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Routledge Handbook of Landscape and Food

Joshua Zeunert, Tim Waterman

Aboriginal culture and food-landscape relationships in Australia

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315647692-4 David S. Jones, Philip A. Clarke Published online on: 07 Feb 2018

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 (Clarke, through regulated vegetation practicesinorder tocreate burning asophisticated, successful, andsensitive Australia the ‘biggest estate on earth’, arguing that people culturally manipulated the landscape Aboriginal the people in managing Australian environment. Gammage (2011) has controversially Historian called (Flannery, 1994). There isanongoingacademicdebatewithin therole of Australia concerning Aboriginal sands of years of dwelling is such that there were few, if any, areas when Europeans wilderness arrived true Olive, 2006; OutbackChefStore, 2017; Robins, 1997; Weatherhead, 2016). is alsointerest incookbooks thisrealm (Bruneteau, 1996; Cherikoff, 1994; Fielke, 2017; Mayall, 2014; ipenhe et al., 2011; Cherikoff, 2000; Clarke, 2012), the core species of which are listed in Table hasselectedonlyafew ofthemany support) onceused(Altyerre- speciesthat foragers ernment Aboriginal identity (Butleretal., 2012; BMECBMRG, 2010; MAC, 2017; Woodward etal., 2012; formaintainingtheir foodsources isimportant the conservation ofknowledgetheirformer concerning YRNTBC, 2011). andcentral scape (especiallyoutsideofnorthern Australia), peoplebelieve contemporary that Aboriginal practiceshaveWhile many foraging beendecimatedsinceEuropean colonisationofthe Australian land- invited ‘on (Pascoe, 2014; Pryor, 2014). Ingoodyears whenthere wasgroups asufficientsurplus, were neighbouring those thatwere Indigenouscommunities capable withouttheneedforfoodimportation ofsupporting (Clarke, 2007; Mulvaney andKamminga, 1999; Tindale, 1981). employedThe subsistencestrategies were communities, protocolsandmaintainingfoodharvestingAboriginal limits forforaging whopossessedstrict geology andclimate. This landscapehassuccessfullysustainedmany culturallyandlinguisticallydiverse on thisenvironmentally diverse continentthey developed themeanstosurvive several majorshiftsinboth in arrived peoplefirst ofthecontemporary Australia The ancestors Aboriginal over 50,000 Introduction Scholars haveScholars arguedthatthe impact onthe Aboriginal Australian environment over thetensofthou- Today, theemergentwildbush foodmarket beingdeveloped by commercial grower groups(withgov- 2003; Malaspinasetal., 2016), hunter-gatherers theirlong occupancyassemi-sedentary andduring ’Country to feast and to hold jointceremonies (Clarke, 2007; Jones, 1997; Wettenhall et al., 2010). Aboriginal culture andfood-landscaperelationships Aboriginal David S. Jones andPhilip A. Clarke food-landscape relationshipsin and Indigenous knowledgeforCountry Aboriginal cultureand David S.JonesandPhilipA.Clarke Australia landscape

3.1. Ther years ago 3 41 e Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 southernaridregions Mountain pepper(Tasmannia Quandong (Santalumacuminatum) Finger limes(Citrusaustralasica) Desert limes(Citrusglauca) Lemon aspen(Acronychiaacidulaand tropicalnorthernAustralia Muntries (Kunzeapomifera) Kakadu plum(Terminalia ferdinandiana) subtropical/tropicaleastcoastofNewSouthWales (Syzygiumleuhmanii) Riberry southernaridregions Davidson plum(Davidsoniaspecies) Bush tomato(Solanumcentrale) subtropicalrainforestsofQueensland Elegant wattleseed(Acaciavictoriae) Anise myrtle(Backhousiaanisata) Lemon myrtle(Backhousiacitriodora) Species Table 3.1 David S.JonesandPhilipA.Clarke 42 fromacknowledgement thedraftingandsigningof Indigenous-relevant globallyarising international areIndigenous peoples’ gaining increased andaquatic wildfoodfisheries recognition and terrestrial International contextof Indigenoustraditionalfoodresource access architecture, planning, andlandscapemanagementpractice. generational Indigenousknowledge utilisedtoday isbeingandcouldbefurther in Australian landscape then gives examples ofthekey foodtypesthatwere harvested. insightastohow analternate this Itoffers protocols,hunting andgathering examineshow andwhy several events and ofthefood-sharing occurred inthecaseofclimatechange. cycles andlong-term maintaining theirflexibilityinorder to respond toenvironmental change, ofannual bothseasonalinterms were locked human/environment into a particular relationship, or Hiscock’s model of hunter-gatherers and argument lie inacceptanceofeitherGammage’s of peopleas description Aboriginal ‘farmers’ who beds was beingchallenged by mangroves colonising whathadearlierbeenopenbeaches. For scholars, merit coastlineforced mobilitybecausetheirintensive greater along thenorthern exploitationofthemollusc sedentism. elsewhere onthecontinent, Inthesameperiod Hiscock hasconcludedthat foragers Aboriginal eels (Anguillaaustralis), undergroundplantfoods, plantfoods, marine and shellfish, as well asanincreased torepresentlands appears bothanexpandedemphasisfortheexploitationofresources suchasshort-finned previous 1000to3000 economic reorganisations are known tohaveof parts incertain occurred Australia. For instance, over the space and time. of his critique,As a part of the Holocene, Hiscock has argued that since the beginning major ships withtheenvironment, claimingthatitistoostaticandignores theevidence ofconstantchangeacross someoftheselessons. andappropriate regime thatwas regime quicklyerasedwithcolonialism,farming questioningwhy wefrom this cannotlearn Source: Clarke,2012;Ryder andLatham,2005;Ryderetal.,2009 lanceolata) A. oblongifolia) This chaptersurveys paradigm,Australian culture anditsuniquefood-security Aboriginal explains Archaeologists, suchasHiscock(2014), have ofGammage’s beencritical modelof relation - Aboriginal

Plant speciesbeingdevelopedforthewildbushfoodmarket.

