GeoscientistThe Fellowship magazine of The Geological Society of London | www.geolsoc.org.uk | Volume 21 No 7 | August 2011 APATITE FOR GROWTH Phosphate reserves in Arctic Russia MR THORNTON I PRESUME? Dr Livingstone’s forgotten geologist

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CONTENTS GEOSCIENTIST

IN THIS ISSUE AUGUST 2011

FEATURES 12 APATITE FOR GROWTH Glasby and Voytekhovsky on phosphate deposits of Arctic Russia’s Kola Peninsula

18 LIVINGSTONE’S GEOLOGIST Richard Boak tells the sad tale of Richard Thornton, Livingstone’s forgotten geologist REGULARS 05 WELCOME Phosphate essentials – is the world really running out? Ted Nield investigates. 06 SOAPBOX Russell Corbyn wonders why Italian scientists still must face the Inquisition in our allegedly rational age 08 GEONEWS What’s new in the world of geoscientific research 11 COVER STORY: SPONSOR-A-FISH 10 SOCIETY NEWS What your Society is doing at Society launches appeal to conserve and home and abroad, in London and the regions digitise Louis Agassiz fossil fish illustrations 22 LETTERS We welcome your thoughts 23 BOOK & ARTS Two reviews by Bryan Marker and Joe McCall 24 PEOPLE Geoscientists in the news and on the move 26 OBITUARY Two distinguished Fellows remembered 27 CALENDAR Society activities this month 29 CROSSWORD Win a special publication of your choice ONLINE SPECIALS n NAMIBIAN GEM The IUGS Commission for Geoenvironmental Management (GEM) meets in 09 18 Windhoek. Laurance Donnelly and Brian Marker report

AUGUST 2011 03 04 AUGUST 2011 ~ EDITOR’S COMMENT GEOSCIENTIST TETRAGONOLEPSIS ANGULIFER AGASSIZ. WATERCOLOUR BY JOSEPH DINKEL, 1834. FROM RICHARD WEAVER’S MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, BIRMINGHAM Found by John Greaves in Wilmerts quarry, nr. Stratford upon Avon, c.1830 ~ PHOSPHATE ESSENTIALS

iving things need phosphate – the Geoscientist is the E enquiries@centuryone subject of this month’s main feature. Fellowship magazine of publishing.ltd.uk the Geological Society W www.centuryone Nucleic acids and cell metabolism of London publishing.ltd.uk depend upon it. Obtaining adequate Contact CHIEF EXECUTIVE phosphate supplies is therefore a key The Geological Society, Nick Simpson need for farmers all over the world, Burlington House, Piccadilly, T 01727 893 894 London W1J 0BG E nick@centuryone especially in areas where phosphate is T +44 (0)20 7434 9944 publishing.ltd.uk Lthe main growth-limiting factor. Sadly, F +44 (0)20 7439 8975 indiscriminate over-use of phosphates is now as E [email protected] ADVERTISING EXECUTIVE W www.geolsoc.org.uk Jonathan Knight much of a headache in some countries as under- T 01727 739 193 supply is in others. Publishing House E jonathan@centuryone The Geological Society publishing.ltd.uk Worse still, the world may be running out of Publishing House, Unit 7, phosphate. In 2009 the USGS suggested that Brassmill Enterprise Centre, ART EDITOR Brassmill Lane, Bath Heena Gudka reserves might begin to run out in as little as a BA1 3JN quarter of a century. A more reassuring picture was T 01225 445046 DESIGN & PRODUCTION recently painted (2010) by the Alabama-based F 01225 442836 Sarah Astington Tanya Kant International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC), Library which suggested 300-400 years was a more likely T +44 (0)20 7432 0999 PRINTED BY F +44 (0)20 7439 3470 Century One Publishing Ltd. figure. But it is notoriously hard to get reliable E [email protected] information on phosphate reserves out of either Copyright EDITOR-IN-CHIEF The Geological Society of industry or governments. Professor Tony Harris FGS London is a Registered Charity, Figures available to international bodies like the number 210161. EDITOR ISSN (print) 0961-5628 IFDC consist of unverifiable and often highly Dr Ted Nield NUJ FGS ISSN (online) 2045-1784 dubious government statistics. The absence of any international agency charged with collating and EDITORIAL BOARD The Geological Society of London Dr Sue Bowler FGS accepts no responsibility for the verifying world data on phosphate reserves Dr Robin Cocks FGS views expressed in any article in this continues to pose a major obstacle to assessing the Dr Martin Degg FGS publication. All views expressed, except where explicitly stated size of the problem. Nevertheless, with demand set Dr Joe McCall FGS otherwise, represent those of the Dr Jonathan Turner FGS author, and not The Geological to grow by up to 3% per year, even optimistic Dr Jan Zalasiewicz FGS Society of London. All rights reserved. No paragraph of this publication may commentators are now warning that the time is fast Trustees of the Geological be reproduced, copied or transmitted approaching when the world will begin to see Society of London save with written permission. Users registered with Copyright Clearance phosphates in a “strategic” light. Dr J P B Lovell OBE Center: the Journal is registered with (President); Professor P A CCC, 27 Congress Street, Salem, MA Most reserves are to be found in sedimentary Allen (Secretary, Science); 01970, USA. 0961- deposits, and are heavily concentrated in China and Miss S Brough; Mr M 5628/02/$15.00. Every effort has Brown; Professor R A been made to trace copyright holders Morocco/Western Sahara, who together with USA Butler; Mr D J Cragg; of material in this publication. If any and Russia control over 70% of world reserves. This Professor J Francis; rights have been omitted, the Professor A J Fraser; Dr S A publishers offer their apologies. concentration raises issues of food security - and of Gibson; Mrs M P Henton No responsibility is assumed by the potential market manipulation in future. The Paris- (Secretary, Professional Publisher for any injury and/or Matters); Dr R A Hughes Dr damage to persons or property as a based International Fertilizer Industry Association, A Law (Treasurer); Professor matter of products liability, which represents producers, points out that markets R J Lisle; Professor A R Lord negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, will function to bring more reserves online as the (Secretary, Foreign & products, instructions or ideas External Affairs); Mr P contained in the material herein. prices rise. However this may be scant comfort to Maliphant (Vice president); Although all advertising material is less well-off countries, and ignores the fact that many Professor S B Marriott (Vice expected to conform to ethical president); Professor S (medical) standards, inclusion in this deposits are uncommercial because of intractable Monro OBE; Mr D T Shilston publication does not constitute a difficulties with toxic elements, such as cadmium. ( ); Dr C guarantee or endorsement of the President designate quality or value of such product or of One thing is certain – phosphate has no substitutes. GeosThe Fellowship magazine of The Geological Socciiety of London |ent www.geolsoc.org.uk | Volumei 21 Nost 7 | August 2011 P Summerhayes (Vice the claims made by its manufacturer. APATITE FOR president); Professor GROWTH The best hope for the future now lies in reducing Phosphate reserves in J H Tellam; Dr J P Turner Subscriptions: All correspondence Arctic Russia waste by more sophisticated application of fertilizers, (Secretary, Publications); relating to non-member subscriptions MR THORNTON should be addresses to the Journals I PRESUME? Professor D J Vaughan; Dr Livingstone’s and by recovering phosphates from such potent Subscription Department, Geological forgotten geologist Mr N R G Walton Society Publishing House, Unit 7 waste sources as dairy and pig manure, or at waste- Brassmill Enterprise Centre, Brassmill Published on behalf of the Lane, Bath, BA1 3JN, UK. Tel: 01225 water treatment plants, where pipes are often Geological Society of 445046. Fax: 01225 442836. Email: blocked by buildups of ‘struvite’ (a deposit of London by [email protected]. The Century One Publishing subscription price for Volume 21, phosphate, magnesium and ammonium). Processes Alban Row, 27–31 Verulam 2011 (11 issues) to institutions and to make these recovery processes industrially viable non-members is £108 (UK) or £124 / ] Road, St Albans, Herts, US$247 (Rest of World). [find us on facebook! are under development, but may be decades away. AL3 4DG FISH FOR CASH T 01727 893 894 © 2011 The Geological Society Society appeal to save historic illustrations F 01727 893 895 of London DR TED NIELD EDITOR

AUGUST 2011 05 GEOSCIENTIST SOAPBOX

Back to Galileo Galilei BY RUSSELL CORBYN Russell Corbyn wonders why Italian scientists apparently still have to expect to face an Inquisition in our allegedly rational age as seismologists face trial over their alleged ‘failure’ to predict the April 2009 l’Aquila earthquake

SOAPBOX Italy was the birthplace of physicist, ‘Forecasting’ may be possible; but the mathematician, astronomer and all-round prediction - of many things – remains very science genius Galileo Galilei in the 16th difficult. Well, come on - it’s probably Soapbox is open to Century. At that time, men believed that impossible. We all know this. Michael Fish contributions from all Fellows. God created all, the sun circled the Earth would agree. You can always write a letter to and Jupiter had no moons. And yet despite the fact that this is the Editor, of course: but Reticence was not the order of the day widely known, Chinese whispers, perhaps you feel you need when the scientific revolution displaced hyperbole and ministers bearing platitudes more space? the Earth from its central position in the have been the order of the day. An Italian cosmos and in so doing shook Europe to Civil Protection National Service document If you can write it entertainingly in its core. Galileo was duly charged with notes that Italy is a tectonically active 500 words, the Editor would like heresy in 1633 and ultimately, publication region with “20 million Italians exposed to hear from you. of his work was forbidden. He spent the to… effects” that “can be devastating” and rest of his life under house arrest, and died that buildings “need to be remediated” Email your piece, and a self- in 1642. So it goes. through “huge interventions and portrait, to ted.nield@geolsoc. 1 investments” . Yet now we face the org.uk. Copy can only be PREDICTION unedifying prospect of a scientist accepted electronically. No In due course, Galileo became, some would scapegoat being sent out into the diagrams, tables or other say, the father of modern physics. The wilderness. This cannot be good. illustrations please. heliocentric view of our solar system, once Now, in the 21st Century, seismologists again rediscovered, was finally accepted – stand in the dock much as Galileo did. Pictures should be of print together with uniform acceleration and a They never claimed there would be no quality – as a rule of thumb, myriad of scientific tools that have been earthquake. They never claimed it was anything over a few hundred enhanced, repackaged and resold many impossible. They also never claimed that kilobytes should do. times over by subsequent scientists. And the government had done nothing since yet, here we are nearly 500 years on, facing being told of the instability of the region, Precedence will always be given the real possibility that modern-day Italian even though that would have been pretty to more topical contributions.

