i

UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH

Edinburgh

Theoretical Approaches to the Soundscapes of Miyasaki’s Kiki’s Delivery Service Dubs

This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of requirements for the MMus in Musicology

in the

University of Edinburgh, College of Arts

under the supervision of

Dr Annette Davison

Word Count: 14.901

Daniela Montoya Rodriguez1

19 August 2019

1 Beneficiaria COLFUTURO 2018 ii

Abstract Changing the soundscape in a translation of a film is not a usual practice. The main reason why dubbing companies avoid modifying the soundscape is because the acoustic aspects of an audiovisual product can deeply affect how it is read and interpreted. From1960 until 2000, however, it was common for dubbing companies to hire a composer to re-score and localize (adapt the product to the local culture) the soundscapes of Japanese animations. Miyasaki’s film Majo No Takkyubin [Kiki’s Delivery Service] is an excellent case study of this phenomenon since it has an English dubbed version released by Disney in 1998 and another one released in 2010. The use of an interdisciplinary approach between translation studies, musicology and film studies in the analysis and comparison of the soundscapes of the original film and its dubs evidence the correlation between the norms and convention that dictated the localization of the script and the acoustic aspects of the soundscape (music cues and sound effects). The first section of the dissertation delves into theoretical concepts of translation studies and audiovisual translation studies while the following section explains the conventions and norms that influenced the translation of animes in the U.S. The last section applies the concepts explained in the previous sections to the analysis of the study case as an example of the benefits that introducing a translation framework can bring to the understanding of how extra-musical and extra-textual cultural convention can influence the composing and recomposing of audiovisual soundscapes.

This dissertation uses video examples included in the digital platform that include comparisons between the same segment of the different versions of the case study. However, there are written descriptions of the examples for those who can not access the videos.

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Contents List of Examples...... 1 Introduction ...... 2 Translation Theories ...... 5 Fundamental concepts ...... 5 Pragmatics ...... 6 Global Market ...... 7 Analysis Strategies ...... 8 Macro-textual strategies ...... 8 Micro-textual Strategies ...... 9 AVT Theories ...... 11 Fundamentals ...... 11 Industry ...... 13 Signifying codes ...... 14 Cultural references and Ideologies ...... 15 Anime ...... 16 Anime history in the United States ...... 17 Translating anime...... 19 Effects on the soundscape ...... 20 Dubbing Kiki ...... 21 Hisaishi ...... 23 Kiki ...... 26 Kiki in Previous Scholarship...... 26 Intro analysis ...... 27 Verbal non-linguistic aspects ...... 28 Localizing strategies used by Chihara ...... 29 Segmentation ...... 30 Synchronization ...... 33 Fillings ...... 35 Musical commentaries ...... 36 Leitmotifs ...... 37 Replacements ...... 39 Analysis Conclusions ...... 39 4

The 2010 version ...... 40 Conclusions ...... 41 Appendix #1- Timetable Comparison between the 1989 and 1998 versions of Kiki ...... 43 Appendix #2 Kiki’s Delivery Service Versions Table ...... 48 Appendix# 3 Majo No Takkyubin Musical Cues ...... 49 Appendix # 4 Majo no Takkyuubin Imeeji Arubamu [Kiki's Delivery Service Image Album] ...... 51 Appendix #5 Lyrics Comparison ...... 53 Yumi Matsumoto- Yasashisa ni tsutsumareta nara ...... 54 Interlineal transaltion- Engulfed in Gentleness ...... 54 Bibliography ...... 56 Filmography ...... 58

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List of Examples

Table #1. Micro-contextual strategies. Image #1. Cover images of left to right, a) Majo No Takkyubin. b) Kiki’s Delivery Service (1998) and c) Kiki’s Delivery Service (2010). Image #2. Cover image of Warrior of the Wind (1985). Image #3. Photo of Joe Hisaishi. Image #4. Kiki’s Delivery Service. Kiki lying in the grass at the beginning of the film. Image #5. Kiki’s Delivery Service. Test tube potion. Musical example #1: ‘Hareta Hi Ni’ transcription by Alexandra Roedder. Musical Example #2. Jiji’s Leitmotif in Paul Chihara’s Score. Transcription by Alexandra Roedder Video example #1. Hareta Hi Ni Video example #2. Staircase Video example #3. Walking with Tombo Looking over the city Video example #4. Looking over the city Looking through the window Video example #5. Looking through the window Video example #6. A city with an ocean view Video example #7. Before the crows

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Introduction

September 20, 2018. My American flatmate enters the flat humming a song I do not recognize. Her expectant look changes to confusion when I do not join her as she realizes that I do not recognize the song. ‘How can you not recognize it? It is from Kiki’s Delivery Service. I thought you were a Ghibli fan’ ‘No, it is not’, I start humming the melody of the opening song I remember, ‘That is the one I know’ We search in our phones for the opening song of the film and find two completely different sets of openings and ending songs. The one she was singing was the opening of the English dubbing created by Disney in 1998 while I was humming the original Japanese one from 1989. Expecting the opening and ending songs to be the only difference I watch the 1998 dubbed version and after five minutes I realize the soundscapes have several differences. Just in the first three minutes I identified extra sound effects (e.g. bells and chimes, subtle explosion sounds), new short melodies that work as leitmotifs (wordless vocalization and Jiji’s introductory melody), new musical cues (when Kiki tells her mother she is leaving town that night) and extreme editing and reorganizations of Hisaishi’s original cues (the original introductory cue ‘Hareta Hi Ni’ is cut and repositioned through the talk with the mother).2 After doing some research I found that Majo no Takkyubin, the original 1989 Japanese film produced by Studio Ghibli and written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki had three different dubbed versions in English. The first one, Kiki’s Delivery Service, was made for Japan Airlines in 1989 and the second and third versions, with the same name, were created by The Walt Disney Company in 1998 and in 2010. The original version has the music of Joe Hisaishi while the English version of 1998 has a modified score by Paul Chihara. The soundscape of this second version not only includes different opening and ending songs but also includes additions and changes to the musical score and underscore, more sound effects, a localized dialogue (adapted to the local culture) and extra-lines. The third version

2 See Appendix no.1 for timetable comparison of the first seven and a half minutes of the soundscape of the 1989 and 1998 versions.

3 was released in 2010 with Hisaishi’s original score, the same script of 1998 but without the extra-lines added ad-libitum by the dubbing voice actors of the second version.3

Image #1. Cover images of left to right, a) Majo No Takkyubin. b) Kiki’s Delivery Service (1998) and c) Kiki’s Delivery Service (2010).

It is interesting that the American dubbing companies felt the need to modify the soundscape, but what is more interesting are the reasons behind the changes and the principles under which they were made. To understand this phenomenon it is necessary to analyse the soundscape not from an aesthetic or even an audiovisual theoretical approach but from the framework provided by translation and audiovisual translation studies (AVT). Integrating the framework of translation studies to sonic analysis is a new and necessary approach that could benefit musicologist and film studies scholars. In audiovisual products all the semiotic systems are interconnected and how the audience interprets them depends on the interaction between them. Considering music as a ‘translation’ not only brings new perspectives to how we understand music and how it relates and interacts with other semiotic systems but also exemplifies how they are influenced by external aspects such as social conventions. In the context of multimedia this approach becomes especially relevant for the field of film music studies. Therefore, this dissertation intends to be a first step to an interdisciplinary approach between translation studies, AVT, and musicology. Through the application of this framework the micro-contextual analysis of the case study integrates the theoretical concepts of the different disciplines and highlights the correlation and interaction between the translational and sonic aspects and strategies.

3 See Appendix #2 4

To apply a translation framework to soundscape analysis, the dissertation will explore key concepts from translation studies, anime and Miyasaki and Hisaishi’s working relationship. Therefore, in the first section of this dissertation theoretical aspects such as equivalence, functionalism, pragmatics, micro and macro-textual translation strategies and the translation industry will be explained to then engage with how AVT scholars have adapted this framework to multimedia products. Given the limited size of this dissertation, it is impossible to explain all aspects of translation, thus I focus primarily on a smaller number of concepts relevant to this case study. Thus, it is important to keep in mind that the translation conventions and norms were the basis for the dubbed films’ soundscape localization and ‘translation’. The correlation between them and the musical strategies will be more evident through the analysis of the case study. The second section includes an introduction to the anime genre and the conventions and norms used by translators to produce scripts for the dubbed versions in the U.S. The third section of this dissertation will delve into the working dynamic of Miyasaki and Hisaishi and the history behind the different dubbed versions of the Ghibli films. Finally, the last section is the analysis and comparison of the soundscape of the three different versions of Kiki's Delivery Service through the adaptation of the translation framework and strategies. The analysis highlights the strong correlations between the strategies applied to translate the script and those used to modify the soundscape. Integrating the framework of translation studies to the analysis of the 1998 score as if it were a ‘translation’ sheds a new light on how and why Disney and Chihara decided to change the original soundscape and exemplifies how an interdisciplinary approach can benefit the study of interactions and relationship between semiotic systems in audiovisual products. AVT scholars have previously integrated the acoustic channel into their research on how to transmit semiotic meanings conveyed by sound and music to people with hearing impairment through other semiotic modes. One of the reasons behind the lack of scholarship on localizing a soundscape could be that translation scholars might not feel musically competent to provide analysis on this aspect. However, in audiovisual products all the semiotic systems are interconnected and how the audience interprets them depends on the interaction between these systems. Therefore, this dissertation could also be beneficial for AVT scholars that want to integrate sonic aspects into their research and become an example of the benefits of a blended interdisciplinary approach. The size of this project is not enough to explore all the different possibilities, benefits and perspectives that translation and AVT can bring to the study of sonic aspects in audiovisual products in topics such as authorship, cultural ownership, cultural adaptation, modernization and compensation, for example.