year s, theintensive moundbuilding activities earth inthewestern wet- Victorian wet forestsofsouth-easternAustralia subtropical/tropical eastcoastofNewSouthWales fruit arid inlandregionsofeasternAustralia eastern rangesofAustralia southeast SouthAustraliaandwesternVictoria subtropical rainforestsofnorthernNewSouthWales Central Australia subtropical rainforestsofnorthernNewSouthWales Origin and Queensland and coastalQueensland and Queensland leaf andberry fruit fruit leaf andoil fruit fruit fruit leaf andoil fruit fruit seed leaf andoil Parts Used Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 try. Yet legalrecognition in ofthisfact Australia commencedsome30 acknowledged asoneofthree distinctsectors, alongwiththecommercial andrecreational ofindus- sectors in Australia, and Aboriginal Torres are StraitIslanderfreshwater (Indigenousfisheries) andsaline fisheries other stakeholders (seeforexampleHamiltonand Walter, 1999; MenziesandButler, 2007). initiatives are alignedtoaddress andlivelihood desired customary outcomesforIndigenous ‘fishers’ and thatpolicyandmanagement thespeciesharvested –isfundamentaltoensuring –inparticular and fisheries 2001; Pinkerton, andaquaticbush foods 1989). oftraditionalterrestrial thecharacteristics Understanding saltwater andfreshwater aquaticbush foods and fishingaccessforIndigenouspeoples(Davis and Jentoft, andaquaticbush foodsand/orfishingfortheirlivelihoodsterrestrial and wellbeing (Rettigetal., 1989). to include in such plans the needs and aspirations of the people who rely upon information technological and deliberationshave expandedfrom simple Western and considerationofbiological science-informed resources useofbiological oftheConventioncustomary (Secretariat Diversity, onBiological 2005). serve andrespect componentsandvalues totraditionalknowledge ofthatrelationship pertaining andthe exists between Indigenouspeoplesandbiodiversity tocon- andtherefore parties encouragesallsignatory seeinparticular traditional territories; 25–29(UNGeneral Articles Assembly, 2007). that Indigenous peoples havearticulates to use, a right develop, and control resources associated with their (FAO, 2009). onIndigenouspeoples’ instruments the CCRFinlightofassociatedUNESCOhumanrights rights communities andotherpeopleworking withthosecommunities toguideallstakeholders ininterpreting To aidthispolicy, theFAO published anoperationalguidefortheCCRFdesignedIndigenousfishing High Court of High Court Australia decisionledby Mabo, rights,rights,fishing thattheseare tocustomary directly as integral validated inlandmarkMabo (1992) ples have successfullydemonstratedtheneedtorecognise Indigenoustraditionalsaltwater andfreshwater 1986; Sweeney, 1993). Corporations, togetherAboriginal with and Aboriginals Torres StraitIslanderpeo- and native titleinthecontextofparochial, Commission, (Australian Law legislation Reform jurisdictional tional huntingandfishing resources were andare oftensubjecttolegalarguments regarding commonlaw treaties,regional ofIndigenous abouttherights Australians toaccesstradi- legal andpolicydeterminations Canada, USA,rights ofIndigenous peopleare andNew specifiedin Zealand)where huntingandfishing legislative frameworkrights in forestablishing Indigenousfishing Australia, (suchas unlike incountries 1993 (Peterson andRigsby, 2014; Smyth etal., 2010). Intheabsenceofageneralnationalorstate-level the developingrights andprovisions recognition ofIndigenous fishing undertheAct AustralianNative Title tion’s (FAO) (CCRF)encouragesparties: CodeofConductforResponsible Fisheries approaches. For example, offreshwater interms andsalinefisheries, the Food and Organisa- Agriculture agreements, relating totheenvironment,rights, andhuman fisheries and management evolving fisheries the granting of fishing rights to Indigenous traditional owners in some parts of the country (e.g., ofthecountry rights toIndigenous traditional in some parts owners offishing the granting the ‘Blue Island) inthe Torres Strait, thatrecognising native titlein time.Australia forthefirst Whilethishasledto As anexample, practices asasource through oftraditionalfoodsandcustomary thelensoffisheries A key bush foodsand aspectofsuchaconsiderationistheprovision andaerial oftraditionalterrestrial Increased recognition ofIndigenouspeoples, oftheinterests andrights management landandfisheries Another exampleisthe1992Convention onBiologicalDiversity thatrecognises thataspecialrelationship A core UNESCOdocumentisthe2007UnitedNationsDeclarationonRightsofIndigenousPeoples that dependent on fishery resourcesdependent onfishery fortheirlivelihood. practices, needsandinterests ofIndigenouspeopleandlocalfishing communities whichare highly should begiven, asappropriate, inaccordance withnationallaws andregulations, tothetraditional When decidingontheuse, resources, conservation andmanagement of fisheries due recognition Passi, people(from and Rice oftheMeriam Mer/Murray Aboriginal cultureandfood-landscaperelationships

year s ago, with andisintertwined (FAO, 1995, 2015) 43 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 • in jurisdictions Australia toguidethedevelopment ofIndigenousfishingstrategies: Group forapplicationacross in2004proposed all onIndigenousfisheries thefollowing setofprinciples ofIndustries, 2002: Primary (NSW Department 2). The NationalIndigenousFishing Technical Working of peopleandcommunities,heritage Aboriginal resource” includingtheiraccessto anduseofthefisheries ies Strategy(IFS)in Australia, toencouragethe “practical recognition ofthetraditionalandculturalfishing been New South Wales (NSW). In2002, theNSW Stategovernment IndigenousFisher- launchedthefirst 1980). 2010; andDiBenedetto, Sanderson 1998; etal.,Thurstan 2018; Werner, 1992). bush foodandmedicinalpropertiesalso offers (Clarke, 2008a, 2008b; Donovan and Van Oploo, 2015; Lee, et al., 1990; McNiven andBell, 2010), andshellfish resources. There isanincreasing awareness thatseaweed • • (30 July Mud Bay case’ (2008)inNorthern Territory of Australia v Land Arnhem Land Aboriginal Trust [2008]HCA 29 David S.JonesandPhilipA.Clarke 44 the plants, animals, and people, and then gave meaning by shaping the itand country establishing the law In the mythology of Aboriginal Australia, in the Creation ancestors made all it was tradition that spirit Aboriginal Australia tural needs(Smyth etal., 2010). Other changestotheFMAincludedprovisions tovaryspeciesbaglimitsinorder tomeet cul - Aboriginal • • (30 July 23; (1992)175CLR1; Northern Territory of Australia v Land Arnhem Land Aboriginal Trust[2008] HCA 29 and contested (Cane,uncertain 1998; Jackson et al., 2005; • edge culturalfishinganew objectiveby inserting Aboriginal inthe Actthatstates: The NSWgovernment Management amendedtheFisheries acknowl- Act 1994(FMA)in2009toformally

At thestatelevel, the ofaccessandpolicyguidancehas Australian leaderinadvancing Indigenousrights useandharvesting ofBogong Moths(Agrotisinfusa)(Flood,Another exampleisthehistorical 1996, In terms offr In terms of sustainably managedfisheries. Indigenous community locationsandtraditions, ortheiraccesstolandandwater. fishingmaytomary throughoutvary Australia by reference, forexample, zones, tomarine fishspecies, of satisfyingpersonal, domesticornon-commercial communal needs. Specificframeworks forcus- and toprotect, andpromote thecontinuation of, culturalfishing. Aboriginal To reco andfreshw In theallocationofmarine fishingwilltranslate Recognition ofcustomary fishingisinaccordance withr Customary regimes, soastoafford itprotection. b fishingistobedefinedandincorporated Customary this. Australia’s andaquaticenvironment should fisheries respect andaccommodate managementstrategies Indigenous peoplewere thefir future integrated fisheries managementstrategies. fisheries future integrated sector in its own right, alongside recreational and commercial sectors, ideally within the context of

2008) (Cwth)), thestatusandnatur 2008)). gnise the spiritual, social and customary significance to Aboriginal persons of fisheries resourcesgnise thespiritual, offisheries significanceto persons socialandcustomary Aboriginal eshwater and saline fisheries the assumption is that this realm pertains tofish, theassumptionisthatthis eshwaterrealm pertains andsalinefisheries eel(Hall st custodiansof Australia’s andfreshwater marine environments andthat e of Indigenous fishing rights in many parts ofrights inmany parts e of Indigenousfishing Australia remains ater resources, sectorshouldberecognised thecustomary asa , wherever possible, intoashare intheoverall allocation elevant Indigenouslaws andcustomsforthepurpose Mabo and Others v Queensland (No. 2) [1992] HCA y Governments into fisheries management y Governments intofisheries

