Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. For a discussion of Japanese interpretations of the war, Uno 1970, pp. 24-9;Jansen eta!. 1979; and Nakamura 1991, pp. 165-6. 2. Trade percentages from Sugiyama 1984, p. 17; on Japanese businesses in before the war, and the trade relationship between 's major ports and Korea, see Yamada 1979. 3. Dower 1986, p. 9. 4. After these lines were written, a useful article appeared which assesses Japan's image in the West, David Morley/Kevin Robins, 'Techno• Orientalism: Futures, Foreigners and Phobias', New Formations, 16, 1992, especially pp. 154-5, where they assert, 'Within the political and cul• tural unconscious of the West, Japan has come to exist as the figure of empty dehumanized technological power. It represents as an "ideal type" the alienated and dystopian image of capitalist progress.' 5. Eastlake/Yamada 1897, p. iii. 6. White 1895, p. 458. 7. See for example Michael Adams, The C,reat C1Usade: Masculine Desire and the Coming of the Great War, Bloomington 1990; also Roland Stromberg, Redemption l!y War: The Intellectuals and 1914, Lawrence 1982.

CHAPTER 1: THE ORIGINS OF WAR

I. For the Japanese army's assessment of Chinese forces in the early 1880s, see General Yamagata's memorandum in Oyama 1966, pp. 91-9. 2. Ohama 1990, p. 25; Hyakunenshi Henshu Iinkai 1979, p. 232; Hirosaki Shishi Hensan Iinkai 1964, p. 258. 3. The development of the system is explained in Ogawa 1921. 4. Ohama 1990, p. 30. The army general staff view is in Kuwada/Yamaoka 1976, p. 37. 5. MacKenzie 1992, p. 2. 6. Quoted in Muneta 1974, pp. 58-9. 7. Kokumin Shimbun, I April 1894, in SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 49. 8. Harada 1991, pp. 44-5. 9. On Yamagata's views of February-March 1891, Oyama 1966, pp. 196-201, 204-7. 10. See the proposal by Inoue Kowashi to Prime Minister Ito, August 1892, excerpted in Nakamura 1991, p. 173. 11. Groups of two to four men, including Oi Kentaro, Motoda Hajime, , Ozaki Yukio, and Tokutomi Soho, were mobilised for private discussions with government and political authorities including

188 Notes 189

General Yamagata, , Shinagawa Yajiro, Kabayama Sukenori and others. Details in GNN, 28 June 1894. 12. Mutsu to Aoki Shuzo, 27 March 1894, quoted in Shinobu 1974, vol. 1, p. 166. 13. Kawakami's tour is recorded in detail in Tokutomi 1942, pp. 112-23; Fukushima's mission is summarised in Ian Nish, 'Japanese Intelligence and the Approach of the Russo:Japanese War', Christopher Andrew/ David Dilks, eds, The Missing Dimension, 1984. Yamagata's opin• ions are summarised in Oka 1958, p. 56. 14. Uno 1970, p. 27. 15. Chinese minister to Tokyo, 7 June 1894, translated in Eastlake/Yamada 1897, p. 3. 16. Uno 1970, p. 38. 17. Tokutomi 1942, p. 127, quotes a conversation between Ito and Kawakami after the cabinet decided to send troops to Korea. In this, Ito asked Kawakami how many troops were to be sent; Kawakami replied, 'one brigade'. Ito insisted the numbers be kept as low as possible, to which Kawakami replied that the cabinet having decided to dispatch forces should leave the military question of troop numbers to the chief of staff. Kawakami is also credited with manipulating Yamagata who before the war remained anxious about 's military strength and wanted to have China open hostilities, see Matsushita 1969, pp. 241-2, and the quotation from Tokutomi in Maebara Shozo, no Genkun-tachi, Tokyo 1967, p. 52. 18. Mutsu (Berger) 1982, pp. 21-6. 19. Cleveland instructed Secretary of State Walter Gresham on 7 July to inform the Japanese government 'that the President will be painfully disappointed should Japan visit upon her feeble and defenseless neigh• bour [Korea] the horror of an unjust war', quoted in Dorwart 1975, p. 24, also Lee 1976, p. 86. 20. 'Heiwa to Gunjin', editorial in GNN, 11 July 1894. See also the warning of a popular backlash given to Ito on 12July by former prime minister Matsukata Masayoshi, Kunaicho 1973, pp. 455-6. 21. GNN, 21 July 1894. 22. British Foreign Office, FO 881/6594, British Army Directorate of Milit• ary Intelligence to Foreign Office, 16 July 1894. 23. Iguchi 1985, p. 87. 24. Kunikida 1965, vol. 7, p. 210, entry for 13 September 1894, records the view of leading journalist Tokutomi Soho that the war influenced the whole of world history; Kuwada/Yamaoka 1976, pp. 62-5, presents the Japanese army's analysis of Chinese forces during the war. 25. Ito 1943, p. 143.

CHAPTER 2: WARTIME STRATEGY AND DIPLOMACY

1. Kunaicho 1973, pp. 495-6; Watanabe 1936, pp. 241-4; Kaneko 1940, vol. 3, pp. 85-6. 190 japan's First Modern War

2. Document in Kunaicho 1973, pp. 476-7; also Inoue 1987, pp. 714-15. Comparison with , Tanaka 1954, p. 206. 3. The hasty reformulation of the 3rd Division is noted in Kuwada/Yamaoka 1966, p. 125. 4. Kunaicho 1973, pp. 498-9. 5. Details of the Songhwan battle in Kuwada/Yamaoka 1966, pp. 100-9. 6. Araki 1976, vol. 2, p. 36-7, Kokurnin Shirnbun, 7 August 1894, describes the Toyoshima engagement. The Kowshing had been brought to a halt by the Japanese fleet but the report explains that Chinese troops then attempted to wrest control from the British captain and reopen hostil• ities. Details also in Kuwada/Yamaoka 1966, pp. 110-15. 7. Kuwada/Yamaoka 1966, p. 120. 8. See also Kuwada/Yamaoka 1966, pp. 133-50. 9. Varying totals for Japanese dead and wounded are taken from Hata 1943, p. 69, which reproduces Nozu's telegram of 16 September; GNN, 29 September 1894, for the early official version; Kuwada/Yamaoka 1966, p. 149, for the later army version; also Kunaicho 1973, p. 516. 10. Kuwada/Yamaoka 1966, pp. 150-61. 11. Details from the official report of General Nozu to the Imperial Head• quarters, 26 October 1894, as printed in GNN, 31 October 1894; also Kuwada/Yamaoka 1966, pp. 17 4-83. 12. Gaimusho 1953, vol. 1, pp. 58-61. 13. Hata 1943, p. 154. Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), p. 12, entry for 22 November 1894, notes that the commander of the 11th infantry regiment, in whose camp the second fire occurred, marched his troops several miles away from the blaze to a place called Enami and that, subsequently, the local people referred jokingly to this as 'the occupa• tion of Enami'. 14. Fujimura 1973, p. 130; Matsushita, 1969, pp. 128-30. 15. Tokutomi 1933, vol. 3, p. 176. 16. Mutsu (Berger) 1982, p. 131. 17. For Ito's memorandum of 4 December, see Kaneko 1940, vol. 3, pp. 134-8; Fujimura 1973, pp. 144-5; Chen 1977, pp. 66-7. Imperial order recalling Yamagata, Kunaicho 1973, p. 601. Date of Yamagata's report on Haich'eng reaching the imperial headquarters, Tokutomi 1933, vol. 3, p. 179. Details also in Kuwada and Yamaoka 1966, pp. 234-43. 18. British Foreign Office, FO 881/6605, Trench to Foreign Secretary Kimberley, 7 September 1894, reporting on an interview with Okuma published in the Kokurnin Shirnbun. Trench went on to comment, 'All such utterances, especially when coming from a great statesman, tend to show that this war is more the outcome of national vanity and of the insatiable craving of the Japanese to pose conspicuously, and assert themselves in the face of the whole world. By belief in the invincibility of.Japan's arms the people are raised to such a pitch of expectation that they are not prepared to meet reverses with equanimity, nor disaster with fortitude.' 19. British Foreign Office, FO 262/697, Mr French (Tokyo) to Foreign Secretary Kimberley, 16 November 1894. 20. Yamagata's shipboard memorandum is quoted in Hata 1943, p. 188; for Notes 191

his assurances to the imperial headquarters on his ability to stay in command, Kunaicho 1973, pp. 601-2. 21. The resolution of the Progressive Party convention at Tokyo in mid• December 1894 was that Japanese forces must at all accounts proceed to , that if a ceasefire was accepted by Japan a precondition must be that Japanese troops move up to Beijing, and that any outside intervention bringing about a conclusion of hostilities must be ada• mantly rejected. Party resolution printed in GNN, 19 December 1894. 22. Mutsu (Berger) 1982, p. 111. 23. Inoue 1968, p. 17. 24. Ian Nish, 'British Foreign Secretaries and Japan, 1892-1905', B.]. C. McKercher /D.]. Moss, eds, Shadow and Substance in British Foreign Policy, 1895-1939, Edmonton 1984, p. 59. 25. Geibi NN, 16 November 1894. 26. Kunaicho 1973, pp. 463-4 for the British memorandum of21July 1894 and the surrounding Anglo-Japanese correspondence; also Mutsu 1982, pp. 46-51. Kajima 1976, p. 82 for Kimberley's note of21July. Details on the Shanghai matter are to be found in the collection of British foreign office documents under the general date 29 October 1894, FO 881/ 6527, see especially Kimberley to Mr Paget (Tokyo), 22July 1894, for the original British demand; Le Poer Trench (Tokyo) to Kimberley, 21 August 1894, for the Japanese complaint that Shanghai was being utilised by China for its war effort; and Kimberley to Trench, 18 Sep• tember 1894, rejecting the Japanese complaint with the instruction, 'Warn the Japanese Government that until we release them from their unconditional engagement to us we hold them to it.' Summary of agreement also in Kunaicho 1973, p. 465. 27. FO 881/6527, Kimberley to Trench (Tokyo), 2 October 1894. 28. Mutsu (Berger) 1982, p. 53. 29. FO 881/6605, Le PoerTrench (Tokyo) to Foreign Secretary Kimberley, 13 September 1894. 30. Kunaicho 1973, p. 618. The matter is further explored in Chen 1977, pp. 69-70. 31. GNN reports, 7, 10 October 1894. 32. French offer of hospital facilities, Gaimusho 1953, pp. 602-3, Mutsu to Japanese army and navy ministers, 29 September 1894, Mutsu to French minister at Tokyo, 9 October 1894; German offer, as above, pp. 603-4, Mutsu to Japanese army and navy ministers, 27 October 1894, Mutsu to German minister at Tokyo, 27 October 1894. French versus British• made warships, GNN, 15 December 1894; French claims of British ill• will, GNN, 1 January 1895. 33. A selection of examples is reported in the GNN, 23, 24 September, 2, 5 October, 3 November 1894. For the German army ministry offer, GNN, 11 December 1894. 34. The organisation and conduct of the celebration is recorded in detail by its sponsors in Tokyo-shi Shukusho Taikai 1895, especially pp. 84-6 for illustrations of the model Chinese vessels, and pp. 88-9 for the importance of the trophies-of-war borrowed from the Yushukan, Yasukuni Shrine. An English-language report of the celebrations ap• pears in JWM, 15 December 1894. 192 japan's First Mo~ern War

