aware Some Japanese surgeons are still worry about of it as mentioned at the beginning of this paper, the restrictions on medical treatments by the Japan has not been gradually considered to patents. However, medical practices themselves be a leading country where advanced medical are excluded from the violation of the patents in treatment can be undergone among the countries many countries. Attention is being paid to the of the world. At present, since the fairness and future direction of this discussion in Japan. provisions of medical treatments are too strictly defined in Japan, it has been strongly insisted 4.2 Engineering approaches to medical fields that these shackles disturb the development (1) Translational engineering researches of advanced medical treatments [2, 31, 32]. Some The medical services cannot rely only on problems have always been raised until any new medical science [33]. The research field of equipment reaches the level at which it can be medical engineering was set out starting at the introduced into the actual medical fields. To researches on medical sensors and others in identify and solve them, no other ways have been about the 1940s in Japan[17]. The Japan ME Society provided than clinical tests (Clause 7, Article 2 (Japanese Society for Medical and Biological of Medicine Act). Such a system is required that Engineering) founded in 1962 has a history of an attempt to apply any new treatment made 40 years. In fact, manipulation technologies even with the burden of a minor risk, “freedom and medical sensor technologies developed in for the patient to select the treatment method Japan have been appreciated by researchers by him-herself”, can be accepted. And all the in foreign countries. The problem being left surgical operators, manufacturers, and patients unsolved includes a deficiency in the translational should be sufficiently protected against possible engineering approach. These excellent enabling damages, for example, with the application of technologies developed in Japan have not social or private insurance. It goes without saying reached to build up and bring a total medical that all the medical treatments require prudent system into the practical medical scenes. Even attitudes. However, the weak examination if science has advanced, technologies do not system should not disturb them, meaning make progress by themselves[33]. Further efforts that clear standards must be made as soon as made by more engineers are required to return possible. With the very nature of the problem the result of a research conducted by one being left ambiguous, on the other hand, with scientist as social profits. For example, to put the overconsciousness to the manufacturer’s regenerative biotechnologies into practical use, responsibility defined in PL Law (Product Liability some associated medical equipments have to be Law) and to the surgeon’s responsibility in developed together. conducting medical treatments, it is impossible Under the initiative of the medical equipment to introduce Japanese new technologies into industry, the Medical Engineering Technology the practical medical fields. Unless a social Industrial Strategy Consortium (METIS) was environment where advanced medical treatments founded in March 2001[34]. Such a suggestion