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 inextricably and eternally linked totheDreaming(Clarke, and eternally inextricably 2003; Rose, 1996). is alive. to The individual is born through story, andtheDreamingisancestors. intheDreaming;All thingsexisteternally theDreaming peoples from theDreaming ,Aboriginal everything comesinto beingthrough the expression orjourney tion oftheland, thecreation oflaw, andthecreation ofpeople. have Stories beengiven toandvested in 2014b, 2015a; Rose, 1996). The Dreamingisanongoingcelebrationandreverence forpastevents: thecrea- past, present, andfuture are one, andphysical andwhere worlds bothspiritual interact(Clarke, ofCountry an Aboriginal, everything isalive intheirCountry andeverything isembodiedinrelationships, whereby the immediate area physically inhabitedby groupsatthe time ofEuropean colonisation.Aboriginals Thus, to or ‘landscape’ ofthe Australian continenttowhichthe Western definition of ‘land’ implies, nortothe and theairwithin. Thus, is/was Country fourdimensional, landmass anditwas notlimitedtotheterrestrial isthe festation ofthatCountry Australian landscape; nightsky, day sky, landsurface, below land, itswaters, had created ancestors (Clarke,places and objects that their spiritual 2003; Rose, 1996). The physical mani- by theirconsciousnessthatsaw (andcontinues toseeandperceive today) asbeingfullofthe theirCountry their longoccupationofrespective Country’s (landsandwaters andskiesitsair). They are united in the BudjBimregion (Laurie,Victoria 2017; Wright, 2017). 2017b) andKakadu(UNESCO, inNorthern 2017c)regions Territory, andwhatmay for beforthcoming 2017a). Such evidence ofUlur is demonstrated in the registrations ofthiscontinuityand harvested ofoccupancy, aspart warranting World (UNESCO, registration Heritage between peoplesandtheirnaturalenvironment”, native foodsare andoftenanintegral, stillrespected, onstrates the “combined works of nature andhumankind, they express along and intimate relationship cultural landscape. UnderUNESCO’s definitionof ‘culturallandscapes’, ofwhichstilldem - alargeportion by subsequentCrown continued toexistin grants Australia’s landsandwaters. of UnitedKingdomsettlement, whichhadnotbeenextinguished andthusthatany Indigenouslandrights people were settled. The Court’s conclusionwaslaws, thatexistingcustomary thatwere present atthetime law was applicable where thelandwas anduninhabited, barren andcouldnotbeappliedwhere anexisting inhabitants present –even ifthoseinhabitantshadbeenregarded atthetimeas ‘uncivilised’. Thus, English alllawsimported ofEnglandtoanew land, didnotapplyincircumstances where there were already across alldisciplinesandjurisdictions. nullius, ofterra concludedthatthedoctrine The HighCourt which of no-one’. Both ‘wilderness’ whenappliedto nullius andterra Australia are now redundant andinaccurate 2) (1989)judgementby the Australian HighCourt, thatthe a ‘land Australian continentwas nullius; terra and post-Commonwealth andlegaljudgementsupuntiltheMaboOthersvQueensland(No. legislation ‘wilderness’ assertion, parallelsthecolonising British in thatwas subsequentlyenshrined Australian colonial humanisedbyit was itsIndigenousinhabitants (Clarke, historically 2003). definitionof The Euro-centric across the nicating languageandgrouphabitationpatterns Australian continent. accessible atwww.aiatsis.gov.au/explore/articles/aiatsis-map-indigenous-australia, whichassistsincommu- and Thieberger, 2001). An interactive mapofIndigenous language,Aboriginal ornationgroupsis tribal the impactofEuropean colonisationmostoftheseare now endangered, threatened, orextinct(McConvell about 500,000inthelate1700s(Taylor, 2005). Aboriginal Australia whenEuropeans arrived, first but itisestimatedthatmay have beenintheorder of Kamminga, 1999; Hiscock, 2007). There are difficultieswhenattemptingtoestablish thepopulationsizeof in arrived Australia between 45,000and60,000 (Clarke, 2003). Most archaeologists today believe people first of modern that the ancestors Aboriginal For Aboriginal Australians, theirlandwas layered withculturalandsocial meaningsdeveloped through Additionally, the Australian landscape, atthetimeofEuropean settlement, was theoldestcontinuing While the Australian landscapewas seenthrough theeyes oftheearlyEuropean explorersas ‘wilderness’, Across thecontinentinexcessof250distinctlanguages(andupto700dialects)were spoken, anddueto ,Country but not just in Country from

year s ago during a period oflow sealevel aperiod s agoduring (Mulvaney and Aboriginal cultureandfood-landscaperelationships u-Kata TjutaNational Park (UNESCO, ,Country and his or her identity is 45 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 to European-style agriculture, whichfavours temperate regions. native title(NationalNative Title Tribunal, 2016). Muchof landisinareas marginal Aboriginal-controlled people withupto75%having declared Indigenousinterests through legalprocesses, and suchaslandrights nearby areas (Biddleand rural Yap, 2010). Today, over 33%of betweenAustralia’s 2.0%and2.3%peryear. isowned landsurface by (ABS,Aboriginal 2014). Increasingly, Indigenous Australians are living inurbanand ians isprojected toincrease tobetween 907,800and945,600peoplein2026, atanaverage growth rateof 1.5% forthetotal Australian population. The populationof and Aboriginal Torres StraitIslander Austral- res StraitIslanderpopulationincreased by 2.3%(from 534,700people)peryear onaverage, compared with people, representing 3%ofthetotal Australian population. Between 2001and2011the and Aboriginal Tor- thatimplicatedallpopulationsonthecontinent. ‘Aboriginality’ given inter-breeding andinter-marriage the colonial period, decline during from but there the sharp are increasingly questions about percentage of the heaviest impactsanddisturbancesfrom colonisation. populationlevels haveAboriginal now recovered through and actions. wildlife and human assimilation strategies Temperate have and coastal regions received ing inaninvasion oftheirrespective militarily, Countries economically, environmentally, by disease, and ’sCountry seasonalcyclesandresponded tothem(Clarke, 2009; Heyes, 2010). Seasonal cycleswere ofplace, tothisunderstanding integral andashunter-gatherers, knew their Aboriginals David S.JonesandPhilipA.Clarke 46 foodsbrought rangeofhorticultural whencompared out by European totherestricted thefirst enormous Rose, 1996, 2005; Schnierer andEgan, 2016; Tindale, 1977, 1981; ZolaandGott, 1992). Ens etal., 2014a, 2014b, 2017; Gott, 1983, 2008; GottandConran, 1991; Jones, 1993; Latz,sources, 1995, whichwere 1999; eitherlesspalatable ormore timeconsumingtoprepare (Clarke, 2008a, 2015b, 2017; available, animalfoodwas generallyhighlydesirable, over andaquaticplant food more reliable terrestrial of animalfoodintheoverall through dietvaried theyear from beingamajorsource toaminor one. When Gott, 1992). forbothanimalandplantfoods wasThe foraging highlyseasonal. Insomeareas theproportion foliage, stems, galls, gums, leafexudates, roots, rhizomes, tubers, (GottandConran, andfungi 1991; Zolaand andaquaticplantparts: ofterrestrial fruits,wide variety seeds, nuts, (seed-like sporocarps growths on ferns), included insects, crustaceans, shellfish, fish, eels, reptiles, birds, andmammals. peopleutiliseda Aboriginal sp., andThylogale sp.), kangaroos (Macropussp.), andemus (Dromaiusnovaehollandiae). Protein meatsources as wallabies (Macropus sp., Petrogalesp., Lagostrophussp., sp., Lagorchestes Dorcopsissp., Onychogalea sp., Wallabia ground insects, andsmallburrowing animals, whilethemenfishedandhuntedmore mobileanimals, such by gender(alsoseeChapter (Clarke, 2003; Pascoe, 2014; Pryor, 2014). bandwasThe jobofcollectingfoodforthesmallforaging divided In Aboriginal Australia there were of food recognised two by maincategories foragers: animal and vegetable Foraging practices In 2011, theestimatedresident and Aboriginal Torres StraitIslanderpopulationin Australia was 669,900 Much haschangedfor Australia’s colonisationbeganin1788, IndigenouspeoplessinceBritish result- Rose (1996: 7)suggeststhat: The diversity of terrestrial and aquatic wild food availableThe diversity of terrestrial across to foragers Aboriginal Australia was spirit; andheart’s ease. ofmeaning,Because ofthisrichness ishomeandpeace: Country forbody, nourishment mindand ing entitywithayesterday, atoday andtomorrow, withconsciousness, action, andawilltoward life. knows,that Country hears, smells, takes notice, takes care, orhappy. andfeelssorry isaliv- Country Country, visitCountry, aboutCountry, worry andlongfor Country. forCountry grieve People say inthesamewayabout Country thatthey would talkaboutaperson: they speaktoCountry, singto In English,Aboriginal theword ‘Country’ isbothacommonnounandproper noun. People talk