scientists may be imprisoned for not much true. And the ‘Litigation Society’ has Any one contributor may not

predicting earthquakes sufficiently well. rushed in, where the angels of the Catholic appear more often than once per Now I have been a geologist for only a Church now rightly fear to tread. volume (once every 12 months). short while; but when exactly did we ~ decide we could ‘predict’ earthquakes? We HAZARD & RISK can draw hazard maps of the areas The truth behind this misbegotten affected, but I do not case surely is that while the scientists THE TRUTH recall the level of accurately defined the hazard, the Italian BEHIND THIS confidence to Government ignored the risks. Scientists be sufficient must be able to operate with confidence MISBEGOTTEN CASE to warrant that they inhabit a zone of intellectual SURELY IS THAT WHILE anyone freedom - or else we may as well all be betting under house arrest. Airline pilots of the THE SCIENTISTS money, future may be announcing “We are about ACCURATELY let alone to land in Italy. Please put your watches DEFINED THE their lives, back four centuries. on any HAZARD, THE ITALIAN earthquake REFERENCE GOVERNMENT prediction. IGNORED THE RISKS 1 Italian Civil Protection National Service: Russel Corbyn www.protezionecivile.gov.it/cms/attach/ Prediction is brochuredpc_eng2.pdf for crystal balls ~

06 AUGUST 2011 Geological Society publicationssnoitacilbupyteicoSlacigoloeG onlineo nilno e

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AUGUST 2011 07 GEOSCIENTIST GEONEWS The crust’s irresistible rise The Earth’s continental margins appear to be in a state of continuous uplift. Disentangling all the evidence however has proved a mind-boggling task, reports Ted Nield

GLOBAL TECTONICS Image: Ted Neild The largest global analysis of sea-level data ever attempted suggests that continental margins have risen on average by more than 0.2 mm per year – four times faster than the estimated drop in global sea levels since the last interglacial stage. This uplift occurs fastest at active margins (c. 0.36mm/yr), but is also happening (at 0.13mm/yr) along passive margins, like those surrounding the Atlantic Ocean. Kevin Pedoja (CNRS, Université de Caen) and co-authors conclude that the global uplift can only be explained by plate tectonic processes. As the dispersing fragments of Pangaea begin to re-connect with one another, compressive stress tends continually to build up within in the lithosphere. This happens because as collisions occur, the total length of destructive margin, where stress is relieved, decreases - while the total length of spreading ridge remains steady. This creates a global and disregarded 21 unconfirmed, sea-level in some areas. Above: Uplifted compressive stress regime that causes disputed or controversial outlier results. limestones and The researchers ensured that all local uplift even along passive margins. It is easy to think of sea-level as a marine erosion factors were taken into account,

Uplifted shorelines the world over have simple product of how full up the ocean features along a discounted others as negligible, and constructional been noted since such pioneers as basins are at any given time; but reality (reefal) shoreline on then subtracted the effect of known Darwin and~ Lyell. is more complicated. Although global a passive tectonic global sea-level rise since 122kya. sea-levels do change according to margin (Barbados) What they were left with was a clear climate and show high-frequency residual, global uplift. Something SOMETHING SEEMS fluctuations about a rising or falling seems to have been steadily jacking up mean, the continental margin is continental margins. TO BE STEADILY JACKING nowhere stable, for many reasons. Pedoja et al. estimate that MIS 5e UP THE CONTINENTAL shorelines around the world have risen, MARGINS SEA LEVEL CHANGE on average, to 28 metres above sea Ted Nield For example, the Earth is soft to the level – 16m at passive margins and ~ touch and so sinks under pressure and 45m at active ones. They believe that rises when pressure is released. the global compressional regime started HIGHSTAND Formerly glaciated areas are still rising earlier in the Cenozoic. Pedoja et al. decided to test their 11,000 years later, while passive margin hypothesis using the well-known sea- coasts near deltas subside under level highstand marking the last sediment load. Even active margins REFERENCES interglacial - Marine Isotopic Stage (MIS) may display subsidence as the over- 5e, 122,000 years ago – as baseline. riding plate is pulled down like a leaf- 1 Kevin Pedoja, Laurent Husson, This was the last time that global sea spring - followed by catastrophic Vincent Regard, Peter Robert Cobbold, Emilie Ostanciaux, levels were similar to those of today. rebounds of many metres when stored- Markes E Johnson, Stephen They combed the literature and found up energy is released in earthquakes. Kershaw, Marianne Saillard, 890 records of palaeoshore sequences Earth’s surface may also move as Joseph Martino, Lucille Furgerot, where MIS 5e was recorded, combining material is added or subtracted at Pierre Weill and Bernard Delcaillau: Relative sea-level fall since the last results from erosional, depositional and depth. Such movements can change interglacial stage: Are coasts uplifting constructional (reefal) shorelines. They the volume of the ocean basins (and so worldwide? Earth Science Reviews cross-correlated using all the many affect absolute sea-level) but can also doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.05.002. different dating methods employed, cause local uplift and modify relative

08 AUGUST 2011 Joe McCall, Geoscientist’s longest- serving Editorial Board member and McCALL’S Distinguished Service Medallist 2011, reflects on geology in the news WORLD Image © P Jenniskens, SETI Institute EARLY HOMININ DOUBTS

Bernard Wood (George Washington University) and Terry Harrison (New York University)1,2 have created controversy over the classification and status of early hominins from East African and Chad. Three discoveries there are widely accepted as being between four and seven million years old. The oldest, Sahelanthropus (picture), is from Chad and the two younger species from Kenya and Ethiopia, are Orrorin and Ardipithecus. Orrorin is represented only by a femur, but comes from Baringo District (where I and others re-evaluated and re- named Leakey’s Lake Kamasia Beds, showing from field studies that they were of two widely different ages and separated by an unconformity)3. The authors point out that the fossils used to build up the Worth their weight in grains of salt classification, and the argument that they are hominins (and hence Scientists revive 250 million year old bacteria preserved in salt our ancestors), could equally well represent now-extinct apes or Bacterial cells deprived of nutrients hominins from dead-end lines. PALAEOBIOCHEMISTRY Above: Modern get smaller, tiny and spherical, unlike Haloarchaea live in Tim White (University of A controversy sparked in 19991 has at the surface, but apparently derived hypersaline lakes, as California) objects, saying the been re-opened by an article by their nutrients from Dunialella – it is here in San 4.4Ma Ardipithecus, a partial Francisco Bay. Their Lowenstein2. Vreeland and claimed that glycerol from one cell of cells contain skeleton of which his team Rosenweig1 claimed to have revived by the eukaryote could supply enough carotenoid pigments, excavated, was ruled out as an ape culture bacteria trapped in salt cystals carbon to repair macromolecular presumably for UV by comparative studies published protection, which 250 million years old, from the Permian damage for one miniaturised Archaea explain the rich in 2009. There is a history of Salado Formation near Carlsbad, New cell for 12 million years. Lowenstein is colours they may radical revisions in this complicated display when in large Mexico. Two years later Fish and admirably cautious and believes much concentrations palaeoanthropological field, so we colleagues at Leicester University further research is needed about can expect this controversy to claimed to have extracted DNA from these processes, but he believes that rumble on. haloarchaea even older, up to 425 fluid inclusions in salt may yet prove to References: 1.Wood, B, Harrison, million years old. be a ‘magnificent time capsule’, and T. 2011. The evolutionary The objections to these research that these researches obviously have context of the first hominins. findings were based on the likelihood of a bearing on the possibility of finding Nature 470, 347. contamination and the fact that the salt traces of past primitive life in Martian 2. Bower, B. 2011. www. was not primary. Further researches surface brines. sciencenews. org/view /generic/ Below: reported by Loewenstein, based on References: 1. Vreeland, R.H., Sahelanthropus d/69932/title/ Human_ancestors¬- salt extracted from 93 metres below Rosenzweig, W.D. et al. tchadensis on _have_identity_c the surface in 10,000 to 100,000 year- Characterization of a 250-million year display at Lausanne 3. McCall, G J H, Baker, B H, Natural History old saline deposits in Death Valley old halotolerant strain of Bacillus Museum. Image: Walsh, J 1967. Late Tertiary and (California), have revealed 20 genera of pantothenticus and an extreme Wikimedia Commons Quaternary sediments in the haloarchaea + few bacteria and halophile utilising two and threee Kenya Rift Valley. In: Dunialella, an algal eukaryote, in huge carbon compounds as sources. ‘Background to quantities (>10,000 Dunialella and 100 Meeting of the American Society for Evolution in Africa’: million smaller prokaryotes can live in 1 Microbiology at Chicago. Bishop, W W, & Clark, millilitre of water!) within fluid inclusions. 2. Lowenstein, T. 2011.Bacteria back J D (eds.), University Culturing can with extreme difficulty from the brink. Thousand and million of Chicago Press, revive less than 1% of samples tested – year old microbes found living in salt Chicago and London, but five microbes were apparently crystals. Could they exist on other 191-220. brought back to life. planets. Earth. 56(4), 36-45.