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Translation Theories

Fundamental concepts Before examining the case study to see how using translation studies and AVT frameworks is useful for understanding localizing processes, this section of the dissertation will analyse the important theories that already exist in translation studies. In Fundamental of Translation, Sonia Colina defines translation studies as the discipline that studies the products and the strategies for ‘transforming a written text or texts from one human language to another which generally requires a (necessary) degree of resemblance or correspondence with respect to the source text.’4 Translation scholars have offered multiple perspectives that differ depending on how close the original, better known as source text (ST) and the translation, better known as target text (TT) are. This resemblance depends on the culture, purpose, genre and contextual factors of the text and derives from two of the main translation debates, the preference between a literal vs. a free translation and between a source-oriented (culture of the original texts) vs a target-oriented translation (the culture of the translated text). Additionally, the level of correspondence of the content and the structure not only depends on cultural and contextual matters but also the purpose of the text, whether to reproduce the original, communicate an idea or persuade the audience to take a side in an argument, for example. Most of the theoretical approaches in translation are based on the concept of equivalence between the ST and the TT, but the definition of the concept has changed through the discipline's history several times. Nonetheless, it is commonly accepted that perfect equivalence does not exist. Different types of equivalence have been theorised within the discipline such as equivalence of meaning (semantic equivalence), equivalence of effect (pragmatic equivalence) or equivalence of function (functional equivalence)’.5 A translation can have different levels of each of these types but in the last three decades, there is a preference for prioritizing the functional equivalence where the main objective is to inform the reader of the TT. How a translation is interpreted depends not only on the information presented by the text but also the previous knowledge the reader has. This information can change the decoded message of the text. Therefore, a translator must correctly assume what the reader can and cannot understand, in this way the translation will be successful at communicating the message. This previous knowledge of the reader depends on the life experiences they have, which means that, in some cases, the visualized reader

4 Sonia Colina, Fundamentals of Translation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 18. 5 Ibid. 16

6 of the original author will not correspond with the reader of the translated text that has been mediated by the translator.6 One of the main translation theories is functionalism and is based on the influence that the function of the texts and extra-linguistic factors exert in the translation. Changes in the situational features influence the decision they take and the rules that the translator follows. A text can have different functions; for example, it can inform, communicate an idea, convince, teach, give instructions, express an opinion, express feelings, or entertain. The translator must prioritize the pertinent function and adapt the text to successfully carry it out according to the audience age, educational background, socioeconomic background, religion, sex and the anticipated sociocultural knowledge and background knowledge they possess. The translator must consider that these aspects change between the ST and the TT. Other aspects to take into consideration are the medium of the text, the motive behind its creation and the intended time and place of reception of the TT.7 The specific target text’s situational features are called the translator brief or translator instructions.8 The amount of changes a translator makes also depends on whether the target culture is high or low-context. This distinction is important since the differences between these two types of cultures deeply influence the translation strategies used in each country. High-context cultures rely more heavily on contextual information to express an idea (e.g. Japanese culture). Low-context cultures are more direct and usually use explicit words to convey meanings (e.g. The U.S. culture). For example, a direct refusal might be considered as too blunt in Asian cultures while they are commonly use in the U.S.

Pragmatics One of the more relevant concepts for drawing parallels is pragmatics. Pragmatics is the discipline that ‘investigates language use in its social and cultural context. Pragmatics studies how language is interpreted by users beyond the literal meaning of the actual words used’.9 In other words, this discipline studies how words assume a specific non-literal meaning depending on the culture and context in which they are employed. Pragmatics include most of the concepts previously presented and include the relationship between the participants, their attitudes and emotions, the inferencing procedures and the cultural and word knowledge within others. That a translation is successful in its purpose depends of these extra-linguistic aspects.

6 Ibid. 17 7 Ibid. 43. 8 Ibid. 74. 9 Ibid. 79. 7

Pragmatics have three levels, the locutionary (the linguistic form of the sentence), the illocutionary (the intention of the person making the speech act) and the perlocutionary (the effect on the receiver). Levels might change from culture to culture so translators needs to understand these three levels at the moment of translating conventional speech acts, which are terms with the dual function of ‘stating’ and ‘doing things’, like for example, making a complaint or a request, apologizing or even just paying a compliment.10 One important speech act is implicatures, they are expressions that need a common understanding of the world and social convention for their correct interpretation. Another relevant speech act is presuppositions, the author of the text infers that the reader’s previous knowledge about the information given will allow them to interpret it correctly. If the target audience does not possess this previous knowledge there might be a presupposition mismatch. This usually happens with specialized or culturally bound texts. Another mismatch can happen when the structure of the text implies different extra-linguistic meanings in the ST and the TT.11 Lastly, another essential pragmatic aspect is coherence. For a correct understanding of a text the target audience must be able to interpret the cohesive devices (e.g. repetitions, substitutions, ellipses and pronouns) that link sequences of distinct sentences and that affect the logical relationships that give sense to the text.12

Global Market There are another three aspects that are incredibly relevant when discussing audiovisual products, globalization, internationalization and localization. Globalization is a process that connects distant localities including spatial and linguistic aspects. Translators modify texts in order to be consumable in local and global contexts. Internationalization refers in this case to the creation of products that easily adapt to different languages and cultures since they are independent of language and culture. In the context of AVT Chan Sin-Wai’s definition is more appropriate, ‘Localization can be defined linguistically as translating a product to suit the target users, technically as adjusting technical specifications to suit the local market, and culturally as following the norms and conventions of the target community’.13 Another relevant issue is the concept of a language for specific purposes (LSP), which is the study of how

10 Basil Hatim, Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies, ‘Pragmatics and translation’ (London: Routledge, 1998), 179. 11 Colina 2015, 99. 12 Ibid. 134. 13 Chan, Sin-Wai, A Dictionary of Translation Technology, (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 2004), 134.

8 language is used in specific genres or text types. The corpora of texts with the same LSP serve to determine the way in which language is employed in different fields and genres.14

Analysis Strategies Different text-types use different structures and patterns that are language and culture-specific. These structures become conventional of the text-type and usually translators need to adapt the ST in order to fit with the convention of the target culture so it can retain its function (genres can be considered text-types). Anime can be considered a genre of AVT with specific norms and rules. To identify the culture-specific rules, structures and cohesive markers of each genre, translators compare different examples of the same text-type in the target language or previous translations of these texts. This methodology is called parallel corpora. It is important to have in mind that words can have different contextual frames which indicate that meanings’ correspondences change not only between different cultures and contexts but also through time. Therefore, a word could have meant something different at various stages of time and it is fundamental to choose the adequate translation.15

Macro-textual strategies

Having introduced the basic concepts now some translation strategies will be explained. These strategies work at a macro-textual level and are the most pertinent in the analysis of anime translation since they have been frequently used in previous anime analysis. First there are Lawrence Venuti’s (1998) foreignization and domestication. The former is source-culture oriented while the latter is target-culture oriented. Venuti defines domestication as an approach where the resulting texts ‘conforms to values currently dominating the target-language culture, taking a conservative and openly assimilationist approach to the foreign text, appropriating it to support domestic canons, publishing trends, political alignments.’ 16while foreignization is a strategy that, ‘resist and aim to revise the dominant by drawing on the marginal, restoring foreign texts excluded by domestic canons, recovering residual values such as archaic texts and translation methods, and cultivating emergent ones’. 17

14 Colina 2015, 40. 15 Ibid. 143. 16 Lawrence Venuti, Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies, ‘Strategies of Translation’ (London: Routledge, 1998), 240. 17 Ibid.

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Foreignization avoids appropriation and conserves the foreign cultural and linguistic aspects. This manifestation of the ‘other’ evidence the TT as a translation of a ST that was written in a different place and possibly at a different time. Domestication on the other hand is similar to a covert translation, appropriating the foreign and adapting it to the domestic agendas.18 Therefore, domestication might be presented as a modernization of the language or form, but it can actually be preserving the canonical values of the target culture. This does not mean that domestication is not the appropriate practice in some cases (e.g. in technical translations) where the priority is immediate intelligibility.19 As Umberto Eco explains through specific literary examples in his book Experience in Translation (2001), there are cases where domestication is necessary for the correct understanding of the text because an extreme foreignization could render the translation too obscure and inaccessible for the target culture. The translator must decide for each case and not exaggerate either of the practices.20 The last of the macro-textual strategies are Umberto Eco’s (2001) modernization and archaization. The first refers to the decision of rendering the language more comprehensible for the target culture using contemporary terms. The second evokes the original setting of the ST by using archaic terms.21

Micro-textual Strategies Choosing the translation strategies that will influence the text at a macro-textual level depends on different aspects. These include the text-type, its function, the amount of content to be translated, how close the form needs to be to the ST, the style and formality level, the status of the translation (e.g. a secondary document), and how fluent it should seem. Additionally, other aspects must be considered like if the text needs to be localized in the target culture, if it will be done by a native speaker of the target culture, if there are constraints of space and time, and if there will be any change of media (e.g. written to audiovisual) or medium (e.g. written to oral). When doing the comparison between versions one of the most important aspects to consider is the identification of which micro-textual strategies were applied. The micro-textual strategies will be used to establish a parallel between the strategies used to translate the scripts and the strategies used to localize

18 House’s (1977) concepts of covert (a TT that is not easily identified as a translation) and overt translations (a TT which is easily identified as a translation) in Juliane House, A Model for Translation Quality Assesment, (Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1977). 19 Venuti 1998, 240-244. 20 Eco, Umberto, Experiences in Translation, (Toronto London: University of Toronto Press, 2001), 22-24. 21 Ibid. 25. 10 the soundscape. Different translation scholars have theorized different micro-textual strategies. The most relevant for the scope of this project can be found in Table 1.

Table 1. Translation Micro-strategies. Micro-strategy Definition Theorized by Explicitness change or Information from the ST is Chesterman (1997) explicitation deleted or added in order to render the implicit meanings of the ST more or less explicit in the TT. Information change Completely new information is Chesterman (1997) added. Visibility change or thick The translator evidences the Chesterman (1997) translation source author in the TT (e.g. Footnotes). Partial translation The translation of a fragment of Chesterman (1997) the ST (e.g. Song lyrics). Trans-editing The extensive editing of the ST. Chesterman (1997) Borrowing Leaving untranslated some terms Vinay and Dalbernet (1958) from the ST. Calque The literal translation of a whole Vinay and Dalbernet (1958) expression of the ST. Adaptation Adapting an expression to the Vinay and Dalbernet (1958) 22 target culture. Generalization Translate non-equivalences with Mona Baker (1992) more general words or with a neutral/less-expressive word. Cultural substitution A translator replaces a culture- Mona Baker (1992) specific item of the source culture with an item of the target culture that feels more natural.

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Paraphrase Replace a term that appears Mona Baker (1992) repeatedly in the ST with a related word or with unrelated words that clarify the meaning of the source item. Omission The elimination of a word or Mona Baker (1992) expression in the TT Illustration Which is the insertion of an Mona Baker (1992) illustration of the physical entity of the ST item in the TT. Compensation When something is ‘lost’ in Umberto Eco (2001) translation due to stylistic or linguistic issues it can be compensated through rewriting it in such a way that the same meaning or effect is achieved through different means. Interpolation Insertion of new text between Molina and Albir (2002) two segments of pre-existing text Discursive creation The use of a temporary Molina and Albir (2002) equivalences for a term that out of context can be unpredictable so it is changed to one that can work on the target culture.

AVT Theories

Fundamentals Audiovisual translation studies (AVT) specializes in the translation of multimedia products that deal with visual and aural component like films, video games and advertisements. The practice of translating audiovisual products started in 1920 and today involves three different methods that divide the 12 world into four blocks: countries where English is the first language and the non-anglophone films are subtitled, countries with a dubbing tradition, countries with a subtitling tradition and countries with a voice-over tradition. 23 However, there are regions like South America where subtitling and dubbing practice are equally common and depend more of the genre of the ST (cartoons and animes are usually dubbed), the audience (dubbing for children and subtitling for adults) and the format (dubbing for TV and subtitling for the big screen).24 In AVT products there are four channels to consider: the verbal auditory channel (dialogues, background voices, song lyrics), the non-verbal auditory channel (music, natural sound and sound effects), the verbal-visual channel (superimposed titles, written signs) and the non-verbal visual channel (picture, composition and flow).25 The two translated versions of Kiki’s Delivery Service that I analyse in this project are the English (language) dubbed versions of 1998 and 2010. Thus, for this project I will focus on the translation strategies followed in the dubbing practice. Frederic Chaume defines dubbing in his book Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing (2012), as ‘replacing the original track of a film’s (or any audiovisual text) source language dialogues with another track on which translated dialogues have been recorded in the target language. The remaining tracks are left untouched (the soundtrack- including both music and special effects- and the images)’. 26As AVT scholars specialized in anime translation know, it is not always true that the remaining tracks are left untouched but, as Luis Perez-Gonzalez (2014) explains, these modifications are certainly not the usual practice.27 Even though dubbing is more expensive than subtitling it is preferred in countries and audiences where there are low-literacy levels, where the bigger part of the population speaks one of the major languages or where the country has the economic possibilities to afford the high costs of dubbing.28 Although the practice predates totalitarian regimes it is deeply connected with the regimes because the German, Spanish, Italian and Japanese enforced its adoption since it represented nationalistic values. Frederic Chaume explains,

23 A voice-over is another type of revoicing. In it a track with the translated text recorder is over imposed to the original track. In this case both tracks are heard simultaneously. 24 Henrik Gottlieb, Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies, ‘Subtitling’ (London: Routledge, 1998), 244. 25 Ibid. 26 Chaume, Frederic. Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing, (Manchester, UK: St. Jerome Pub., 2012), 1. 27 Luis Pérez González. Audiovisual Translation: Theories, Methods and Issues, (London ; New York: Routledge, 2014), 206.