86 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

“the most useful method is to induce engineering actual surgical operation is given below. A researchers to participate in the medical streamlined method of angiotomy, where a translational researches” was made in the blood vessel is pinched, ultrasound energy is consortium. Nevertheless, turning the view onto used to stop and coagulate bleeding, the cut is the broad outline of Biotechnology Strategy stitched up, and finally the vessel is cut off, has Council[35], the descriptions of the 3-year plan for been developed. If a developer with no deep activating nationwide trial tests[36] that is one of knowledge of this method makes an attempt to the practical measures for the strategy, and the develop a robot only by leaning tell of the detailed theme of 21st Center of Excellence (COE) in the information on the operator’s behavior, he/she adopted universities, almost no draft have been would make the best efforts in achieving a robot described about concrete measures for practical capable of performing correctly the technique for translational engineering researches. stopping blooding by knotting the vessel as done Note that even in the U.S., which seems to be a by the operator. The important consideration leading country compared with Japan, in conducting researches and developments “Medical scientists and public health policy is to exactly understand the objective to be makers are increasingly concerned that the attained by the robot but not to simulate the scientific discoveries of the past generation are operator’s behavior. That is just the reason why falling to be translated efficiently into tangible the engineering researchers need to participate human benefit.” [38] Participatory discussions in the actual medical fields. The success in the are being made about who among stakeholders development depends largely on the idea of should do what to solve this problem. implementation envisioned by the engineering researchers. The surgeons have pointed out that (2) Medical - engineering collaboration many rooms for creating new ideas are being in universities left free. For example, existing robotic surgical A keyword “collaboration between medical systems are the intuitive embodiments of fantastic and engineering fields” has been picked up in stories such as “Fantastic Voyage, 1966” where some 21st COE programs[37] and other materials. the surgeons whose body sizes were reduced They described the importance of interchange to the micro size entered the patient’s body among researchers from different fields. All for curatives, though the surgeons practically the researches on medical services require perform the operations from outside of the the knowledge of actual medical scenes. It is patient’s body or from far away. necessary to provide the research environment Most new medical equipment have been where the engineering researches frequently visit developed mainly by an engineering developer the campus of the medical school from the initial working at a company and brought into hospitals. stage of the researches, and to realize actual Even products developed by companies measures such as personnel changes of students specialized in the medical field are often and faculties between the two departments. unsuitable for the surgical operators to use at The medical-engineering collaboration system the actual medical scenes. For example, many should play roles other than only as a joint problems have been pointed out such that; meeting among research laboratories. Recently, some medical equipments are not so clean, computer-based surgical technologies have been some have a risk of any effects on biological introduced into the medical schools[39] . And the bodies such as immune response, and the others departments of advanced medicine, life science neglect surgeon’s operability. The introduction and innovative technology have been established of advanced medical equipments may incur an in several universities[23]. These facilities may increase in health care cost. Even technically serve as portals for the engineering researchers to advanced products are not put into practical use enter easily. if they do not totally have an advantage in the One example of the significances of actual medical scenes. These problems should be engineering researchers’ participation in the discussed together in medical and engineering

87 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS departments, in cooperation with department of advanced medical equipments into hospitals. economics. These considerations would also be In the near future, the results of most Japanese important in the research and developments of projects may be meant to compete with the future nursing tools. products developed by overseas venture companies in the medical service market. If Japan takes (3) Relationship between the medical overprotective scientific and technological equipment industry and measures, it is expected that the difference in medical engineering researches in Japan the development of products from the U.S. and In the near future in Japan, inevitably, information European countries, where the performance at on the evaluation of medical institutions will be the clinical trial stage is centered on, will become widely provided to citizens via the Internet[41] larger. Considering the total vision including the and a principle of market mechanism will be expansibility of new medical service businesses and brought into the field of health care services. education and training systems, protective policies Until now, there is a vicious circle in Japan as taken for promoting the development of medical follows. Only several units of advanced medical equipments may offer a demerit. Neglecting the equipments have been introduced for making actual situation may lead to a loss of the succeeding clinical tests. Since the domestic market have opportunity. Essentially, protective policies should been small in spite of the potential market not be taken to the medical and welfare industry being large, the companies have input less from the aspect of potential for huge benefit to the energy into the development of them. It has citizens. led to confine the Japanese equipments at the research stages, remaining at a low practical level. 5 Conclusion According to statistics[3], at present, the medical equipments, especially curatives, are excessively The technologies of robotic surgical systems imported. Diagnostic equipments, of which sales have offered new qualitative effects such as performance has been superior to that of foreign less-invasive curatives and remote operability, countries, have reduced their shares. It was taken which have a large potential for progress of the up in a meeting for discussing the vision of the entire medical system in Japan. These effects are medical equipment industry under the leadership not on an extension of the conventional industrial of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare[40]. robotics which have aimed at precise works and It is worried that the excess of imports would substitution of humanities. As the percentage of be expanded after introducing more smooth the elders in the national population is rapidly examines for approval of the medical equipments. increasing in Japan, the future picture of medical Today, however, globalization has advanced for services would become to discuss more earnestly. most of manufacturing. It is required for the medical Progressing in information society, many Japanese equipment industry to have an internationally must be aware of a difference in medical service competitive power to open to the worldwide market between Japan and the other advanced countries. rather than being closed within the domestic market. If the robot technologies, of which Japan has been Focus only on the domestic market narrows our proud, neither appear on the actual medical stages horizon. The market for the medical equipments nor contribute to the Japanese medical and welfare has been uneven in the world. Now, only the North industries, it is really a loss. American, Japan and European countries, of which To start new innovation of medical equipments population in total occupies only about 12% of from Japan, it is essential to establish clear responsible the world population, occupy 83% of the medical objectives that cover translational engineering equipment market. However, the worldwide market researches with strong medical-engineering should be largely changed in a future few years collaboration, which are integration of individual because some other countries including China have enabling technologies into a total medical system proactively participated in trial tests. China has for bringing into the actual medical scenes. To also begun to invest subsidies in introducing the improve the research environment, it is required