CHAPTER 3: THE SOLDIER'S EXPERIENCE l. Tanaka 1954, p. 212. 2. The differing levels of battlefield involvement for the divisions were reflected in the number of fatalities suffered according to prefectural origin; thus, up to the beginning of February 1895, Hiroshima prefec• ture, home of the 5th Division, had suffered the most troop deaths (173) followed by Aichi prefecture, base of the 3rd Division (103). The Tokyo area, by contrast, recorded only 34 dead to that point. Figures from GNN, 17 February 1895. 3. Yokoyama Tsuneo family papers, notice from Naka village headman, Tokuyama Hidetomi, 14 December 1894. Ogi 1975, pp. 412-13, quotes from the diary of a landlord in Kanagawa prefecture to describe the mass village farewell to troops catching the train from Hachioji to Tokyo. 4. Amano 1929, p. 14, entry for 2 November 1894. 5. Hamamoto 1972, pp. 30-1; also Ohama 1978 (Katayanagi diary), pp. 89-90, entry for 19 October 1894. The beauty and fascination of the East China sea is the topic of a letter dated 7 October 1895 by Eta Takero, a soldier of the 2nd Division en route for Taiwan, in Watanabe 1982, p. 41. 6. Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the Nineteenth Century, London 1986. Also Michael Adas, Machines as the Measures of Men, Ithaca 1988. 7. Zama-shi 1988 (Sagawa diary); Kobayashi (undated/unpaginated); Ohama 1978 (Katayanagi diary), p. 102, entry for 27 May 1895; Hatori 1974, pp. 8-9, entries for 31 October-2 November 1894; Tokyo Hyakunenshi Henshu Iinkai 1979, p. 253. Tatsuno Shishi 1985, p. 278, quotes from soldiers' letters during the Russo-Japanese war indicating a similar sense of discovery on their own first railway trip as they proceeded to Hiroshima. 8. The exact figures for Hiroshima railway station are 309 672 arrivals and 170 187 departures, Geim NN, 9 September 1895, in Hiroshima-ken 1973, pp. 786-9. 9. Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), p. 10, entry for 3 November 1894. The novelty of Hiroshima is also obvious in the letter of 1st Division soldier Katayanagi Koinosuke to his parents, 5 October 1894, quoted in Tokyo Hyakunenshi Henshu Iinkai 1979, p. 253. 10. Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), p. 9, entry for 1 November 1894. Such goodwill was curiously absent on the final stage of Nozawa's journey, p. 9, entry for 2 November 1894, 'West of Kobe, there was no-one to welcome us and at Hiroshima [arriving just before midnight] there wasn't a soul about'. In some places, the troops were guided to the grounds of a local shrine to e~oy their refreshments and improve their patriotic spirits: at Kobe, the shrine dedicated to a famous loyalist of fourteenth-century Japan was deliberately chosen to this end, Japan Weekly Mail, 6 October 1894, 'Letters from Hiroshima'. The famous loyalist was Kusunoki Masashige. 11. Zama-shi 1988 (Sagawa diary), p. 22. See also Watanabe 1990, p. 63, Notes 193

entry for 31 October 1894, and Kobayashi Heiji, diary entry for 26 March 1895, which specifically notes the contribution of Red Cross volunteers in thus raising 'ten-fold' the spirits of the troops as they proceeded to Hiroshima. 12. Thomas C. Smith, 'Peasant Time and Factory Time in Japan', Past and Present, 111, 1986. 13. Kojima 1988, pp. 23-4. The centre ofJapan's timepiece industry was to become Nagoya, the headquarters of the 3rd Division. 14. Instructions from Takayama Town Office, in GNN, 9 November 1894. Gift of pocket watch to reservist soldier, GNN, 8 February 1895. 15. Yokoyama Tsuneo family papers, instruction on behalf of Naka village head, Tokuyama Hidetomi, 29 December 1894. On the persistence of the old calendar in rural lbaragi prefecture, see also the newspaper Ibaragi 29 December 1895, in Ibaragi-ken 1990, pp. 452-3. A self• proclaimed literatus such as Kunikida Doppo could spend the first days of the war completely silent in his diary about the conflict, instead agonising on the plebs' indifference to time's passage as they lived in a timeless ever-present, Kunikida 1965, vol. 7, pp. 182-90, especially entries for 7, 15, 17, 18 August 1894. 16. Ishiguro letter, undated, GNN, 6 January 1895. 17. GNN, 7 September 1894. 18. Fujimura 1973, p. 24, speech by Shimada Saburo. 19. Hamamoto 1972, pp. 32-3. 20. Mitani Tojiro, 23 November 1894, in GNN, 20 December 1894. 21. GNN, 23 January 1895. 22. Letter from an unidentified reserve engineer in Kyongsang-do, 25 September 1894, in GNN, 7 October 1894. See also Hashikawa 1970 (Nambu memoirs), pp. 62-3; Mitani letter, 23 November 1894, GNN, 20 December 1894. 23. Hamamoto 1972, pp. 42-4. 24. Ubukata (Hashikawa) 1970, pp. 22-3. 25. On impressions of Chinese towns, houses, and food, see for example, Nis-Shin ]ugun Ki, vol. I, pp. 2-3, Yamamoto Tadasuke report, 26 Octo• ber 1894; Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), pp. 44, 82, 84-6, entries for 21 January, 3 and 4 February 1895; Watanabe 1982, pp. 17-19, letters of Kuzumi Utaro, I March 1895, and Sergeant Washio Kenji, 7 May 1895; GNN, 22 December 1894, letters from 3rd Division transport officer, Mitani Tojiro, 23 November 1894, also letter from unidentified NCO in GNN, 9 February 1895; report on prospects for Manchurian salt business by Inoue Kantaro, GNN, 1 May 1895; Yokoyama Tsuneo family papers, letters of 3rd Division infantry soldier, Kita• gawa Shotaro, 25 November 1894 and 31 March 1895; Amano 1929, p. 96. See also Amano, p. 16, entry for 3 November 1894, for the asser• tion that rice was unfamiliar to many Manchurian residents. Zama-shi 1988 (Sagawa diary), p. 37, entry for 11 November 1894, notes that three Japanese soldiers had died after receiving tea from Chinese civilians. 26. Watanabe 1990, p. 66, entry for 5 April1895. Also Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), p. 28, entry for 16January 1895. 194 japan's First Modem War

27. Letter of 2nd Army medical orderly, Kikuchi Saburo, 26 January 1895, in GNN, 2 February 1895; Hamamoto 1972, p. 181, for a contemptuous description of Chinese funerals. 28. Nis-Shin Jugun Ki, vol. 1, p. 3, Yamamoto Tadasuke report, 26 October 1894. 29. On Chinese responsiveness to the occupation forces, see report of two 1st Army officers, November 1894, in GNN, 15 November 1894; also GNN, 27 November 1894; Chinese profiteering, Arnano 1929, pp. 61, 84; also unidentified letter from Chinchou, 17 November 1894, GNN, 30 November 1894. Chinese allegiance to whomsoever occupied their land at the time, Watanabe 1990, p. 69; use of Chinese as spies for the Japanese army, letter from Second Lieutenant Akabori Umataro, un• dated, GNN, 15 February 1895. A typical example of alleged Chinese selfishness was the report that a merchant in was buying up all local rice in expectation of a Japanese invasion and the profits to be obtained of selling to the invaders, GNN, 27 October 1894. The report suggested this was indicative of Chinese 'patriotism'. See also Hamamoto 1972, p. 177. The letter from one telegraph engineer posted to assist the 2nd Army reinforces the impressions of China and the Chinese given in the letters and diaries of soldiers, see GNN, 26 December 1894, letter from Horikoshi Gorohiko, 7 December 1894. 30. The good doctor's personal delight was in gaining valuable experience in treating bullet wounds - one wonders whether his patients shared his enthusiasm. 31. Quote from letter of Tanaka Man taro at Haich'eng, 25 December 1894, in GNN, 5 February 1895. The extent ofJapanese losses at Kangwachai is emphasised by the army letter to a bereaved family explaining that of the 143 men in the company taking part in the battle, fully 69 were dead or wounded, GNN, 6 February 1895. Contempt for the Chinese army is clear in the letter of an unidentified captain explaining the seizure of Talien and Chinchou, Geibi NN, 26 November 1894. Com• ments on superiority of spirit over arms, Nis-Shin jugun Ki, vol. 1, p. 6, Yamamoto Tadasuke report, 11 November 1894. Allegation of German advisers, Mitani letter, 23 November 1894, GNN, 23 December 1894. 32. Nis-Shin Jugun Ki, vol. 1, pp. 4-6, Yamamoto reports of 2 November 1894 for the difference in military styles (Chinese forces slow and deliberate, Japanese hard and fast), 7 November on Chinese cavalry• man, 11 November, on weakness of new recruits. The reason given by the Japanese officer why he could not grant the Chinese cavalryman's request was that needlessly killing an enemy soldier would bring inter• national shame to Japan. Strength of Chinese resistance noted in Hamamoto 1972, pp. 88-9, 112; also Ginan-cho 1984, pp. 798-9, letter of Sergeant Horiuchi Hokosaburo, 3rd Division, 26 December 1894. 33. Zama-shi 1988, pp. 35, 5~8, entries for 3 November 1894, 3, 20, 21, 23 February 1895; Nambu (Hashikawa) 1970, pp. 76-7. 34. Donations, GNN, 11 December 1894. Oyama himself donated 50 yen to the actors and 100 yen to the Red Cross and field hospitals. The fullest description of the Chinese theatre in Port Arthur and of the pleasure taken in it by Japanese troops comes from Miyazaki, pp. 37-9. See also Notes 195

Amano 1929, pp. 45, 49, 54, entries for 25, 28-29 November 1894; also Nambu (Hashikawa) 1970, pp. 76-7, and Kobayashi HeijiJugun Nikki, entry for 17 April 1895. 35. Miyazaki, pp. 120-1. On Chinese footbinding, see also Watanabe 1990, p. 64, entry for 14 February 1895. 36. Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), p. 62, entry for 29January 1895. 37. Repeated examples of such incidents occur in Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), pp. 46, 55, 57, entries for 22, 26, 27 January 1895; Hamamoto 1972, p. 85; Watanabe 1990, p. 64, entry for 14 February 1895. 38. Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), pp. 48-9, entry for 23 January 1895. 39. Miyazaki, p. 123. Returned servicemen's use of Chinese, Ubukata (Hashikawa) 1970, pp. 31, 44. 40. Exceptions are the letters from members of the 19th Infantry Regi• ment, 3rd Division, carried in the GNN, 7 February 1895, from Sergeant Kawai Takejiro, and GNN, 15 February 1895, from First Lieutenant Inamura Shinroku. 41. Zama-shi 1988 (Sagawa diary), pp. 49-50, entry for 23 December 1894, describes in detail a flag ceremony held in the Liaotung peninsula. 42. Hamamoto 1972, p. 75. 43. Tokyo Nicki Nichi correspondent's report, printed in GNN, 28 December 1894. 44. Hiroshima-ken 1973, p. 785, letter of Kunichika Kotaro, 22 September 1894; fear among Imperial Guards, Tokyo Hyakunenshi Henshu Iinkai 1979, p. 239. 45. Minami Nihon Shimbunsha 1967, p. 523. 46. Watanabe 1982, pp. 27-31, letter of Eta Takero, 31July 1895. As the war commenced in earnest from mid-September, the government clarified the rewards for outstanding military service. The pre-eminent medal was that of the Golden Kite; 900 yen per annum was awarded those obtaining the medal first class, 650 yen for a second class award, down to 90 yen for a sixth class and 65 yen for a seventh class recipient. Payments for one year after the recipient's death were also guaranteed to his immediate family. Details in Kobunkan 1894, vol. 3, p. 44. 47. Hamamoto 1972, p. 35. The difficulties of the route from Wonsan are also detailed in Kawasaki 1896, vol. 2, pp. 206--7. 48. Ishiguro letter in GNN, 6 January 1895; also JWM, 12 January 1895. 49. Letter of 21 December 1894, printed in GNN, 10 January 1895. 50. Kawasaki 1896, vol. 4, p. 136. Blankets and winter clothes, GNN, 8 December 1894. 51. Nambu (Hashikawa) 1970, pp. 65-70; Nis-Shinjugun Ki, vol. 1, p. 4, Yamamoto Tadasuke report, 2 November 1894. Another route to para• dise for the troops in the field was a bath: Nambu's company in Man• churia found a large vat which they improvised as a bath but this cracked after being used by the company officers. As Nambu put it, 'I thought I should never forget the despondent faces of the troops'. One of the commercial success stories of the war was a Japanese entrepre• neur who toured the battle areas with a portable bath, Nambu, p. 65; Matsushita 1966, p. 304. 52. GNN, 15 February 1895. 196 First Modern War

