The Modern Chinese Orchestra Author(S): Han Kuo-Huang and Judith Gray Source: Asian Music, Vol

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The Modern Chinese Orchestra Author(s): Han Kuo-Huang and Judith Gray Source: Asian Music, Vol. 11, No. 1 (1979), pp. 1-43 Published by: University of Texas Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/833965 . Accessed: 08/07/2014 18:39

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This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions THE MODERNCHINESE ORCHESTRA By Han Kuo-Huang

Introductory Notes

This paper deals with the new Chinese ensemble featuring improved and standardized traditional instruments.1 The name of this ensemble varies according to geographical areas - in Mainland China: Minzu Yuetuan or Minzu Yuedui, in Hong Kong: Zhongyuetuan, in Taiwan: Guoyuetuan, all meaning "national or "Chinese" orchestra. In this paper I will use the generic name "Chinese Orchestra" to avoid confusion. In order to distinguish this orchestra from many historical orchestras and local ensembles, the adjective "modern" is attached. Names of instruments are given without explanation, except in their first appearances and in special cases. A glossary is provided at the end of the paper. Romanization of Chinese names follows the Pinyin system, except in the conventionalized spelling of city names such as Peking, Nanking, Chungking, etc. This research was partially funded by a grant from the Northern Illinois University Graduate School.

I. BACKGROUND A. Historical Entertainment Orchestras

Legend tells us that when the Yellow Emperor (c. 2697?-2598? B.C.) retired to a hut to discipline his mind and body after years of ruling China, he discarded all governmental and earthly materials, among them his orchestra of "bells and drums". (Liezi 1960: 34) Inscribed oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty (c. 1766- 1154 B.C.) reveal that the musical instruments employed

1 In referring to this recent change in Chinese musical instruments, I am tempted to use quotes around the word "improved" because it is a translation of a Chinese expression and not the value judgement of a Western scholar. In fact, most Chinese people think that the instruments have been greatly improved, and for this reason quotes will not be used here.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions during that period were "the hand drums, drums struck by drum-sticks, the flutes, sonorous stones, and bells." (Gibson 1937: 12) The Yili (I Li) describes the ceremonial orchestra for the great archery game in the Western Zhou Dynasty (1066-770 B.C.) as having 2 big bronze bells (bo), 2 bronze bells (zhong), 3 big drums ('iangu), 2 sma-l drums (pi), 1 hand drum (tao), 2 stone c himesi( ing), 4 zithers (se), ard 3 mouth organs (sheg and tang) (I Li 1917: 151). From antiquity the Chinese have employed -rchestras of different sizes for official ceremonies and royal entertainment. From archaeological, pictorial, and literary sources, we can see that idiophones and membranophones dominated the pre-Shang orchestras; next in importance were aerophones. (Li, C. 1964: 16-23; 39-46) The orchestras of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.) show similar patterns of instrumentation, though with a slight increase of aerophones and chordophones. (See pictures in Needham 1962: Fig. 299, 300, 301; Sullivan 1973: 62 and 90) The influx of foreign music and instruments that started during the Han Dynasty and continued for several centuries gradually changed the structure of the Chinese orchestra. Orchestras were formed according to their functions, broadly grouped as ritual, ceremonial-entertainment, and processional. In the long and complicated process of evolution, no one type of orchestra sustained the exact instrumentation. Generally speaking, however, a ritual orchestra which was used for Jisi (rites), performed Yayue (elegant music) and employed instruments of Chinese origin such as bronze bells, stone chimes, zithers and wind instruments. The ceremonial-entertainment orchestra which was used for Yanxiang (court ceremonies and banquets) and entertainment, performed Yanyue (banquet music) and employed more instruments of foreign origin. As time went on, the function of this type of orchestra became almost exclusively that of entertainment. The processional bands were known by different names, but could be collectively called Guchui (drums and winds). They were used for processions and other outdoor occasions, and tended to employ mainly foreign instruments of the reed and flute families and a large battery of percussion. It should be noted that due to assimilation, the foreign instruments of one period of Chinese history became the Chinese instruments of a later period. For the purposes of this paper, examples are drawn from the entertainment orchestras of various periods. The establishment of entertainment orchestras based upon their country of origin began in the Sui Dynasty