AUGUST 2011 09 GEOSCIENTIST SOCIETY NEWS SOCIETYNEWS ONLINE FIRST - COMING SOON! UKRoGEP UP AND RUNNING Paul Maliphant* introduces the much-anticipated launch of the UK Register of Ground Engineering Professionals The Geological Society of London (GSL), Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) and Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (IoM3) have joined forces to create a UK Register of Ground Engineering Professionals (RoGEP). The register will have CGeol, CSci or CEng as compulsory core qualifications, and will build upon them. It will: allow engineers and geologists alike to demonstrate that their expertise lies within ground engineering (rather than another area of geology, civil or mining engineering) and (by passing through RoGEP grades of Professional, Specialist and Adviser) help practitioners to demonstrate progressively increasing competence, predicated on recognition by their sponsors and formal assessment by their peers. RoGEP will enable clients and other professionals to identify those ground engineering practitioners who are likely to bring the greatest value to a project. Registration will demonstrate an individual’s technical competence, professional attitude and experience. All Registrants will be bound by the Code of Conduct of The Society’s publish-ahead-of-print system, Online First their host body, and be required to undertake and record appropriate Continuous will soon be offered through the Society’s electronic Professional Development. publications platform, The Lyell Collection, writes Samantha Kaye. MANAGEMENT PANEL APPOINTED Online First will allow users to access PDF versions of RoGEP is administered by the ICE, and managed by a Panel of 12 UK Registered Special Publication articles that have been peer Ground Engineering Advisers (who have themselves passed the appropriate reviewed and accepted for publication prior to their competence assessment by their peers on the Panel). Members were nominated by inclusion in the completed volume, hence allowing the Ground Forum, the Executive Committee of the British Geotechnical Association science to reach the research communities more quickly. (BGA), as well as ICE, GSL and IoM3. The Panel has invited 18 Rankine Lecturers, Authors will also benefit from reduced lead times Glossop Lecturers and Skempton Medallists to accept honorary membership at between submission and publication of articles. For ‘Adviser’ level. The Panel has also sponsored a further 60 or so well-respected more information please email [email protected] ground engineering professionals from a broad cross-section of client, contractor, academic and consultant organisations, to join the Register (though these individuals will have to undergo the same assessment process as any other registrant). The Panel budget will be reviewed quarterly against Registration uptake, fee Society’s Awards 2012 income and costs. Fee levels have been set generally below those of comparable Registers. The sponsoring institutions are covering RoGEP’s start-up costs. Any future surpluses will be used to repay the institutions to a maximum value equivalent to their initial outlay, with any further surpluses used for the benefit of Registrants or to allow fees to be reduced. The institutions will gain no benefit from the creation of the Register save that which it will create for the good of the professions, and society at large. All applications to join the Register must be submitted to RoGEP. We invite Fellows of the Society to nominate Geologists are eligible as soon as they have gained chartership in a candidates for the Society’s Awards 2012. Full ground engineering specialism. details about how to make nominations to the Awards Committee can be found at A longer version of this article is available in this month’s www.geolsoc.org.uk/awards. Geoscientist Online. Full details of the scheme, copies of all n Nominations must be received no later than application forms, details of fees and the Register itself can Friday 7 October 2011. be found at www.ukrogep.org.uk

FUTURE MEETINGS * EurGeol Paul C Maliphant CGeol, Vice President, is Chair of the Chartership n Council/OGMs: 28 September; 30 Committee, Ex-Officio member of the November; Council 1, 2 February (residential): Engineering Group Committee, RoGEP Panel OGM 1 February 2012 (6pm); 11 April. member and a UK Registered Ground Engineering Adviser

10 AUGUST 2011 SOCIETY NEWS GEOSCIENTIST

FROM THE LIBRARY Sponsor-a-Fish! The library is open to visitors The Library launches a project to Monday-Friday 0930-1730. For a list of new acquisitions click conserve and digitise one of its the appropriate link from most important collections http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/info

The fossil fish portfolio of Louis leading figure in fossil ichthyology. For many years the drawings Right: In 1836 the Society awarded him were kept in a trunk in the Agassiz (1807-1873), comprising Tetragonolepsis nearly 2000 watercolours and angulifer Agassiz. its Wollaston Medal. Museum and later in different drawings dating from the 1830s- Watercolour by places around the Society. We Joseph Dinkel, 1834 1860s, were copied from private Taken from Richard SOCIETY COLLECTION would now like to make them and public collections around Weaver’s Museum of In order to fund his research and accessible to future generations of Europe, principally by the German Natural History, the expensive colour printing, researchers by conserving and Birmingham. The artist Joseph Dinkel. fossil was reported Agassiz accepted help from various digitising the entire collection. Born in Môtier, Switzerland, as being found by friends and scientific figures of the If you would like to help the John Greaves in his time. Lord Francis Egerton, later library in this project, a small Agassiz studied medicine at the stone quarry in Universities of Zurich, Heidelberg Wilmerts, near 1st Earl of Ellesmere, purchased contribution of £20 would be and Munich, during which he Stratford upon Avon, 1200 drawings and paintings enough to clean, conserve and c.1830: ‘Upon directly from Agassiz, primarily to developed an interest in zoology, splitting the stone digitise one fish. The names of particularly of European freshwater which was 19 inches provide him with funds to continue all sponsors will be included in fishes. His research for a natural long, 11 inches broad, his work. Egerton donated these a roll of honour in the Archive, and about 4 inches history of European freshwater thick, almost the drawings to the Society in 1843. and on our website. fishes, comparing the fossil forms whole of the fish was The second donation to Society attached to one side came from Agassiz himself. To Sponsor a Fish please send a from Oeningen and Glarus of it...upon the other (Switzerland) and Solnhofen side of the stone is an In 1858 he gave the 568 cheque made out to ‘The Geological (Bavaria) sparked a life-long exact impression, sheets of drawings and Society’ or call 020 7432 0999 with the fins and a paintings still in his to pay by card fascination with fossil ichthyology. few of the scales only Finding the existing classification attached; the colour possession, most of scheme inadequate, Agassiz of the fossil is dark which were brown, and glossy; developed his own (now the scales are very unpublished. A superseded) scheme based on the perfect, and but final donation in slightly attached to 1876 came from the scales and dermal appendages. the body.’ (Magazine The five volume Recherches sur les of Natural History, Earl of Enniskillen, Poissons Fossiles, lavishly vol 5, 1832) and includes images illustrated with 400 lithographic from Agassiz’s follow-up plates of fish, was issued from work Monographie sur les 1833-1843 and gained Agassiz Poissons Fossiles du Vieux international recognition as the Grès Rouge (1844-1845).

AUGUST 2011 11 Image: Shutterstock / Dimos Image:

GEOSCIENTIST FEATURE

n the Khibiny Mountains of future town around the projected northern Russia between 1923 mines. Enrichment plants were and 1925, the great Soviet constructed and the townships of geochemist A E Fersman1 and Apatity and Kirosk founded. Bringing colleagues discovered large ore deposits of this magnitude into apatite (calcium phosphate) play in this remote region posed huge Ideposits. Exploitation began in 1929, logistical problems; and yet only five and has been a major industry ever years after the foundation of an since. In 1934, two million tonnes (Mt) industrial combine in 1929, the of apatite-nepheline rocks were being infrastructure of processing plants mined each year as source material for necessary to process these deposits fertilizers. Currently, two major was all in place. mining groups exploit these huge The Khibiny complex is the largest deposits; Kovdor GOK OAO and alkaline intrusion in the world with an Apatit OAO, and in 1990, apatite ore area of 1327 km2 and is centred on 67° reserves were estimated to be in excess 52'N and 33° 35'E It is essentially a ring of 828Mt. Present evidence suggests complex some 40km in diameter that the phosphate industry in the composed of nepheline syenites, which aptly named city of Apatity has at least are divided into several types mainly another 50 years of life left in it. on the basis of textural and structural The Kola Peninsula, where the features3. Eight intrusive phases have Khibiny Mountains stand, is one of been recognised. The complex consists Russia’s most important sources of of a central ring of melteigite-urtite, economic minerals, with deposits of which is younger than the main iron, copper-nickel, other non-ferrous nepheline syenites and was emplaced and rare metals, phosphate, mica, along major faults at 360-380Ma. clays, and many other types of Lenses rich in apatite occur within the minerals2.The Kola Peninsula is urtite. Six of these lenses are presently perhaps best known among geologists mined in enormous open-cast pits or in for the Kola Superdeep Borehole underground mines where the near (SG-3), a massive Soviet science project surface ores are exhausted. Normally that drilled to a depth of 12,261m about 11Mt of ore are mined from these between 1970 and 1984. This was the deposits each year. This constitutes only time that a borehole has about 8% of total world phosphate penetrated to such a depth, 1km production. However, output declined deeper than the Marianas Trench3. by almost 20% in the first quarter of Drilling to such a depth in the Earth’s 2009 as a result of the world recession crust has never been repeated. and production of nepheline However the geoscientific history of concentrate ceased when its only the region really began with Fersman customer, the Pikalevsk Alumina and the building, in 1929, of the first Refinery Plant, was closed.

railhead. A site was chosen for a Nonetheless, if one visits the Apatity ▼ APATITE FOR GROWTH Phosphate deposits of the Kola Peninsula, Arctic Russia, are an important resource for the future, say Yuri Voytekhovsky* and Geoff Glasby FGS