28 For an extensive analysis of the history of dubbing see Chaume 2004 and 2010.

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The reason for this must be traced back to Italian and German National Socialism, later copied in Japan and Spain. First Mussolini, and then Hitler, understood that the huge number of North American films shown in Italian and German cinemas represented a major threath to their national identities, since the screening of these films was accompanied by the penetration of their language, culture and way of thinking.29

Laws were created in order to control the number of films that could be imported and enforced the dubbing of all foreign films (Italy, decree of language protection 1930 extended to 1933; Germany, the Reich Film Law, 1934, and the Enabling Act, 1936; Spain, Act of 23 April 1941).30 Dubbing allowed more censorship and it lent itself to ideology manipulation.

Industry Each country has its own dubbing norms and conventions, though Chaume (2012) defines some quality standards that are prioritized mostly everywhere now. The first aspect is an acceptable lip-sync, the body movements (kinesic) and the duration of the utterances (isochrony) are synchronized with the audio. The second aspect is the credibility of the dialogue. This means that the translator must adopt a target-culture approach and translate the texts following the canonical standards of the target language and culture. The third aspect is the semiotic coherence between all the semiotic codes (visual, linguistic and aural). This means that many artistic ambiguities and complex fragment of the ST are removed, simplified or explicitated. Next, we have the loyalty of the translation which means that the TT must be faithful to the content, form, function and the effect produced by the ST. Today’s public does not approve of censorship, nonetheless, is still done for religious, political or sexual motives in some countries. 31 Translators are only one of the many agents that participate in the creation of a dubbed version done by a dubbing company hired by a distributor. The translators fulfil their specific service while other aspects fall beyond their control.32

29 Chaume 2012, 13. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 14-19. 32 Ibid. 29-37.

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Dubbing practices vary greatly from country to country and even from company to company.33 It is unusual for a company to dub a film from a different language to the local one. This has to do with the need for natural dubbing actors and because each country has its local dubbing conventions.34

Signifying codes The main characteristic of AVT is the semiotic relationship between different signifying codes that manifest themselves through different modes and that together create meaning. According to Chaume (2012), the translator’s job consists of ‘disentangling the meaning and functioning of each of these codes, and the possible impact of all signs, linguistic and non-linguistic, on translation operations’.35 Chaume was one of the first scholars to advocate for the necessity of an interdisciplinary approach between translation and film studies. Even if the translator has no control over the non-verbal aspects of the final product it is important to understand the different signifying codes for the purposes of research, teaching, criticizing and evaluating translations. From 1960 to 1990 AVT focused only on the linguistic and textual elements but due to the influence of Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) theories. With the cultural turn, translation scholars started to consider extra-linguistic aspects and extra-textual factors like the economic, social and cultural context, history and conventions of each culture. Polysystem theories that analysed the relationship between the texts and other fields like literature, politics and economy were created. This explains why translation norms change drastically depending on the geographical and temporal circumstances since they depend on macro-contextual factors. Through polysystems theories Karamitroglou (2001) analyses how audiovisual text or group of texts are affected by factors like the different human agents involved in the production (e.g. clients, producers, addressers) and in the reception (e.g. consumers and addressees), the institutions involved (e.g. distributors, translation companies and TV channels) and the market.36 Chaume (2004) identifies ten different codes: the linguistic, paralinguistic, musical and special effects, sound arrangement, iconographic, photographic, planning, mobility, graphic and the syntactic code. In AVT the linguistic code is distinctively oral and spontaneous. The paralinguistic code refers to the symbols in the dubbing scripts that represent silences, pauses, coughing and breaks. volume and

34 Ibid. 84. 35 Ibid. 100. 36 Fotios Karamitroglou, Towards a Methodology for the investigation of Norms in audiovisual translation. The choice between subtitling and Revoicing in children’s programmes in Greece, (Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodolpi, 2001), quoted in Frederic Chaume, ‘Film Studies and Translation Studies: Two Disciplines at Stake in Audiovisual Translation.’ Meta 49, no. 1, 2004, 15. 15 quality of the voice. The musical code mainly focuses on the adaptation of the songs that appear in the films. It deals with the translation of the lyrics and how they fit the rhythm of the music. Chaume explains that the decision to translate a song, or not, through subtitles or dubbing depends on the local conventions, of the genre and of the function of the song. If the lyrics affect the plot and interact with other codes, the target audience should be able to access the same information as the source audience. The translator also adds to the dubbing script the sound effects by using conventional signs or describing them in brackets. In the sound arrangement codes Chaume uses the films studies distinction between diegetic (within the story) and non-diegetic (outside the story, characters cannot hear it); and on-screen (the source of the sound is visible in the frame) and off-screen (the source is outside of the frame). Other distinctions are made through symbols that mark other qualities and effects like long-shots, a voice coming from a radio or reverberation. The author does not elaborate on the analysis of other acoustic aspects that might be useful like how the music or the absence of it can change the meaning of what’s on screen, however, Chaume says that incidental music should never be modified from the ST to TT. The modification of the non-linguistic aspect of the soundscape seems to be a rare phenomenon which will explain why general scholarship on dubbing and AVT does not contemplate it as a possibility.37 Chaume focuses mainly on how these different codes are reflected in the linguistic aspects of translation. However, a deeper analysis of how the different combinations of signs systems can affect the message would also be useful at the moment of identifying the deeper meaning of a shot or even the general sense of the film. The people involved in creating the different codes of a film have a specific idea of what they want to portray and how these aspects are going to interact with the other codes. To understand these ideas the codes not only need to be dissected and analysed but the interaction between them and how they create meanings together should also be considered if functionalism is a priority.

Cultural references and Ideologies Another relevant issue is how to translate cultural references (CR) that are present or interrelate with the acoustic or visual dimension. Chaume explains that a translator can choose different approaches that go from the most domesticating to the most foreignizing. A CR term can be maintained in its original language (e.g. Halloween), adapted orthographically (e.g. Chinese characters to Romanised alphabet), literally translated, explained through explicitation or glosses, it can be omitted, compensated in another part of the film or culturally adapted or substituted. The last two can be through limited adaptation (substituting an obscure source-culture term with a more known term from the same source-culture), by

37 Chaume 2004; 2012.

16 absolute universalization (substituting with a universal CR that is not culturally marked)38 or by cultural substitution, which is the most domesticating. As will be seen further up in the analysis, parallel acoustic strategies that correlate with AVT strategies will be applied in the modification of anime soundscapes.39 Another relevant aspect Chaume mentions is intertextual references. This means that in an audiovisual text there might be allusion to a previously existent relevant text (written, oral, acoustic or audiovisual). Which mean that the ST author alluded to the previous text relying on the previous experience of the ST audience for its identification (e.g. music, paintings, proverbs, clichés, conventionalisms, literary allusions or self-quotations). A translator must identify these intertextualities and translate them through a cultural equivalent for the target culture.40 The last aspect Chaume brings forward is the translation of ideology. The usual way in which ideology is dealt with in translation is censorship. Films might be heavily adapted, shortened, and modified to fit the ideology of certain periods and countries. Some audiovisual products are rewritten or not even translated at all if they defy the target culture’s ideology. The topics that usually require censorship are political, religious, sexual or scatological. At the end is the patronage system (e.g. academies, film critics, critical journals and dubbing companies) which regulates what films are translated and how. 41

Anime

Japanese animation has influenced animators globally and one of the main factors behind its popularity is its spreading through different mass media like TV channels, cinema, DVD and video- sharing websites where fans subtitle and dub the animes themselves (fansubs and fandubs). Anime translation has not been studied as much as other genres because of two factors. First, the speed of its popularization means that theory has lagged behind the practice and second, that animation is considered as a genre for children or a subculture. Even in Japan it has been only in the last decade that anime has started being researched. One of the best methods to analyse anime translation is to compare the original with its different translations side-by-side to identify the translation conventions used by each culture in

38 Universal is a problematic term but it is referring to terms that are very well known at a global level like types of food and artists. Nonetheless, it is naive to think they can be not culturally marked. 39 Ibid. 145. 40 Ibid. 147. 41 Ibid. 151.

17 specific times. In the analysis of anime macro-contextual analysis has been fundamental to identify extra- textual issues of commercialization, social systems, the market and the effects of human factors. Regarding micro-contextual analysis research on this level has allowed scholars to understand different multi-code interactions.42 Analysing English translations in AVT is extremely important since English has become the interlingua for internationalization on which other language translators base their own translations. This means that a great number of AVT translators do not translate directly from the original but through the English translation. Therefore, the meanings that got modified as consequences of the changes in the English version might appear in other language versions, including those transmitted through a modified soundscape. In anime the modification of the soundscape has a direct impact on the meanings since animation does not rely as strongly on dialogue as live actions. Instead anime transmits and creates its deeper meanings through the interaction between image and sound.43 While American live-action films hold a hegemonic position in the world, in animation the power is multi-polarized and decentralized. In Europe most of the animated products come from the United Kingdom, France, and Spain while in countries like Russia, Canada, Poland and Japan’s animation products are watched and recognized worldwide. Iconicity has a direct influence in this aspect since in animation is easier to ‘transcend racial, cultural and linguistic barriers’.44 Despise this, in America, TV channels like Cartoon Network and Disney still transmit heavily domesticated versions of animes such as Cardcaptors, Sailor Moon or Pokemon without the original soundtracks. As Chaume explained, dubbing is the best option for domesticating an audiovisual product.45

Anime history in the United States Reito Adachi uses Tsugata’s (2004) division of anime waves in United States. The first boom was in the 1960s, the second was between the 1970s and 1980s and the last one started in the 1990s.46 The first one adopted a similar aesthetic and narrative to Disney movies where songs and animals were the

42 Adachi (2010), Gonzalez (2010), Patten (2004), Okuhara (2009), Tamura (2010) and Kentaro (2004). 43 Reito Adachi, ‘A study of Japanese animation as translation: A descriptive analysis of Hayao Miyazaki and other anime dubbed into English.’, (Boca Raton, FL: Dissertation.com.), 39.

44 Ibid. 53. 45 Ibid. 195. 46 Nobuyuki Tsugata. Nippon Animeshon no Chikara [Power of Japan Animation]. (Tokyo: NTT, 2004) in Adachi 2012, 90-100.