5). Ingeneral, women focussed on gathering plantfoods, women focussedongathering shellfish, seaweed, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 Australian colonisation(Dawson, 1881; Gott, 1983, 2008). alcohols, preservatives thatare common intoday’s dietandalsoprevalent in Western dietsatthetimeof of seasonallyavailable sugars, diet of plantandanimalfoodsfree ofartificial foodsandmaintainedarich on by prolonged drought anddiseaseepidemics, peoplegenerallyatewell due tothediversityAboriginal In thisway, successwas foraging shared withinthegroup. ofhardship, fromApart periods suchasbrought adult maleanimals, thewomen ateadultfemaleanimals, andchildren atesmallanimals(Wilhelmi, 1861). Peninsula ofSouth Australia, acolonistobserved thatgamewas divided upby the bandsothatmenatethe food distribution, by whichwas age, determined gender, andkinshipobligations. For instance, ontheEyre camp attheendofday forcookingandeatingby therest oftheband. Olderpeoplecontrolled the of visitors. time totake advantage ofaseasonally abundant foodsource, whichwas required alargenumber tosupport (Davies,coast in large numbers 1952, citedin Clarke, 2007). Here, initiationceremonies were held atthis sign fortheNarangga peoplethatthe Yelloweye) were forsteri soontocomethe Mulletfish(Aldrichetta Yorke Peninsula inSouth Australia, theprolific flowering oftheBlack Teatree (Melaleucalanceolata)was a star movements, oraquaticplants. andtheflowering terrestrial ofcertain For example, Bay on atMarion by was a numberseasonal calendars of determined factors, which included such things as wind direction, 1999; Jones, 2002; Jones etal., 1998; PVandGMTOAC, 2015; Woodward etal., ofthe in parts Australian tropics 2012). (Altyerre-ipenhe etal., 2011; in This variability Clarke, 2009; FAT and WMAC, 2004; Heyes,,to theirCountry from ranging fourtoseven areas, seasonsinsometemperateanddesert toasmany asnine make mostofthefoodwhenitcameintoseason. thatwere peoplepossessedcalendars specific Aboriginal Smyth, 1878; Swan, 2017). thatwent Plantfoodshadasocialimportance beyond subsistence. groupsfrom awidearea toholdceremonies (Maiden,Aboriginal 1889; Petrie andCampbellPetrie, 1932; South Wales, the seasonal availability of the nut from the Bunya Bunya bidwillii Pine (Araucaria ) brought in ons andtoolmakingstone(Tindale, New 1981). eastern Queenslandandadjacentnorth Insoutheastern winterandfortradinginexchange thesouthern weap- into flour-basedcakes foreatinglaterduring ray inSouth Australia, peopleswas gathered (Kunzea from fruit pomiferamade ) by Muntries Ngarrindjeri people suchastheGunditjmara (Dawson, 1881; Dearnaley, 2014). IntheCoorong area oftheLower Mur - seasonswerewarmer regarded clansacross astheproperty ofparticular western Aboriginal among Victoria individual Golden Wattle (Acaciapycnantha the ) trees thatexudedlargequantitiesofedible gumduring and political importance, people actively managed and protectedAboriginal these resources. For instance, areas forvisitingkinfrom tosharevided anopportunity inafeast. neighbouring Duetotheireconomic of available etal., plantfoodsiseven (Puruntatameri greater 2001). diversity ofplantspecies, suchasthe Tiwi Islandsinthetropics oftheNorthern Territory, thetotalnumber many otherplantspeciesusedmedicinallyandformakingartefacts. of Inparts Australia thathave ahigher used (Clarke, 2015b). figure forthe The true number ofplantfoods would have beenhigherstill, with cies asfood, withtheanalysisofstudiesfrom similarnearby 38specieswere areas suggestingafurther also of South evidence that local people utilised at least 32plant spe- Australia has found historical Aboriginal colonists (Clarke, 2008a). For instance, ethnobotanicalresearch oftheSouthEast inthetemperateregion to extract long-term benefitsforfoodproduction.to extractlong-term For example, Queensland, insoutheastern foragers Dawson, 1881; Gammage, 2011; Jones, 1969). people actively manipulated the environmentAboriginal and by maintaininganomadiclifestyle, whereby they constantlymoved according toseason(Clarke, 2003; wereAustralian foragers able to minimise their impact upon the landscape by themselves dispersing thinly Managing resources Some ofthefoodgathered was eatenwhileonthemove, whilethebulk was taken backtothemain andgatherersneededtoknow hunters where inthelandscapethey needed tobeinorderAboriginal to foodsourcesThe seasonalabundance allowed ofcertain tobeproduced fortradeandpro forasurplus - Aboriginal cultureandfood-landscaperelationships 47 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 Emu Apple-trees (Owenia acidula ) toenable themtospear fromEmu above Apple-trees any unsuspecting Emus (Dromaius region, inlarge boughshelters inthesouthwestBorroloola constructed hunters GulfofCarpentaria Karrwa and fishing. Knowledge ofthefoodconsumed by gamespeciesmadetheircapture easier. For instance, at and practicesof activities (Pascoe,Aboriginal 2014; Pryor, 2014). vesting 15,000 andbakinggrain around Australia. practices – such as sowing/har Given- of some agricultural the longevity and formality –couldbetradedbetweenand –dependingontheirproperties andattributes communities andshifted season, medicinalaidsandcures, forimplementsandartefacts, forclothingandbasketry, materials materials thoughtofasafoodsource,first for communities plantsalsooffered signalsastochangesinthe Aboriginal harvesting was dependentuponthefire managementofthe Australianlandscape. While plantsare often through thelens ofIndigenouscommunities. While plantswere tofeedingcommunities, integral their sources. species were put to by historically Australian Aboriginals, drawing and period upon both contemporary ha 2010), Isaacs(1987, 1996), Latz(1995, 1999), Pascoe (2014), Werner (1992), andKenneally et Conran (1991), ZolaandGott(1992), Clarke (2003, 2007, 2008a, 2008b), Bindon(1996), Bonney (2007, applied in the Pilliga of NSW. writings, In contemporary Gammage (2011), Gott (1983, 2008), Gott and and Kiddle(1962)have anthropologically synthesisedandnarrated, orethno-ecologically andRolls(1969) across the Aboriginals Western landscapethatClark(1988, District 1990), Clarket and Dawson (1881)wrote extensively observations ofthesepracticesbeingappliedby oftheirperiod through thegenerations(alsoseeChapter knowledge beingthebasisoftheirtraditionalecological understandings (TEK)thatwas handeddown people were aware uponthelocalenvironment, oftheimpacttheirforaging and withtheirexperiences lected inthesameseasonfollowing year. Italsohelpedprepare thesoilforplantgrowth. Aboriginal woulddigging have andreplantingtubers, assistedinthedispersal ofundersized whichcouldthenbecol- would have realised theeffectthey were having ofedible onthenumbers roots intheground. The actof (Batey,) tubers lanceolata (Microseris Murnong) 1909–10, citedinFrankel, 1982; Gott, 1983). The gatherers andWurundjeriawurrung peopleshadcreated by their ‘accidental gardening’ up whendigging Yam Daisy(or in On thewesternplainsnearMelbourne there wasVictoria onceanextensive systemofmoundsthatWad the yams soastobesure ofafuture crop” (Gregory, 1887: 131). the peoplegathering Aboriginal Warran (Dioscoreahastifolia)roots would “invariably theheadof re-insert European explorer onthecentralcoastof Western Australia recorded that inthelatenineteenthcentury and other plant fragments to encourage the food growth tubers undersized (Pascoe, 2014). For instance, a into the sea for harvesting againnext season (McCarthy, 1957). people also routinely replanted Aboriginal molluscborersfromcollected ediblethewaterlogged marine timber, andthesewere thenthrown back David S.JonesandPhilipA.Clarke 48 ve all recorded thefabric, medicinal, edible, usesthat and aquaticplant and material Australian terrestrial Apart from the gathering of plants, fromApart thegathering were understandings deepecological alsofundamental forhunting This istherealm ofethnobotany thatinvolves theappliedscienceof therole andpotentialofplants As anexample, ColonialProtector of in Aborigines Victoria, James Dawson (1881)wrote that: Early explorer other andcookstheirroots together, apilethree sometimesthebaskets feethigh. form oven in the evening to be ready for the next morning’s breakfast. When several live families near each muurang pole. The roots are andplacedinthe washed basket andpitintoarush madeonpurposes plains.District] Itismuch esteemedonaccountofitssweetness, andisdugupby thewomen withthe what resembles asmallparsnip, withaflower like a buttercup,grows chieflyontheopen [Western Of roots andvegetables they have plenty. ] whichsome- lanceolata [Microseris The muurang (Murnong) s or Protectors’‘Aboriginal Mitchell(1839), Stapylton (1971), Robinson(Clark, 1990),