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions (581-618 A.C.) and culminated in the Shibuji (the Ten Orchestras) of the early Tang period (640-642 A.D.) In addition to two Chinese orchestras, the Qingyue and the there were orchestras from West Liang, Yanyue, Kutcha, Kashgar, Bukhara, Samarkand, Turfan, India, and Korea. The detailed instrumentation of each orchestra has been studied by Kishibe (1973: 493-567). One selected example may serve to reveal the change of attention in instrumentation. For instance, the Indian Orchestra of the Shibuji consisted of the following instruments as listed in Tongdien (Comprehensive Institute) compiled by Du You (735-812 A.D.) (Kishibe 1973: 506-7): Fig. 1 - The Indian Orchestra in the Shibuji of Early Tang Idiophones Membranophones Chordophones Aerophones tongbo (brass Qianggu (drum) fengshou konghou bili (oboe) cymbals) (phoenix-headed Maoyuangu (drum) harp) hengdi Duyungu (drum) (transverse pipa (lute) flute) wuxian pipa (5- bei (shell) str. lute) All the instruments were of foreign origin at that time. In terms of this classification, a sense of balance is seen in the increase of stringed instruments and the absence of bells and chimes. It is a very different orchestra as compared to the orchestras of antiquity mentioned earlier.

Many foreign instruments like these were mixed with domestic ones in later orchestras and, as time went on, were Sinicized. The famous Dunhuang frescos painted around 642 A.D., in which Buddhist apsaras were shown with instruments, represent not one single orchestra of the Shibuji of the early Tang, but an ideal amalagmation of domestic and foreign elements in Chinese orchestra arrangements at that time and after. (Needham 1962: Fig. 313 and 314) The best pictorial examples of entertainment orchestras are the several paintings of female musicians, most of which supposedly depict entertainment scenes in the chamber of Emperor Tang Xuanzong (713-755 A.C.) One such painting attributed to Zhou Wenju of the Southern Tang Dynasty (923-936 A.D.) is now in the Art Institute of Chicago. (Speiser 1960: 165) Despite the fact that it could be a Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.) copy, and consequently represent a Song orchestra (Kishibe 1965: 108), it presents several points of interest common to entertainment

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions orchestras since the Tang Dynasty. Nineteen female musicians are divided into two groups and directed by a dagu (big drum). The instruments can be broken down as follows:

Fig. 2 - Orchestra in the Painting of Zhou Wenju Idiophones Membranophones Chordophones Aerophones fangxiang dagu (big drum) 1 *pipa (lute) 2 sheng (mouth (iron chimes) organ) 2 2 *yaogu (hour- zheng (zither) glass drum) 2 2 *bili (oboe) paiban (clap- 1 pers) 2 *konghou (Harp) 2 *di (transverse flute) 2

xiao (vertical flute) 1

*denotes foreign origin at that time. number denotes number of players. The synthesis of domestic and foreign elements is evident in the above chart. It is significant to note the leading roles of the two pipa players in the front of each group, a tradition still preserved in local genres such as Nanguan ensemble music of southern China. The use of paiban clappers in each group is to control rhythm, a practice also in use in Nanguan music today. We may assume that this type of orchestra, as shown in the painting, is a representation of the old Chinese entertainment orchestra.

The treatment of the twenty-two female musicians and two female dancers carved on the stone coffin of King Wang Jian of the Former Shu Dynasty (903-925 A.D.) further confirms the above assumption regarding the leading roles of the pipa and paiban. The musicians and dancers are arranged in the south (front), east and west sides of the coffin. The four figures carved on the south side are the two dancers, a pipa player and one of the paiban players, presumably more important than the others carved on the sides. Moreover, these two musicians and the two dancers have more elaborate breast covers than the musicians carved on the east and west sides of the coffin. (Feng 1964: 18)

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The timbre of this type of orchestra changed when the bowed chordophones were introduced. The two-stringed fiddle huqin (literally "Barbarian instrument") is a spiked fiddle covered with snake skin and performed with a bow of horse-hair which passes through the two strings (not to be confused with the Xiqin which was a fiddle covered with a wooden plate and bowed with a bamboo stick). In fact, the name huqin is a generic term referring to all fiddles of this shape. The most popular instrument in China today, this two-stringed fiddle first appeared in the entertainment orchestra of the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty (1206-1367 A.D.) In a description of musical instruments of the Yuan entertainment orchestra given in the Yuan Shi (History of the Yuan Dynasty, completed in 1370), the huqin is mentioned along with the Xinglongsheng (Western organ) and huobusi (Central Asian kobuz) (Zhongguo... 1976: 753-4; Picken: 84-5). The instrument was retained in some of the entertainment orchestras in the following Ming and Qing dynasties and was always regarded as a "foreign instrument". For example, according to the Ming Shi (History of the Ming Dynasty), the Si yiwu (Barbarian Dance), an entertainment dance created in 1T68 during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.) was accompanied by an orchestra consisting of the following instruments (Zhongguo... 1976: 760):