18 focus. These animes maintained foreign traits like the original soundtrack and CR of the Japanese culture. The presence of Oriental traits was not well received by American audiences and the films were a commercial failure. Some of these first anime stories were based on Asian folktales (Panda and the Magic Serpent) or cultural figures like samurais (Magic Boy/The Adventures of the Little Samurai). Alakazam the Great was the most expensive of these three failures since it had a totally new soundtrack and the dubbing actors were all famous stars. The next group of animes to be transmitted in America were science fiction narratives that imitated the Western success of D.C superheroes. According to Tsugata these new animes reached success thanks to a domesticating and de-Japanizing approach. The fact that the characters did not possess any type of cultural or national traits facilitated the domestication since the images were not culturally bound. The names, the stories, the soundscape, the images and dialogue were domesticated following the conventions and tastes of the American audiences. And yet whole episodes were omitted, images were modified, and violence and nudes were censored and considered unacceptable. One of the macro-contextual reasons why American television was so strict regarding censoring violence in audiovisual products for children is because during the 1960s and 1970s, the United States was experiencing many violent social conflicts like the Vietnam war and civil rights protests and assasinations of important political figures. The effects of these disturbances increased the rejection of anime by children's parents (e.g. Peggy Charren`s Action for Children's Television (ACT)) who associated it with the use of violence, sexual content and offensive language. Anime morning shows were replaced by humorous ones or were heavily edited not only through censorship but also through extreme domestication where cultural reference of Japanese culture and society were adapted.47 However, it was between the 1970s and the 1980s that anime started to attract a great number of adolescent fans since they felt compelled by the detailed realism of the graphics (mostly superheroes and robots animes like Akira and Ghost in the Shell), the complexity of the plots and the characterization of the protagonists. They were different from the moralising plots of American cartoons and this made them more attractive. But it was not until the 1990s that anime became really popular in America and Europe no longer only with children and adolescents but also with adults thanks to series like Pokemon, DragonBall and Hayao Miyasaki’s films. As anime became more popular fans started realizing the commercial versions they were consuming were domesticated versions. The fans started rejecting these

47 Adachi mentions the specific example of Battle of the Planets where they scene cutting was so extreme that they had to create a new character 7-Zark-7 to narrate the extra information necessary to fill the plot holes left after the editing process. (Adachi 2012, 97)

19 versions since they wanted to consume product closer to the originals. Consequently, the practice of modifying soundscape decreased enormously.48

Translating anime

Adachi focuses his analysis on American dubbing practices in relation to Japanese animation through the framework of audiovisual translation studies (AVT). He uses different dubbed and re-dubbed English versions of Miyasaki’s films as case studies to identify the diachronic translational norms used during different periods in American dubbing. Kiki’s Delivery Service and another nine Miyasaki films are thoroughly analysed from the linguistic point of view (i.e. pauses and silence, figures of speech like similes, metaphors or ironic expression, patterns of communication, taboos, statelessness, characterizations, cultural references, beautifications, image and sounds). He uses a triangulation method where statistical data collected by comparing the different versions is analysed qualitatively at a micro- textual level. The result of his analysis is that there is a change in the translation conventions used before and after the year 2000. According to these data, the pre-2000 translated versions were heavily adapted to American culture and rely on verbal communication as opposed to the original version which relies more heavily on images and sound. The pre-2000 translations tend to excessive interpolation or excessive omission as a result of extreme domestication while in the case of the post-2000 versions translation is more literal and focuses more on the texture of the dialogue as well as its function. However, in the post- 2000 versions, there still are some modifications like the use of interjections to fill the pauses and silences, the censorship on taboo topics like violence and sex-related aspects and the liberal translation of some figures of speech that are culturally bound. Nonetheless, the post-2000 versions retain from the original versions the rich visual language and the sense-for-sense equivalence between the different multimodal codes (linguistic, visual and acoustic). These versions have a lower vocabulary in terms of variety and density, the number of sentences increases, and the pauses and silences diminish considerably. Arguably, without these heavily domesticated translations anime wouldn’t have gained the acceptance of the American audience in the decades between the 1980s and 1990s. Adachi also compares quantitively the amount of words, sentences, pauses and silences between the English translations of Japanese anime and the Japanese translations of American cartoons. While the translations of anime include a great number of changes and a significant increase of the number of words and sentences, in the translation to Japanese of American cartoons created in Japan the ratio is 1:1 which means that there is no relevant increase. Adachi concludes from this comparison that there is an imbalance in the power

48 Ibid. 20 relationships between Japanese and English translational attitudes. In other words, The U.S companies consider necessary to localize the Japanese cultural traits present in anime since they are considered ‘other’ while the Japanese culture does not consider necessary to localize the American cartoons since its cultural references belong to the a hegemonic culture that arguably, it is understood globally. In the pre-2000 versions, including the 1998 Kiki’s Delivery Service translation, the dubbing companies had as a priority the de-Japanization of the films through the free translation of the dialogues and the extreme adaptation of the images and soundscapes. On the other hand, in the post-2000 versions, except for the 2010 version of Kiki’s Delivery Service, the dubbing studio not only received the translated script directly from Ghibli studio but also the latter revised the changes and approved the final versions. This is evident considering that in the target-oriented pre-2000 versions there was an increased use of trans-editing techniques like interpolation, omission, adaptation and substitution while in the post 2000, which are source-oriented and more dependent on the interaction of all the codes, the number of literal translations techniques rose. Considering the change in strategies is clear that the dubbings went from a domesticating to a foreignizing approach.

Effects on the soundscape There is a strong correlation between three of the modifications done to the script and the ones applied to the soundscape and that are related to cultural differences. The first one is that Japanese people communicate in a circular fashion while Americans do it more directly and linearly. Second, the style of animation made in Japan uses minimal animation movements to effectively transmit the information. In some cases, the director even stops the picture deliberately to increase its effects (this technique is called tomee). On the contrary, American cartoons usually include exaggerated movements that keep a constant flow. Lastly, anime soundscapes usually include more pauses and silence. These pauses in image and sound can result in long silent scenes that represents what occurs in real life conversation between Japanese people. Americans do not express themselves in this way which explains why these scenes might feel awkward for them. These three characteristics allow anime audiences to broaden the interpretative options since the audience fill the gaps with their own experiences and imagination. However, when translated to English these differences are usually domesticated through the addition and modification of the dialogues and the insertion of extra music and sound effects or the vocalization of silent gestures and interactions. Some of the repercussions of modifying the soundscape to localize it are: the creation of inconsistency between words and images or between words and music, the diminishing of sentimentalism, the aesthetic quality of silent scenes and the diminishing of contextual awareness given 21 by images and sound in favour of a clearer conversation structure. For the latter, the translator uses constant verbal explicitation and change the dialogue in order to create a call-and-response conversation style not based on implications but in an interactive explicit interchange.

Dubbing Kiki Kiki’s Delivery Service (1998) was the first Ghibli film dubbed and localized after the partnership between Ghibli and Disney in 1997. However, the first Miyasaki movie to be dubbed in English was Kaze no Tani no Nausika (1984) with the title Warriors of the Wind (1985) by New World Pictures. In the localization process extreme domesticating strategies were adopted and the editing and cutting resulted in different characters names, uncredited extra incidental music and in the elimination of fundamental scenes that were considered too slow, resulting in a less complex and superficial protagonist and general plot. It is considered a complete disaster by Miyasaki and Ghibli’s main producer Toshio Suzuki, who has said several times in different interviews that they would prefer if everyone could forget that version was ever made (Osmond 1998).49 Image 2. Poster for Warrior of the Wind (1985)

49 Andrew Osmond, ‘Nausicaä and the Fantasy of Hayao Miyazaki,’ originally published in Foundation 72 (April 1998), 57-81; archived at http://www.nausicaa.net/miyazaki/nausicaa/article_ao_foundation.txt, accessed June 20, 2019. 22

The first dubbed version of Kiki’s Delivery Service in English was done for the Japan Airlines’ trans-Pacific flights. Even if this translation is technically the first English version of Kiki’s Delivery Service, it will not be included in the analysis since it is not available commercially. Nonetheless is very interesting to notice that Adachi’s is the only scholarship that mentions it. However, in the specific case of Kiki most of the changes done to the script on the 1998 versions are retained in the 2010 version. Since the scripts modifications in the translation is not the focus of this project I will briefly present as example only some of Adachi’s findings. In the script translation, it is easy to find clear examples of censorship and discursive creation. Some of these examples include when Kiki’s father says ‘my little princess’ instead of the original ‘my little witch’, when Kiki is saying goodbye to her friends the word ‘Disco’ is exchanged for ‘cute boys’ and when they change ‘coffee’ to ‘hot chocolate’ or ‘Gods’ to ‘inspiration’. It is important to highlight that the extra-lines were deleted. However, the sarcastic remarks done mainly by Jiji and sometimes Kiki in the 1998 version remain in the 2010 version as well. These changes deeply affect their characterization in a way that if they were part of Japanese culture, they would be considered extremely rude, however, they do seem to fit American humour formulas.50 From the point of view of verbal translation, there is one aspect that also directly affects the acoustic dimension which is the filling of pauses and silence with filler words and interjections. Even though in the 2010 version the extra-music disappears the extra words and interjections were retained since pauses and silences are still not accepted even nowadays by the American audiences.51 However, these fillings are still reduced considerably and most of the silent gestures return desaturating the soundscape.

50 Some of these formulas are for example in the verbal dimension, the sarcastic and ironic comments that Jiji makes as extra-lines, and in the musical dimension the mickeymousing of some scenes. 51 Adachi 2012, 77-83. 23

Hisaishi

Image #3. Joe Hisaishi

Joe Hisaishi began working with Miyasaki from the mid-1980s and has composed the soundtrack of nine of his films including the music of Kiki’s Delivery Service. He began working with Miyasaki from the mid-1980s and has composed the soundtrack of nine of his films. He also created the music of other animated films and series until 1989 but he is mainly known for his collaborations with Miyasaki. Hisaishi’s’ Ghibli music albums mainly contain the opening and closing song of the Miyasaki’s films he has collaborated on and include different arrangements of his compositions for synthesizer or piano solo, others for full orchestra, and the addition of extra lyrics. These arrangements and others from non-Ghibli films and series scores are interpreted in his soloist concerts and included on his own CDs (he has his own production company, label and orchestra). The practice of re-arranging the film scores into concert-like form is not an unusual practice in the field. What is unusual is the practice of composing the music pieces before the animation to then adapt them as music cues. Through this practice Hisaishi’s music has gained its independence from the films and situates him not only as a film music composer but also as a concert- form composer. The music albums resulting from the practice of composing the music before the animation is finished, are called image albums and are typical of Japanese animation (films, series and videogames). The composer does not have the whole story and usually bases the compositions on concept art or 24 storyboards (this is why they are called image album). The resulting CDs (image song albums, image song singles and symphony albums of the same film) get released months or even a year before the audiovisual product to make the audience relate with the acoustic atmosphere.52 However, this does not mean that all of the pieces of the album make it to the final product, but they indeed outline the narrative structure of the product and form the basis of the soundtrack. The practice of the ‘image albums’ comes from the traditional form of gekiban which are musical cues that do not depend on the images or dialogues but that serve as comment for characters, locations or moods. These cues are based on acoustic formulas used to accompany the performance of folk theatre forms like nō, and kabuki. That anime composers take this approach make sense considering that Japan’s culture is high-contexts and relies on implied meanings. In a way the use of a gekiban approach in Ghibli films work as a certain intertextual cultural reference to these traditions. Hisaishi describes his working system with Miyasaki in similar terms,