GEOSCIENTIST FEATURE

▼ phosphate plant today, one will see trains each of 30 large carriages exporting phosphate ore several times a day. Investigation of these minerals led to the intensive development of the chemical feedstock mining industry in Russia. Exploitation also led to the rapid growth of new settlements, one of which grew to 10,000 souls. A feed- stock mining combine was also built, for which in 1931, the name Khibinogorsk was proposed. It was later renamed in Kirovsk in 1934 (after Sergey Kirov, assassinated in 1936 on the direct orders of Stalin. Kirov had initiated the phosphate mining, employing prisoners and slave labour1.) The first phosphate ore was recovered in 1930. In the following year, a mining-and-processing integrated works (ANOF-1) started operating. The first hydroelectric power plant, at Niva (Niva-1), provided the region with a sustainable energy supply. The Khibiny Khibiny Mountains, became a centre for scientific research, Russia when a mountain station was established there in 1930 by the USSR Academy of Sciences. The Kola Research base was later transformed into the Kola Branch of the Russian Academy of Science in 1937, and is now the Kola Science Centre (KSC) of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Apatity at 67°N 35’E. The Kola Peninsula is the main source of phosphate for fertilizer production in Russia, comprising five types of multi- component apatite ores. The basis of The smelter at Apatity with the these resources is the apatite-nepheline author (Glasby) ores (Khibiny Mountains) containing pictured in the 45-50% apatite, 35-40% nepheline, 6-10% foreground. The smelter complex aegirine, up to 2.5 % titanite and about extends a long 2 % titanium-magnetite. Rich ores with way into the a P O content of up to 27% make up background. 2 5 Only the smelter one-third of the deposits, and poor on the left is in grade ores up to 10%. Other known action deposits of apatite-magnetite and apatite-staffelite ores are found in the Kovdor area in the west of the region. Eleven deposits have been discovered in the area; seven of which boast currently producing mines. Total quantities of apatite ore in 1990 were estimated at 1087 million tonnes of P205, 687 million tonnes of which were proven resources5. (There is, however, some discrepancy between the available estimates of Russia’s mineral reserves, so these The cooling figures should be treated with caution. towers at Luzin et al. for example inferred Apatity with the reserves of apatite in Russia (1990) at smelter and Khibiny 11,000Mt, of which 670Mt were proven, Mountains in with an average grade of 9-27%2.) the background

14 AUGUST 2011 FEATURE GEOSCIENTIST

PHOSPHATE FEEDSTOCK Whatever the disagreements, one thing is certain - Russia holds huge reserves of phosphate feedstock, from 19 apatite and 32 phosphorite deposits located in the two principal areas of Khibiny and Kovdor, which together with the Lovozero deposit, make up 92.5% of all phosphate reserves in Russia7. The Khibiny Group is associated with the world’s largest nepheline syenite intrusion and includes six active and four reserve deposits together making up three ore fields, namely the Southwestern, Southeastern and Northwestern fields. The Southwestern ore field consists of 4 active and one inactive deposit which constitute parts of a sheet-like Image: Shutterstock / Dimos ore body which can be traced 12km along strike and 3.5km along dip. The P205 content of this ore is up to 14.8%. The Southeastern ore field consists of the Oleniy ruchei deposit which is planned to be mined in the near future. The ore field is 12km long and varies in thickness from 300 to 700m. All the deposits have complex geological structures and consist of multilevel ore zones. P205 content ranges from 7.5 to 14.0%. The Northwestern ore field includes the Partomchorr deposit, also planned to be mined in the near future. The mineralised zones have been traced for 6km and represent multilevel ore bodies 16-38m thick The smelter at separated by urtite interlayers 50m Apatity taken thick. The apatite ore falls within 30% side on. The of the bulk ore. The average P 0 complex 2 5 extends a long content of the ore is 7.5%. way into the Phosphate is not their only treasure, background and occupies a however; the deposits also contain Ti, large area. It is Zr, REE, Nb, V, Hf, Rb, Sr and F in connected by minable amounts. Moreover, the rail (see right foreground) to dumps and tailings from old inefficient the rest of processing plants are now minable Russia sources of phosphate. The Kovdor Group is a complex of baddeleyite-apatite-magnetite and apatite-staffelite deposits confined to the Kovdor intrusion and is composed of alkaline ultramafic rocks, foidolites and carbonatites. The Kovdor intrusion in the SW Kola Typical Peninsula bears phosphate ore landscape in deposits mainly in the western the Khibiny marginal part of the intrusion and Mountains which are partly outside its limits. The apatite located within concentrate is produced from the walking baddeleyite-apatite-magnetite ore distance of Apatity. A light as a byproduct (up to 38.2% P205). The snow covering P205 content in the primary ore does not was still present even exceed 7%. The total active reserves are

in July equivalent to 25.6Mt of P205. ▼

AUGUST 2011 15 GEOSCIENTIST FEATURE

▼ The apatite-staffelite weathering Wet magnetic separation of old wastes crusts occur in the areal and linear was initiated in 1995 to expand the carbonatites. There are four large output of apatite and baddeleyite troughs with an area of (200-500 x 120- concentrates. The man-made “deposit” 300 m) and a depth of 120-130 m can be exploited for another years at a separated by uplifted areas that can be rate of extraction 4Mt a year. traced along the contact intrusion for The main open pit is presently 350m 3km located within the structure of the deep (140 m above sea level). The smelter at Apatity with one ore body. Rich apatite-staffelite ores Remaining reserves amount to about chimney in containing up to 20% P205 are commonly 300Mt, so in 2007, plans were made to action. The found in the top horizons of the develop the main open pit down to smelter was working at less carbonatite bodies. The average P205 850m, ensuring production to 2050. than full content is 15.7%. It is also planned to Kovdor has now started implementing capacity in May to July 2009 as a produce iron concentrate in addition to development of the apatite-staffelite result of the the phosphate concentrate. deposit that occurs close to the main downturn in the open pit. This will allow the mining of world economy in early 2009 MINING 50Mt of ore (16% P205) and ensures The problems encountered in mining at additional production of apatite Apatity have been well described by concentrate of 50Mt per year. Paul Moore8. Two main companies Apatit OAO is the largest apatite- currently mine and process the nepheline extracting and processing phosphates of the Kola Peninsula - company in the world. Mining the Kovdor GOK OAO and Apatit OAO. Khibiny group apatite, extraction Kovdor GOK OAO exploits deposits exceeds 80% - and of baddeleyite of complex baddeleyite-apatite- constitutes almost 100% - of Russia’s magnetite ores, low-grade iron-apatite total output. The reserves of six active ores and wet magnetic separation wastes deposits (Kukisvumchorr, Yukspor, which were created before the Apatite circus, Rasvumchorr plateau, commissioning of the apatite- Koashva and Njorkpakh) are developed baddeleyite processing plant in 1976. It in open pits and underground mines also has a reserve deposit of apatite- (four mines being the combined staffelite ore. The company exploits the Kirovsk, Rasvumchorr, Central and complex baddeleyite-apatite-magnetite Eastern ones) containing 2.1 Gt of ore ore deposit (25.4% Fe and 7.3 % P205) in (average P205 content of 14.7%) (of The founding of open pits with a design capacity of 16Mt. which only 15% can be mined in open Apatity in the Ores are processed by a combination pits). The total annual output of these early 1930s of magnetogravity and flotation mines is 28-30Mt of ore containing on followed A E Fersman’s techniques. The output of commercial average 13-14% P205. discovery of magnetite, apatite and baddeleyite The ore is processed at two apatite- apatite deposits concentrates in 2007 was 5.2Mt, 2.5Mt nepheline-enrichment plants (ANOF-II between 1923 and 1925 and 7.4Mt, and ANOF-III) in Apatity and Kirovsk. respectively. Wastes are transported and stored at tailing dumps using a system which recycles its water supply. Annually, the company produces 8.5-9.0Mt of apatite (39% P205) and 0.9-1.0Mt of nepheline (28.5% Al2O3) concentrates. Decisions on how to develop these deposits in the future are still pending. Preparation of underground reserves for mining is quite costly in time and money. To upgrade the efficiency of ore production in the Khibiny area, plants will need to be built in the Murmansk region, where the apatite and nepheline concentrates can be further processed to produce phosphoric acid and alumina and to carry out technological investigations and research into new products. The Khibiny mountains in winter near Apatite: transparent/translucent, usually green crystals – Apatity seen here in prismatic form, with a vitreous to subresinous lustre 16 AUGUST 2011 FEATURE GEOSCIENTIST

INITIATIVE A recent initiative is the development of the Oleniy Ruchei deposit which is located in the Khibiny Mountains and is being managed by the Northwest Phosphorus Company, a subsidiary of Akron OAO. It is The slow drift of intended to develop an open pit mine the smoke reflects the and first stage processing plant in calm weather. 2012 with an annual output of 2Mt of The huge building in the apatite concentrate for the Russian background is fertilizer industry. By 2018, an the processing underground mining and second plant. It has direct rail stage processing plant will be in connections to operation. This will end the the rest of monopoly of Apatite OAO which Russia

Image: Skvodo presently dominates the market. Based on the present evidence, the phosphate industry in Russia looks set to remain a major industry in Russia for at least the next 50 years. n

* Yuri Voytekhovsky is Professor at Russian Academy of Sciences, 14 Fersman Street, Apatity, Murmansk Region, 184 209 Russia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of A F Karpuzov, A V Lebedev and V A Zhiknova and V A Korovkin. Editing and some additional reporting by Sue Bowler and Ted Nield

REFERENCES

1 . Glasby, G.P. 2007. Fersman and the Kola Penisula. Geoscientist 18 (7): 20-25. 2. Luzin, G.P., Pretes, M. and Vasiliev, V.V. 1994. The Kola Peninsula: Geography, History and Resources. Arctic 47: 1-15.