53. Kobayashi HeijiJugun Nikki, entries for 22 April-! May 1895. 54. Hamamoto 1972, p. 149. 55. JWM, 22 December 1894, 5 January 1895. On troop anger towards Japanese merchants at the PX, Hamamoto 1972, p. 150. See also GNN, 9 January 1895. Note on Ota Minoru, courtesy of Dr Andrew Fraser. 56. Contractor bonds, Hiroshima Kencho 1899, p. 13. The Geibi NN, 6 November 1894, notes the arrival in Hiroshima of 800 coolies of the Arima Group (Arima-gumi) which might indicate the large-scale nature of the recruitment business. Aggressive rivalry between one contractor and the Okura Group led to a scuffle in Hiroshima after the contractor tried to convince coolies they could expect only delayed wages and excessive burdens if they signed with Okura, Geibi NN, 8 November 1894. Background of coolies, Tokyo Hyakunenshi Henshu Iinkai 1979, p. 245. 57. Hiroshima Kencho 1899, pp. 13-19, 43, on regulations for coolie service. The occupational background of leaders of 5th Division coolie subgroups, including many policemen, is reported in Geibi NN, 15 November 1894. 58. The French correspondents' roseate picture appeared in Hochi Shimbun, 28 February 1895, and is quoted at length in Tanaka 1954, pp. 209-10. Hamamoto 1972, pp. 37, 67 respectively on the execution of a coolie in Korea and the exhaustion of coolies at Port Arthur. · 59. Hamamoto 1972, p. 37; Kawasaki 1896, vol. 4, p. 136. 60. Araki 1976, vol. 2, p. 47, report from Hochi Shimbun, 5 January 1895. 61. Ginan-cho 1984, pp. 798-9, letter of Sergeant Horiuchi Hokosaburo, 26 December 1894. 62. Letter of 2nd Army medical orderly, Kikuchi Saburo, 26 January 1895, in GNN, 2 February 1895. 63. Fukushima Ken 1968, p. 1019. 64. Coolie protests, SSMHS, vol. 9, pp. 263,273, Kokumin Shimbun, 14June 1895, Mainichi Shimbun, 7 July 1895; tobacco costs, JWM, 12 January 1895.

CHAPTER 4: THE HOME FRONT: MOBILISING SUPPORT

1. For example, Unno 1992, p. 74. Uchimura's defence of Japan's right• eous war was first published in English in the Japan Weekly Mail, 11 August 1894 and subsequently in Japanese in Kokurnin no Tomo, 3 September 1894. It is briefly discussed in Ohama 1990, pp. 50-2; Fujimura 1973, p. 109; Keene 1971, pp. 127-8. Uchimura's contention was that, ]apan's victory shall mean free government, free religion, free education, and free commerce for 600,000,000 souls that live on this side of the globe.' 2. Oe 1984, pp. 63-5; Jansen 1977, p. 613; Gluck 1985, p. 74. On the Japanese monarchy up to 1868, see also Bolitho 1985 and Hall 1968. 3. Taki 1988, p. 115. 4. Just before the war, the emperor had considered moving to , Notes 197

Sasaki Takayuki diary, 24June 1894, quoted in Tanaka 1954, p. 195. On reasons for move to Hiroshima, Kunaicho 1973, p. 501; Tanaka 1990, pp. 96-7. 5. GNN, 15 September 1894. 6. Eastlake/Yamada 1897, p. 407. An almost identical description appears in GNN, 7 October 1894, and in Kimura 1945, pp. 129-32. In fact, the photograph of the emperor's quarters printed by the fiji Shimpo, 19 September 1894, in SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 139, shows a rather pleasant if simple room. 7. Sambo Hombu draft, Sato Bunko S223.6/S/5-7, pp. 24-9; Eastlake/ Yamada 1897, pp. 408-9. 8. Description of flag-giving Ceremonies in the palace and at the imperial headquarters in Hiroshima is given in Kunaicho 1973, pp. 506, 607. 9. Compiled from Sambo Hombu (Army General Staff) draft, Sato Bunko S223.6/S/5-7, pp. 19-24. Some of the figures are open to question and the totals should be treated as approximations. 10. Kunaicho 1973, pp. 728-42, entries for 22-30 March 1895; Watanabe 1936, pp. 245-7. 11. Eastlake/Yamada 1897, p. 411. 12. Yasuda 1990, p. 51. 13 .. Fujimura 1992, p. 12. 14. Kunaicho 1973, pp. 481-2, entry for 11 August 1894; Asukai 1989, p. 241; Hiyama 1993, pp. 57-75. See also Inoue 1987, p. 715. 15. Hiyama 1993, p. 71. 16. Kunaicho 1973, pp. 810-11. 17. Notable among the prefectures disrupted by local politics were Ishikawa, Ibaragi, and Gifu, the latter experiencing its first prefectural assembly dissolution and a general election in January 1895. The Gifu election was fought clearly on local issues but candidates were not above em• ploying the war for rhetorical purposes with the opposition comparing the local government to Chinese barbarians and itself as the defender of right against avarice. Gifu-ken 1972, pp. 322-6; GNN, 30 January 1895. 18. Imperial edict, Kunaicho 1973, pp. 524-5. See also the Kokumin Shimbun ·explanation of the government's use of martial law, reproduced in GNN, 12 October 1894. Arrivals at Ujina, Geibi NN, 2 October 1894. 19. Cost of temporary Diet, Hiroshima Kencho 1899, p. 235. The costs of holding the Houses of Representatives and Peers in Hiroshima were estimated respectively at about 26 000 and 25 000 yen, GNN, 2 October 1894. 20. Geibi NN, 29 September 1894; Hata 1943, pp. 111-12. An illustration of the temporary Diet appears in Geibi NN, 8 October 1894 and Hiroshima Kencho 1899, p. 236. Instructions to members of the Houses of Peers and Representatives, printed in GNN, 6 October 1894. 21. Kunaicho 1973, p. 632. 22. For example, Furusato Kasamatsu Henshu Iinkai 1983, p. 502; also the village headman's instruction quoted in Chapter 3 on the departure of conscripts from the village. 23. GNN, 21 and 31July 1894;Juppeibu instructions, GNN, 19July 1894. 198 Japan's First Modern War

24. Asuda Family Papers, Asuda Tsumoru Diary, Gifu Rekishi Shiryokan. 25. Ogaki-shi 1968, p. 52. 26. GNN, 3 August 1894. 27. Figures for cumulative donations to the armed forces, GNN, 9, 12, 19January 1895. Total from Gifu prefecture, Gifu-ken 1972, p. 330. 28. Ubukata (Hashikawa) 1970, p. 33; Gifu-ken 1972, p. 330; GNN, 11, 12, 23 September 1894. 29. Matsukata opinion, Geibi NN, 16 September 1894. 30. Evidence of the activities of prefectural governors, city mayors, and county heads in promoting bond purchases is in GNN, 2, 8 December 1894. Asuda Tsumoru Diary, 9 September 1894; Tochigi Kenshi Hensan linkai 1977, p. 341; Ogaki-shi 1968, p. 52 on the former domain lord. The activities of the Jbaragi prefectural and county government are noted in Ibaragi Nippo, 26 August 1894. 31. Resentment towards Governor Sogabe, GNN, 8 September 1894; resist• ance of Haguri county resident, GNN, 11 January 1895. 32. Ohama 1990, pp. 64-6. 33. Figures on applications from Tokyo, Osaka, and other urban centres, GNN, 16 September 1894. Gifu prefecture applied for bonds to the value of 1 079 650 yen or roughly the equivalent of the application from Nagoya city. In the second issue, the Dai:Jugo Bank applied for bonds worth 15 million yen, the imperial house 5 million, the Specie Bank 2 million, the Japan Steamship Company (NYK) and Japan Railway Company 300 000 yen each, GNN, 2, 7 December 1894; Gifu prefecture and city, GNN, 4, 8 December 1894. 34. GNN, 12January 1895. 35. GNN, 4 August 1894. 36. GNN, 3 and 24 July 1894. Where the founders of other Giyukai are identified at this time, their status appears generally to be that of nobility (shizoku), former officers, or local officials, e.g. the group of more than 260 shizokuofthe former Mito domain (modern lbaragi) in June 1894, recorded in fiji Shimpo, 29 June 1894, SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 90, and a similar group in the former domain ofHizen (modern ) recorded in the Kokumin Shimbun, 18 August 1894, SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 119. The shizoku lead in Tokushima is suggested by the Tokushima Shimbun, 11 October 1894. My thanks to Dr Andrew Fraser for this reference. 37. Tochigi Kenshi Hensan Iinkai 1977, p. 341; Kanagawa-ken Kenminbu Kenshi Henshushitsu 1980, p. 670; report of sumo volunteers, GNN, 1 August 1894. See also fiji Shimpo, 26 June 1894, in SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 90. 38. Ftyimura 1973, p. 108, 1992, p. 10. 39. Hiroshima Kencho 1899, p. 75; Kobunsha 1894-95, vol. 1, pp. 110-ll. The earlier instruction from the appears in Hiroshima Kencho 1899, p. 36. 40. Gifu-ken 1972, p. 328; GNN, 28 September 1894. 41. Tatsuno Shishi 1985, p. 273. 42. The popularity of sword practice since the start of war is noted in GNN, 25 November 1894. 43. Instruction from Hyogo Prefectural Education Society, GNN, 28 Octo• ber 1894. Notes 199

44. Matsushita 1966, pp. 246-54, lists some of the most popular songs. Hata 1943, p. 382, notes the renewed popularity of Genko in the 1930s. The army chief of staff had new songs written for the troops in Korea and then had these printed for distribution to every company. Under the title War Songs for Crushing the Ch 'ing (To-Shin Gunka) they were also sold to the public at 1 sen apiece, see advertisement in GNN, 14 September 1894. A singular example of war song lyrics is provided by Keene 1971, p. 267; 'Ladies and gentlemen I What is rolling I Before the prince's horse? I That is the pumpkin-head I Of a Chinaman, don't you know?' The emperor also composed some war songs, but the titles were mun• dane - 'The Great Victory of P'yongyang' being typical - and the lyrics were unimaginatively heroic, see Kunaicho 1973, pp. 528-9. 45. Yamakawa quoted in Ohama 1990, pp. 61-2. Use of troop letters in schools, Hiroshima Kencho 1899, pp. 398-9, for a letter from General Nozu, December 1894, and p. 403, for the governor's instruction that it be used in local schools to inspire the children. 46. GNN, 4 December, 1894. Other examples are noted in.JWM, 20 Octo• ber 1894; GNN, 3 February 1895 (in which a local temple doubled for P'yongyang castle in a village school recreation of the battle of Septem• ber 1894); GNN, 11 February 1895; Gifu-ken 1972, p. 331. 47. Peter Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational Recreation and the Contest for Control, 1830-1885, London 1978, pp. 125-6. 48. Education ministry order no. 6, printed in GNN, 4 September 1894. Nogi's advice to Hirohito quoted in StephenS. Large, Emperor Hirohito and Showajapan, London 1992, p. 16. Some teachers were unsure how to promote the new activism among their pupils; one suggestion was to remove all forms of heat from the winter playground. 49. Letter from 7th Infantry regiment, printed in GNN, 25 October 1894. 50. The activities of the princesses in Hiroshima are recorded in Hiroshima Kencho 1899, pp. 338-40, 355-6, entries for 19, 20, 25 November 1894. 51. Liaison between nurse and soldier, Geibi NN, 2 November 1894. Ogaki geisha appearance as Red Cross nurses, GNN, 12 December 1894. Use of'Red Cross nurse' as brothel term, SSMHS, vol. 9, pp. 153-4, Mainichi · Shimbun, 18 October 1894. Lyrics of Fujin no jugunka, Yonen Zasshi, no. 22, 15 November 1894; also Kokumin Shimbun, 22 September 1894. The sensual appeal of the Red Cross nurse was exacerbated by the traditional use in Japan of the colour red to signify eroticism. 52. Zen Nihon Shimbun Renmei 1976, p. 186. 53. Donald Keene, Landscapes and Portraits, Tokyo 1971, p. 265. 54. Ubukata (Hashikawa) 1970, p. 25. 55. SSMHS, vol. 9, pp. 164, 181, Yorozu Choho, 15 November 1894, Hochi Shimbun, 27 December 1894. 56. GNN, 11 October 1894. Despite the improvements, the GNN held its price at 1 sen per day or 23 sen per month. The Geibi Nichi Nichi in Hiroshima, however, increased its monthly subscription in October 1894 from 25 to 30 sen. 57. Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), pp. 75-6, entry for 1 February 1895; SSMHSvol. 9, p. 300, Nihon Shimbun, 1 October 1895. Goodwill shown to correspondents by the 2nd Army is noted by Amano 1929, pp. 12, 45. 200 japan's First Modern War

58. Note on Fuhei ban, SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 117, Yomiuri Shimbun, 16 August 1894. 59. Saneyoshi 1901, p. 480. Examples of the popularity of lantern shows, GNN, 22 September, 14, 16, 17, 23 October, 26 December 1894. Ubukata 1970, p. 29, recounts the discomfort of an overcrowded lantern show held in a textile factory. The slides were available in large or small sizes but the cheapest according to one Tokyo advertiser was 2 1/2 yen for a group of 20 small slides, with the larger size double the price, see advertisement in GNN, 14 September 1894.