Fig. 3 - Ming Dynasty Orchestra for the Siyiwu Idiophones Membranophones Chordophones Aerophones shuizhan yaogu (hourglass pipa (lute) 2 touguan (water bowls) drum) 1 (oboe) 2 1 set huqin (fiddle) 2 qiangdi ban (clappers) konghou (harp) 2 (trans- 1 verse qin (bowed flute) 2 zither) 2

After conquering Chahaer in eastern Mongolia in 1628, the Houjin Emperor Huang Taiji (later became Qing Taizong, reigned 1627-1643 A.D.) imported two orchestras from Mongolia, one being the Fanbu Hezou (Barbarian Ensemble). The instrumentation of this ensemble as recorded in the Qing Shi (History of the Qing Dynasty) is revealing in our study of the Chinese entertainment orchestra and its modern descendants (Zhongguo... 1976: 873):

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Fig. 4 - Qing Dynasty Fanbu Hezou Idiophones Membranophones Chordophones Aerophones **yunlo (set *zheng (zither) *xiao of brass (vertical gongs) *huqin (fiddle) flute) *paiban tiqin (4-str. *di (trans- (clappers) fiddle) verse flute) erxian (2-str. *sheng lute) (mouth organ) *pipa (lute) **guan (oboe) *sanxian (3-str. lute) **yueqin (4-str. lute) yazheng (bowed- zither) huobusi (kobuz) * denotes instruments in use in the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble (explained later) and the modern Chinese orchestra. **denotes instruments in use in other local ensembles and in the large modern Chinese orchestra.

It is not known if this is the exact instrumentation of the Mongolian orchestra or a revised version by the Emperor's court musicians. But with the exceptions of the Central Asian kobuz and the Mongolian tiqin (a 4- stringed fiddle), both of which are still used by Chinese minorities, these instruments are still popular among the Chinese people to this day. Even the yazheng (bowed zither) can be found in use in Hebei folk music. The ueqin lute in this case is an octagonal-shaped, long- necked lute as opposed to its modern round-shaped, short- necked brother seen today. The only unfamiliar instrument in this group is the erxian, which was a two-stringed lute at that time. Now the name refers to a two-stringed fiddle.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions One of the most interesting discoveries in Chinese music research is the Xiansuo Shisantao (The Thirteen Pieces for Strings) compiled by Rong Zai in 1814, a rare instance of traditional Chinese pieces actually arranged in score form. Of the six lines of music, four are designated for the pipa, sanxian, huqin, and zheng, in order of importance. The accompanying notes indicate one or two of the following instruments could be used for the remaining two undesignated lines: xiao, di, sheng, and tiqin (a two-stringed fiddle in this case). (Rong 1955: 9) This is clear evidence of the popularity of these instruments in the early nineteenth century. In fact, this nineteenth-century score was used by the Manchu literati in Peking, who probably learned these instruments from the court musicians.

Both examples of 1628 and 1814 point toward the emergence of a type of ensemble in which chordophones (including at least one bowed fiddle, but the leader remaining the pipa) dominate, with a few aerophones (inevitably including a transverse flute) above them. Heterophonic support is provided by the other plucked chordophones, and the time is kept by the player of percussion. Emerging from this is the Jiangnan Sizhu (Silk and Bamboo of the South), an important type of folk ensemble which served as the basis of the modern Chinese orchestra.

It seemed that the Chinese always favored foreign music and instruments for entertainment purposes. Due to the encouragement of the courts those instruments became popular. It was a logical result to see them pass from the court to the literary circle and finally to the folk. At present, these instruments have been adopted by many folk ensembles whereas the bronze bells, stone chimes, and other ceremonial instruments remained as "historical" developments because they were associated chiefly with ritual.

The foregoing discussion of court entertainment orchestras in Chinese history reveals several points: 1) The entertainment orchestra employed both domestic and foreign (later Sinicized) instruments. The foreign flavor was always stronger. 2) Chordophones, the pipa in the leading role, seemed to dominate the orchestra. The bowed- fiddle family appeared much later but gradually gained in importance.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 3) The rhythm of these orchestras was regulated by idiophones (such as clappers) and membranophones. 4) All melodic instruments were from medium to high pitch in range. 5) There were no lip-cup mouth-piece aerophones.