It’s always the same process for each film. The production lasts from two to three years and it is always very long, because [Miyazaki] is very picky and demanding. Before handing me a true screenplay, he gives me a rather simple kind of storyboard, he introduces the characters to me and he speaks a bit about the story. Then he starts working, while I advance on my own. He also gives me ten keywords, on which I construct my work. In the first year, I begin to compose the music and after one year it is possible to make a CD: it is the first CD of the film, the image album, that is released before the full realization of the work. This image album has two purposes: it allows me to realize what the music will be like later, but it also allows Miyazaki, who continues to draw, to work while listening to the music.53

Even if this working relationship is not a rule for all the animation studios or for all of the Ghibli directors, it breaks with the hierarchy of image over sound since it is based on a symbiotic process where the sound is inspired by initial images and plot while at the same time the final images are influenced by the sound. Additionally, the composer is also in charge of fragmenting, orchestrating and arranging the pieces and variations (e.g. changed accompaniment patterns and textures) for the films. Hisaishi even performs and conducts the orchestra in the final recordings. The film soundtrack is then organized by the

52 The image album for Majo no Takyuubin was originally released on April 10,1989 while the movie was released on July 29, 1989. Additionally, there is a Soundtrack Album (Aug 25, 1989) an Image Songs Vocal Album (Nov 25,1992), a Hi-tech Series Album (Dec 21, 1989), and a Dorama Hen Album (Sep 25,1989). See Appendix #3 and #4. 53 Fallaix, Nguyên 2000 cited in Marco Bellano,“From Albums to Images. Studio Ghibli’s Image Albums and Their Impact on Audiovisual Strategies.” (Trans. Revista Transcultural de Música 16: 1–16, 2012),4.

25 producers who select, cut and position the different fragments and have the last word concerning the final soundscape. On the other hand, the Hollywood practice is based on an accompaniment strategy where music is more dependent on the other sign systems like images and dialogues and where music and sound effects hit relevant synch points. This was taken to its limits in American cartoons through a mickeymousing strategy where every movement of a character is accompanied by a corresponding sound.54 This synchronicity is easy to identify since it matches isochronically (synchronicity in time with footsteps, for example) and isomorphically with the characters movements. Bellano (2010; 2012) and Roedder (2013) have analysed how Hisaishi’s music style has changed through the years.55 They have identified certain aspects in his compositions that highlights his eclectic musical influences. His melodies are influenced by late nineteenth and twentieth century symphonic works, the use of minimalistic repetitive patterns (mainly in the accompaniment figures), long regular melodies and a mixed reference of Japanese traditional and international pop music. Concerning the flow of the film Hisaishi’s music does function as ‘punctuation’ but not in the Hollywood synchronic way. The music helps identify the crucial moments of the film reinforcing the principal meanings built interactively with the other codes and giving cohesion to the whole film through the dividing of the shots through contrasting acoustic atmospheres (when it alternates with silent scenes is called negative punctuation).56 Another distinguishing characteristic of Hisaishi’s music is the use of long melodies (they are known in Japanese common parlance as Hisaishi merodii style) that are presented in their complete form first in descriptive or static scenes and then appear in fragmented cues. They usually have a 4+4 regular form (AABA’) with antecedent and consequent phrases that do not surpass the range of a ninth interval.57 The length of the melodies makes difficult the individuation of specific representative musical motifs that could be used as character leitmotivs since they work more as mood and location signifiers. The absence of defined leitmotivs supports Miyasaki’s complex characterization of his typical ‘archetypal heroine, who is ‘split’ between the many sides of her soul’.58

54 Michel Chion, Audio-Vision: Sound on Screen, (New York: New York: Columbia University Press, 2001). 2001, 120 cited in Bellano 2012, 3 55 Marco Bellano, “The Parts and the Whole: Audiovisual Strategies in the Cinema of Hayao Miyazaki and Joe Hisaishi.” (Animation Journal 18: 4–55, 2010). Alexandra Roedder, ‘"Japanamerica" or "Amerijapan"? Globalization, Localization, and the Film Scoring Practices of Joe Hisaishi’ (PhD diss., University of California, 2013). 56 Michel Chion’s concept: audiovisual device that is based on synchronism between sound and image (Chion 2001, 131) 57 Roedder 2013, 40. 58 Bellano 2010, 20.

26

Even though Hisaishi’s music style has changed over time his melodies are always well balanced and predominantly descending (usually tetrachords) while his harmonic rhythm is tonal, sometimes jazzy, quite slow and usually based on arpeggios or stacked fourths and fifths.59 In terms of orchestration he prefers pitched percussion, synthesizers and piano solos. He also is known for self-borrowing from his previous compositions and from western art music works.60 In conclusion, the localization of Miyasaki’s films’ soundscapes is particular since Hisaishi’s music style is quite westernized in melodic and harmonic style. What differs from the American culture is more related to the way in which the soundscape is created and used. Being written before the animation the music is not composed with synchronicity between audio and image in mind which leads to an asynchronous soundscape. Also, Japanese directors are known for using long silences and acoustic pauses in long static or repetitive scenes. Here again the difference between a high-context and a low-context culture becomes evident. The American style, or better the Hollywood style, does not leave space for free interpretations which means that visuals, dialogues and music will provide more guidance information for the audioviewer as to how to interpret the codes. On the other hand, the Japanese style leaves more agency to the audience and leaves room for different interpretations. Additionally, Hisaishi does not compose musical motifs that represent characters like traditional Hollywood leitmotivs, instead he composes long melodies that represent specific emotions or moods.

Kiki

Kiki in Previous Scholarship The changes inflicted on the different dubbed versions of Kiki’s Delivery Service have been discussed, not only by fans worldwide in online forums but also by scholars of musicology and translation studies. Some scholarly works have included analysis of the musical score of Kiki’s dubbed versions through their extended explorations on Hisaishi’s composing style and Miyasaki’s audiovisual strategies, like Alexandra Roedder (2013; 2014); Marco Bellano’s articles (2010; 2012). In the field of Audiovisual

59 To read more about the evolutions of Hisaishi’s music through his career see Roedder 2013 and Bellano 2010. 60 For example in Ponyo (2008) Hisaishi made a large-scale variation of the Melody of Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea using as reference Wagner’s orchestration, tempo and rhythm patterns of the ‘Ride of the Valkyries’. Another example is in Only Yesterday (1991) where the children star dancing to Brahms Hungarian Rhapsody no.5 (Bellano 2012, 10-11). 27

Translation studies, Reito Adachi (2012) analyses Kiki’s rescoring cases from the verbal and non-verbal linguistic aspects. In Roedder’s case, she contextualizes Hisaishi’s work in relation to concepts of transnational cultural flows and Joseph Nye’s concept of ‘soft power’. Nye’s view is that a country can have a certain amount of power over another, not only through ‘hard’ powers like economy and politics but also through the attraction of the people of one country towards cultural aspects of the other. She discusses Kiki’s case with the support of interviews with the producers and the composers, but her main interest is the evolution of Hisaishi’s composition style. Although Roedder explains the localization practices used to adapt the film for American consumption she fails to mention sound effects or the complete change of Yumi Arai songs. Bellano (2010; 2012) analyses a great number of Miyasaki’s and Hisaishi’s films including Kiki’s Delivery Service. He describes the working relationship between Hisaishi and Miyasaki and explains how Hisaishi’s music is used as an asynchronous commentary of the action and highlights the particular use of orchestration and variations as a complex audiovisual strategy that creates meanings in a way that has become representative of Hisaishi’s style. However, he does not mention or analyse the English translated versions.

Intro analysis Majo no Takkyubin is an adaptation of an Eiko Kadono’s novel with the same title released in 1985. Kiki Delivery’s Service is set in a fictitious European-style town of the 1950. The story is about the journey of Kiki, a thirteen-year old witch, and her cat Jiji, who leaves her home as part of a long tradition consisting of working and living alone for a year in a different town. She finds out that living alone is harder than expected since she encounters a great number of obstacles. Nonetheless, not everything is bad since she befriends Osono (a middle-aged woman who offers her a room in ex-change of her services as a delivery girl) and Tombo (a kid obsessed with flying). Depressed by the complications in her way she starts losing confidence in herself and loses her powers but when Tombo falls form an airship she regains them as consequence of finding a new purpose. It is a universal coming-of-age story of a journey to independence and maturity where she will learn how to trust others and most importantly herself. Since the soundscape of the 2010 version is the same as the original one with the exception of some extra-lines and interjections to fill the pauses and silence, the analysis will mainly centre on the differences between the original Japanese soundscape and the one from the 1998 version and then explain a bit more on the 2010 version. Even though the translator does not have any influence in the modifications of the soundscapes most of the changes done to the music and sound effects done by 28

Chihara and the music selector in order to localize the soundscape follow the logics and conventions used to translate the script.

Verbal non-linguistic aspects This project will analyse the non-linguistic acoustic aspects of the different versions of Kiki’s Delivery Service since the linguistic aspects have been analysed already by Reito Adachi (2012) from a translation perspective. However, I will include his analysis of two non-verbal aspects that pertain to the acoustic channel as well, the pitch of the characters’ voice and the re-composing of the opening and ending songs. The first verbal-non-linguistic aspect that is relevant to examine is how different in pitch and characterization are some of the voices used for the English dubs. In Kiki’s Delivery’s Service the most relevant one is Jiji’s case, while in the original version the voice actor is female in both the 1998 and 2010 versions the voice actor is male. In the original version, Jiji is supposed to represent the childish and immature side of Kiki and that is why at the end of the film when Kiki has regained confidence in herself and matured, she can no longer hear Jiji’s voice. The Jiji of the English dubs is much more sarcastic and snarkier, instead of representing another part of Kiki it seems to be an independent comic character. In the 1998 version, at the end of the film Kiki can hear again Jiji’s voice which undermine the deeper meaning of the original plot. However, in the 2010 version, these added lines disappear returning to Jiji some of its original role as Kiki’s childish side. The second change in voice pitch is Ursula’s voice. In the Japanese version, the same voice actress voices Kiki and Ursula since the latter represents a role model for Kiki.61 In the English versions, this implicature changes since the voice actresses are clearly different. The last vocal element to mention is the change of the genre and language of the voices that come from the radio. In the original version in the scene where Kiki is packing, the voice coming from the radio is female and talks in English while in the 1998 version is male. The same thing happens with the voice coming from the radio in the new town, it is in English and Kiki cannot understand it making her feel confused and more alone, while in the English dubs, the voices do not change language which means that the translator did not compensate the symbolic effect of an unknown language and just omitted the implicature. Most animes have an opening and ending song which lyrics are usually translated in the TT. However, in Kiki’s case, the songs were completely substituted for the 1998 version. Yumi Matsutoya’s songs ‘Ruju no Dengon’/ ‘Message in Rouge’ and ‘Yasashisa ni Tsutsumareta Nara’/ ‘If I've Been

61 Adachi 2012, 158. 29

Enveloped by Tenderness’ are replaced by Sydney Forest’s ‘Soaring’ and ‘I'm Gonna Fly’. This could be understood as a modernizing strategy since the music style of the new songs is American pop of the 90s while the original ones have a 1950s Doo Wop style which was trendy in Japan in the 1970s and 1980s. However, the cheerful original songs were composed in a western-style which raises questions about the reason the distribution company had to decided to domesticate them in such an extreme way instead of dubbing the translated lyrics through partial translation. The replacement of the original songs can be related to the pre-2000 preference for covert translations. A song in Japanese would have highlighted its translational nature. Nonetheless, another reason for the substitution could be attributed to a case of censorship. If we analyse the lyrics of both songs, ‘Ruju no Dengo’ seems to be more adult-like mentioning ‘a message in rouge in the bathroom’ and feelings of anxiety while ‘Yasashisa ni Tsutsumareta Nara’ mentions ‘Gods’ referring to the taboo topic of religion.62 Additionally, Forest’s lyrics seem to fit more with the coming-of-age story and their message is clear and direct typical of low- context cultures. In the end, the substitution of the opening and ending songs might have been not only an issue of modernization, censorship or just to remain as a covert translation. In the 2010 version, the original Japanese songs are maintained without subtitles even in the subtitled version which is weird considering that the lyrics were considered important enough to deserve new songs in the 1998 version however this decision fits with a less domesticating form of censorship. The changes in the gender and language of the voices, the content of the messages, and the substitution of the songs modify the original meanings and change how some scenes are interpreted. In translation terms they domesticate these aspects through cultural substitution, explicitation and modernization.