CHAPTER 5: THE HOME FRONT: PATRIOTISM, PROFIT AND LOSS

1. A report on foreign trade appears in CNN, 9 November 1894, showing a 10-15 per cent rise in 1894 in the volume of overseas trade at the Japanese ports of Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki and Hakone, with only Osaka below the level of previous years. 2. GNN, 28 October 1894; SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 152, Kokumin Shimbun, 14 October 1894; Geibi NN, 21 September, 2 November 1894, advertise• ments for Kimura Shoten distributor of W. D. & H. 0. Wills cigarettes, and Zensho (Complete Victory) brand sake; Tokyo Hyakunenshi Henshu Iinkai 1979, p. 274; Suzuki 1977, pp. 104-9. 3. On the Tokyo and Osaka Stock Market falls, see fiji Shimpo, 3 August 1894 and Nihon Shimlmn, 4 August 1894, in SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 110. Examples of the falls between I May and 1 August are: Japan Railway Company 102.5 to 94.5 yen; Kansai Railway Company 58.4 to 45.8 yen; NYK (Shipping) 68.3 to 66 yen; Tokyo Cereals 28 to 26 yen; Kanefuchi Spinning 66 to 42 yen. 4. ]WM, 8 September 1894. 5. Matsushita 1966, pp. 298-9. The same quote appears in Tokyo Hyakunenshi Henshu Iinkai 1979, p. 247. 6. Rise in food prices, Kokumin Shimbun, 28 July 1894, fiji Shimpo, 15 August 1894, Kokumin Shimbun, 8 September 1894, in SSMHS, vol. 9, pp. 106, 116-17, 133. 7. Geibi NN, 27 September 1895; Hiroshima-ken 1972, p. 304. 8. Hiroshima Shogyo Kaigisho Jiho, no. 10, quoted in Hiroshima-ken 1973, p. 781. 9. Osaka riot, fiji Shimpo, 3 August 1894, SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 110; GNN, 8 December 1894, records 164 cases of theft in the Gifu Police District for November 1894 alone; Tochigi scam, Tochigi Kenshi Hensan linkai 1977, pp. 343-4, county report of 24 September 1894. GNN, 4 Decem• ber 1894, actually shows nationwide a 10 per cent decrease in prison occupancy during the war (the central Gifu prefectural jail held 1057 men and 99 women at that time) but this may equally be related to the greater demands on police time by war-related activities. 10. Mitsui family letter to Army Minister Saigo, as printed in GNN, 28 October 1894, and Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, 30 October 1894. On sub- Notes 201

sequent details, see Geibi NN, 6 November 1894; SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 167; fiji Shimpo, 27 November 1894; GNN, 7 December 1894. 11. Fuzoku Gakuho, 28 October 1894, quoted in Tokyo Hyakunenshi Henshu Iinkai 1979, p. 275. The official history of Tokyo concludes that busi• nessmen were only concerned with the profits of war and purchased bonds largely because of government pressure. 12. Official warnings in Hiroshima, Hiroshima Kencho 1899, pp. 33-5, 99, entries for 29 June, 25 August 1894. Calls for businessmen to restrict prices, Maeda Masana, 'Senran to No-ko-sho'; Geibi NN, 12 October 1894; and Minami Nihon Shimbunsha 1967, p. 522. 13. Okura controversy, Matsushita 1966, p. 307; army ministry decision, SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 266, fiji Shimpo, 20 June 1895. 14. GNN, 18January 1895. The flags were sold from Nagoya at 16 sen for ordinary quality and 25 sen for superior. 15. JWM, 2 March 1895. 16. GNN, 18 September 1894. 17. SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 155; Kokumin Shimbun, 24 October 1894. 18. GNN, I November, 2 December 1894. 19. Advertisement for the Shinshu Life Insurance Company, GNN, 12 Oc• tober 1894. 20. In the case of a five-day prayer meeting held early in October by the Otani group of Shinshu Buddhists in Hishu Ono County, Gifu prefec• ture, invitations were sent to about 150 officials and men in public affairs. A large attendance was recorded on each day, GNN, 10 October 1894. Attendance at another Otani group prayer meeting for the war dead at which attendance was numbered in the thousands took place at Tarui-machi in Fuha County on 24/25 October, GNN, 28 October 1894. For one Buddhist service attracting several hundred in Hiroshima pre• fecture, see Geibi NN, 29 September 1894. Hiroshima and Kure services by all sects in February 1895 noted in Yoshida 1964, p. 294. 21. GNN, 10 February 1895. One instance of a Shinto burial in Ena County, Gifu prefecture, is recorded in GNN, 5 February 1895. The guests included the former domain lord, Viscount Toyama, the county head, police chief, all the local town and village heads, plus several hundred mourners. 22. Nishi Honganji, dispatch of envoy to Korea, GNN, 31 July 1894, and Kashiwara 1990, p. 65; Honganji bond application, GNN, 7 September 1894. Shinshoji activities, Narita Shishi Hensan linkai 1986, pp. 265-71 (on the significance of Shinshoji generally, see Ian Reader, Religion in Contemporary japan, London 1991, pp. 143-5). Women's Buddhist group, Yoshida 1964, p. 294. 23. GNN, 12 December 1894. 24. Claim oftroop adherence to Nishi Honganji, GNN, 31July 1894. Attrac• tion of Buddhism to troops accommodated in temples, Meikyo Shinshi, 2 February 1895, citing the example of some fifty troops of the Imperial Guards housed in a Tokyo temple between October 1894 to February 1895. Hiroshima Kencho 1899, pp. 76, 98, 109, 111, for army use of local temples. The benefits of troop accommodation may have ex• tended to shops and restaurants around temples and thus even further 202 japan's First Modern War

strengthened the social position of Buddhism in local society. Buddhist aid to military families, Yoshida 1964, p. 295. 25. P'yongyang ceremony decribed in GNN, 25 October 1894. The Shinto ceremony at Chinchou is described in Ohama 1978 (Katayanagi diary), p. 94, entry for 21 December 1894. 26. Priests at the battlefront, Meikyo Shinshi, 16January 1895. The names of ten men from the Shingon, Rinzai, and Tendai schools sent to the Liaotung peninsula in December are listed in GNN, 28 December 1894. Yoshida 1964, p. 291, notes an application from the various schools in December 1894 to send 16 priests to the front. Priests with the navy, SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 228, Mainichi, 30 March 1895. 27. Diary excerpt in Kyoto Shimpo, 24 March 1895. 28. On use of priests for intelligence purposes, see letter of Minister Eto Shimpei, March 1871, quoted in Sato 1965, pp. 3-4. Kashiwara 1990, pp. 63-4 on Honganji links in China and Korea; Keijo Irumindan Yakusho 1912, pp. 367-72, on wider Honganji activities in Korea. The other major Buddhist sects in Korea were the Nichiren and Jodo: the Nichiren began activity in Korea from 1890 and entered from 1897, while the Jodo followed in 1898. 29. Kashiwara 1990, p. 163. 30. See especially the sections in GNN, 16, 18 December 1894. 31. Ohama 1990, p. 55, suggests that Christians more than any others in Japan argued the legitimacy of the war. 32. Christian activities during the war are summarised in.JWM, 16 February 1895; the names and background of the five Japanese chaplains are given in.JWM, 9 February 1895; estimate ofJapanese Christians among the armies, JWM, 2 March 1895, letter of Theodosius S. Tyng, dated 23 February 1895. 33. Letter from 'X', 22 February 1895, in.JWM, 2 March 1895. 34. JWM, 20 October 1894. The accusation came from one Reverend]. L. Atkinson of Kobe. 35. Tottori-ken 1969, vol. 2, p. 265. 36. The worst hit regions were Akita and Yamagata. Storms hit towns and villages throughout Akita prefecture in late August leaving over three hundred people dead, while about 28 000 homes are said to have been damaged or destroyed; a major earthquake in Yamagata in late October killed some seven hundred and caused the destruction of about 3000 houses. Kunaicho 1973, vol. 6, pp. 504, 527, 567, reports the extent of damage and the emperor's donations of 2000 and 4000 yen to the prefectures of Akita and Yamagata respectively. GNN, 1 December 1894, notes the government's unwillingness to offer aid. 37. For example, Hiroshima Kencho 1899, pp. 76-7, entry for 8 August 1894. 38. The prefectural government divided the families of public servants into three categories: those with no other means of support than the hus• band's salary; those with relatives or friends to offer financial aid; those with existing means of income separate to the husband's salary. The first two groups were to receive assistance monthly, the third group a one-off payment. The rate of monthly government aid in September 1894 was fixed at one-hundredth of the salary, between October 1894 to Notes 203

February 1895 at one-fiftieth, and between March to May 1895 at three• thousandths. Details in Hiroshima Kencho 1899, pp. 86-90, entry for 17 August 1894. 39. Gifu-ken 1972, p. 329. 40. Hiroshima Kencho 1899, p. 232, entry for 12 October 1894. The precise totals for the four categories were: 737; 558; 1044; 1777. 41. Ogaki-shi 1968, p. 52. 42. GNN, 9 and 19 September 1894; Godo-machi 1969, p. 179 (Godo is in Anpachi county). For examples elsewhere, see Kanagawa-ken Kenminbu Kenshi Henshushitsu 1980, pp. 670-1; Fukushima-ken 1968, pp. 1016- 17. 43. Reliance on donations, GNN, 12 October 1894. Situation in Kanagawa, Kanagawa-ken Kenminbu Kenshi Henshushitsu 1980, p. 671. Village indifference to the war in general and to support for its military fam• ilies, GNN, 7 February 1895; the late start in mounting support for families is also noted in GNN, 25 November 1894. Disputes within military families, GNN, 7 September 1894. 44. Biseikai, GNN, 11 November 1894. Minami Shimbunsha 1967, p. 523, on Prince Shimazu of ; Hiroshima Kencho 1899, p. 230, entry for 11 October 1894, on Marquis Asano. 45. The association took an office in Hiroshima and began operations from 4 November 1894, Geibi NN, 2 November 1894. On Kanagawa, Kanagawa-ken Kenminbu Kenshi Henshushitsu 1980, p. 671. 46. Quoted in Sharon H. Nolte/Sally Ann Hastings, 'The Meiji State's Policy Towards Women, 1890-1910', in Gail Lee Bernstein, ed., Recreat• ingjapanese Women, 1600-1945, Berkeley 1991, p. 162. 47. GNN, 4 October 1894; Hiroshima Kencho 1899, pp. 290-2, 311, for prefectural government instructions, 29 October 1894, and home min• istry instructions, 8 November 1894; Tochigi Kenshi Hensan Iinkai 1977, p. 346, instruction dated 22 December 1894. See also GNN, 3, 9 November 1894 on official and police attendance at public burials. 48. Funeral at Daisei-in, Furukawa Hensan Iinkai 1988, p. 693. Attendance of 5000-10000, Nishikawa 1984, p. 156. Gifu funerals, GNN, I, 2 Decem• ber 1894, describing military funerals in Unuma village, Kakami county, Shikihara village, Fuwa county, and Nakanoyo village, Ena county. 49. Ubukata (Hashikawa) 1970, p. 32. 50. Tochigi Kenshi Hensan linkai 1977, p. 348, instruction dated 5 April 1894.