year s before the Egyptians – there is particular significance in the history s before significanceinthehistory theEgyptians–there is particular

2). (Dawson, 1881inZolaandGott, 1992: 6–7)

al. (1987), Jones (1993)

al. (1996) - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 as farming’‘fire-stick (Jones, 1969). A species (Newsome, 1980). been suggestedthathuntingprohibitions around inCountry sacred sites alsoserves asarefuge forgame recentlya person dead, whichwould have enabled gametoincrease (Baker, innumbers 1999). Ithasalso of the traditional owner permission was required. Here, a ban was imposed on hunting in the withfires,dry-season (Baker, intheearly starting thefirst ing territories 1999). a Beforefire the starting region,more structured. GulfofCarpentaria Yanyuwa Inthesouthern peopleactively managedtheirhunt- of ash. wereAlthough some burnings random and directed at flushing out game,Aboriginal others were of theplantfoodseatenby peoplebenefitedfrom theopeningofunderstorey andthe build-up Aboriginal peoplealsopreferrednottowalk thickets through ifthey denseprickly couldavoidAboriginal it. Many easier travelling andpromoted thefuture growth forgamespecies, ofgrass suchaskangaroos andwallabies. Jones, 1969). Fire was alsousedtoopenupthelandscapeby removing the understorey, which allowed etation inorder todrive animalsforhunting(Clarke, 2003; Gammage, 2011; Gott, 2005; Hallam, 1975; plantsandanimals (Howitt,and culturallyimportant 1904; Strehlow, 1947). fortrade.surplus peopleusedtheir ceremonies tohelpmaintaintheabundance ofeconomically Aboriginal contained, foodtypeswould whenparticular notonlyprolongedbeused, theperiod but alsoprovided a ment of potable water resources (Bayly, 1999; Magarey, 1895). Extra food, when properly prepared and (Clarke, sporocarps seed andNardoo (Marsileahirsuta)fern 2003; Tindale, 1977), andvery careful manage- in water orgroundintoapaste. zonethereAcross was excessgrass thearid awidespread practiceofstoring raisins’ or ‘bush tomatoes’, were andskewered dried onsticksforlateruse, atwhichtimethey were soaked putting aside(Tonkinson, 1978). The skinsofseveral speciesofSolanumsp., whichEuropeans call ‘desert groups converged atonecamp. InCentral Australia, ofkangaroo flesh strips onhotstonesfor were dried damper whentravelling ceremonial events andwas foruseduring oftenstored whenlarge inthisform a staplefood, preparation, itishighlytoxic withoutlaborious althoughitwas considered goodtoeatas and leached before it was cooked into damper (Clarke, 2008a; Levitt, 1981). While having the status of tion ofcycad(Cycassp.) nuts, whichinvolved theminto apulpthatwas thenthoroughly washed grinding (Schniererers andEgan, 2016). species offishandinvertebrates, over 90%ofwhichare alsoharvested by commercial and recreational fish- policiesandgovernanceimpact uponNSWfishery regimes. Thespeciesharvested includemore than150 Egan, 2016). andlivelihood Suchpracticescontinue bothcustomary practices–andinvolve fish–andthus of New South Wales formany communities,Aboriginal peoples(Schnierer theWiradjuri and particularly andSmith,small bodiesofwater (Hamlyn-Harris 1916; Webb, 1959). outgoing tide. were Fishpoisonsbasedonplantmaterials alsowidelyusedinlagoonsandother relatively in mangrovestrategically inlets or the mouthsof tidal creeks to theseawith the to catchfish returning fish movement andmadeiteasiertocatchtheminlargewicker baskets. Fish-traps were typicallyplaced et al., 1990; McNiven andBell, 2010; Wettenhall etal., 2010). thewater flow, Byaltering controlled foragers used todraw Eels(Anguillaaustralis) outfrom theShort-finned theswamps (Flood, 1983; EHA, 2011; Hall in and stone, andbuilt weirs from tohelpthemcatchfish. theearth For instance, atTae Rak(Lake Condah) (Marrfurra, 1995). attracted byfruit thefallen stoodunderClusterFigtrees fishers (Ficusracemosa) growing overAboriginal water, inorder tospearfish (Bandalukaetal.,novaehollandiae fruit ) thatcametoeatthefallen 2003). At DalyRiver, southofDarwin, used their ecological knowledge in this manner to deliberately bring aboutchangesfavourable knowledgeused theirecological inthismannertodeliberately bring to their Gunditjmara inwestern Country Victoria, there were largeandextensive thatwere trench constructions An archaeologist has described the manipulationoftheenvironmentAn archaeologist hasdescribed throughAboriginal theuseoffire records theveg indicatethat peopleoftenburnt fromHistorical - theearlycolonialperiod Aboriginal In thesubtropics ofnorthern Australia, peoplehadlabour-intensive practicesforthepreparaAboriginal - offreshwaterIn terms andsalineaquaticfoodresources, traditionalfishingpracticesstilloccur inaparts Across Australia, largefish-traps, peopleconstructed Aboriginal oraquaculture systems, using wood

form of form ‘proto-agriculture’ wasto peoplewho attributed Aboriginal Aboriginal cultureandfood-landscaperelationships of Country 49