88 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004 that rooms for choice by the operators and the http://cgi2.nhk.or.jp/kenkotoday/2001/2001 patients to attempt new technologies should be 0228/index.html left, supporting with some insuring systems. As the [10] For example, the Department of Day Surgery approval institutions and the intellectual property of Kyoto University Hospital, : rights related to medical services also have large http://www.kuhp.kyoto-u.ac.jp/-dsu/DSU-in influences, great attentions are being paid to their dex.html discussions. [11] For example, the Center of Day Surgery of MAZDA Hospital :http://hospital.mazda.co.jp Acknowledgements /1day/ The author wishes to express special The Center of Day Surgery of Iseikai Hospital acknowledgement to Prof. Makoto Hashizume : http://www.i-dscenter.org/dsc.htm of Kyushu University, who provided extensive The Center of Day Surgery of Tane General collaboration in the writing of this article. The Hospital : http://www.tane.or.jp/body1/DS_I author would also like to thank Prof. Hiroshi N.htm Koyama and Prof. Mamoru Mitsuishi of the The Center of Day Surgery of Shonan University of Tokyo, Prof. Kazuhiro Hongo and Kamakura Hospital : http://www.shonanka Dr. Tetsuya Gotoh of Shinshu University, Prof. makura.or.jp/informationforall/daysurgery.ht Yoji Yamazaki of the Jikei University, and Dr. ml Hirobumi Kawakita of Kawakita General Hospital [12] N.Shinozaki, (“Technological innovation for valuable advices and materials. satisfactorily accepted by patients offers a major merit to your hospital,”) : References http://www.shonankamakura.or.jp/informati [1] T.Lloyd, (“a foreigner resident in Tokyo shall onforall/lapachore.html treat severe illness in your home country”,) [13] Hitachi, Ltd., (“Robotic endoscopic surgical Nihon Keizai Shimbun (evening), Dec. 3, system MTLP-1,”) : (2002 in Japanese) http://www.hitachi.co.jp/New/cnews/2002/ [2] H.Kawakita, (“Medical structural reform 0522a/0522a.pdf is not feasible with no external pressure,”) [14] W.Tojima, (“IT brings medical innovation Ronso Toyo Keizai, No.5, (2002 in Japanese) - Information on our bodies are converted [3] For example, materials about the Framework into electronic information,”) Illume, No.28 of the Vision of the Medical Equipment (2002 in Japanese). Industry (Draft), Ministry of Health, Labour [15] For example, CARS (Computer Assisted and Welfare : Radiology and Surgery), : http://www.mhlw.go.jp/shingi/2003/01/dl/s http://www.cars-int.de/, 0131_2c.pdf Japan Society of Computer Aided Surgery, : [4] For example, ROBODEX 2003, : http://www.atl.b.dendai.ac.jp/jscas/ http://www.robodex.org/ [16] For example, M.Ueda, (“Greatly advanced [5] H.Kitano et al., (“To what extent, can fetal surgery,”) : humanoid robots advance?,”), Science & http://www.mitsueueda.co.jp/kokusai/001 Technology Journal, No.3, (2003 in Japanese) .htm [6] M.Kitajima, (“Robotic surgery attracting [17] C.Yoshimoto, (“Introduction to Medical great attention,”), : Engineering - Challenge against http://www.nhk.or.jp/kenkotoday/2001/200 Technological Innovation,”) Tokai University 11129/index.htm Press (1983). [7] Intuitive Surgical Inc, : http://www.intuitive [18] The Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, surgical.com/ IIT Strategy Headquarters, e-Japan Strategy [8] Computer Motion Inc., : II, : http://www.computermotion.com/ http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/it2/kettei/0 [9] Junzo Takeda, (“Day surgery being spread,”), 30702ejapan.pdf