Image: Shutterstock / Gala_Kan 3. Ilyin, A.V. 2005. Apatite deposits in the Khibiny and Kovdor alkaline igneous complexes, Kola Peninsula, Northwestern Russia. In A. J. G. Notholt, R. P. Sheldon, D. F. Davidson (Eds) 2005. Phosphate deposits of the world: Volume 2, Phosphate Rock Resources, Volume 2, pp. 485-494. 4. Kozlovsky, Ye. A. 2007. The superdeep well of the Kola Peninsula. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 5. INSTITUTE OF ECONOMIC PROBLEMS (IEP) 1992. Unpublished estimates. Institute of Economic Problems, Kola Science Centre, Apatity. 6. Karpuzov, A.F., Lebedev, A.V., Zhitnikov, V.A. and Korovkin, V.A. 2008.Mineral resources of solid minerals. Mineral Resources of Russia, pp. 66-80. 7. Glasby, G.P. & Voytekhovsky Y, Arctic minerals and mineral resources. Geoscientist, 20.08 August 2010 8. http://www.belaz- export.com/eng/publications /BELAZatApatity.pdf

AUGUST 2011 17 LIVINGSTONE’S GEOLOGIST Everyone has heard of Livingstone, but Richard Thornton, Livingstone’s geologist, has been completely forgotten. Richard Boak* tells his sad story

n 1858, missionary explorer With healthy climate and good interest in the natural world, and Above: Extract David Livingstone was at the from Elephant in agricultural potential, Livingstone he entered the Royal School of height of his fame. He had the Shallows of the saw it as the ideal place to introduce Mines, Jermyn Street, in October Shire River, the returned to Britain at the end steam launch commerce and Christianity, the twin 1855. Two years later, he of 1856 a national hero, after a firing, T Baines, forces that would civilise the ‘dark graduated - winning a government spectacular coast-to-coast 1859, oil on canvas continent’. The key to the plan was prize of £15, and the De La Beche Ijourney across southern Africa. He the Zambezi. Was it navigable? Medal and £5 worth of books for was a celebrity. His book was an Livingstone needed to find out. Sir ‘excellence’. He was about to immediate bestseller; he won the Roderick Murchison, founder accept the post of geologist on a Gold Medal of the Royal member and President of the RGS, government survey in Australia Geographical Society (RGS); he was Director General of the British when he received the summons mobbed wherever he lectured and Geological Survey and Director of from Murchison - and met David was granted a private audience by the School of Mines, was a keen Livingstone for the first time. It Queen Victoria. supporter. Asked to find a geologist was to prove a fateful encounter. But Livingstone’s heart was still for the expedition, Murchison in Africa, and he lobbied summoned to his office a young CHANCE OF A LIFETIME government to fund an official man called Richard Thornton. Thornton jumped at the chance expedition to the River Zambezi. Thornton was born on 5 April offered him, and was immediately On his trans-continental journey, he 1838 in Cottingley, near Bingley, sucked into a whirlwind of had passed the Batoka Plateau, an Yorkshire. Eleventh of 12 children, preparations and farewells, area just north of the Zambezi. he had grown up with a strong reporting to Liverpool docks at the

18 AUGUST 2011 beginning of March 1858 to join the clothed with tropical vegetation.” VISION UNRAVELS Below: Richard steamship Pearl for the voyage to Thornton, aged 19, On reaching harbour in However, one year later the Africa. Other expedition members on the eve of the Freetown, Thornton was first off the expedition that started with such were Dr John Kirk, botanist and expedition. boat, eager to experience the sights, promise had descended into farce. Photograph by medical officer; Commander Henry Berton, sounds and smells of Africa. Thornton was handed a letter of Norman Bedingfeld, naval officer; London, frontispiece Heading for Cape Town, he dismissal on 27 June 1859. How Charles Livingstone (David’s in to J P R Wallis celebrated his 20th birthday as had this sad state of affairs arisen? reference (see brother), general assistant and Further Reading) Livingstone gave him written Livingstone was inept at ‘moral agent’; Thomas Baines, artist instructions. “… you are specially managing other Europeans and storekeeper; and George Rae, charged with the duty of collecting (as opposed to African porters, ship’s engineer. Thornton suffered accurate information respecting the guides and servants, who could badly from sea-sickness, and was mineral resources of the country not question him). Charles no doubt relieved when, 13 days through which we are to Livingstone fell out with almost out from Liverpool, Africa was travel…and on the geology everybody and inveighed against sighted. He wrote: “We were generally of the parts visited.” them with his brother. In June now plainly in sight of land He had also to collect 1858, the expedition got lost and a beautiful sight it was. fossils, to examine any coal among the labyrinthine channels Distant fine mountains seams encountered, and of the delta, constantly running with a beautiful discover the “probable aground despite their shallow- foreground of low value of any ores of Iron, draught launch. Continual hunger

hills…all were richly Copper, Lead, etc.” and shortage of fuel were all too ▼

AUGUST 2011 19 ▼ much for Bedingfeld, who resigned within a few weeks. In fits and starts, the expedition made its way upriver as far as Tete. Thornton busied himself with the river Working a coal channels, examining outcrops, seam near Tete, lower Zambezi, developing some coal seams for fuel T Baines, 1859, and occasionally helping to re-float oil on canvas. the launch. The figure dressed in white It soon became clear that the shirt and Zambezi would never a highway to trousers is likely the interior. The final blow was the to be Richard Thornton mighty Kebrabasa Rapids upstream of Tete (now flooded by the Cahora Bassa dam). Livingstone, facing failure, pinned his hopes on the Shiré, a major tributary. The expedition split up, Thornton finding himself frequently alone at base camp, unsupervised and discouraged, without medical care, suffering malaria, fever, dysentery, sores and prickly heat. He lacked the energy to keep up his geological Shibadda, or work, but Livingstone accused him two channel of being ‘idle’ and of disobedience. rapid, above the Kebrabasa, Livingstone wrote: “[Thornton] has Zambesi River, been incorrigibly lazy, seems to have T Baines, no taste for geology and works January 1859, oil on canvas. none.” However both Livingstones Surveying the were probably jealous of Thornton Kebrabasa rapids on the and Baines (similarly dismissed), Zambezi, which because they had formed finally put paid constructive relationships with the to hopes that the river would Portuguese (who had already been be navigable in the area for hundreds of years). So, after exploring by himself for a while using a small sailing dinghy, Thornton eventually regained the coast. In March 1861 Thornton arrived in Zanzibar. SNOW ON THE EQUATOR Thornton was probably expecting to pick up a home-bound ship, but instead met Baron Karl von der Decken, a German nobleman of 27 who was devoting himself to exploring East Africa. Von der Decken had just made an unsuccessful attempt to reach Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi), and was turning his attention to Kilimanjaro. The mountain had been seen by German missionary Johann Rebmann in 1848, whose reports stirred up a fierce debate. How Snows of could a snow-capped mountain exist Kilimanjaro: so close to the Equator? Thornton until Thornton and v.d. Decken and the Baron signed an agreement confirmed the to join forces to solve Rebmann’s observation, paradox. The terms were very strict, equatorial snow was highly and a clause relating to publication controversial would come to haunt the Thornton FEATURE GEOSCIENTIST

family later. However, the men had a good working relationship and the contrast with Livingstone could not have been greater. Thornton flourished. The caravan finally set out from Mombasa on 29 June 1861. The objective was to conquer Kilimanjaro - and the provisions included a bottle of champagne, for the summit. It took just over a month to reach the foot of Kilimanjaro, by which time the champagne had been broached as a thirst-quencher while traversing the waterless ‘nyika’ (thorn-bush wilderness). There were severe problems obtaining guides and porters; and frustrating delays due to heavy rain, and they only reached just over 2400m - not out of the forest zone - before the porters deserted and they had to turn back. However, the expedition was a success: snow tribal warfare related to slaving. his untimely death and partly Above: Town of Tete and ice were confirmed. from the north shore Livingstone had established a because his family was prevented Thornton correctly identified of the Zambezi, by T mission, and both it and the from publishing the Kilimanjaro the volcanic origins of the Baines, April 1859, oil expedition were running out of material by the agreement with mountain and its neighbours and supplies. Thornton volunteered to von der Decken. speculated about their age. He trek 150 miles overland to buy As Murchison wrote: “So gifted made remarkably good estimates supplies. Tete was also hit by and rising an explorer – had he of the height of the mountain – drought, so it was only Thornton’s lived, his indomitable zeal and actually 5895m – at 6039-6296m). friendship with the Portuguese that great acquirements would have He became the first Englishman to enabled him to obtain 60 goats and surely placed him in the front rank set eyes on Kilimanjaro, and his 40 sheep. He returned severely of men of science.” n diaries provided many fascinating weakened. Fever and dysentery descriptions of local culture, soon set in, and he died after * Richard Boak is an independent society, agricultural practices, several days on 21 April 1863, on hydrogeologist, currently based in Delft, vegetation, geography and board the river-launch Pioneer, aged The Netherlands, but about to move back geology. Von der Decken won the 25 and 16 days. He was buried the to Shrewsbury. RGS’s Gold Medal. Kilimanjaro next day under a large baobab tree. was not successfully climbed for Thornton’s family was ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS another 28 years. devastated when the news filtered Image credits: P18/19 © Royal back, their sadness compounded by Geographical Society, Baines 29. P20 top: BACK TO THE ZAMBEZI a long fight to retrieve his © Royal Geographical Society, Baines 35. Thornton seems to have been in no belongings, settle accounts and P20 middle:© Royal Geographical hurry to go home, even though by claim salary arrears. Thornton’s Society, Baines 24. P20 bottom: © the time he and the Baron returned scientific legacy has never been Enote/Shutterstock. P21© Royal to Mombasa it had been three fully evaluated, partly because of Geographical Society, Baines 30. years, seven months since leaving Liverpool. Surprisingly perhaps, Thornton decided to make his way FURTHER READING back to the Zambezi. Branching 1 Coupland R 1928, Kirk on the Zambesi, a Chapter of African History, Clarendon Press, off up the Shiré, he caught up with Oxford, UK. the Livingstone party at Chibisa’s 2 Fosbrooke H A 1962, Richard Thornton in East Africa, Tanganyika Notes and Records, village, just above Elephant Marsh. Vol.58, pp43-63. Kirk, Rae and the Livingstones 3 Martelli G 1972, Livingstone’s River, a History of the Zambezi Expedition 1858-1864, were astonished but fascinated by Victorian (& Modern History) Book Club, Newton Abbot, UK. his tales of adventure. 4 Reader J 1982, Kilimanjaro, Elm Tree Books, London, UK. Thornton agreed to re-join the 5 Tabler E C 1963 (ed), The Zambezi Papers of Richard Thornton, 2 volumes, Chatto & expedition (in January 1863), on Windus, London, UK. his own terms. The expedition 6 Wallis J P R 1956 (ed), The Zambezi Expedition of David Livingstone 1858-1863, 2 was still struggling. Drought and vols, Oppenheimer Series Number 9, Chatto & Windus, London, UK. famine had hit, exacerbated by