CHAPTER 6: NOVICE IMPERIALIST

1. Kunaicho 1973, p. 577. 2. FO 881/6605, Hillier to Minister O'Conor (Beijing), 29 September 1894. 3. FO 881/6605, Korean Foreign Minister to GB Minister O'Conor (Beijing), enclosed in O'Conor to Foreign Secretary Kimberley, 17 September 1894. 4. Ichikawa 1966, p. 384, Minister Inoue (Seoul) to Foreign Minister Mutsu, 23 May 1895. 204 japan's First Modern War

5. According to US Minister John Sill (Seoul) to Secretary of State, 9 July 1895, in Palmer 1963, pp. 262-4. 6. Kuksa P'yonpchan Wiwonhoe 1969, vol. 3, pp. 496-507, describes the new ministries and their duties. 7. Lew 1984, p. 152, quoting from Gaimusho 1953 vol. 27-2, p. 2, Mutsu letter 15 October 1894. 8. Kaneko 1940, vol. 1, p. 271; Moriyama 1987, p. 30. 9. FO 881/6665, Hillier to O'Conor (Beijing), 14 December 1894. 10. Beasley 1987, pp. 51-2, explains the discussions in Tokyo. Inoue ori• ginally believed a loan of 5 million yen essential. This was to be paid in bullion, repayable within eight years, and secured on the revenue of Korea's three southern provinces. In the end, he was forced to accept the loan agreement of 30 March 1895 which offered Korea 3 million yen, halfin paper, half in silver, repayable within five years at 6 per cent interest, and secured on the central government's tax revenue. 11. The order is in Kunaicho 1973, p. 489. 12. FO 881/6665, Hillier to O'Conor, 25 October 1894. 13. GNN, 17, 18 July, 6 September 1894. 14. GNN, 7 Sep. 1894. The heroic presentation of this ancient invader of Korea also appears in the first issue of a youth journal, Shonen Sekai (Youth World), in January 1895. 15. GNN, 18 September 1894. 16. Inoue's comments from The Korean Repository, August 1895, quoting in turn from japan Gazette, 29 June 1895. FO 881/6665, Hillier to O'Conor, 14 December 1894, wrote that hundreds of Japanese merchants had established themselves at P'yongyang and, 'under pretext of military exigencies, have turned the native residents out of their houses without compensation, the buildings being converted into shops. The natives, it is said, are no longer treated with the scrupulous consideration that characterised the conduct of the army on its journey northwards, and complaints of ill-usage are not infrequent.' 17. Before departure, the Korean war minister asked the British repres• entative at Seoul for the loan of a British marine officer's tunic and helmet on the grounds that he admired the style; a colleague of the minister, however, quietly explained that the real reason was fear of being shot by the Chinese if he appeared in Korean dress, and his belief that a British uniform would offer greater protection, FO 881/6706, Hillier to O'Conor (Beijing), 13 March 1895. 18. White 1895, p. 508. 19. GNN, 20, 21 September 1894. 20. Pak 1975, p. 34. 21. Ibid. 22. For example, the letter from Second Lieutenant Suzuki, undated, on battle of 23 December 1894 at Haeju in Hwanghae-do, in GNN, 8 January 1895. See also GNN, 27 December 1894. 23. For example, Kuksa P'yonchan Wiwonhoe 1969, pp. 617, 622, 624, 628-9, 631. 24. Arrest of villagers and burning local houses, report of Captain Suzuki, Cholla-do, south-west Korea, GNN, 10 February 1895. Wonsan guard report in Dai Honei Fukukan, Wonsan Shubitaicho Hokoku. Notes 205

25. Details in Pak 1975, and in the reports of the Japanese company com• mander at Wonsan, Dai Honei Fukukan, Wonsan Shubitaicho Hokoku. 26. Lew 1984, p. 145. Han 1970, p. 423, takes a similarly critical approach to the 1894-5 reform programme. 27. Mutsu letter to Nabeshima, 25 May 1895, and Japanese cabinet an.. nouncement 25 May 1895, in Ichikawa 1966, p. 386. 28. Ariga 1896, pp. 231-3. 29. See the seven-volume compilation published under that title in Shang• hai in 1956. It seems probable that Communist China prefers this term as it links the two wars of aggression by Japan in 1894-95 and 1937-45. 30. For example, the county official orders in Ibaragi prefecture, 30 July and 13 August 1894, in Ibaragi Kenritsu Rekishikan 1990, p. 204. 31. Honzan ]imu Hokokusho, November 1894, on army requisition of Priest Shirao Yoshio; SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 220, Mainichi Shimbun, 14 March 1895, on 2nd Army's protectiveness towards its interpreters. 32. Gaimusho Gaiko Shiryokan, Hayashi instruction to Nabeshima (Hiro• shima), 6 November 1894, demanding confirmation of press report; Komura's request to Mutsu for diplomats and interpreters, 1 November 1894; and Hayashi's rejection of this request, 7 November 1894. My thanks to Mr Koike Seiichi of the Foreign Ministry Archives for provid• ing copies of these instructions. 33. Antung Civil Administration Office regulations, printed in GNN, 16 November 1894, also lbamgi Nippo, 17 November 1894; Yamagata's notice to Chinese civilians is printed in GNN, 8 November 1894; also Geibi NN, 9 November 1894; Ariga 1896, p. 237; and Kawasaki 1896, vol. 2, pp. 267-8. Regulations governing the activities of the later Chinchou Civil Administration Office appear in GNN, 25 November 1894, and Kobunkan, vol. 4, pp. 58-9. 34. Ariga 1896, pp. 232-3. 35. Ono 1922, p. 40. 36. GNN, 4 December 1894. 37. GNN, 28 November 1894. 38. Sambo Hombu (Army General Staff) draft history of the Sino:Japanese war, Sato Bunko S223.6 S 4-15 (unpaginated). 39. Arakawa's explanation of his duties at Chinchou and the benefits to Japan appears in GNN, 18 December 1894. The problem of inflation and Arakawa's response is noted in his report printed in GNN, 19 December 1894. 40. Yuminami Meitetsu letter, 6 March 1895, in Kyoto Shimpo, 24 March 1895. 41. Kyoto Shimpo, 28 March 1895, letter of Yuminami Meitetsu, 1 March 1895.

CHAPTER 7: DISCIPLINE AND CONTROL

1. A notable example is General Sir Ian Hamilton, British observer with the Japanese forces again~t Russia, in A Staff Officer's Scrap Book, London 1906, especially pp. 10-15. 206 japan's First Modern War

2. The most balanced recent assessment of the Nanjing massacre is Hata Ikuhiko, Nanjin Gyakusatsu, Tokyo 1986. The Alexandra Hospital mur• ders are recounted by a patient at the time, Lieutenant S. E. Bell, in a manuscript held at the Imperial War Museum, London, item 88/63/1. 3. Fujimura 1973, p. 132; Unno 1992, p. 77. 4. Christie 1914, p. 87; also Geibi NN, 20 September 1894, for reports of attacks on French and German civilians in China as well as the murder of Reverend Wylie. 5. FO 881/6605, Bertie (Foreign Office) to War Office, 24 October 1894. 6. GNN, 3 October 1894. The accusation that Chinese brutality and cruelty exceeded even that of central African 'barbarians' was made in Amano 1929, p. 48, entry for 27 November 1894. On Chinese troop indiscipline, see also fiji Shimpo, 24 November and 4 December 1894, SSMHSvol. 9, pp. 166 and 170. 7. Fujiwara 1978, pp. 86-7, considers the aim was to eliminate the human• ity of the individual soldier and literally to develop a slavish mentality towards superiors. 8. Oyama order, 15 October 1894, in Kunaicho 1973, p. 546, alsop. 510, entry for 14 September 1894, for the equivalent order by Yamagata to the 1st Army. In the same vein, see Oyama's general instructions as army minister in GNN, 21 September 1894, and \\'bite 1895, pp. 514-15; also Nis-Shin Seneki Meisho Bunsho 1899, pp. 20-5, for orders of 2nd Division commander Lieutenant-General Sakuma, 2 October 1894, and 4th Division commander Lieutenant-General Yamazawa, March 1895. 9. Lieutenant-General Sakuma command, printed separately in GNN and Geibi NN, 6 November 1894. 10. Katsura's letters and the reply of a French missionary at Niuchang in December 1894 are in Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 672-8; also GNN, 9 February 1895. 11. Eastlake/Yamada 1897, p. 424. James Scarth Gale, a Canadian mission• ary in Korea, noted the obvious propaganda use of Japanese mercy, writing, 'These acts were so widely heralded and so skilfully published in the Western world, that some were inclined to question the genuine• ness of the sympathy expressed', Gale 1898, p. 203. 12. Yamagata order, 24 October 1894, Nis-Shin Seneki Meisho Bunsho 1899, pp. 38-40. 13. Dai Honei Fukukan, Wonsan Shubitaicho Hokokusho, September 1894-0ctober 1895. 14. For example, the army interrogation of prisoners involving threats of murder recorded by one journalist at Chinchou in mid-November 1894, Nis-Shin]ugunki, vol. 1, pp. 8-9. 15. SSMHS, vol. 9, p. l75,]iji Shimpo, 14 December 1894; GNN, 16January 1895. 16. GNN, 11 September 1894. 17. Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), p. 83, entry for 3 February 1895. The assertion that individual foraging had been eradicated was made in an undated, unsigned letter by an NCO printed in GNN, 9 February 1895. 18. Navy report on increased cases of disease, Saneyoshi 1901, p. 495. Note Notes 207

on coolie harassment of women, Geibi NN, 16 September 1894; on prostitutes sailing into Hiroshima and the rise in numbers at Ujina, Geibi NN, 6 and 8 November 1894. Clash with military police, Geibi NN, 8 November 1894. Inspection of troops, Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), p. 12, entry for 15 November 1894. Curfew noted in JWM, 12 January 1895. 19. Nambu (Hashikawa) 1970, p. 65. 20. Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), pp. 17-18, entry for 4 January 1895 on conditions in Hiroshima, p. 48 for relations in China. Prostitutes in Yingk'ou, Hamamoto 1972, p. 178. 21. Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), p. 112, entry for 3 April1895. 22. All figures on civilian and "military crimes are taken from Sambo Hombu (Army General Staff) draft history, Sato Bunko s223.6/s/4-15 23. GNN, 4 August 1894. 24. Hamamoto 1972, pp. 110-12, describes a case in which a second lieu• tenant begged a captain to halt in so far as their destination was occupied by a mass of enemy troops. The captain's reply was, 'It's an order! We are ordered to that location and so we shall proceed. We must continue until we collide with the enemy. It's our duty.' The captain maintained this attitude despite coming under withering fire from the Chinese and despite further entreaties from his subordinates. 25. Examples of Nozawa's criticism of the battalion commander and his subordinate appear in Hatori 1974, pp. 50, 52-53, 59, 60, 79, 90-l. These criticisms broadly divide into attacks on the officers' cowardice, carelessness and haughtiness towards the men. Comment on the 2nd Division as a whole, p. 50, entry for 24 January 1895; abuse towards medical staff, pp. 17-18, entry for 4January 1895. 26. GNN, 20 June 1894, on execution of deserters. Thirteen infantry re• serves with the 2nd Division were sentenced to terms of imprisonment ranging from three months to three years, SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 241, Nihon, 25 Apri11895. Geibi NN, 12 November 1894, on execution of coolies and Chinese. 27. Sambo Hombu (Army General Staff), draft history, Sato Bunko s223.6/ s/ 4-15. The number of prisoners held in detention at Uiju was 207 at · the end of March 1895. The number at Hiroshima peaked at 103 at the end of December 1894. The figures for total numbers in detention and army prison are:

Detention centre Army prison End Sep. 1894 28 420 Dec. 1894 275 654 March 1895 417 832 June 1895 96 419 Sep. 1895 106 124

28. A Japanese artillery sergeant's appraisal of Port Arthur appears in Ohama 1978 (Katayanagi diary), p. 92, entry for 25 November 1894, quoted also in Ohama 1990, p. 38. The opinion of the French admiral is given in Matsushita 19.66, p. 242. However, if we assume this was 208 japan's First Modern War

Admiral Courbet, his view as cited in 'Vladimir' 1896, p. 224, is that a strong fleet and only 20 000 men would be required to break Port Arthur. 29. Kaikosha (undated), p. 29. 30. Matsushita 1966, p. 245. 31. Oyama telegram in Hata 1943, p. 161. 32. Ohama 1990, p. 39, diary quote from Okabe Makio, ed., 'I chi Heishi no Mita Nis-Shin Senso: Kubota Chuzo no Jugun Nikki'. Okamoto 1983, p. 37, also translates part of this diary entry. See also the letters from two soldiers of the 1st Division both speaking of a mountain of corpses and a river of blood (as well as unsurpassed joy on their part), quoted in Katsuda Shishi Hensan linkai 1979, p. 443. 33. Zama-shi 1988 (Sagawa diary), p. 8. 34. Reports of Cowan and Creelman quoted from White 1895, pp. 596-604; see also the record of conversations by Mr Villiers at the British legation in Tokyo, in Trench to Foreign Secretary Kimberley, 24 December 1894, FO 881/6665. James Allan, Under the Dragon Flag, London 1898, repr. 1973, pp. 76-96, claims to describe the massacre from firsthand observation but the explanation of his experiences at Port Arthur is highly suspicious. 35. As recounted to Nozawa Takesaburo on 17 January 1895, see Hatori 1974, p. 30. The diary of Private Kubota Chuzo, quoted in Okamoto 1983, p. 37, explains, 'According to later investigations, we had killed more than forty women. We couldn't differentiate in the dark. We were so enraged by the Chinese barbarism we had seen earlier.' 36. Fujimura 1973, p. 132; F~jiwara 1978, p. 99. 37. Nambu (Hashikawa) 1970, pp. 66-9. On vows for revenge, see also Nis• Shin Jugunki, vol. 1, Yamamoto report, p. 9, and Amano 1929, p. 71. The diary of Sergeant Katayanagi Koinosuke records hearing about the dead and wounded and that he saw one Japanese corpse but there is no mention of any desire for vengeance, Ohama 1978 (Katayanagi diary), p. 91, entry for 19 November 1894. 38. Kaikosha (undated), p. 24. 39. FO 881/6605, Consul-General Walter Hillier (Seoul) to Minister O'Conor (Beijing), 3 October 1894, reports the comments of New York Herald correspondent, de Guerville, that at P'yongyang he saw the mutilated heads and other organs of captured Japanese either nailed to the city gates or lying in the streets. 40. Nogi report in Nis-Shin]ugunki, vol. 1, p. 11. Sergeant Harada Naokichi, 1st infantry regiment, letter of 16 December 1894, printed in GNN, 6 January 1895, also describes the road between Chinchou and Port Arthur as littered with corpses. On the streets of Port Arthur itself, the correspondent Amano still saw piles of corpses as late as 24 November. 41. Okabe Makio diary, quoted in Okamoto 1983, p. 35. The Japan Weekly Mail of 27 April 1895 quoted one of the first Western correspondents at the battle of T'ienchuangt'ai in March to suggest the Japanese had taken almost literally no prisoners and that a number of Chinese corpses bore signs of bayonet wounds after having been shot. At the same time, however, the report indicates the ambivalence between war and civilisa• tion: Notes 209

In this kind of warfare, the soldiers' blood is soon up, and it becomes almost impossible to restrain them. They treat their wounded en• emies as a man treats a wounded snake, killing it before he gives it a chance to strike. The Japanese must not be judged too harshly if they have not in all cases been able to attain the high ideal they set before themselves in the conduct of the present war. 42. Ohama 1990, p. 39. 43. Hatori 1974 (Nozawa diary), p. 74, entry for I February 1895. In an earlier skirmish, Nozawa and his colleagues had killed two Chinese. Observing the corpses, Nozawa writes, 'We all shouted "banzai" and there was nothing to compare with the joy!', p. 69, entry for 30 January 1895. 44. Benedict 1946, p. 158. 45. Fujimura 1992, pp. 14-15. 46. GNN, 1 December 1894. 47. GNN, 4, 6, 23 December 1894. Something of the French military attache's observations of Port Arthur is reported in Trench to Foreign Secreta!)' Kimberley, 20 December 1894, FO 881/6665. Rumour of Creelman joining the Ch'ing, GNN, 15 January 1895. 48. Contained in Trench to Foreign Secretary Kimberley, 20 December 1894, FO 881/6665. On 28 December 1894, the same memorandum was dispatched to Japanese ministers in Britain·, the US, Russia, , Germany and Italy, for conveyance to their host governments, see Gaimusho 1953, vol. 27, pp. 611-13. 49. Gaimusho 1953, vol. 27, p. 609, Mutsu to Nabeshima (Hiroshima), 15 December 1894, on Russian minister's warning, and pp. 609-10, Nabeshima to Mutsu, 15 December 1894, on Ito's inability to censure the army. Also Fujimura 1973, pp. 132-3. 50. Gaimusho 1953, vol. 27, p. 610, Mutsu to Kurino, 16 December 1894. Holland's article is excerpted in Mutsu (Berger) 1982, p. 75. 51. White 1895, p. 602. Reverend James Gale at Wonsan in Korea took a similar view ofJapan's 'civilisation', Gale 1898, p. 203, 'I take pleasure in recording here that we felt safe in the hands of the Japanese. They were less given to drunkenness and disorder than Western soldiers, and in nine cases out of ten acted as an enlightened nation; but in the tenth and test case they showed the old spots of the leopard with the varnish off.'

CHAPTER 8: WARTIME STRATEGY AND DIPLOMACY

l. FO 881/6706, memorandum of J. Jamieson contained m O'Conor (Beijing) to Foreign Secretary Kimberley, 10 April 1895. 2. Kuwada/Yamaoka 1976, pp. 289-95. 3. Nambu (Hashikawa) 1970, pp. 71-2. 4. Weihaiwei campaign, Kuwada/Yamaoka 1976, pp. 295-311. 5. Kuwada/Yamaoka 1976, p. 310. 6. Imperial headquarters debate, Kuwada/Yamaoka 1976, pp. 256-7. 210 japan's First Modern War

Kaip'ing battle, Zama-shi 1988 (Sagawa diary), pp. 53-5, entry for 10 January 1895; Kuwada/Yamaoka 1976, pp. 260-2. Sagawa gives figures of 50 dead and over 300 wounded. The army general staff history figures are 36 dead and 298 wounded. 7. Kuwada/Yamaoka 1976, pp. 271-2; Kunaicho 1973, pp. 677-8. 8. Hohei Dai-Roku Rentai, pp. 141-2, report of 3 January 1895. 9. White 1895, pp. 648-9. Eastlake/Yamada 1897, p. 367 give Japanese dead/wounded at 242. 10. Oyama telegram to imperial headquarters, 9 March 1895, in Tokyo Nicki Nicki, 10 March 1895. 11. Details of T'ienchuangt'ai battle, Kunaicho 1973, pp. 709-11, entry for 9 March 1895; Zama-shi 1988, (Sagawa diary), p. 61, entry for 8 March 1895. Eastlake/Yamada 1897, p. 393, gives Chinese losses of over 2000, with Japanese dead and wounded at 126. Tokutomi 1917, vol. 1, pp. 654-5, notes an element of tension among the Japanese commanders. General Yamaji of the 1st Division was said to have been angered that Katsura's 3rd Division originally sailed for the front in advance of his force. Consequently, to prevent any ill-feeling during the battle, Katsura sent a messenger to Yamaji's camp the night before to smoothe things over. 12. Fujiwara 1978, pp. 64-5. Brief details of the initial invasion are in Kuwada/Yamaoka 1976, pp. 312-16. 13. Sambo Hombu (Army General Staff), Draft, Sato Bunko, S223.6/S/ 5-7, p. 36. 14. Mutsu (Berger) 1982, pp. 153-60. 15. Mutsu (Berger) 1982, p. 175. 16. Kunaicho 1973, vol. 8, pp. 649-51; Geibi NN, 26 November 1894, shows Ozaki and others in the hard-line faction already calling on the govern• ment to ensure at all costs territorial gains in and Taiwan; Hirao 1935, p. 700, for a fuller explanation ofTani's view. 17. Kunaicho 1973, pp. 810-11. 18. Yubin Hocki Skimbun, 30 August 1894, SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 125; also GNN, 11 December 1894. 19. Mutsu (Berger) 1982, pp. 164-5; Kunaicho 1973, p. 667; Fujimura 1973, p. 152. 20. Kaikosha (undated), p. 83; Kunaicho 1973, p. 708, entry for 8 March 1895 on the warning from the German minister at Tokyo. 21. Yamagata to Mutsu, 5 April 1895, in Kunaicho 1973, pp. 746-7. 22. Full details of the peace negotiations and the text of the peace treaty are given in Kajima 1976, pp. 195-280. Details also in Mutsu (Berger) 1982, pp. 164-202. Summary in Fujimura 1973, pp. 162-71. 23. Russian and French press opinion in Kaikosha (undated), pp. 84, 91-S;Japanese understanding of German, French and Russian motives, Kunaicho 1973, pp. 783-96. 24. Triple intervention, Mutsu (Berger) 1982, pp. 203-54; Kajima 1976, 293-385. 25. A description and drawing of the Triumph Arcade is given in SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 254, Tokyo Nicki Nicki, 21 May 1895. Notes 211