Localizing strategies used by Chihara The localization of the 1998 version of Kiki’s Delivery Service was done based on the belief that the American audiences would not appreciate the film since it did not have enough music, so Disney decided to hire an American composer named Paul Chihara.63 He rewrote and amplified the score adding his own compositions and cutting and editing Hisaishi’s music to provide more than 30 minutes of extra- music (more than half of the whole soundtrack). The need for localizing the soundscape did not have anything to do with the musical style of the score in itself but with the anime scoring-practices that resembled the already mentioned gekiban style. As discussed before the main differences between Hollywood and the Japanese scoring-practices have to do with the three fundamental aspects. The

62 See Appendix #5. 63 Roedder 2014, 254-267. 30 asynchronicity between sound and image, the extended pauses and silences and the lack of leitmotivs. These three aspects not only make part of the specific musical language of anime but also give the audience of the original version a broader range of emotional agency typical of high-context cultures. However, this specific language did not fit with the taste and conventions of a low-context culture like the American accustomed to the musical-style language of the Disney films, for example. Therefore, Chihara localized the score through the editing of Hisaishi’s cues to segment larger arcs, hit synchronization points, and fill pauses and silences with fragment of previous cues or his own compositions.

Segmentation The first musical cue ‘Hareta Hi Ni’/ ‘On a Sunny Day’ (musical example #1) starts with a tonic chord after Kiki stands up from the grass. It is in binary form AA’BA’B with four and eight bars phrases in each section and organized in antecedents and consequences becoming a round and regular form. This form is used various times through the film as when Kiki returns from the house where Jiji was trapped or in the musical cue ‘Sota Tobu Takkyubin’/ ‘Flying Outside for a Delivery’. When repeated the form, the accompaniment figures, and the key remain identical while there are some variations at the level of instrumentation. Even if the melody could have been broken and varied more broadly Hisaishi and Miyasaki decided not to do so. In the original, the theme plays without interruption for two minutes. The A phrase returns in what Chion would define as a case of audiovisual phrasing after Kiki tells her mother she is leaving, and the mother’s potion gently explodes.64 Chihara changes this unity and divides the scenes in three distinct music sections through the omission of the B section of Hisaishi’s cue and through the interpolation of his own musical cues. First when Kiki is going home, then when she speaks with her mother and a third one when the mother speaks with a client in the magic shop. Every section evokes different emotions and the B section of the original melody is omitted and substituted with Chihara’s bouncy re-writing which has a very different character and that tonally speaking is in a very distant tonality (at the tritone). The A section starts softly again through a dominant fifth arpeggio when the mother explains the tradition of leaving to the client and ends up abruptly in the middle of the section when the client reminds the mother of when she came to town.6566 These changes break Hisaishi’s original unity of the scene and represent on a smaller scale, the change from a self-discovery single journey to a series of adventures. Chihara keeps repeating this

64 Audiovisual phrasing is Michel Chion’s concept and it refers to audiovisual synch points that identify important meanings and dynamics. 65 Ibid. 256. 66 See Appendix #1 and Video example #1. In this example and the following ones the first video is from the 2010 version while the second one is form the 1998 version. 31 cutting, substituting and re-writing strategy through the whole film breaking Hisaishi’s long melodies into no more than one minute long little phrases. In this way the functionality of the pieces as film music has precedence over the coherence of the form. Another example of this is when Kiki is trying on her witch dress and is saying goodbye to her parents. Chihara adds music to all the sections in which the original silence enhanced the emotions, for example where the original soundtrack cue ‘Tabidachi’/‘Setting off’ (D-G-F#-D-E-E-C-B-G#-A) highlights the dichotomy between nostalgia and excitement that Kiki and her parents are feeling. Chihara’s modifications removes not only the agency of the audience to identify the feeling but also decreases the intensity of the emotions evoked by the original audiovisual strategy. This breaking of Hisaishi’s melodies and the constant interpolation seem to correlate with what translator did with the text. As Japanese conversation patterns are long and circular so are Hisaishi’s melodies. On the other hand, in Chihara’s score the editing of the music imitates the patterns of speech of the American culture, short, concise and linear. However as seen in these examples he not only repositions the original cues but also employs strategies as interpolation, omission, substitution and re-writing.

Musical example #1: ‘Hareta Hi Ni’ transcription by Alexandra Roedder of the original musical cue.

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Synchronization Chihara uses two strategies to render the score more synchronic, the displacement of the original cues and the use of mickeymousing. In the 1998 version, the introductory cue ‘Hareta Hi Ni’ starts more softly twenty-five second earlier with an arpeggio of a dominant seventh chord in synthesized chimes. This melody displacement not only makes the entrance softer and reduce a long silent scene but also allows the music to hit small synchronization points between sound and image that did not occur on the original version like the bee’s landing or Kiki’s footsteps on the mud after she crosses the fence. Chihara’s interpolated melody in this initial cue also hit some synchronization points as for example when the mother’s potion explodes.67

67 The Video example #1 doesn’t show in the 1989 initial cue starting 25 seconds after the one in the 1998 since that initial fragment is not available in DVD. However all the other displacements are evidente in the 2010 version which is the one shown in this example instead of the one from the 1998 version. 34

Image #4. Kiki’s Delivery Service. Kiki lying in the grass at the beginning of the film.

Another important scene is when Kiki wakes up after her first night sleeping at Osono’s house and goes to the bathroom after descending the stairs.68 In the original version there is no music in this scene while in the 1998 version each of Kiki’s movements are accompanied by isomorphic and isochronic accompaniment music based on a variation of Edvard Grieg ‘The Hall of the Mountain King’ This is one of the clearest examples of mickeymousing, a technique that takes explicitation and illustration to its maximum level.69 Additionally, the cue ends in a perfect cadence that reinforces the idea that Kiki is safe from the embarrassment now that she is in her room again.70 It is interesting that this musical quotation by Chihara uses an intertextual reference of Western art music culture art as a text translator would use for localizing an intertextual literary quotation. However, this quotation seems another example of limited adaptation in function of an extreme domestication since it is not a cultural substitution that is replacing a ST intertextual reference that the target culture wouldn’t understand. Another example of Chihara using mickymousing is when Kiki and Jiji keep walking on the street trying to ignore Tombo who is introducing himself.71 In the necessity to over explain the situation, rendering it humorous or filling long silent scenes, Chihara limits the agency and emotional autonomy of the audience diminishing the number of possible identifications between them and the character’s situation. Chihara renders the score synchronous and more domesticated through strategies such as interpolations, re-writing, intertextual references and limited adaptation

68 Ibid. 258. 69 See Video example #6. 70 Roedder 2013, 183. 71 See video example # 3. 35

Fillings Hisaishi has mentioned in several interviews how he started to re-compose his scores to fill the original long silent scenes with extra musical cues,

According to Disney's staff, non-Japanese feel uncomfortable if there is no music for more than three minutes. You see this in the Western movies, which have music throughout. It's the natural state for a (non-Japanese) animated film to have music all the time. However in the original Laputa, there was only one-hour's music in the 124- minute movie. There were parts that do not have music for seven to eight minutes. So, we decided to redo the music as (the existing soundtrack) will not be suitable for markets outside Japan.72

However, Chihara already does it in the 1998 version of Kiki’s Delivery Service before Hisaishi personally started re-composing the soundscapes of the English’s dubs. Chihara adds his own compositions or edits Hisaishi’s cue in order to fill these silences. When Kiki and Jiji look at the sea through the window of the room Osono has given to, Kiki mention that she can see the ocean while Jiji calmly suggest that they should look for another town.73 Hisaishi leave the scene silent since is a moment where Kiki, after going through a lot of obstacles, is finally able to rest, settle down and start a new life. As Roedder explains the scene is quite neutral and passive, is not optimistic not depressing. In the 1998 version Chihara adds incidental music and the script is translated in a way that there is no closure, instead, the tension is kept high since Jiji keeps the sarcastic and whining remarks and Kiki goes from being exasperated to being excited (the intonations of the voice actors are loud and exaggerated). The music cue Chihara adds to this scene is a fragment of Hisaishi’s cue Tabidachi/Setting off that is used in the initial scene when Kiki was hugging her father goodbye. Roedder mentions that the melody is a piano arrangement of the original theme that pretends to imitate a slow-jazz effect that should inspire nostalgic and homesick feelings in the audience. Again, the insertion of this cue tells the audience how they should interpret the scene and limits their agency.74 In some sections the insertion of the new music cues clash with the original ones resulting in what Roedder calls a clumsy and ill-advised soundscape. This is mainly noticeable in the wordless vocalizations of the main themes of Hisaishi’s cues that sound randomly just to fill the silence. Another good example is the scene around the minute 20:00 when Kiki is contemplating the city before meeting Osono, originally there is no musical cue in this scene, on the other hand, in the 1998 version ‘Tabidachi’

72 Hisaishi’s interview in Osmond 2000. 73 See Video example #4. 74 Roedder 2014, 259.

36 main theme clashes with Chihara’s new jazzy cue. They can be heard at the same time making it seems as if there was a mistake in the soundscape mixing.75

Musical commentaries Another problem with Chihara’s additions and interpolations are the modification of the incidental music function as mood signifier or commentary on the original version. Hisaishi’s original music represents the emotions of the characters instead of prioritizing the action rhythm or hitting synchronization points. He explains in an interview that,

In Disney films in order to explain the type for each character, specific cues are married to their appearance. When I composed for the English version of Laputa, we actually did this Hollywood method so I understand the mechanics very well. The way I [normally] compose, however, is that none of my cues are necessarily married to any character. What I do instead is discern what the director is trying to convey in a scene and try to do the same with the music thematically.76