AUGUST 2011 21 Geoscientist welcomes readers’ letters. These are published as promptly as possible in Geoscientist Online and a selection READERS’ printed each month. Please submit your letter (300 words or fewer, by email only please) to [email protected]. LETTERS Letters will be edited. For references cited in these letters, please see the full versions at www.geolsoc.org.uk/letters RESIGNATION AND ABDICATION CYCLE LAME Sir, Robin Bailey (Soapbox, Geoscientist June 2011) refers to Sander’s Rule, a heuristic routinely used to support the claims of cyclo- chronology. The ‘rule’ expressed the belief of B Sander (1936) that cyclic processes are much more likely to occur in nature than non-cyclic processes. I propose that Sander’s Image © Vulkanette/Shutterstock ‘rule’ is in fact better regarded as a creed. For followers of the alternative doctrine, that the stratigraphic record is almost entirely the outcome of stochastic processes, then one’s creed can (no less logically) be stated thus: 1. Apparent sedimentary cyclicity does not have to indicate cyclicity Sir, In 1963 we proposed that common OIB are cotectic at low pressure9 - in time; orthopyroxene must coexists This latter inconsistent with common erupted 2. Absence of sedimentary cyclicity with nepheline -normative basalts being primary magmas8. almost always rules out cyclicity liquids at intermediate In 196810 I published an updated review in time. 1 pressures and later that year which presented the ROXZY data Schwarzacher’s (1973, 1975) 10,11 we published the first projection , integrated experimental data mathematical statement of Sander’s determination of 4-phase lherzolite melting in from 1964 to 1967 into [ref 8], and revised the Rule has been widely mistaken as a 2 CMAS at atmospheric pressure , an analysis view that andesites were direct partial melts of ‘proof’. However, Schwarzacher’s 12 of garnet-lherzolite melting at 3 GPa, and three wet peridotite. Separately , I pointed out that analysis was explicitly dependent on determinations of equilibria in eclogite- most MORB did not have orthopyroxene on a number of assumptions; was 3,4,5,6 peridotite systems which showed that their liquidus at any pressure and, therefore, applied only to a particular model of there was an eclogite thermal divide separating could NOT be primary magmas. These stratigraphic accumulation; and 13 the compositions analogous to (picritic) partial findings, heavily criticised at the time , have yielded a very restricted result. melts of upper mantle materials from those of been proved substantially correct. Is there any a priori reason for the abundant erupted tholeiitic Ocean Island Five organisations have honoured this choosing between Sander’s Rule and 14 and Continental Flood Basalts. Prediction of pioneering work in the CMASH system to my proposed converse of it, or [ref 2] involved development of a method for another individual. Attempts (2006-2010) to indeed for proposing either of them reading pseudobinary phase equilibria within rectify the situation quietly having foundered, I in the first place? Does either ‘rule’ 7 Quaternary systems, published in 1969. have resigned from the Society and abdicated do any more than express the model 8 In 1965 I proposed a petrogenetic scheme, the Murchison Medal (30.10.10). This also has of the record preferred by its 7 utilising to obtain the andesitic composition been treated so circumspectly that not even proposer? and low temperature of the initial partial the secretary charged six months later with David Smith melting products of spinel-lherzolite at 1 GPa recovering unpaid fees was aware of it. in CMASH from published data8, integrating Mike O’Hara what was known about dry peridotite-basalt ANTHROPOCENE equilibria in CMAS between atmospheric References cited may be inspected in the Online Sir, In studying the sedimentary rock pressure and 3 GPa8, and stressing that version www.geolsoc.org.uk/letters record, we are usually looking at marine sediments. But I don't think anyone has written a general paper MYSTERY MAN quantifying the effect of mankind on modern submarine sediments. I can Sir, The man in the picture with Holmes think of papers on the morphological (Geoscientist 21.05, p18) is Basil King. My wife imprint of bottom dredging seen in identified him; he was her Prof when she was a photographs and high-resolution student at Bedford College in the late 1950s. The multibeam data. Plenty of studies photograph was almost certainly taken on the look at shipwrecks, pipelines and Antrim Coast just east of Cushendall. I think they other installations in shelf seas. There are sitting on the ORS breccia/conglomerate, just have also been various studies of west of the Trias red sandstone arch over the Coast pollutants being transferred to the Road. This must have been taken when Holmes deep sea. I would have thought there was at Durham, as you say some time in the 1930s. is scope for a general effort in Henry Emeleus characterising this and it may only Editor writes: With thanks to the many others who wrote require bringing together existing in identifying Basil King. published efforts by UK workers. Neil Mitchell

22 AUGUST 2011 BOOKS & ARTS GEOSCIENTIST

to environments while others focus on Zalasiewicz is a strong believer in specific hazards. The reader has therefore anthropogenic global warming and its to refer between sections to develop a full harmful effects, and terms these few picture. Most of the contributions focus centuries the ‘Anthropocene’. He is not on hazards and, to some extent, among the ‘doubters’. investigation and mitigation of these. But The next two chapters deal with only a few consider vulnerability (7 out of taphonomy, the processes that allow the 23) and risk (3) in any detail. preservation of fossils, and again there are The book is well presented, similar in many obscure and unsuspected processes quality to the Special Publications series that were unfamiliar to me. He is of the Society. A few of the photographs especially strong on ‘Lagerstätten’ – the Geomorphological Hazards are poorly reproduced, but that does not rare sites like Solnhofen and Chengjiang, detract significantly. Despite some with preservation of soft tissues as well as and Disaster Prevention unevenness in content it is well worth hard parts. This is important in the final This book is aimed at specialists rather reading and is relatively cheap as parts of the book where he concludes that than generalist hazard and risk managers. technical books go. some human artefacts like buildings and Although it is intended to examine “what tunnels will be preserved in 100 million hazard and risk managers want from Reviewed by Brian Marker years, despite deep burial and possible geomorphologists and what travel on the ‘tectonic escalator’ and all the geomorphologists believe they can offer to GEOMORPHOLOGICAL HAZARDS AND DISASTER physical, chemical and biological them”, all of the authors seem to be PREVENTION degrading processes that will be arrayed geomorphologists. It would have been IRASEMA ALCÁNTARA-AYALA AND ANDREW GOUDIE against them. But remains of actual (Editors), Published by: Cambridge University Press; interesting if at least a few contributions Publication date: March, 2010; ISBN: 978-0-521-76925- human bodies, allowing the aliens to find had been invited from “managers”. 9 (hbk), 304pp out much about our physical nature, will The volume has two main sections – List price: £45.00, www.cambridge.org only survive in new types of Lagerstätten firstly, “processes” and, secondly, that may derive from our practices. Even “processes and applications of so, the aliens would still be mystified geomorphology to risk assessment” about us, and end up with very containing 16 and 7 papers respectively. incomplete understanding. Papers in Part 1 range from the specific to However unlikely some, including the general, giving an uneven depth of myself, might consider the chances of coverage. One paper focuses on visitors as capable as Zalasiewicz imagines lichenometry for dating landside episodes coming to Earth from outer space in the while another considers all mountain distant future, this is a brilliant and unique hazards in general. In Part 2, papers range book that should teach much to from the practical (e.g. use of GIS for the innumerable readers. assessment of flood and landslide risk) to historical and philosophical discussion of Reviewed by Joe McCall vulnerability analysis as a part of The Earth After Us geomorphological risk assessment. This completely original book, now in THE EARTH AFTER US Disappointingly, the paper devoted to the paperback, is wholly lacking illustrations. JAN ZALASIEWICZ, Published by: Oxford University Press; requirements of risk managers and what The excellently written text is somewhat Publication date: September, 2009; ISBN: 978-0-19- geomorphology has to offer them is almost breathless and unrelieved. It is not 921498-3 (pbk); 251 pp entirely devoted to the latter. The ‘lightweight’! List price: £8.99, www.oup.com concluding section takes the line that while Zalasiewicz employs the artifice of the terms “natural, geomorphological, imagining visitors from another planet REVIEWS: COPIES AVAILABLE geophysical and hydrometeorological are coming to Earth in 100 million years widely used, the concept of future, and searching for the traces of Interested parties should contact the Reviews geomorphological hazard is.....rather humanity long gone. The text commences Editor, Dr. Martin Degg 01244 513173; unknown”. While appreciation of hazard with a review of global geological [email protected], only. Reviewers are invited to keep texts. Review titles are not management has made significant progress relationships and is brilliantly conceived. available to order from the Geological Society in many areas, more does need to be done. I have been a geologist for 60+ years, yet I Publishing House unless otherwise stated. One wonders whether a text aimed at non- learnt much of which I was unaware. specialists would have been more effective Zalasiewicz has an encyclopaedic n Geological Landscapes of Britain in advancing understanding. knowledge of the Phanerozoic. He Ashbourn, J (2011), Springer The book deals fairly comprehensively appears weaker on the Precambrian, but n Hertfordshire Geology and Landscape with hazards (seismic, volcanic, flooding, this does not matter. He is really Catt, J (2011), HNHS desertification and dune migration, slope concerned with the Phanerozoic. n Volcanic and Tectonic Hazard instability and avalanche, weathering, The book emphasises the fact that the Assessment for Nuclear Facilities Connor, dissolution, subsidence and erosion) in a extraordinary global human population C.B, Chapman, N A & Connor, L J (2009), Cambridge wide range of physical and climatic explosion of the past two or three n environments. However it is somewhat hundred years, and the associated Geoinformatics: Cyberinfrastructure for the solid Earth Sciences, Keller, G R & Baru, weak on hazards in glacial and periglacial industry and use of resources including C (eds) (2011), Cambridge environments. Some sections are devoted food, will hasten our departure.