CONCLUSION 1. Yasuda 1990, p. 51. 2. Cited in Morimatsu 1969, pp. 115-20. Other attacks on the corrupt nature of party politicians include Kotoku Shusui's diatribe 'Hiseiji• ron' (Anti-politics), in 1899. 3. SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 236, Kokumin Shimlmn, 14 April 1895. 4. Quoted in Michael Hunt, Frontier Defence and the Open Door Policy, New Haven 1973, p. 24; and Akira Iriye, Across the Pacific, New York 1967, p. 63. 5. Quoted in Pierson 1980, p. 236. On Takayama, see Shibusawa 1955, p. 104. 6. Gluck 1985, p. 136. 7. GNN, 3 May 1894. 8. SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 272. Note that the figure given in Fujimura 1973, p. 183, confuses the figures for the dead from other causes (which he gives as 25) and those unaccounted for, and omits the latter category from his calculations. The severity of the Taiwan campaign, by contrast, can be seen when we give the total for the war as a whole; 17 282, with disease the grimmest of reapers, accounting for 11 894 of the dead. 9. Saneyoshi 1901, pp. 429-33. 10. Yamagata's original views are in Oyama 1966, pp. 228-40. 11. Morimatsu 1980, pp. 95-7. 12. Katsura order, undated, Sambo Hombu (Army General Staff), draft history of the Sino:Japanese war, Sato Bunko 5223.6/S/5-7, pp. 14-15. 13. Kyoto-shi 1975, p. 90, for the village protest against the stationing of new troops; Tottori-ken 1969, vol. 3, p. 26, and Hirosaki Shishi Hensan linkai 1964, pp. 263-4, for the economic benefits. 14. Suzuki/Mizuno 1988, p. 76. 15. Quoted in John Fraser, America and the Patterns of Chivalry, Cambridge 1982, p. 33. 16. Yokoyama Gennosuke 1899, cited in Morimatsu 1969, p. 121. Details on postwar prices and incomes are also in Ono 1922, especially pp. 279- 84. The Chinese indemnity did help prepare the way for Japan's change to the gold standard, a move seen by the leading economic minds in the government as essential to Japan's claim of parity with the civilised West. It also allowed for the establishment in 1897 of a currency law to stabilise prices, increase economic confidence at home and in the eyes of foreign traders and investors. These two moves improved Japan's foreign relations and prepared the way for Japan to enter into serious economic competition with the West. Details in Yamamoto 1980, p. 72; Nakamura 1985, pp. 80-4. 17. Ono 1922, pp. 256-67, on postwar expansion of the rail network and increase in passengers carried. The commitment to greater and faster mobility, however, was not universally shared: Kanagawa prefecture in July 1895 banned cycling at night on pain of fines between 5 and 50 sen! fiji Shimpo, 24 July 1895, SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 281. 18. On Takayama and Okakura, see Tsuji 1953, pp. 152-61. Takayama later 212 japan's First Modern War

turned to Nichiren Buddhism for more satisfYing answers to the mod• ern condition. On the rise of decadent literature in the late Meiji era, see Rubin 1984. 19. SSMHS, vol. 9, p. 194, Mainichi Shimlrnn, 19January 1895. 20. Advertisement in GNN, 4 May 1895. 21. Shinyashiki 1971, pp. 402-16. 22. Shinyashiki 1971, pp. 420-1. 23. Ryukyu Seifu 1966, vol. 4-3 (Kyoiku), pp. 353-65. Bibliography

UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

Asuda Tsumoru Family Papers, Gifu Rekishi Shiryokan British Foreign Office records, FO 262/697, 881/6594, 881/6605, 881/6665, 881/6706,881/6764,881/6809,881/6817 Dai Honei Fukukan, Wonsan Shubitaicho Hokoku, Boei Kenkyujo Dai Ichi-Gun Heitan Kantoku-bu, Chinchu Nisshi, Boei Kenkyujo Dai San-Shidan Sento Shoho, Boei Kenkyujo Kobayashi Heiji Jugun Nikki, Boei Kenkyujo Nis-Shin Senekijugun Nisshi, Boei Kenkyujo Nis-Shin Seneki ni okeru Senryochi Shisei lkken, Gaimusho Shiryokan Sambo Hombu, Nis-Shin Senso, draft, Sato Bunko, Fukushima Kenritsu Toshokan Yokoyama Tsuneo Family Papers, Gifu Rekishi Shiryokan

NEWSPAPERS AND JOURNALS

Geim Nicki Nicki Shimlntn Gifu Nicki Nicki Shimlntn Honzan Jimu Hokokusho /baragi Nippo japan Weekly Mail Kaikosha Kiji Kenchiku Zasshi Kyoto Shimpo Meikyo Shinshi Y onen Zasshi

OFFICIAL LOCAL HISTORIES

Fukushima-ken, ed., Fukushima Kenshi, vol. 15-1: Seiji 1, Fukushima 1968 --Fukushima Kenshi, vol. 4, Tsushi-hen 4: Kindai 1, Fukushima 1971 Furukawa Shishi Hensan Iinkai, ed., Furukawa Shishi: 1sushi-hen, Furukawa 1988 Furusato to Kasamatsu Henshi Iinkai, ed., Furusato to Kasamatsu, Gifu 1983 Gifu-ken, ed., Gifu Kenshi: Tsushi Kindai 2, Tokyo 1972 Ginan-machi, ed., Ginan Choshi: 1'sushi-hen, Gifu 1984 Godo-machi, ed., Godo Choshi, Ogaki 1969 Hirosaki Shishi Hensan Iinkai, ed., Hirosaki Shishi: Meiji Taisho Showa-hen, Hirosaki 1964

213 214 japan's First Modern War

Hiroshima-ken, ed., Hiroshima Kenshi: Kindai 1, Hiroshima 1980 --Hiroshima Kenshi: Kindai Gendai Shiryo 1, Hiroshima 1973 --Hiroshima Kenshi: Kindai Gendai Shiryo 2, Hiroshima 1975 Ibaragi-ken Henshu Iinkai, ed., lbaragi-ken Shiryo: Kindai Seiji Shakai-hen, vol. 4, Mito 1990 --lbaragi Kenshi: Kingendai-hen, Mito 1984 Ikeda-machi, Ikeda Choshi, Gifu 1974 Kakamigahara-shi Kyoiku Iinkai, Kakamigahara Shishi.· Tsushi-hen: Kinsei Kindai Gendai, Tokyo 1987 Kanagawa-ken Kenminbu Kenshi Henshushitsu, ed., Kanagawa Kenshi: Tsushi• hen 4- Kindai Gendai 1, Yokohama 1980 Katsuda Shishi Hensan Iinkai, ed., Katsuda Shishi: Kindai Gendai-hen 1, Katsuda 1979 Kyoto-shi, ed., Kyoto no Rekishi 8: Koto no Kindai, Kyoto 1975 Minami Nihon Shimbunsha, ed., Kagoshima Hyakunen, vol. 2: Meiji-hen, Tokyo 1967 Narita-shi Hensan Iinkai, ed., Narita Shishi: Kingendai-hen, Narita 1986 Ogaki-shi, ed., Shinshu Ogaki Shishi: Tsushi-hen 2, Ogaki 1968 Ryukyu Seifu, ed., Okinawa Kenshi 4: Kakuron 3, Naha 1966 --Okinawa Kenshi 4-3: Kyoiku, Naha 1966 Sanekabe Choshi Hensan Iinkai, ed., Sanekabe-cho Shiryo: Kingendai-hen 1, Sanekabe 1984 Tajima Choshi Henshu Iinkai, ed., Tajima Choshi, vol. 3: Tsushi 3 Kindai, Tajima 1991 Tajimi-shi, ed., Tajimi-shi: Tsushi-hen, vol. 2, Tokyo 1987 Takahagi Shishi Hensan Iinkai, ed., Takahagi Shishi, Takahagi 1969 Tatsuno Shishi Hensan Senmon Iinkai, ed., Tatsuno-shi, vol. 3, Tatsuno 1985 Teramoto Kosaku, ed., Kenshi: Kindai-hen 2, Kumamoto 1962 Tochigi Kenshi Hensan Iinkai, ed., Tochigi Kenshi: Shiryo-hen; Kingendai 2, Tokyo 1977 Tokyo Hyakunenshi Henshu Iinkai, ed., Tokyo Hyakunenshi, Tokyo 1979 Tottori-ken, Tottori Kenshi: Kindai 2, Seiji-hen, Tottori 1969 -- Totton Kenshi: Kindai 3, Keizai-hen, Tottori 1969 Toyama-ken, ed., Toyama Kenshi: Tsushi-hen 5 Kindai 1, Toyama 1981

OTHER PUBLICATIONS

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(Sagawa Kazusuke), Nis-Shin Senso Jugun-ki, Zama 1988 Zen Nihon Shimbun Renmei, ed., Nihon Hodo Hyakunenshi, Tokyo 1976 Index advertising, 99, 110 166, 168-70, 181, 192n, 194n, 210n, Ainu people, 76 211n Akihito, Prince, 170 celebrations, wartime Japanese, 49-50, alcohol, 70, 73, 77, 83 83, 88, 106, 109, 154, 178, 187 Aoki, Shuzo, 172 China, 54, 88, 95, 164; army, 10, 25, 29, architecture, Chinese, 63; Japanese, 177 34, 36, 38-9, 44, 144, 150, 154, 158, Ariga, Nagao, 67, 136 161-2, 168-9; customs, 63-9; navy, aristocracy, Japan, 84, 89, 91, 97, 120, 33, 34, 37, 42, 166-7; relations with 186 Japan, 3, 15-16, 24-7, 103, 111, 116, armaments, Chinese, 36; Japanese, 28-9, 136-41, 164, 171-6, 179; relations 36, 106 with Korea, 15, 26; relations with army, Chinese, 10, 25, 29, 34, 36, 38, 39, West, 13-14,24,45-6, 165, 179 44,66-7 Chon, Pongjun, 135 army, Japanese, 3, 5, 15, 20, 22, 26-7, Christianity, 67, 107-8, 144, 146-7; 35, 39,41-2,51-3,96,97-8,100,106, Japanese opposition to, 115-16 107, 112, 118, 129, 131-4, 138, 141, Cleveland, Grover, 27, l89n 162, 166, 172, 175, 181-3, 186, 190n, commerce, 3, 103-7, 185 195n; combat, 34, 36-9, 44, 66, 134, conscription, 13, 17-18, 79, 187 154, 157-8, 166-9; discipline, 18, 51, coolies, discipline, 51, 75-6, 147-8; 142-63, 183, 207n; justice, 148, 151, Japanese army, 35, 72, 75-7, 104, 137, 153, 207n; organisation, 17-18, 20-1, 138, 149, 153, 196n; Korean, 38, 61-2, 30, 49, 93, 145, 151, 170-1; popular 76, 132, 148; wages, 75-7, 132 attitudes to, 17-18, 52-3, 56, 71, 74, corruption, 74, 105-7 86,88-92,95, 100-1, 103, Ill, 184, Creelman, James, 155-6, 160-1, 163 187, 192-3n; postwar expansion, crime, 105; 146, 148-52, 153 178-9, 182, 184; relations with Cromer, Lord, 129-30 , 21,80-5, 170-1; 'spirit', 51, 60, 66,69-74,84,94, 117, Denby, Charles, 180 183, 186; Western impressions of, 8, desertion, Japanese military, 151, 153 49, 51, 143, 156, 159, 209n Detring, Gustav, 41 Diet (Japanese parliament), 18-19, Ban Alcohol Society, 77 22-3, 84,86-7, 102, 106, 179 banks, Japanese, 91, 198n disasters, natural (Japan), 116-17, 202n Beijing, Japanese strategy towards, 32-3, discipline, Japanese military, 18, 138, 40-2, 164-5, 167, 175, 19ln 143 Beiyang fleet, China, 33, 34, 37, 42, 44, disease, 73, 77, 86, 111, 117, 140-1, 166 149-50, 170, 181 Benedict, Ruth, 159 donations, Japanese popular, 74, 88-90, bonds, Japanese government, 88, 90-2, 104, 106, 111, 115, 118, 178 104, 106, 112, 178, 20ln Boxer uprising, 143 Britain, 14, 20, 41, 97, 115, 182; education, 13, 72, 79-81, 129, 186-7 attitudes towards Japan, 27, 34-5, 37, elections, 85, 197n 45-8, 126, 161' 164, 173-4, 176 employment, 104-5 brutality, 133-4, 142-4, 150, 155-63, empress, Japanese, 82-4 169, 208-9n Buddhism, 64, 107, 110-16, 20ln, 202n fashion, 103 fiction, 185; war fiction, 99 casualties, military, 34, 37, 44, 154-5, finance, 90-2, 130, 200n