89 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

[19] Medical Informatics System Development MRCAS ‘95, p.193, Baltimore (1995)) Center, (“Medical services using information [30] Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, communication equipments (so-called JSPS Research for the Future Program, remote-controlled medical examination),”) : “Development of Surgical Robotic System,” : http://square.umin.ac.jp/enkaku/DEL-Notice http://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-rftf/integrat Mhw971224.html ed_i.htm [20] M.Mitsuishi, (“Expectations to 21st Robotic [31] T.Tokita, (“The Direction of Medical Medical Services,”) J.Jp.Robot Soc., Vol.18, Innovation in Japan - From a viewpoint of No.1, p.2 (2000 in Japanese). fairness across generations - ,”) Discussion [21] “World’s first robotic brain telesurgery Paper of Institute of Economic Research of performed here,” DALHOUSIE News, Vol.33, Hitotsubashi University, No.18 (2001.3 in No.4 (2002.11), : Japanese) http://www.dal.ca/−dalnews/dalnews/2002- [32] T.Tokita et al., (“Japanese medical services 12/telesurgery.shtml and official restrictions,”) Discussion [22] K. Hongo et al., NeuRobot, “Telecontrolled Paper of Institute of Economic Research of Micromanipulator System for Minimally Hitotsubashi University, No.26 (2001.3 in lnvasive Microneurosurgery-Preliminary Japanese) Results,” Neurosurgery, Vol.51(4), p.985 [33] H.Komiyama, (Two viewpoints: “Medical (2002). technologies” and “Social system for [23] The Department of Advanced Medicine, ensuring our health,”) ME Forum 2002 Life Science and Innovative Technology was (2002.1 in Japanese). newly added and the Center for Integration [34] T.Kanai, (“The role of Medical-Engineering of Advanced Medicine, Life Science and Technology Industrial Strategy Innovative Technology (CAMIT), : Consortium,”) ME Forum 2003 (2003.1 in http://www.camit.org/tip_abstract.html Japanese). [24] MPB Communications lnc., “Live Simulated [35] The Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, Surgery a “touching” Success,” : the broad outline of biotechnology strategy, : http://www.mpbc.ca/main_pages/news/200 http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/bt/kettei/0 2/6dof.html 21206/taikou.pdf [25] The 7th Technological Foresight Survey, [36] Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, NISTEP REPORT, No.71 (2001). Science and Technology and Ministry of [26] New Energy and Industrial Technology Health, Labour and Welfare, 3-year plan of Development Organization (NEDO), Interim activating nationwide trial tests (2003.4), : Evaluation Report on minimally-invasive, http://www.mhlw.go.jp/topics/bukyoku/isei advanced robotic surgical system using an /chiken/kasseika.html endoscope and others (2002.8), : [37] The years of 2002 and 2003, 21st COE http://www.nedo.go.jp/iinkai/hyouka/houko Program, : ku/14h/11.pdf http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/coe [27] For example, Olympus Optical Co., Ltd., : /021001.htm and http://www.mext.go.jp/a_ http://www.olympus.co.jp/LineUp/Endosco menu/koutou/coe/03071701.htm pe/1nfo/n011005.html [38] N. S. Sung et al., “Central Challenges Facing [28] Y.Yokoo et al., “Status of Japan’s Participation the National Clinical Research Enterprises,” in Science and Technology Contests,” J.Amer.Med.Assoc., Vol.289, No.10, p.1278 Science & Technology Trends - Quarterly (2003). Review -, No.6 (2003.2) [39] Home pages related to computer-aided [29] Integrated Surgical Systems Inc., : http://w surgery, : ww.robodoc.com/eng/ , (L. Joskowicz et al., http://homepage2.nifty.com/cas/index-j.html “Computer Integrated Revision Total Hip [40] Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Replacement Surgery; Preliminary Report,” the meeting for discussing the vision of the