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 shelters. the shellmoundsincludefoods, medicines, of makingandtheconstruction forartefact andraw materials et al., 1988; Mulvaney andKamminga, 1999). To local people,Aboriginal theplantresources associatedwith cooking fire remains from camps, Aboriginal favour are places that the establishment ofvine forests (Cribb practices.hunting andgathering Queensland,The shellmoundsofnorthern created by thebuild-up of David S.JonesandPhilipA.Clarke 50 sp.), have also beencommercially huntedfor food, but aswith Australian speciesoffishandshellfish, they crocodiles (Crocodylus sp.), eels (Anguilla australis), short-finned kangaroos, emus, and muttonbirds (Ardenna toitsproduct (Clarke, authenticityandintegrity brings participation 2012).riginal Native animals, suchas as speciesmove from wildharvest tocultivation, because tothewholeindustry which isofconcern Abo- producers.erentially benefitednon-Aboriginal risk of involvement There isa Aboriginal beingdisplaced ofvariablesupplyforthenativesupplies decreases therisk bush foodchain, itisclaimedthathaspref- include questionslike thananeconomicreturn?’ togetpeopleon country ‘Is itmore important of Western economicmodelsandtheirunsuitabilitytoIndigenouslandscapepracticestraditions, that of thefoods, inorder of toprotect intellectualproperty rights TEK. Suchhighlightstheongoingchallenge pointsinthefoodchain.commercial atvarious operators isthebrandingandcertification Also important ham etal., 2009a, 2009b). These includetheneedforjointventures between communities and Aboriginal lenges forthedevelopment ofeconomicallyandenvironmentally robust Indigenousbusinesses (Cunning- tobenefiteconomically, for peoplewithaccesstoCountry an opportunity Aboriginal there are majorchal- enous communities isdifficulttoquantify, asitisstilladeveloping industry. Whilethewildharvest provides lion ann ing extensively overseas, andin estimatedtobeworth Australia aloneisthebasisofanindustry AU$14 date in Australia, macadamianuts have beengrown inplantationssincethelatenineteenthcentury, includ- native bush food industry. Perhaps speciesmasscultivated the only commercially to successful terrestrial lia), development whichduetoitsearlyhorticultural ofthecontemporary isnotconsidered part Australian development involving other species. The preceding- list excludes the macadamia nut (Macadamia integrifo Market success with the 13 main native bush foods may well encourage a second wave of research and for future development, itconsidered thatthemarket isnotyet more mature variety. enoughtosupport throughAustralia andthendistributed outletsinthecapitalcities. While otherplantspecieshave potential ing, catering, andspin-offguiding/tourbusinesses. isprocessed Mostoftheraw insouth-eastern material foodstuffs. been hindered by Western predilection andculturalentrenchment ofconventional hemisphere Northern Table considered for development or wild-harvested because they alreadyfarm-gate values (see possess definable and outofavast number ofspeciesthatwere previously utilisedby peopleonlytheseare being Aboriginal ham andHart, 1997; RyderandLatham, 2005; Ryderetal., 2009). These are allspeciesnew tohorticulture, bush foodindustry, andthesehave research beentargetedforfurther anddevelopment (Clarke, 2012; Gra- (Clarke, 2008a). There are 13 plant species which are the mainstay of the contemporary Australian native tained hunter-gatherersandwere usedasemergencyfoodsbyAboriginal European explorersandsettlers based uponfoodsfrom asmallrangeof Australian indigenousplantspecies, sus- mostofwhichformerly foods ratherthanaquaticplant(Lee, 2010; andDiBenedetto, Sanderson 1988; Werner, 1992). Itis and globally (Clarke, 2012; Graham and Hart, 1997; Phelps, 1997), plant and is associated with terrestrial Today, the Australian native occupies a niche market bush food industry that is expanding both nationally Commercialising nativebushfood While theshiftfromand aquaticnative thewild-harvest sourcing bush ofterrestrial foodstocultivated The fulleconomicimpactofthe andaquaticnative upon Indig- bushAustralian terrestrial foodindustry The native bush foodnetwork, asanindustry, involves wildharvesting, growing, processing, value add-

3.1). ually (Robins, 2007). They are andcondiments, predominantly fruits and theirelevation andacceptancehaslargely

mil- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 Indigenous businesses withintheindustry. less exposedtoenvironmental conditionsandalready source many from oftheirfoodingredients non- endincitiesare businesses likely attherestaurant andcatering better, tofare Aboriginal-run asthey are most exposedtotheimpactofclimatechange, through much toadapt. more requiring economicsupport 2017). pests would allimpactnegatively ontheindigenousfoodnetwork (seeIndigenousFood SystemsNetwork, tures anddecreasing rainfall, plusthemore favourable conditionsforthespread ofplantdiseases, weeds, and foods. Changesintimingofcyclesforplantflowering andanimalbreeding,rising tempera- coupledwith tomitigatethethreatgrowth Country toregularlyofwildfires burn andencouragethe the right ofplant their plansare therestrictive controls by government landmanagementauthorities, suchasbeingdenied to theeffectsofclimatechange(especiallylanderosion, invasive plant, andanimal species). with Interfering land. Inmany cases, communities are environmentally having theirlandassetsdeteriorate Aboriginal due advice todevelop businesses, whilealsoadapting toclimatechange. A (Low Choy etal., 2013). A communities tobecomemore whoare involved trying riginal native intheemerging bush foodindustry huntedintropicalsp.) northern Australia. thatare primarily ),camel (Camelusdromedaries goat(Capra), aegagrus ( Equus sp.), horse water (Bubalussp.)andpigsSus buffalo 1992). Among the sources of wild animal foods are exotic species, cuniculus), such as rabbits (Oryctolagus ofamarketare part thatisalready well established, andwithsome involvementAboriginal (Wilson etal., projects. architecture in south-eastern Australia for both conventional and Indigenous consultancy engagements and thedisciplines ofarchitecture, much potentialtoenrich tion offers planning, andlandscapemanagement/ nal seasonsand TEK have beenlittleresearched in Australia’s landscapes. south-eastern Yet,- this informa across northern Australia, because of the ease of accessing knowledge and engagement,Aboriginal - Aborigi landscape architecture, natural resource management, andinterpretative research andpracticeapplications and policymakingprotocols. andconventionalseasonal structure 5–20 management andrespect, ratherthanthe Western calendarandquadripartite constraintsofa Gregorian by avisionthroughframing isunderpinned alensofoften tens ofthousandsyears ofoccupancy, use, of that landscape, by the attributes a design and or planning strategy that is informed . that Country This the disciplinesofarchitecture, planning, andlandscapemanagement/architecture in Australia inframing land management, andharvesting activities, andanexplanationofbeing. TEK research benefitsto offers cultural knowledge research this cultural perspective has incorporated including recognising movements, lacksIndigenousculturalperspectives andacceptanceoftheirknowledgeformer whereas Indigenousbio- tion), TEK research engages knowledge natural resource to service management objectives.Aboriginal The are influenced by seasonalandinter-annualinclimate, variations (suchaseleva as factors well ashabitat - 1979). While phenology involves plantandanimallifecycleevents thestudyofperiodic andhow these 2013), inlandscapearchitecture research hasanearlierplatform (Jones, 2002; McHarg, 1966, 1969; Seddon, et al., 2012), or ‘phenology’ by environmental scientists(Keatley etal., 2013; Noormets, 2009; Schwartz, ral resource managementresearchers (Berkes etal., 2000; Ens etal., 2014a, 2014b, 2015, 2017; Woodward Traditional knowledge ecological (TEK), or ‘Indigenous bioculturalknowledge’ asusedby several by natu- Applying traditionalecologicalknowledge(TEK) acquir Aboriginal peopleoperatingatthesupplyendofnative bushAboriginal foodnetwork are potentiallythe Present-day climatechange, thanever whichismuch faster before, presents arangeofproblems for Abo- While TEK research isincreasingly commonplaceinlanduseplanning, landmanagementplanning, ing andmaintaininglegalcontrol ofplantfoodsgrowing ofuniquevarieties on managed Aboriginal

