Slavery, Freedom, and Dependence in Pre-Revolutionary Boston, 1700-1775
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Slavery, Freedom, and Dependence in Pre-Revolutionary Boston, 1700-1775 Author: Jared Ross Hardesty Persistent link: http://hdl.handle.net/2345/3775 This work is posted on eScholarship@BC, Boston College University Libraries. Boston College Electronic Thesis or Dissertation, 2014 Copyright is held by the author, with all rights reserved, unless otherwise noted. Boston College The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Department of History SLAVERY, FREEDOM, AND DEPENDENCE IN PRE-REVOLUTIONARY BOSTON, 1700- 1775 a dissertation by JARED ROSS HARDESTY submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2014 © copyright by JARED ROSS HARDESTY 2014 ABSTRACT Slavery, Freedom, and Dependence in Pre-Revolutionary Boston, 1700-1775 Student: Jared Hardesty Advisor: Cynthia Lynn Lyerly Slavery, Freedom, and Dependence in Pre-Revolutionary Boston, 1700-1775 examines slave life in eighteenth-century Boston. The dissertation makes an essential contribution to the historiography of slavery and Colonial America by embedding enslavement in the context of early modern European and British culture. Rather than the traditional dichotomous conception of slavery and freedom, I argue that colonial-era slavery should be understood as part of a continuum of unfreedom. In Boston, African slavery existed alongside many other forms of dependence, including indentured servitude, apprenticeship, pauper apprenticeship, and Indian slavery. Drawing heavily on legal records such as wills and trial transcripts, I illustrate how African slavery functioned within this complex world of dependency. In this hierarchal, inherently unfree world, enslaved Bostonians were more concerned with their everyday treatment and honor than emancipation. I argue that we understand slavery best when we eschew modern notions of freedom and liberty and put slavery in the context of a larger Atlantic World characterized by a culture of dependence. In this way, I am able to show how enslaved persons redefined the terms of their bondage and had some success fighting for material gains rather than abstract ideals or the end of slavery as an institution. By understanding slavery within a larger world of unfreedom, I demonstrate not only how African slaves were able to decode their new homeland and shape the terms of enslavement, but also how marginalized people engrained themselves in the very fabric of colonial American society. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables……………………………….………………………………………………ii List of Illustrations…………..……………………………………………………………..iii Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………..…iv Introduction: Slave Rebellion in an Unfree World………………………………………….1 I. Origins: Afro-New Englanders, American Creoles, and Native Africans in Eighteenth- Century Boston…………………………………………………………………………21 II. A World of Deference and Dependence: Slavery and Unfreedom in Eighteenth-Century Boston…………………………………………………………………………………. 65 III. Red, White, and Black: The Social World of Enslaved Bostonians……...………...…112 IV. “The Negro at the Gate:” Enslaved Labor in Colonial Boston…………….……….…163 V. “Taught My Benighted Soul to Understand:” Appropriating European Institutions in Black Boston…………………………………………………………………………..212 Conclusion: “In Consideration of the Rights of Humanity:” Natural Rights and the Fall of the House of Unfreedom………………………………………………………...255 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………….……279 i TABLES TABLE I: Boston Slave Ownership by Occupation, 1700-1775………………………….76 TABLE II: Runaway Slave Advertisements in Boston, 1700-1750………………………99 TABLE III: Black Marriages in Boston, 1700-1775…………………………………….137 ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE I: “A Female Negro Slave, with a Weight Chain”………………………………43 FIGURE II: “Joanna”……………………………………………………………………...47 FIGURE III: “A Coromantyn Free Negro, or Ranger, armed”……………………………49 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the assistance and patient guidance of many people and institutions. First and foremost, my advisor, Lynn Lyerly, has been an amazing mentor and has shepherded this project from vague ideas about slavery and cultural appropriation to a work that makes a contribution to our understanding of freedom and slavery in early America and the Atlantic World. Speaking of appropriation, much of the language I use to describe this project have been appropriated from our many conversations about this project. In addition, as the dissertation neared competition, Prof. Lyerly’s eye for detail and copy editing skills helped to clarify my prose and sharpen my argument. Alan Rogers, who I have had the opportunity to work with since my first day at Boston College, has proven instrumental to this project. It was with his