90 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

medical industrial, : [43] Fukuoka City Government, 3rd proposal http://www.mhlw.go.jp/houdou/2003/01/h0 of structural reform special area (Robot 117-1.html development and demonstration tests), [41] Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, http://www.city.fukuoka.jp/ deregulation of advertisement concerning [44] Japan Patent Office, subcommittee of medical services, : patent system, working group of intelligent http://www.mhlw.go.jp/topics/2002/04/tp0 property policies, Industrial Structure 401-l.html Council, handling medical service related [42] Japan Patent Office, trend survey on medical actions in accordance with the Patent Law, equipments, : http://www.jpo.go.jp/shiryou/toushin/toush http://www.jpo.go.jp/shiryou/toushin/chous intou/pdf/iryou_report.pdf a/pdf/kki_med.pdf

(Original Japanese version: published in August 2003)

QUARTERLY REVIEW No.10 / January 2004

About SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FORESIGHT CENTER

t is essential to enhance survey functions that underpin policy formulation in I order for the science and technology administrative organizations, with MEXT and other ministries under the general supervision of the Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office (CSTP), to develop strategic science and technology policy.

ISTEP has established the Science and Technology Foresight Center (STFC) N with the aim to strengthen survey functions about trends of important science and technology field. The mission is to provide timely and detailed information about the latest science and technology trends both in Japan and overseas, comprehensive analysis of these trends, and reliable predictions of future science and technology directions to policy makers.

eneath the Director are five units, each of which conducts surveys of trends Bin their respective science and technology fields. STFC conducts surveys and analyses from a broad range of perspectives, including the future outlook for society.

he research results will form a basic reference database for MEXT, CSTP, and T other ministries. STFC makes them widely available to private companies, organizations outside the administrative departments, mass media, etc. on NISTEP website.

The following are major activities:

1. Collection and analysis of information on science and technology trends through expert network

— STFC builds an information network linking about 3000 experts of various science and technology fields in the industrial, academic and government sectors. They are in the front line or have advanced knowledge in their fields.

— Through the network, STFC collects information in various science and technology fields via the Internet, analyzes trends both in Japan and overseas, identifies important R&D activities, and prospects the future directions. STFC also collects information on its own terms from vast resources.

— Collected information is regularly reported to MEXT and CSTP. Furthermore, STFC compiles the chief points of this information as topics for “Science and Technology Trends” (monthly report).

93 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

2. Research into trends in major science and technology fields — Targeting the vital subjects for science and technology progress, STFC analyzes its trends deeply, and helps administrative departments to set priority in policy formulating.

— STFC publishes the research results as feature articles for “Science Technology Trends” (monthly report).

3. Technology foresight and S&T benchmarking survey — STFC conducts technology foresight survey every five years to grasp the direction of technological development in coming 30 years with the cooperation of experts in various fields.

— STFC benchmarks Japan’s current and future position in key technologies of various fields with those of the U.S and major European nations.

— The research results are published as NISTEP report.

��

�� 蘆Genaral planning and coordination 蘆Infrastructure 蘆Frontier fields (Space and Oceans)

�� 蘆 Life sciences

�� 蘆 Information and Cimmunication technologies

��

蘆 Environmental sciences 蘆 Energy

��

蘆 Nanotechnology and materials 蘆 Manufacturing technology

＊Units comprise permanent staff and visiting reseachers (non-permanent staff) ＊The Center's organization and responsible are reviewed as required

��

�

��

� ��

��