major impediment is the lack of financial support andaccesstopr major impedimentisthelackoffinancialsupport

year lengthmanagementplanninganddesignaims, Aboriginal cultureandfood-landscaperelationships

solid business planisessentialwhen objectives, ofessional 51 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 People by Jones et enous bioculturalknowledge usedintheCSIRO spectrum investigations. The latter, however, was explored withlittledirect Wurundjeri patterns upon cyclicalecological engagementnorthefullscopeofIndig - Entwisle (2014)hasproposed afive-season hypothesis forMelbourne, are based ofwhichallthree scenarios Valley ofMelbourne, naturalist Jameson (1996)proposed ananalogous sixseasonshypothesis, andbotanist insouth-eastern the topichasbeenentertained Australia. 2014b, 2015; Keatley etal., 2013; Prober etal., 2011; Rose, 2005; Woodward knowledge etal., for northern Australia is now academically documented (Butler et al., 2012), 2012; littleresearch on Ens et al., 2014a, byand corroborated contemporary Western science (Rose, 2005). While scientific acceptance of this a (thatcouldbetermed astronomical ofknowledge’) information ‘spectrum drawn from sources Aboriginal plant, animals,these seasonalmodelsincorporate aquaticandterrestrial fire, climate, drought, flood, and Ens etal., 2014b). Australian environment will rely heavily upon its Indigenous environmental (Altman et al., managers 2007; the potentialof (Ensetal.,TEK inthemanagement of country 2014a, 2014b, 2017). The future ofthe techniques (Yibarbuk etal., 2001). andgovernment Ecologists are landmanagers increasingly recognising are being made toreinstate the human control of thefire regime, by utilisingsome burning Aboriginal (Bauman, 2006; Ensetal., 2014a, 2014b, 2015, 2017; Roseetal., 2002). Insomeremote regions, attempts enous engagement, fire and climate science, and wetlands management) and fisheries by this knowledge research thatinfluencetheirconclusionsand recommendations totheecosystemsciences(includingIndig- Wagiman, West ManagementPlan (Parks etal.,Victoria useof 2015)beingthefirst ‘Indigenousbioculturalknowledge’ respective communities, (e.g. seasonalcalendars various ), (Larrakia Gulmoerrgin Researchmonwealth Organisation(CSIRO) Scientific andIndustrial has devised, inconjunctionwith environment by fixed in contrastto being determined temporalmeasurable parameters.Western TheCom- variable naturalevents oragencies, andhave littletodowithhumanacts; by the timeisthusdetermined Spring, and Autumn). Inaddition, by datesand/ortimesofcommencementandcessationare determined that donotadhere tothe Western-adopted calendar(Summer, mathematicallyprecise Gregorian Winter, band, and fluid commencement dateswhereby both time and date are linked toenvironmental variables 2016) ofthePilbarain Western Australia. (YRNTBC, 2011)oftheBroome region, Corporation, andtheMurujugapeople(Murujuga Aboriginal of theBunya Bunya Queensland(BMECBMRG, Mountainsinsouth-eastern 2010), theYawuru peoples ment plansfortheGunditjmara ofsouth-western (Parks Victoria etal.,Victoria 2015),Bunya the people 2016). more ofthisapproach recentThe logic anddraftedmanage- uniquelystructured hasalsoinformed ment actionstoprepare forandaction, anditforeshadows regular post-actionactivities (Australia, 2010, whatsetoflandscapemanage- seasondetermines national parkmanagementplansandeachapportioned Parks, therespective (orYol Yolngu Commonwealth-approved structure seasonalcalendars ŋu) andArrernte direct applicabilityinto Western landmanagementregimes. InKakaduandUlur pancy traditionsandrelationships. thatcanhave managementplansintheirownThey are right unwritten multiple announcements, signals, andculturalobligations astolandmanagement, stewardship, andoccu- providedevices, seasonalcalendars mentalstructuring riginal fluidandoralintheirform, thatcontain Museum Victoria’s multi-peer award-winning Forest (Jones Gallery etal., 1998). that there were seven seasons and two additional variables, the cultural design of and this thesis underpins David S.JonesandPhilipA.Clarke 52 In Comprising ‘Indigenous bioculturalknowledge’ in the ecosystem science and management discipline, To people,Aboriginal five seasonsmay toseven comprise temporalsegments, eachwithadifferent time represent seasonalcalendars significantIndigenousbioculturalknowledge translations.Aboriginal Abo- For western Victoria, the Gunditjmara have conceptualised their seasons (Wettenhall Wurundjeri, Country naturalistReid(1995)suggestedthat sixseasonsare prevalent inthemiddle Yarra , 2010) whichhave intothe Ngootyoong Gunditj Ngootyoong been directly Mara incorporated South Gooniyandi,

al. (1997) fortheupper MalakMalak, Matngala) across the Landregion, Arnhem intheirnorthern Australian Yarra Valley (Jones, 2002), by Wurundjeri informed elders, concluding Walmajarri, u Kata-TjutaNational