encouragement that I began looking through the judicial archives in Massachusetts to better understand slavery in New England and was able to craft a project out of such underutilized sources. His vast knowledge of the law and legal history has been advantageous when navigating sometimes-tricky legal records. Owen Stanwood, who I have worked with since his first day at Boston College, has provided an incredible amount of support. From our casual conversations about early American history to his intense questioning and challenging of the intents and assertions of this project, his guidance has proven invaluable. I also need to thank Joanne Pope Melish, the outside reader of my dissertation. I had the privilege of being a fellow at the Massachusetts Historical Society with Joanne. When I say we were fellows at the MHS, we should actually call ourselves fellows at Pavement, the coffee shop next door. Our long conversations about the nature of freedom, slavery, race, labor, and the economy of early America have profoundly shaped this dissertation, especially its argument. For that, I owe a debt that I fear can never be repaid. iv In addition to my dissertation committee, there are numerous librarians, archivists, research coordinators, and institutions that need to be thanked for their help with this project. I spent nearly 500 hours at the Massachusetts State Archives leading legal and probate records. Despite my numerous inquiries and often confusing requests, Jennifer Fauxsmith and her staff were wonderful. Likewise, Elizabeth Bouvier, the judicial archivist for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts proved helpful in my quest for ever more legal records. The New England Regional Fellowship Consortium provided much needed research time and funding for the 2012-2013 academic year. The fellowship permitted me to spend time at the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston Athenaeum, Houghton Library at Harvard University, and the Baker Library at the Harvard Business School. Conrad Wright and Kate Viens at the MHS deserve special thanks for their continued research support. There are innumerable colleagues and friends at both Boston College and further afield that also deserve to be acknowledged, although I am sure I will forget a few people. Jeff Dyer, Janet Kay, Peter Cajka, Jim O’Toole, Sarah Ross, Lynn Johnson, Zach Morgan, Andrea Wenz, and Chris Riedel at BC have been supportive colleagues. Alex Noonan and Craig Gallagher have both read significant portions of this dissertation, provided helpful commentary, and deserve special mention. Outside of BC, I had the privilege of being on a panel with Gloria Whiting and Richard Boles in the summer of 2011 that blossomed into not only extensive cross collaboration, but also two great friendships. Likewise, Ted Andrews, Linda Rupert, and Lin Fisher have commented on various conference papers and chapters that I have presented. In addition, I have to thank Andrea Mostermann, Wim Klooster, Sean Condon, Hannah Farber, and Rob Murray for their support. I would be remiss not to thank Robert Waters, my undergraduate advisor. If there is one person who has helped me understand this sometimes- v crazy profession, it is him—even if meant learning from his mistakes. I sometimes wonder how different my career trajectory would have been without someone with such erudite observations and a sharp, quick-witted mind as an ally and for that I am happy to call him not only my mentor, but also a friend. Last and certainly not least, my eight-years-is-too-long-to-continue-calling-my- girlfriend-but-partner-sounds-awkward girlfriend, Dana. I don’t want to sound cliché, but she has been my rock (and my bread winner) throughout this whole process. I could throw out a bunch of adjectives describing how lucky I am to have found such a wonderful partner in life, but I hope she knows how I feel and how much I appreciate her affection and support. vi Introduction: Slave Rebellion in an Unfree World On the morning of March 30, 1723, sometime between 4 and 5 a.m, a fire broke out on King Street near Long Wharf. Accounts vary, but between two and five tenements burned, including a shop rented by a Mr. Botolph. Although Elisha Cooke Jr.—moderator of the town meeting, leader of the so-called “country party” in the House of Representatives, and owner of the tenements—had some property destroyed, the New England Courant found nothing suspicious about the fire.1 Three days later, at about the same time in the morning, Boston merchant John Powell’s home on Leverett Lane caught fire, but this time Boston authorities apprehended Diego, a “Negro Man Servant” belonging to John Harvey who confessed to burning Powell’s house. Diego's confession led some Bostonians to conclude that black conspirators had deliberately set all of the suspicious fires and, according to Reverend