In the original version Kiki’s cheerful musical cues completely disappear when she starts to lose confidence in herself and starts to feel isolated and defeated by all the obstacles she encounters on the difficult journey for independence. After this, Kiki’s loss of her magic powers and ability to understand Jiji is accompanied only by silence. After she realize her feeling while confessing her problems to Osono while she watches an airship passing by, the music returns in a melancholic variation with the cue ‘Shoushin no Kiki’/‘Disheartened Kiki’, that anticipates the eventual return of her powers after she rescues her friend Tombo from falling from the same airship. The use of the same instrumentation format of mandolin, strings and accordion used for the previous cues that symbolized Kiki’s hopes make clear that the cue has to do with Kiki, however, the additional melancholic piano solos transmit to the audience that Kiki has changed and lost a bit of her initial innocence. 77 The powerful audiovisual effect that the absence and return of incidental music provokes in the audience is sophisticated. However, it disappears in the 1998 version since Chihara fills the silences with music and loud sound effects modifying the original function of the soundscape.78

75 See Video example #5. 76 Hisaishi’s interview in Osmond 2000. 77 Bellano 2010, 21. 78 For more on the dubbing of silences in Miyasaki’s films see Adachi (2016). 37

Even in a very active scene like when Kiki arrives to Koriko (the town where she will live) and almost crashed into a multitude and gets into a traffic accident, the calm musical cue ‘Umi no Mieru Machi’/‘A Town with an Ocean View’ that had started when Kiki first sees from the distance the town remains unchanged. The cue does not follow any of the extreme movements of the character, the only difference is that the style becomes more playful.79 However, in the 1998 version apart from the constant extra-lines and interjections from Kiki and Jiji commenting on the city and that difficult the listening of Hisaishi’s music, Chihara adds an ominous dark melody when she sees the cars and people. Additionally, when she is about to crash with the bus the music suddenly stops with the same wordless vocalization of the beginning and the sound effects of her almost accident are amplified and the screams exaggerated.80 Again, the insertion of this cue not only changes the function silence has in the original version but again it tells the audience how they should interpret the scene and limits their agency. It is worth noting that this was a common practice when localizing products aimed for children. If analysed from a translation framework these musical fillings not only render scenes less awkward for animated-musical accustomed American audiences through extreme explicitation of emotional and narrative cues but also, they modify the pragmatics’ meanings. The original silence is the locutionary level, the intention of enhancing the audience emotions is the illocutionary level and the identification from each member with their own experience is the perlocutionary level. In this case the locutionary was not adapted to culturally domesticate it in order to preserve the same perlocutionary effect on the target audience, instead, the three levels where modified and the deeper meaning of the scene got lost in translation.

Leitmotifs The insertion of sound effects and short leitmotifs melodies is evident since the beginning of the film, as it can be seen on the timetable in Appendix #1. On these first minutes apart from the music cues, Chihara interpolates different small melodic motives that fulfil the role of leitmotifs for the character of Kiki and Jiji. Just before the first musical cue begins, there is an arpeggio with small bells and harp: the arpeggio is very similar to what we can hear in the first Disney’s movies when something magical happens, for example, when the fairy godmother makes magic in Cinderella (1950). It can be taken as an example of the explicitation strategy used to emphasize to the American audiences that Kiki is a witch with magical powers. These little bells motifs appear every time there is something related to Kiki’s magic as for example when Kiki finishes talking with her mom about leaving to fulfil the tradition or when Kiki tries her witch dress. Chihara includes in the instrumentation of the first cue some subtle bells

79 Bellano 2010, 19. 80 See Video example #6. 38 but they are not as evident as when they are used as leitmotivs. Just some second later on the mentioned synch point where Hisaishi’s theme comes back there is another extra sound effect (synthesizer that simulates rubbing the edges of crystal cups) when the mother is preparing the potion. Again, this sound effect can be considered as and explicitation of magical powers.

Image #5. Kiki’s Delivery Service. Test tube potion.

Jiji's leitmotiv appears when Kiki encounters him when she is running home and tell him they are leaving that night. The motive is composed of five chromatic notes in a bassoon and in the initial scene is followed by a flute doing an octave jump. The leitmotiv sounds sarcastic and comic and it appears every time Jiji is the focus of attention (musical example #2). Again, Chihara uses strategies as re-writing, interpolation, additions, and explicitation.81

Musical Example #2. Jiji’s Leitmotif in Paul Chihara’s Score. Transcription by Alexandra Roedder.

81 See Video example #1. All of the examples mentioned in this paragraph appear on the first minutes of the film. 39

Replacements But Chihara’s cues do not always render scenes more comic. In the scene where Kiki is flying to make her first delivery and encounters the crows the original scene is accompanied by a childish melody that transmits the feeling that Kiki is just a kid having fun. In the 1998 version Chihara replaces Hisaishi’s cue with his jazzy cue. When mother-crow attacks her Chihara also adds a chromatic dissonant mickeymousing melody that renders more dramatic the encounter.82 This seems to be a case of substitution and modernization since the childish melody might not be attractive to American teenagers.

Analysis Conclusions The scenes I just mentioned are examples of the strategies that Chihara used to localize and domesticate the soundscape. As if he were a translator of a written or oral text, he employs strategies such as modernization, explicitation, substitution, omission, addition, interpolation, censorship, intertextual references and limited adaptation. Entire sections of the soundscape sound completely different modifying the interaction between the different sign system and creating new and different meanings from the originals. The main issue with these re-writings from a translation point of view is that fundamental not-explicit topics are omitted without any type of compensation in other parts of the film. The meanings behind the representation of the different personalities of the protagonists through other characters, the fact that when Kiki has self-confidence there is cheerful music but when she loses it the cues disappear only to return in melancholic variation before she recover it, or the fact that Kiki cannot longer understand Jiji at the end because she has matured and become independent got lost in translation. These changes were made to render the film less awkward and to transform serious and complex scenes into more humorous ones or rendering light and cheerful scenes into more dramatic ones. After all these changes, is clear that the original coherence (as intended in translation studies) is broken since the logical relationship established by the cohesive markers (repetitions, variations and substitutions) have been modified, altering the original sense of the text. In the process of adapting anime to the convention of the American culture the specific text-type structure of the genre got lost in translation due to an excessive domestication. Regarding the quality standards established by Chaume, the text fulfils all of them except the loyalty of the TT with the ST. As this analysis demonstrates, one of the reasons the 1998 version is perceived as disloyal is due to the soundscape modifications. Even if the script is translated in a domesticated way what affects how the movie is interpreted is the change of semiotics relationships

82 See Video example #7. 40 between the systems as consequence of an extreme domestication. Arguably, Chihara assumed the role of a music translator and created a version that was successful in the 1990’s since it complies with the conventions of the U.S society of the time. However, is important to not forget that translations are polysystems where a great number of different agents take decisions that affect and regulate each of the aspects involved in the creation of a film.

The 2010 version The 2010 version of Kiki’s Delivery Service is important because it is a perfect example of how conventions and translation approaches can change over time for the same public and culture and affect the soundscape. Kiki’s 2010 version retains almost the same translated script of the 1998 version except for the extra-lines and interjections, but the original soundscape returns unchanged even with the original Japanese opening and ending songs. The almost unchanged script does not make it the most ideal case study to represent the changes between the domesticated free script’s translation and the foreignizing literal script’s translation approaches that distinguish the pre-2000 from the post-2000 versions. However, this fact helps this project since it highlights the importance and influence the soundscape has on the creation of audiovisual meanings. Just by returning to the original soundscape most of the original meanings created by audiovisual strategies were recovered. It seems that, from a translation point of view, the soundscape of the 2010 version takes a foreignizing approach and becomes is a gigantic calque of the original Japanese one with the exception of the starting point of the cue ‘Hareta Hi Ni’ which still starts twenty-five seconds earlier than the 1989 version. Musically-speaking Kiki seems a transition point between the previous animes which were extremely domesticated and the more foreignizing approach taken in the following films.83 Even Hisaishi’s localization of the following soundscape seem to be influenced by the strategies taken by Chihara which include adding more music, creating synch points, and replacing existing cues with countermelodies in order to have more subtle entrance and exits and more connected with the actions and movements of the characters. As Roedder explains,

Kiki’s first localization and its edited score thus become intricately intertwined in not only one popular composer’s personal development but also in the definition of what Studio Ghibli sounds like. And because Ghibli’s films are so widely distributed, the sound of Ghibli is for many the sound of Japanese anime. Further, because Ghibli’s

83 Some examples of trans-edited animes are Robotech (1985), Sailor Moon (1994), Astro Boy (1963) and Warriors of the Wind (1985).

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films are so definitive as anime within Japan, and because so many young composers want to write like Hisaishi and become Hisaishi, it is Hisaishi’s style and practices, as influenced by this history, that are defining contemporary anime music.84

Conclusions

Chihara helped produce an American localized version that was accepted and loved by the American public. And analysing the changes done to the acoustic aspects, through a translation studies framework, the micro and macro-contextual aspects and considering the dubbing conventions of the pre- 2000 and post-2000 America, sheds a new light into the possible reasons behind Chihara’s changes. All the acoustic modifications seem to have an equivalent translation strategy and even the same or similar motivations behind. As a film music scholar, I could have understood how the changes in the soundscape affected the original meanings produced by the relationship between the semiotic systems of my case study. In my analysis I would have used a different terminology, even though the differences between translation and film studies terms is not that big and the correlation between them is quite obvious. However, as Hisaishi’s and Ghibli’s fan, If I hadn’t considered the changes on the soundscape as a ‘translation’ I wouldn’t have judged and condemned the soundscape of the 1998 version. I wouldn’t have been able to understand the reason and the logics behind Chihara’s decisions and I would have been blind to the benefits of analysing from this new perspective. There are still a lot of topics related to the soundscapes of the different versions of Kiki that were out of the scope of this dissertation but that can be considered for further research as for example how U.S fans that grew up with the pre-2000 domesticated versions of Ghibli films, probably due to nostalgia, feel disappointed and sad of not being able to access the old version. Should this still be available? Also, is common to find in online forums harsh criticism to Chihara’s work on the 1998 version of Kiki while there is almost no recognition of how his strategies influenced the sound of Ghibli. I couldn’t include either the issue of authorship and cultural ownership and how they affect how we perceive, interpret and judge an artistic product. Chihara not only used a lot of Hisaishi’s original cues but also edited and modified them. As a musician I would have preferred he created totally new music, but if I consider the soundscape as a translation and not an adaptation then it makes sense to localize a product. However, is hard to think in practical terms of a work of art as if it were a translation service. If I read a

84 Roedder 2014, 266. 42

Spanish translation of an English literature work, I consider the author is the English author and do not even give a second look to the translator. However, I cannot do the same with Chihara’s soundscape even if it really works as a translation and uses a lot of Hisaishi’s cues. Is it because translation is considered a service while composing music is considered an art? Also, Hisaishi´s rescoring of Laputa uses the same strategies that Chihara used in Kiki but it is definitely not the centre of heated discussion in online forums. This dissertation exemplifies how the convention and logics of a totally complete semiotic system can strongly influence a soundscape. In it are integrated translation concepts such as how a genre soundscape or even the style of a composer can be influenced by conversational patterns, social taboos, scoring strategies and social conventions and norms. Also, is highlighted the close correlation between the strategies to translate a script and the ones used to modify a soundscape. It is true that in translation studies acoustic aspects have not been fully integrated to the analysis of most scholars and understandable that they might not feel confident about engaging in musical analysis. Nonetheless, most of the conclusion from the analysis could have been reached without an extensive musical knowledge. If translation scholars have started to integrate the ‘translation’ of images, then music and sound should be considered as well.