219 220 Index

First Army, Japan, 31, 35, 38-9, 43-4, Indo-China, 176, 180 74, 76, 138, 158, 167-8 Inoue,Kaoru, 128-30,132 flags, 53, 56, 58, 70,80,83, 88,103,107, Inoue, Kowashi, 96 109, 184, 20ln Inoue, Tetsujiro, 181 food, 59, 64, 68, 73-4, 104 lshiguro, Tadanori, 33, 59, 73, 76-7, 171 France, 13-14, 47, 97, 182; attitudes Itagaki, Taisuke, 22-3 towards China, 48, 176; attitudes Ito, Hirobumi, 22-3, 26, 30-3, 41-3, towards Japan, 45, 48-9, 173, 175-6 45-6,87, 129, 162, 165, 171, 174-5, Fujimura, Michio, 2, 7, 59, 84, 93, 143, 189n 156-7, 160 Fujiwara, Akira, 157 Japan, attitudes towards China, 15, Fukushima, Yasumasa, 25, 39, 138 24-5, 28, 59, 62-9, 123-4, 136-41, Fukuzawa, Yukichi, 16, 29, 106 150, 157, 171-6, 179; attitudes funerals, Chinese, 64, 114, 140; towards Korea, 3, 59,60-2, Ill, 114, Japanese, 88, 95, 110-,14, 120-2, 178, 116, 123-36, 179; government, 13, 186 22-3, 54, 58, 80, 82, 95, 108-9, 135, 143, 178-9; local government, 86, Gakushuin, 186 87-9,90-2,93, 117-19, 121-2, 178, geisha, 98, l 03-4 197n; nationalism, 5, 54, 58, 78-81, Geneva convention, 142, 145, 159 92, 94-5, 183-4, 186-7; relations Genyosha, 86 with Britain, 27, 32, 37, 45-8, 126, Germany, 14, 47, 179; attitudes towards 161, 164, 173-4, 176, 190n; relations Japan, 45,48-9, 174-6 with France, 45, 48-9, 173, 175-6; Gibson, William, 7 relations with Germany, 45, 48-9, Gifu prefecture, 6, 28, 52, 81, 88-92, 174-6; relations with Russia, 24-5, 93-4,99-100, 105, 107, 109, 111, 32,45,47-9,136,162,172-6,182 118, 121, l97n, l98n Japan National Defence Academy, 97 Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimlmn, 6, 18, 28, 59, 99 Great Japan Patriotic Volunteers, 93 Kamei, Koreaki, 4, 100, 147 Kangwachai, battle of, 44, 66 Haich'eng, battles of, 41, 44, 167-9 Kapsin rising (Korea), 15 Hamamoto, Risaburo, 54, 60-2, 70, 72, Katsura, Taro, 20-l, 32, 38, 44, 146-7, 74, 133, 150 167-9, 173, 183, 210n Hawaii, US annexation of, 180 Kawakami, Otojiro, 50, 98 Hayashi, Tadasu, 138 Kawakami, Soroku, 25-6, 28, 32, 171, Hideyoshi, Toyotomi, 110, 131 176, l89n Hijikata, Hisamoto, 85 Kim, Hongjip, 127 Hillier, Walter, 126 Kimberley, Lord, 46, l9ln Hiramatsu, Riei, 113 Kitashirakawa, Princess, 97 Hiroshima, 53-6, 81, 86, 105-6, 110, Kojong, King of Korea, 26, 126-8 118, 149, 152; Diet, 86-7 Komatsu, Princess, 97 Holland, Thomas, 163 Komura,Jutaro, 32, 39, 138, 140 , 103 Korea, 25-7, 95, 141, 144; army, 15, 26, 60, 132-5; attitudes towards Japan, 15, Imo rising (Korea), 15 35, 38, 62, 127-8, 131-5, 179; Imperial Headquarters (japan), 26, customs, 59, 60-2, l29;Japanese 32-3,40-3,81,97,131,140,167-8, attitudes towards, 15, 59, 60-2, Ill, 170 114, 116, 123-36, 179; Japanese imperialism,Japanese, 116, 123-6, commercial interest, 3; government, 129-30; Western, 12-14, 16, 59, 116 127-30, 134; railways, 54, 125-6; indiscipline, Chinese military, 25, 144, reforms, 27, 124, 126-30, 204n; 150, 157;Japanese military, 18, 145, relations with China, 15, 26, 128, 133, 148-63, 183, 208-9n 204n Index 221

Kuroda, Koshiro, 36, 99 Nozu, Michitsura, 35, 38, 43, 49, 140, Kyoto Shimpo, 113, 175 167-9 nurses; 96-8, 115; authorities' fear of, language, Chinese, 114;Japanese troops' 96-7; growing status in Japan, 97 use of, 53, 69, 137; Korean, 131 law, .Japanese military, 148, 151, 153 Li, Hung-chang, 10, 25, 44, 103, 171, Ogaki Patriotic Society, 89 175 Ohama, Tetsuya, 6, 17, 91, 159 Liaotung peninsula (China), 34, 39, 41, Okabe, Makio, 155 138-41, 151, 172, 174, 176 Okakura, Kakuzo, 185 looting, Japanese military, 146-9 Okinawa, 187 Okuma, Shigenobu, 22-3, 42 Macaulay, Lord, 142 Okura, Kihachiro, 89, 106 'magic lantern' shows, 101, 120 opera, Chinese, at Port Arthur, 67 Manchuria, Japanese occupation of, 66, Otani, Koson, Ill 136-41, 147, 151, 157 Otani sect, 112, 201n materialism, 9, 19, 65, 105, 183 Oyama, Iwao, 21, 32, 39, 67, 85, 95, 103, Matsukata, Masayoshi, 173, 189n 141, 145, 160, 162-3, 166-7, 194n Matsushita, Yoshio, 2, 6, 95, 154 Ozaki, Yukio, 173, 188n Meckel, Clemens, 21 Meiji, Emperor, 6, 23, 31, 41-3, 70, 73, Pak, Yong-hyo, 128 87,93-4,96,108,173,178-9,187, pan-Asianism, 15, 60, 68, 114-16, 123, 202n; donations to forces, 70, 83; 175, 180 wartime roles, 78-86, 170-1, 172, Patriotic Defence Society, 181 176-7 Patriotic Symposium, 94 Meikyo Shinshi, 115 patriotism, 8, 65, 69-73, 76, 86, 93-6, militarism, 7-9, 14, 18, 94, 105, 110, 143, 100,103-7,111,115,117,180,183-4, 184 186-7 militia, 93-4 peace negotiations, 170-6 missionaries, Western, 48, 130, 144, 147 Philippines, 173, 180 Mitsubishi, 106 photography, 99-100, 119 Mitsui, 3, 89, 106 physical education, 96-7, 186 Mukden, 34, 40 Port Arthur, 37, 39, 67, 141; battle of, Mutsu, Munemitsu, 2, 23-4, 26, 30-2, 41, 154-5, 158, 176; massacre, 143, 41, 45-7, 85, 102, 129, 131, 135-6, 155-63, 208n 161-2, 171-2, 174 prices, commodity, 104-6, 140, 185 priests, .Japanese; with the armies, 110, Nagai, Genshi, 95 112-16, 137; with the navy, 113 Nagaike, Gofu, 115 prisoners of war, 95, 114, 133, 143-8, Nambu, Kijiro, 73-4, 150, 157 156, 158, 162 nationalism, 5, 8, 78-81, 92, 94-5, 99, P'yongyang, 38, 59, 61; battle of, 35-7, 101, 107, 109-10, 116, 121-2, 184 133, 158 navy, Japanese, 21, 23, 29, 34, 37, 42, 48, 49, 89, 106, 134, 151, 166-7, 170, 172, 175, 182 racial attitudes, held by Japanese, 7, New York World, 155, 161 59-69, 144, 150, 159-60, 181; towards newspapers, Japanese, 23, 71-2, 88, 92, Japan, 7, 14, 49, 159, 163, 175, 180, 160-l, 185; wartime impact on, 188n 98-100, 199n railways, 21, 104, 182, 185; cultural Nishi, Tokujiro, 172 impact, 54-8 Niuch'ang, battle of, 169 Red Cross, Japan, 56, 89, 95, 96-8, Nogi, Maresuke, 44, 97, 154, 158, 168 109-10, 121, 144 Nozawa, Takesaburo, 68-9, 100, 149, religion, 57, 64, 80-1, 84, 107-16, 184 153, 159, 192n Roosevelt, Theodore, 142 222 Index

Russia, 13-14,20,23-5,97, 179; Togo, Heihachiro, 34-5 relations with Japan, 45, 47-9, 136, Tokugawa era, 9, 12-13, 15, 79 162, 172-6, 182 Tokutomi, Iichiro (Soho), 180, 188-9n Russojapanese war, 1-2, 9, 11, 12, 120, Tonghak (Korea), 25-7, 126; clashes 143, 152 with Japanese, 60, 128,131-5 transport, 104-5, 185;Japanese army, Sagawa, Kazusuke, 55-6, 155 21, 35, 39, 76 Saigo,Judo, 32 Trans-Siberian railway, 24, 176 Sakuma, Samata, 145 Triple intervention, 136, 173, 175-6 , 9, 14, 17, 27,93 trophies of war, 109, 148-9, 184 sanitation, 140 Sato, Tadashi, 36, 38, 39, 158 Ubukata, Tashiro, 63, 90, 121 schools, Japanese, 56, 72, 81, 89, 92, Uchimura, Kanzo, 78, ll5, 196n 94-7, 109, 121, 129, 184, 186-7 uniforms, 73, 82 Second Army, Japan, 39, 44, 74, 137-8, United States of America, 12-14, 47, 154, 162, 166-8 115; attitudes towards Japan, 27, 130, sex, 97-8, 103; diseases, 149-50; 161-3, 176, 180 offences, 68, 149-51 Shanghai, 48, 114; arsenal, 25, 46; Victory Arch, Tokyo, 106, 177 British concern, 46 Villiers, Frederick, 156 Shibusawa, Eiichi, 89 volunteers, Japanese military, 93-4 Shimonoseki, treaty of, 175 Shinto, 57, 79-80, 84, 94, 95-6, 107-12, ll3, ll4 wages,89, 104-5,185 Songhwan, battle of, 34 war correspondents, Japanese, 36, 65, songs, war, 56,95-6,97, 99,186, 199n 69, 99-100; Western, 76, 155-6, sports, 57, 94, 96 160-3 strategy, Japanese military, 20, 24-5, Weihaiwei, battle of, 42, 166-7 30-4,39,40-2,44,164-8 welfare, Japanese military families, 90, suicide, military, 62 117-22 sumo, 93,94 White, Trumbull, 157 supplies, Japanese military, 35, 38, 72-4, women, Chinese, 68, 75, 146, 150-1, 88, 104, 106, 131, 136, 139-40, 148, 155-6, 208n;Japanese, 8, 82-4, 89, 182 96-8, 105, ll2, 120, 149-50 Wylie,James, 144 Taewon'gun, 128, 135 Taip'ing rebellion (China), 15 Yabu, Kenyu, 187 Taiwan, 5, 15, 41, 48, 172-4, 176, 179; Yamagata, Aritomo, 17, 20,21-3,25, campaign of, 10, 29, 34, 42, 170 31-3, 35, 39, 49, 103, ll3, 125-6, Takahashi, Korekiyo, 91 137-9, 141, 145, 147, 162, 165, 167, Takayama, Chogyu, 180, 185 178, 182, 189n; recall, 40-3, 172; Tanaka, Hiromi, 81 support for Russojapanese Tani, Kanjo, 173 agreement, 174 Taruhito, Prince, 32, 83, 85 Yamaji, Motoharu, 40, 137, 154, 210n Tayama, Katai, 19 Yamakawa, Hitoshi, 95 Tenno Kogo to Nis-Shin Senso, 2 Yasuda, Hiroshi, 178 Tenshodo, 58 Yasuda, Zenshiro, 89 Terauchi, Masatake, 171 Yasukuni Shrine, 50, 107-10 The Times (London), 35, 156, 161, 173 Yingk'ou, 138, 168-9, 175 Tianjin, treaty of, 16, 26 Yokoyama, Gennosuke, 179 T'ienchuangt'ai, battle of, 67, 169 youth groups, 94, 186 time, perceptions of, 55, 57-8, 193n Youth Patriotic Society, 94 Ting, Admiral, 166-7 Yu!Jin Hochi Shimlmn, 99