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TRANSCARPATHIA 1920–2020 Transcarpathian Hungarians in the Last 100 Years

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TRANSCARPATHIA 1920–2020 Transcarpathian Hungarians in the Last 100 Years TRANSCARPATHIA 1920–2020 Transcarpathian Hungarians in the Last 100 Years Transcarpathia 1920–2020 Transcarpathian Hungarians in the Last 100 Years István Csernicskó Kornélia Hires-László Zoltán Karmacsi Anita Márku Réka Máté Enikő Tóth-Orosz 2020 TRANSCARPATHIA 1920–2020. Transcarpathian Hungarians in the Last 100 Years Authors: István Csernicskó, Kornélia Hires-László, Zoltán Karmacsi, Anita Márku, Réka Máté, Enikő Tóth-Orosz Maps: István Molnár D. Figures: István Csernicskó and Kornélia Hires-László Photos: Szabolcs Bunda, László Fülöp, Mihály Gazdag and staff of the Antal Hodinka Linguistic Research Center Translation: Réka Máté Cover design: Anita Márku and Kornélia Hires-László Typographic preparation: Enikő Tóth-Orosz Cover image: Berehove/Beregszász. Photo by: Mihály Gazdag Made at the Antal Hodinka Linguistics Research Center © The authors, 2020 Berehove/Beregszász, 2020 Contents History 5 Demography 7 Education 13 Churches 21 Language rights 24 Language use, identity 32 Economy 42 Representation of interests 47 Selected sources 52 3 The Verecke Pass (Photo by: Mihály Gazdag) 4 History Transcarpathia, as a geographical-administrative unit, was created in 1919 as a result of peace treaties ending World War I, as a part of the (first) Czechoslovak Republic, under the name Podkarpatska Rus. A century ago, political decisions not only created the state of the Czechoslovak Republic, an administrative unit lacking historical background, but also the Hungarian national minority of Transcarpathia. During the 20th century, historical storms swept through what is now known as Transcarpathia: after the Hungarian Kingdom and within the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, it belonged to Czechoslovakia, and during a transitional period, a part of its territory formed a short-lived state (Carpatho-Ukraine); for a short time it returned to the Kingdom of Hungary; it was annexed to the Soviet Union after another transitional period (Transcarpathian Ukraine); In 1991, it was inherited by Ukraine, which became independent at the time (Table 1). 5 Table 1. The status of the region in the twentieth century and today State affiliation Period Name of the region International treaties that affect the region's affiliation Kingdom of Hungary in Austro- Ung, Bereg, Ugocsa, Austro-Hungarian Compromise on the establishment of the 1867–1918 Hungarian Monarchy Máramaros counties Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1867). Treaty of Saint-Germain (10/09/1919), Treaty of Trianon Czechoslovak Republic 1919–1938 Podkarpatska Rus (04/06/1920). Czechoslovak Republic 1938–1939 Podkarpatska Rus Autonomous region Carpatho-Ukraine 14-16.03.1939 Independent State First Vienna Award (02/11/1938); Military actions (14- Kingdom of Hungary 1939–1944 Subcarpathian Province 18/03/1939), second Vienna Award (30/08/1940). 26.9.1944– Transcarpathian Ukraine (Theoretically) Independent State 22.1.1946 Ukrainian SSR in the Soviet Treaty between The Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia 1946–1991 Zakarpattia Oblast Union (29/06/1945). Establishment of the Commonwealth of Independent States Ukraine From 1991 Zakarpattia Oblast (07/12/1991) and Act of Declaration of Independence of Ukraine (24/08/1991). 6 Demography Between 1880 and 1910, the number of Ukrainians/Ruthenians living in the territory of the contemporary Hungarian state increased from 342,354 to 464,270, while between 1910 and 2001 the number of Hungarians living in the present Transcarpathian region decreased from 184,287 (1910) to 151,516 in 2001 and 130,700 in 2017. The decrease in the number and proportion of Hungarians is significant and shows a correlation with the changes in states (Figures 1 and 2). Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the first (and still only) census in the independent Ukraine was organized in 2001. The majority of the country's population was Ukrainian (77.8%). The largest national minority was Russian (17.3%). The proportion of other minority communities did not reach 1%. In 2001, 156,566 people declared themselves to be of Hungarian nationality (0.3%), while the number of Hungarian native speakers was 161,618 (Figure 3). 96.8% of Hungarians living in Ukraine and 98.2% of people with Hungarian as a native language lived in one region: Transcarpathia. In this region, following Ukrainians (80.5%), Hungarians were the largest community (12.1%). The number of Hungarian native speakers was 158,729, which was 12.7% in 2001. The number of Hungarian native speakers exceeded the number of Hungarians by 7,123. Most Hungarians in Transcarpathia (62%) still live in settlements where Hungarians make up an absolute majority (Figures 4 and 5). 