AUGUST 2011 23 GEOSCIENTIST PEOPLE

Geoscientists in the news and on the move in the UK, PEOPLE Europe and worldwide CAROUSEL

All fellows of the Society are entitled to entires in this Blundell elected column. Please email ted.nield @geolsoc.org.uk, quoting your Sir Tom Blundell has been elected to be the new President of the Fellowship number. Science Council. He succeeds Sir Tom McKillop after four years in the role, persuading different sciences to work together n JOHN LOWE John Lowe of Royal Holloway, University of London, has been honoured by the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) with the Victoria Medal ‘for his research on quaternary science.’ n IAIN STEWART Iain Stewart (Plymouth University), Honorary Fellow of the Society, has been awarded the Ness Award of the Royal Geographical Society Prof Sir Tom Blundell FRS, Sir William Dunn (with IBG) ‘for championing and Professor of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge popularising geography and a wider understanding of the Accepting the position at together. “Promoting by the public. Investment in world and its environments’. the Council’s AGM, Sir high standards of science and innovation Tom Blundell said he was professionalism at all levels remains a high priority and n PETER STYLES looking forward to taking in the practice of science is by bringing together such a Peter Styles forward the Science crucial if the UK is to wide range of science (School of Council’s vision for the maintain a strong science organisations the Science Physical different disciplines and and innovation sector that Council can play a pivotal Sciences and professions within science will help grow the economy, role in shaping priorities.” Geography, to work more closely serve society and be trusted Dawne Riddle Keele University, former President) will be Inaugural Distinguished Visiting Instructor in Near Surface IN MEMORIAM WWW.GEOLSOC.ORG.UK/OBITUARIES Geophysics for the European Association of Geoscientists THE SOCIETY NOTES WITH SADNESS THE PASSING OF: read the guidance for authors at and Engineers (EAGE). He will www.geolsoc.org.uk/obituaries. Carr-Brown, Barry * To save yourself unnecessary deliver a series of master Suzuki, Uko work, please do not write classes in Environmental In the interests of recording its Fellows’ work for posterity, anything until you Geophysics from Easter 2012 the Society publishes obituaries online in Geoscientist. The have received a and will include a sequence of most recent additions to the list are shown in bold. Fellows commissioning letter. workshops in Europe for whom no obituarist has yet been commissioned are Deceased Fellows for whom no obituary is marked with an asterisk (*). supplemented by a forthcoming have their names and dates selected set of venues globally If you would like to contribute an obituary, please email recorded in a Roll of Honour at including the Middle East, [email protected] to be commissioned. You can www.geolsoc.org.uk/obituaries. and Australasia.

24 AUGUST 2011 PEOPLE GEOSCIENTIST

HELP YOUR OBITUARIST The Society operates a scheme for Fellows to deposit biographical material. The object is to assist obituarists by providing contacts, dates and other information, and thus ensure that Fellows’ lives are accorded appropriate and accurate commemoration. Please send your CV and a photograph to Ted Nield at the Society. DISTANT THUNDER Pot calls kettle black As geologist and science writer Nina Morgan discovers, it really does take one to know one

Long before computers, email or archive of letters that reveal in 1863) who was then probably a been a perfect match for the even typewriters – the major great detail the progress and Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, equally idiosyncratic Buckland. means of communication among thoughts behind the major and later went on to become Clearly, it takes one to know one. the pioneers of geology was the discoveries in geology. But anyone Church of Ireland Archbishop of handwritten letter. With several who has spent time looking Dublin, wrote to William Buckland ACKNOWLEDGEMENT deliveries a day, and a postal through these cannot fail to be the first reader in geology at This vignette is based on a service that seemed to have little struck by how little care Oxford University, to protest: handwritten letter from Richard trouble deciphering even the correspondents apparently took to Whately to William Buckland vaguest of addresses and could ensure that their brilliant insights Dear Buckland preserved at the Devon Record apparently deliver letters with could be easily – let alone On our return last night I found Office. Other sources include the lightning speed, it was a system accurately – read by the recipients. as I thought that a spider had entry for Richard Whately by that seemed to work very well. Just occasionally, however, the crawled out of the inkstand over a Richard Brent in the Oxford And as a bonus, there now baffled recipients fought back. bit of paper; but it turns out to be Dictionary of National Biography. remains a rich In a letter preserved in the a hieroglyphic from you wh I so far Devon record office, and dated interpreted as to perceive it was If the past is the key to your simply 'Friday', Richard an invitation to meet some present interests, why not join the Whately (1787- Professor; whose name as you History of Geology Group (HOGG)? wrote it looked somewhat For more information and to read indecent. I shall be happy to wait the latest HOGG newsletter, visit on you & take the opportunity of the website at www.geolsoc.org. learning the [illegible word!] mode uk/hogg where the programme of writing. and abstracts from the Conference on Geological Collectors and Yrs truly, Collecting are available as a pdf R Whately file free to download.

A notorious eccentric with a penchant for keeping herrings in * Nina Morgan is a geologist his college rooms to grill on his fire and science writer based for breakfast, Whately must have near Oxford

AUGUST 2011 25 GEOSCIENTIST OBITUARY

OBITUARY‘

HENRY STEWART EDGELL 1927-2010 Geologist and palaeontologist who wrote widely on the oilfields and deserts of the Middle East

tewart Edgell died at their geologist in a new Western Australia as ARAMCO as Regional home suddenly on concession over 104,000km² palaeontologist and Geologist (Exploration) 13 April 2010 aged of South Oman, where he stratigrapher. There he dealing with gravity, 82. He was born in made the first geological established the laboratory, and magnetic and seismic S Hobart in Tasmania, map. He also located the first conducted field work in the interpretation to evaluate Australia. He obtained his BSc oil field discovered in Oman Kimberleys, Pilbara and Perth basement and salt tectono- (Hons) degree in Geology (Marmul Field). He then Basin. Returning to the Middle stratigraphic control of Saudi from the University of Sydney joined British Petroleum and East, he became Professor of Arabian oil fields. From 1985 (1950), where he was was assigned to the Geology at the American to 1993, he was Professor of Demonstrator in Petrology, Consortium in Iran, where he University of Beirut and Middle Geology at King Fahd and his PhD in Geology from was Head of the East Petroleum Consultant for University of Petroleum and Stanford University (1954). Paleontological Section and Stone and Associates of Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Geological Laboratory, and Houston, Texas. Arabia teaching petroleum MARMUL FIELD geologist/stratigrapher geology, structural geology After completing his studies responsible for stratigraphic VISITING PROFESSOR and stratigraphy. From he spent four years with the control of drilling wells. From1970 he was UN Economic Saudi Arabia, he acted as a Bureau of Mineral Resources, After five years in Iran, he Geology Expert and Visiting consultant to oil companies Geology and Geophysics moved to take up the post of Professor at the Centre of and others, such as Sir (now AGSO) in oil Lecturer in Geology, Applied Geology, Jeddah, Saudi Alexander Gibb exploration in the Carnarvon University of Canterbury, Arabia. From 1971-79, he was (hydrogeology), and in and Perth basins. Christchurch, NZ (1961-62) Professor of Geology at Shiraz China with petroleum Subsequently, he joined and then returned to University in Iran and evaluation of the Tarim Richfield Oil Corporation Australia to work geological consultant in the Basin, in addition to remote (now ARCO), mapping Utah for the Persian Gulf area, with a two sensing interpretation and and South Idaho for Geological year intervening period as Chief reports for British Aerospace prospective oil structures. Survey of Palaeontologist for Occidental and the Saudi Arabian He also engaged in well Libya based in Tripoli. In government. site work in the 1979, he was appointed He was a Fellow of the Williston Basin, Professor of Geology, Geological Society (London), Ventura Basin and University of Benghazi, Fellow of the Geological Wyoming. Richfield Libya, with a period as Society of America, Member chose him as Visiting Professor at of the Geological Society of Kuwait University. He Australia, European Union returned to Australia in of Geosciences, Geological 1981 and was Chief Society of Switzerland, Geologist for Bass Strait Paleontological Association, Oil and Gas. Later, he SEPM, a Member of AAPG was Senior Geologist since 1954 and author of over for Occidental Australia 166 geological publications. in Queensland and He was also author of the Western Australia book ‘Arabian Deserts – dealing with the oil and nature, origin and evolution’. gas prospects of He is survived by his wife Southwest Queensland Golbahar, his sons Dr and offshore oil Cameron Edgell (a GP) and prospects of NW Colin Edgell (a lawyer) and Australia and onshore three grandsons. Devonian reef prospects of the Lennard Shelf. By Stewart Edgell, completed In 1983, he joined by his family.