& The Gunditjmara Ngadju, Ngan’gi, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 the Bunya Bunya Mountains in the et al., 2015), intheMurujugaCultural ManagementPlan (MAC/MLSU, 2017)inthePilbara, aswell asin 2011), intheNgootyoong GunditjNgootyoong Mara South West ManagementPlanfortheGunditjmara(PV ‘science’ hasbeenappliedintheYawuru culturalmanagementplanfortheBroome (YRNTBC, region This argumentisalsoexpressed by Walsh andMitchell(2002)in ’.‘Planning forCountry ofthis The magic platform, of Country andClarke appreciation (2009)incallingforagreater oftheNgarrindjeri The Coorong. theD’harawal:Aunty FranBodkininarticulating (2008)asalandmanagement cycles seasonsandclimatic (2002, 2010)whohasarguedforstrengthening Gadigal(Sydney) understanding, Country D’harawal elder for re-awakening of Australian land management. This overarching argument is evidenced in Attenbrow Gammage (2011)andRose(2005)have arguedforatranslationof seasonsasbeingessential Aboriginal peoples. This knowledge inrespective isandcanbewell summarised seasonalcalendars. region-specific management science, whichtake no account of the generationalknowledge held by Australia’s Aboriginal in regimes Australia havehemisphere land andpracticeofnorthern beenhighlyinfluenced by thetheory for a state-approvedVictorian landmanagementplan. Western scienceandconventional landuseplanning Altman, J.C., Buchanan, G.J., Further reading Strait Islanders. both past and presentto the Elders of these Nations and extend that respect to other and Aboriginals Torres waters whoare the Traditional oftheselandsandCountry’s Owners . We would alsolike topay ourrespect We would like toacknowledge the and Aboriginal Torres StraitIslanderpeoplesof Australia’s landsand Acknowledgement remarkable conventional botanicalencyclopaedicresource thatcanbetterinform Western practices. mapping andresearch appraisaloftheethnobotany (orCountry’s ofaCountry ) anditspeoples, a offers knowledge,ditional ecological nomenclature Country andplace names, seasonalcalendars, andadeeper landscape anditspsyche. food options, foodmanagementregimes, andanew way withthe ofappreciating andengaging Australian how toalternatively ‘harvest’ the Australian landscaperesponsibly, tothe but alsotobring ‘table’ alternate custodial responsibilities. Respecting, embracing, this knowledge new and harnessing offers insights as to of bothhealingpastlandscapedespoliationactionsaswell ofknowledge as rekindling to parts integral deteriorates.and tapestry Re-invigorating, re-thinking, and refreshing that knowledge part is an integral knowledge.in theirtraditionalecological Removing ofthisknowledge parts meansthatthelargerpicture What isincreasingly clearisthat Australian knowledge ofplantfoodsisintimately interwovenAboriginal Food andtheAustralianIndigenousperspective Museum (Clarke, 2009, 2014a; Ensetal., 2015). new knowledge was appliedintheaward-winning oftheSouth Australian Gallery Australian Aboriginal and representatives) established aninnovative landscapearchitecture-based research focusin Adelaide; this (1999, 2002, 2005, 2010) for (2000)forNaranggatington-McBurney management plantoolsby theirrespective Indigenousandstategovernment entities. Research by Hun- land/sea/waterand expressed integrated managementplanshave beenacceptedasvalid Western-styled management aseconomic development inremote Australia. Canberra: Australian NationalUniversity. The salientthemesare thatrespecting-specific lens, aCountry Aboriginal through comprehending tra-

& Larsen, of the Country Kaurna Adelaide fromPlains (with direct support L. (2007)Theenvironmentalsignificanceofthe Indigenousestate: Natural resource Bonye Bu’ru Ngmmunge Booburrgan (2010), that as Indigenous-devised ofthe Country Yorke Peninsula, Heyes (1999, 2010)andJones Aboriginal cultureandfood-landscaperelationships Elders Elders Kaurna 53 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:47 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315647692, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315647692-4 Attenbrow, V.J. (2010) Attenbrow, V.J. (2002) Merne Altyerre-ipenhe (Food from theCreation time)Reference Group, Douglas, J., David S.JonesandPhilipA.Clarke 54 Australia (2010)Uluru-KataTjutaNationalPark ManagementPlan2010–2020: KatutaNgarantja.Tjukurpa Canberra: Australian Law Refor Bandaluka, K.B., Kanjiburanya, T.D., M.K., Dulbarrimarra, Baker, R.M. (1999)Landislife. Frombush totown. ofthe The story Yanyuwa people. Sydney: Allen andUnwin. Australian Instituteof Abor Australia (2016)Kadadu National Park management plan 2016–2026: A Australian Bureau ofStatistics. [ABS](2014)Estimatesandprojections, and Aboriginal Torres Strait Islander Australians, Bauman, T.(2006) Berkes, F., Colding, J., Bayly, L.A.E. (1999)Review ofhow of indigenouspeoplemanagedforwater regions indesert Australia. ofthe Journal Biddle, N., Clark, I.D. ofGeorge Phillip journals (ed.) (1988)ThePort Augustus Robinson: 8March–7 April Cherikoff, V. (2000) Cherikoff, V. (1994) Cane, S.rights ontheNew South (1998) fishing Aboriginal Wales South Coast: A Bonney, N. (2010)Knowing, growing, eating Bonney, N. (2007)Adnyamathanha andbeyond: Usefulplantsofanancientland. Unley, SA: Australian PlantsSociety(South Bodkin, F. (2008)D’harawal:. cycles Seasonsandclimatic Sydney: FBodkinandLRobertson. Bindon, P. (1996)Usefulbush plants. Perth: Western Australian Museum. Butler, J.R.A.,Tawake, A., Skewes, T., Tawake, L., Group Regional (BMECBMRG)(2010) Bonye Mary Bunya Bu’ru CouncilandBurnett MountainsElders Booburrgan Bruneteau, J-P. (1996)Tukka: Real Australian food. Sydney: HarperCollinsPublishers. Clark, M., Clark, I.D., Gott, B., Gunn, B., Critchett, J., Clark, I.D. languagesandclans: (1990)Aboriginal atlasof An historical Western andCentral Victoria, 1800–1900 . Clayton: ,enterprises 71. DKCRCReport Alice Springs: NintiOneLimited. ple, bush foods knowledge and products from central Australia: Ethical guidelines for commercial bush food research, and industry UNSW Press. ognition of aboriginal Customary laws, Customary ognition ofaboriginal 31. ALRCReport aiatsis.gov.au/explore/articles/aiatsis-map-indigenous-australia (accessed1January Director ofNationalParks. (accessed 1January www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Products/3238.0~2001+to+2026~Chapter~Main+Features?OpenDocument National Parks. Batchelor InstituteofIndigenous Tertiary Education. cines. Kunjba wardan baki kunjba jingkal ngambalangi munji munji. Batchelor, NT: and Resource Unit, Curriculum Royal Societyof Western Australia, 1), 82(part 17–25. ies Press. Ecological Applications, 10, 1251–1262. Corporation, RIRDCPublication No00/61. NSW: Bush Tucker Supply Australia. B. (eds.), tenurein marine Customary Australia . Sydney: Sydney University Press, pp. 111–146. management inthefisheries Strait,Torres Australia. Ecology, andSociety 17(4), 34–52. Australian Region). the 2006Census. Canberra: ANU Press. Ngmmunge. Bundaberg, Qld.:BMECandBMRG. No. 37). ofGeography andEnvironmentalDepartment Science, MonashUniversity (MonashPublications inGeography Apr .Mitchell Dunkeld: Museum. Historical Dunkeld andDistrict il

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& Y Clayton: ofGeography, Department MonashUniversity (Monash Publications inGeography No. 34). ap, M. (2010)Demographic andsocioeconomicoutcomesacrosstheIndigenous Australian lifecourse: Evidencefrom Aboriginal Darwin:Aboriginal A Uniquely Australian: A Marketing the Australian native. foodindustry Canberra: Research andDevelopment RuralIndustries m Commission. (1986) Hunting,rights: orcommon law? fishingand gathering Legislation Rec-

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& Folk Sydney’s past:Aboriginal records , andhistorical Investigating thearchaeological 2ndedition. Sydney: 2017). iginal and iginal Torres StraitIslanderStudies. (nd)AIATSIS mapofindigenous Australia, http:// e, C. (2000)Rediscovery knowledge of traditional ecological asadaptive management.

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