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Appendix #1- Timetable Comparison between the 1989 and 1998 versions of Kiki

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Appendix #2 Kiki’s Delivery Service Versions Table

Majo no Kiki’s Delivery Kiki’s Delivery Kiki’s Delivery Takkyubin Service Service Service

Year of Release 1989 1989 1998 2010

Production Tokuma Shoten, Japan Airlines Fox Video Buena Vista Yamato Transport Home Company, Nippon Entertainment TV (Walt Disney Network Studios Home Entertainment)

Director Hayao Miyazaki Hayao Miyazaki

Producer Hayao Miyazaki

Screenplay Hayao Miyazaki

Media LD VHS DVD

Translation Jimmy Yamasaki

Adaptation Jack Fletcher, Jack Fletcher, John Semper John Semper

ADR Consultant Miyoko Miura

Lyrics Yumi Matsutoya John Taylor, June Angela, Maurice Gainen, Sydney Forest

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Appendix# 3 Majo No Takkyubin Musical Cues

CD version: Original release Reissue Re-Reissue

Catalog #: 32ATC-184 TKCA-71031 TKCA-72742

Release Date: Aug 25, 1989 Nov 21, 1996 Sep 29, 2004

Price: ¥2920 ¥2427 ¥2381

Released by: Tokuma Tokuma Tokuma

Play Time: 41:45 (21 tracks)

Track Title/ English translation Time

1 Hareta Hi ni... 2:16 [On a Clear Day...]

2 Tabidachi 2:53 [Departure]

3 Umi no Mieru Machi 3:00 [A Town with an Ocean View]

4 Sota Tobu Takkyuubin 2:09 [Flying Delivery Service]

5 Pan-ya no Tetsudai 1:04 [Helping the Baker]

6 Shigoto Hajime 2:15 [Starting the Job]

7 Migawari Jiji 2:46 [Substitute Jiji] 50

8 Jyefu 2:30 [Jeff]

9 Ooisogashi no Kiki 1:17 [Very Busy Kiki]

10 Paatii ni Maniawanai 1:07 [Late for the Party]

11 Osono-san no Tanomigoto... 3:01 [Osono's Request]

12 Puropera Jitensha 1:42 [Propeller Bicycle]

13 Tobenai! 0:46 [I Can't Fly!]

14 Shoushin no Kiki 1:11 [Heartbroken Kiki]

15 Urusura no Koya he 2:05 [To Ursula's Cabin]

16 Shimpi naru E 2:20 [A Mysterious Painting]

17 Bou-Hikou no Jiyuu no Bouken Gou 1:06 [The Adventure of Freedom, Out of Control]

18 Ojii-san no Dekki Burasshu 1:59 [The Old Man's Deck Brush]

19 Dekki Burasshu de Rendezvous 1:02 [Rendezvous on the Deck Brush]

20 Ryuuju no Dengon 1:45 [Message of Rouge] (Opening Song by Yumi ARAI, movie edit)

21 Yasashisa ni Tsutsumareta nara 3:09 [If I've Been Enveloped by Tenderness] (Ending Song by Yumi ARAI)

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Appendix # 4 Majo no Takkyuubin Imeeji Arubamu [Kiki's Delivery Service Image Album]

CD version: Original release Reissue Re-Reissue

Catalog #: 32ATC-180 TKCA-71030 TKCA-72741

Release Date: Apr 10, 1989 Nov 21, 1996 Sep 29, 2004

Price: ¥2920 ¥2427 ¥2381

Released by: Tokuma Tokuma Tokuma

Play Time: 43:47 (12 tracks)

Track Title / [English translation] Time

1 Kaasan no Houki 4:29 [Mom's Broom]

2 Nanpa Doori 3:17 [Pick-up Street]

3 Machi no Yoru 3:56 [Night at the Town]

4 Genki ni Naresou 2:42 [I'll be All Right]

5 Nagisa no Deito 2:59 [A Date at the Beach] 52

6 Kaze no Oka 3:33 [Windy Hill]

7 Tombo-san 2:38 [Tombo]

8 Ririi to Jiji 2:46 [Lilly and Jiji]

9 Sekai-tte Hiroi ha 3:35 [The World is so Vast]

10 Pan'ya-san no Mado 5:12 [The Baker's Window]

11 Toppuu 4:14 [A Gust]

12 Komorebi no Roji 4:05 [An Alley of Sunlight Filtering through Trees]

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Appendix #5 Lyrics Comparison

Yuri Matsumoto- Ruju no Interlinear translation of Soring-Sidney Forest Dengon Matsumoto's song- Message in Rouge85

Ano hito no Mama ni au tame In order to meet my boyfriend's My heart is ready to beat ni Mama, I can feel the wind underneath Ima hitori Ressha ni notta no Now alone, I rode the train, my feet Tasogare semaru machinami ya As twilight draws in across the I'm gonna jump over the moon Kuruma no nagare street, to this flow of cars, Hands in the air waving up like a Yokome de oi koshite I give a sideways glance as I balloon overtake. I'm free as a bird lost in the stars Ano hito wa Mou kizuku koro And waving down to earth yo He should have noticed about Don't know where I'm gonna Basu ruumu ni Ruuju no now, land dengon The message in rouge in the But you gotta wobble before you Uwakina koi o hayaku bathroom, stand akiramenai kagiri If you don't give up your fickle I'm soaring all alone Uchi ni wa kaeranai loving soon, And on my own Im soaring Then I won't come home. And I know my heart will lead Fuanna kimochi o nokoshita me home mama Because my feelings of anxiety Machi wa 'ding-dong' toozakatte remain, Just look in my eyes yuku wa I'll leave this town's Ding-Dong Can't you see I'm not the same Asu no asa mama kara denwa de and go far away, today Shikatte morau wa, my darling! Tomorrow morning, you'll get a I can see farther now phone call from your Mama's Step from the edge I'm making Ano hito wa awateterukoroyo And you'll receive a scolding my my own way Basu ruumu ni Ruuju no dengon darling! Don't know where I'm gonna Teatari shidai tomodachi ni land tazuneru kashira When he's confusing over, But you gotta wobble before you Watashi no yuku saki o The message in rouge in the stand bathroom, I'm soaring all alone and on my Fuanna kimochi o nokoshita I wonder whether he'll ask own mama whichever friends he can, I'm soaring and I know my heart Machi wa 'ding-dong' toozakatte Where have I gone? will lead me home yuku wa And I know that I am gonna Asu no asa mama kara denwa de Because my feelings of anxiety touch the sky Shikatte morau wa, my darling! remain, Shikatte morau wa, my darling! I'll leave this town's Ding-Dong I'm soaring all alone and on my and go far away, own I'm soaring and I know my heart

85 Transliterated and translated by Mr C Bull in https://www.animelyrics.com/anime/kiki/kdsrouge.htm 54

My little darling, my little Tomorrow morning, you'll get a will lead me home darling phone call from your Mama's All alone and on my own My little darling, my little And you'll receive a scolding my Soaring all alone and on my own darling darling! I'm soaring all alone and on my And you'll receive a scolding my own darling! I'm soaring all alone and on my own My little darling, my little darling My little darling, my little darling

Sidney Forest- I’m Gonna Fly Yumi Matsumoto- Yasashisa ni Interlineal transaltion- Engulfed tsutsumareta nara 86 in Gentleness 87

Chiisai koro wa Kami-sama ga When I was small there were One day, the whole world looks ite gods like an open page and you've Fushigini yume o Kanaete And they granted my wishes in kureta mysterious ways been dancing as fast as you can Yasashii kimochi de Mezameta On mornings when you wake up with a smile on your face asa wa feeling at ease and then the earth and the sky Otona ni nattemo Kiseki wa Miracles happen even when you they all fit together and carry me okoru yo grow up away as light as a feather

Kaaten o hiraite Shizukana Open the curtain wide let faint chase the clouds from the komorebi no Yasashisa ni sunbeams shine through ground in the big blue sky don't Tsutsumareta nara Kitto Let their gentleness engulf you wanna watch it all blow-by Me ni utsuru Subete no koto I'm sure all that appears before wa Meseeji your eyes is a message so I'm gonna fly higher than I ever could When I was small there were Chiisai koro wa Kami-sama ga feel the wind blow through my ite gods hair feel the sun dance with the Mainichi ai o Todokete kureta And every day they sent me moon their love

86 Transliterated by The Prof http://nwmra28135.smarttadsl.com/~prof/lyrics/main.htm Translated by KogeJoe

87 Translated by KogeJoe at https://www.animelyrics.com/anime/kiki/kdsysshi.htm 55

Kokoro no oku ni Shimai Deep in my heart a precious box and my feet can't stay on the wasureta long forgotten ground any longer Taisetsuna hako Hiraku toki wa the time to open it is now ima with every leap of faith, I feel a In a garden where the rain has little stronger Ame agari no niwa de stopped wanna swing from a star in the Kuchinashi no kaori no the faint fragrance of gardenias big blue sky Yasashisa ni Tsutsumareta nara Let its gentleness engulf you Kitto I'm sure all that appears before don't wanna watch it all go by so Me ni utsuru Subete no koto your eyes is a message I'm gonna fly wa Meseeji and see for myself what it looks

like from up there

taste the stardust in my mouth chase the clouds until they disappear

and if I could make just one life better bring a smile to your face when you are under the weather then I'm feeling like I've finally found my home I'll plant the seeds and watch them grow so I'm gonna fly... fly... fly. fly... higher than ever ever could I'm gonna fly I'm gonna fly higher than I ever ever could

56

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Filmography

Clamp. 2000. Cradcaptors: Test of Courage. DVD: Geneon. Hidaka, Masamitsu. 1997. Pokemon. Japan: TV Tokyo. Jackson, Riley. 1985. Warrior of the Wind. Los Angeles: New World Video. Miyasaki, Hayao. 1984. Kaze No Tani No Naushika [Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind]. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli. ———. 1989. Majo No Takkyūbin. Tokyo: Buena Vista Home Entertainment. ———. 1998. Kiki’s Delivery Service. Los Angeles: alt Disney Video. ———. 2008. Gake No Ue No Ponyo [Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea]. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli. ———. 2010. Kiki’s Delivery Service. Los Angeles: Walt Disney Home Video. Oshii, Mamoru. 1995a. Kokaku Kidotai [Ghost in the Shell]. Japan: Shichiku. ———. 1995b. Kōkaku Kidōtai [Ghost in the Shell]. Japana: Bandai Visual. Otomo, Katsuhiro. 1988. Akira. Japan: Geneon Universal. Sato, Junichi. 1992. Sailor Moon. Japan: Toei Animation. Tezuka, Osamu. 1960. Alakazam the Great. Japan: Toei Animation. Yabushita, Taiji. 1958. The Tale of the White Serpent/Panda and the Magic Serpent. Japan: Toei Animation.