26 AUGUST 2011 CALENDAR GEOSCIENTIST

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DIARY OF MEETINGS AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 2011

CAN’T FIND YOUR MEETING? VISIT WWW.GEOLSOC.ORG.UK – FULL, ACCURATE, UP-TO-DATE

Meeting Date Venue and details

Tertiary Fan Reservoirs of the North Sea 31 August - Venue: University of Aberdeen, UK. See website for details. Contact: Steve Whalley PETROLEUM GROUP 2 September T: +44 (0)20 7432 0980 F: +44 (0)20 7494 0579 E: [email protected]

Dynamic Topography. A key surface record 1-2 September Bringing together geologists, geomorphologists and geophysicists seeking to understand of deep Earth processes how processes operating within the mantle interact with those acting on the surface to GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY shape the Earth's topography and control sediment and geochemical flux. ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY Venue: Burlington House (Geological Society). See website for details & registration. BRITISH GEOPHYSICAL ASSOCIATION Contact: Georgina Worrall T: 020 7434 9944 F: 020 7494 0579 E: [email protected]

Fermor 2011 - Ore Deposits in an 7-9 September Venue: Burlington House. See website for details & registration. Contact: Georgina Evolving Earth Worrall T: 020 7434 9944 F: 020 7494 0579 E: [email protected] GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Source Rocks: Character, Prediction 12-14 September Venue: Burlington House. Registration: £150 (Fellows); £250 (Non Fellows). Call for and Value Abstracts - deadline passed. See website for details and registration. PETROLEUM GROUP Contact: Steve Whalley T: +44 (0)20 7432 0980 E: [email protected]

The Hans Cloos Lecture: The Contribution of 14 September Venue: Burlington House. Venue: University of Bristol. Contact: David Entwistle Urban Geology to the Development, T: +44 (0)115 936 3378 E: [email protected] Regeneration and Conservation of Cities (followed by AGM) ENGINEERING GROUP

Problems Associated With Peat Extraction 14 September Speaker: John Hall (South West Geotechnical). Venue: Ley Arms, Kenn, Near Exeter. SOUTH WEST REGIONAL Time: Buffet 18.30; meeting 1900. Contact: Cathy Smith E: [email protected]

Darcy Lecture 2011: Development of reliable 14 September Speaker: Professor Stephen Silliman (University of Notre Dame). Venue: University hydrologic data sets in difficult environments: College London. See website – full meeting programme available shortly. case studies from Benin, West Africa Contact: Nicky Robinson E: [email protected] HYDROGEOLOGY GROUP, INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HYDROGEOLOGISTS

The Thames Through Time 20 September Speaker: Danielle Schreve, Professor of Quaternary Science, Royal Holloway, University A BURLINGTON HOUSE LECTURE of London. Venue: Burlington House (Geological Society). Time: 17:30 (Tea), 1800 (Lecture) 1900 Reception, 20:00 Ends. Entry free to all, but by ticket only. Contact: Georgina Worrall. T: 020 7434 9944 F: 020 7494 0579 E: [email protected]

Exceptionally Preserved Fossils: Rare 21 September Speaker: Prof. David Siveter (University of Leicester). Venue: Burlington House Windows on The Evolution of Life (Geological Society). Time: 1430 & 17:30 (Tea), 1500 & 1800 (Lecture) 1900 Reception, GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 20:00 Ends. Entry free to all, but by ticket only. Contact: Georgina Worrall. SHELL UK (SHELL LONDON LECTURE) T: 020 7434 9944 F: 020 7494 0579 E: [email protected]

Discoveries of the 21st Century - Standing on 25-28 September For 30 years the Petroleum Group has tracked the development of petroleum geosciences the Shoulders of Giants in exploration and exploitation. This meeting will focus on the highest profile petroleum PETROLEUM GROUP discoveries and new plays of the last 10 years. See website for details and registration. Contact: Steve Whalley T: +44 (0)20 7432 0980 F: +44 (0)20 7494 0579 E: [email protected]

AUGUST 2011 27 GEOSCIENTIST OBITUARY

OBITUARY‘

LAWRENCE ALBERT JOSEPH WILLIAMS 1930-2011 Nairobi-born geologist who helped unravel the geology of Kenya, and became Reader at Lancaster University

awrie Williams was survey geologists, several of sections to him for a second District in the Gregory Rift, the only member of whom went on to distinguish opinion – he was much better where Lawrie, as a co- the remarkable themselves in other fields at mineralogical niceties director, acted as anchor geological mapping after ‘Uhuru’. He was noted than myself! man for the students while L team in the 1950s, in for tackling the really wild on field work in Kenya. The the Geological Survey of areas such as the Mara River BARINGO DISTRICT latter concentrated on the Kenya under the direction and Amboseli, and he had He moved to the University carbonatites bordering of Dr William Pulfrey (Chief several scaring adventures College (later the University) Lake Victoria, in the Gwasi Geologist), who was with unfriendly lions. He also in Nairobi in 1963 and area, which I had mapped brought up in Kenya. He mapped the Haidu Fundi Isa, obtained a PhD at that in 1954, obtaining some was born in Nairobi in 1930. Chandlers’ Falls, and Buna- institution. While there he more detail. He obtained his first degree Korondil Sheets. He had a was involved with EAGRU, a His last professional from Glasgow University in most even temperament, and two-pronged organisation move was to Lancaster 1952, with first class I never knew him to have any based in Bedford College University as Senior honours. Lawrie was disagreement with his under Basil King and Bill Lecturer in 1972, where he arguably the most colleagues; he was always Bishop, and Leicester under continued his Kenya technically proficient and ready to help them and many Mike Le Bas. The former researches. He was later resourceful of the Kenya times I took difficult thin concentrated on the Baringo promoted Reader. He co- authored a definitive report in the JGS in 1995 on the splendid Silali caldera volcano with myself, who did the original two mapping trips from the University in Perth (the second supported by EAGRU), and geologists from the BGS who carried on the work and produced the 1:50,000 scale BGS map of the Kapedo area in which Silali forms the centre. He retired in September 1990 as an Emeritus Reader, and continued to reside near Carnforth with his wife, Sylvia, who describes him as a wonderful husband and friend. He was an outstanding geologist and a very fine man, and his contribution to the unravelling of the very complex geology of Kenya was immense. His quiet but strong personality will be much missed.

By Joe McCall

28 AUGUST 2011 CROSSWORD GEOSCIENTIST

CROSSWORD NO. 149 SET BY PLATYPUS WIN A SPECIAL PUBLICATION

The winner of the June Crossword puzzle prize draw was Dr Mark Griffin of Whalley Range, Manchester.

All correct solutions will be placed in the draw, and the winner’s name printed in the October issue. The Editor’s decision is final and no correspondence will be entered into. Closing date - August 26.

The competition is open to all Fellows, Candidate Fellows and Friends of the Geological Society who are not current Society employees, officers or trustees. This exclusion does not apply to officers of joint associations, specialist or regional groups.

Please return your completed crossword to Burlington House, marking your envelope “Crossword”. Do not enclose any other matter with your solution. Overseas Fellows are encouraged to scan the signed form and email it as a PDF to [email protected]

Name ...... ACROSS DOWN Membership number ...... Address for correspondence ...... 6 Lithology for those with 1 Deep lower crustal rock group defined by appetite for whetting (8) Suess for its dominant constituents of ...... Silicon and Magnesium (4) 8 Phew! Ups and downs... (6) ...... 2 Densest natural element (6) 10 The things crystalline forms ...... get up to all the time (6) 3 Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin - or postgraduate (7) ...... 11 Noble savage's prime enthusiast (8) 4 To burst suddenly in (6) ...... 12 Behaves well in a 5 SI unit prefix denoting 10 to the power ...... squeeze (9) of 12 (4) 13 Opinion-of-climate formers 7 Highly calcified cementing bivalved ...... (1,1,1,1) delicious molluscs (7) ...... 15 Brighten by cleaning (7) 9 Even more vigorous (7) Postcode ...... 17 Underneath the drift (7) 12 They point to the solution of a mystery (5) 20 Previously enjoyed (4) 14 Lear extols his hurricanoes to drench the steeples and drown these innocent SOLUTIONS JUNE 21 Sacrifice of 100 (9) birds (5) 23 Salt of chloric acid (8) 16 Portable sleeping implement much used ACROSS: 25 Dance in constant 3/4 time by jolly swagmen (7) 1 Habit 4 Cyclothem 9 Rankinite 10 Oared with a prominent triplet on 18 You may not enjoy it but you can 11 Anthophyllite 14 Your 15 Decathlete the second beat of live off it (7) 18 Indonesian 19 Star 21 Radiochemical every bar (6) 24 Climb 25 Shielding 27 Redresses 28 Tunic 21 Conveyance for corpses (6) 27 Arboreal Australian 22 French environment (6) DOWN: herbivorous marsupial (6) Hermatypic Bin Tripod Caithness 24 Ungulate tip toe (4) 1 2 3 4 28 C, E, G, Bflat, D, F, for 5 Creel 6 Otoliths 7 Hermeneutic 8 Mode example (8) 26 Parisian transport system (1,1,1,1) 12 Thunderbird 13 Petrologic 16 Arachnids 17 Inedible 20 Amulet 22 Oases 23 Scar 26 Ion

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