7 Figure 1. Changes in the percentage of Hungarians in today's Transcarpathia in the light of official census data (1880-2001) 35 30.66 30 27.41 28.18 25 25.47 20 18.13 15.89 14.37 15 15.93 13.71 10 12.50 12.08 5 0 1880 1900 1910 1921 1930 1941 1959 1970 1979 1989 2001 8 Figure 2. Population trends of Ukraine and Transcarpathia and the number of Hungarians in Transcarpathia between 1959 and 2001 1 400 000 60 000 000 49 609 000 51 452 034 1 200 000 48 240 902 50 000 000 41 869 000 42 584 542 1 000 000 40 000 000 800 000 30 000 000 600 000 1 245 618 1 254 614 1 155 759 1 258 777 920 173 20 000 000 400 000 158 446 155 711 151 516 200 000 146 247 130 700 10 000 000 - - 1959 1979 1989 2001 2017 Transcarpathia Hungarians in Transcarpathia Ukraine 9 Figure 3. Minority language speakers in Ukraine based on 2001 census data Crimean Tatar 231 382 Moldavian 185 032 Hungarian 161 618 Romanian 142 671 Bulgarian 134 396 Belarusian 56 249 Armenian 51 847 Gagauz 23 765 Romani 22 603 Polish 19 195 Rusyn/Ruthenian 6 725 Greek 6 029 Russian: 14,273,670 German 4 206 Yiddish 3 307 Slovak 2 768 Karaim 96 Krymchak 21 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 10 Figure 4. Distribution of Hungarians by ethnic composition of settlements in Transcarpathia based on the 2001 census data (%) Higher than 75% (Hungarian dominance) 1.2 Between 50% and 75% (Hungarian majority) 12.9 Between 10% and 50% (Hungarian 46.1 24 minority) the proportion of Hungarians is below 10%, 15.8 their number is over 100 (diaspora) Hungarians are under 10%, less than 100 (people living in diaspora) 11 Figure 5. Native-language composition of the population in Transcarpathia by settlement in 2001 12 Education Hungarian-language medium education has a long tradition in today's Transcarpathia: schools with Hungarian as the language of instruction operated here even when the region belonged to Czechoslovakia or the Soviet Union. Independent Ukraine also made it possible for the Hungarian-language medium education system to function and even to develop (Figure 6). During the academic year 2019/2020, nearly 16,000 children studied in Hungarian in 97 schools (mostly with Hungarian as the language of instruction) in Transcarpathia. However, not all Hungarians (are able to) learn in their mother tongue. The higher the level of the education, the more Hungarian children and younsters study in the official language of the state (Figure 7). Most of these learners chose to study in the state language at their own discretion; however, there are also some who are forced (because there is no Hungarian kindergarten or school available in their settlement or near their place of residence). As the language of higher education in the Soviet Union was Russian, Slavic speakers were in a better position. It is clear from the data of the 2001 census that the proportion of Russian-speaking graduates in Ukraine was the highest, and the lowest among non-Slavic (Moldavian, Hungarian, Romanian) speakers (Figure 8). 13 14 2020 and 1987 between in Transcarpathia schools of Hungarian Figure 6. 2 000 2 400 2 600 2 200 1 000 1 800 1 400 1 600 1 200 1 1 586 1987/88 The number The of number pupils in schools Hungarian and the number of children enrolled in the first grade 1 1 622 1988/89 1 913 1 913 1989/90 17 275 2 147 147 2 1990/91 17 619 2 160 160 2 1991/92 17 969 2 311 311 2 1992/93 18 711 2 442 442 2 1993/94 19 074 2 440 440 2 1994/95 19 642 2 370 370 2 1995/96 20 044 2 365 365 2 1996/97 20 727 Hungarian1stgraders 2 148 148 2 1997/98 21 159 2 203 203 2 1998/99 21 431 2 069 069 2 1999/2000 21 034 1 939 1 939 2000/’01 20 900 1 1 922 2001/’02 20 900 1 934 1 934 2002/’03 20 900 1 693 1 693 2003/’04 20 200 1 1 777 2004/’05 19 600 2 069 069 2 allstudents studyingHungarian 2005/’06 18 948 1 1 647 2006/’07 18 136 1 499 1 499 2007/’08 17 366 1 446 1 446 2008/’09 16 407 1 1 321 2009/’10 15 596 1 385 1 385 2010/’11 15 277 1 1 429 2011/’12 15 970 1 511 1 511 2012/’13 16 339 1 1 569 2013/’14 15 092 1 606 1 606 2014/’15 15 092 1 831 1 831 2015/’16 15 734 1 1 950 2016/’17 1 1 928 2017/’18 2 007 007 2 2018/’19 17 030 2 088 088 2 2019/’20 17 445 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 Figure 7. The proportion of Hungarian and majority language learners at each level of education based on Tandem 2016 research data (N=362) 100% 90% 26.7% 80% 34.9% 38.9% 51.0% 70% 13.2% 60% 70.5% 77.8% 78.8% 75.2% 50% 15.3% 28.4% In Hungarian 40% 18.2% In Russian 30% 53.4% In Ukrainian 7.7% 41.5% 20% 7.7% 7.2% 6.7% 30.3% 26.6% 10% 14.8% 14.6% 13.9% 16.8% 0% Kindergarten Primary Basic general Complete Vocational Technical University University school secondary general school school (BA/BSc) (MA/MSc) (grades 1-4) school secondary (grades 5-9) school (grades 10-11) 15 Figure 8.
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