6) Orchestras were functional in that they served the purpose of entertainment. 7) There seems to be no definite number of performers in a given orchestra. Hundreds and thousands of performers were mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. It seems, however, that orchestras changed in size according to physical and economic circumstances, gradually decreasing in size since the Tang Dynasty.

B. The Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble Of the many traditional Chinese music ensembles still in existence by the mid-twentieth century, the following seem to be the most prominent. They can be grouped into two main categories: 1) String-Flute (Sizhu) Dominated Jiangnan Sizhu (Silk and bamboo of the South) Guangdong Yinyue (Cantonese music) Chaozhou Yinyue (Chaozhou music) Fujian Nanyin (Southern music of Fujian) Taiwan Nanguan ("Southern pipe" of Taiwan) 2) Wind-Percussion (Chuida) Dominated

Shanxi Badatao ("Eight Sets" of Shanxi) Hebei Chuige ("Blowing song" of Hebei) Shangdong Yinyue (Shangdong music) Sunan Chiuda (Wind and percussion of southern Jiangsu) Zhoushan Logu (Gongs and drums of Zhoushan) Chaozhou Dalogu (Big gongs and drums of Chaozhou) Taiwan Beiguan ("Northern pipe" of Taiwan) While instrumentation varies slightly, most string-flute dominated ensembles feature one each of the transverse and vertical flutes, a mouth organ, a bowed fiddle, two or three plucked lutes, and a player of one or two small percussion instruments acting as a conductor.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The wind-percussion dominated ensembles have greater variety, most being outdoor bands including prominent oboe-type of instruments, flutes, mouth organs, and many percussion instruments. The Chaozhou Dalogu Ensemble is distinguished for its inclusion of long brass horns, a rare instance of the use of lip-cup aerophones in Chinese ensembles. An important feature derived from the above categories is that traditional ensembles are grouped according to the principal instruments used, such as: Sizhu (silk and bamboo, i.e. strings and winds) Chuida (blowing and striking, i.e. winds and percussion) Logu (gongs and drums) Other instruments, if used, are considered as subsidiary. This is true in theatre orchestras also. For instance, in the Peking opera orchestra, a Wenchang (civil section) and Wuchang (military section) are defined even though they sit together at one corner on the stage. The Wenchang consists of strings and winds and the Wuchang, gongs and drums.

The Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble, as indicated in the above classification, belongs to the string-flute dominated category. The name Jiangnan means south (nan) of the river (jiang), that is, the Yangtze River. It denotes the general area of the lower valley along the Yangtze River in central-eastern China, which includes modern-day southern Jiangsu, Anhui, northern Zhejiang, etc. This area is the heartland of Chinese rice fields and refined classical culture. People like to describe this area as beautiful and enchanting, and literary titles such as "Remembering Jiangnan" or "Spring in Jiangnan" are encountered again and again in poems and music. In general, the music of this area (aside from the wind- percussion dominated ensembles) tends to be tender and lyrical in nature.

The Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble, the most popular ensemble of this area, seems to justify the above claims. The "standard" traditional instrumentation can be broken down in the following chart: (Hu 1961: 24)

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Fig. 5 - A Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble Idiophones Membranophones Chordophones Aerophones ban diengu (drum) *erhu (fiddle) di (trans- (clappers) verse pipa (lute) flute) xiao sanxian xiao (vertical (small 3-str. flute) lute) sheng (mouth yangqin (ham- organ) mered dulcimer) *erhu is the modern name for the most popular instrument of the huqin family. In practice, the zheng, yueqin, and a few other instruments can be added to the above listing. These are some of the most popular Chinese instruments and are encountered in many other ensembles. Most of them can be found in the 1814 Xiansuo Shisantao mentioned above. It should also be noted that most instruments are high- pitched in range, the medium-range instruments being pipa and the yangqin. This last-mentioned instrument came to southern China from Persia during the Ming Dynasty and was first popular in Guangdong area before it traveled northward. Like the huqin family, the yangqin is a late addition to Chinese music and is not included in the historical entertainment orchestras discussed in the previous section. In the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble, the percussion player marks the time and makes certain signals for sectional changes according to common practice. The pipa player, who is usually a virtuoso, is generally the real leader of the group musically and administratively. The function of the percussion player and the pipa player in the Chinese Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble can be compared to the similar function of the kendang player and the rebab player in the Javanese court gamelan. Like so many folk ensembles, the early history of the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble is vague. Because of its low social status, official documents did not record it; because of its independence from the theatre, the most popular form of entertainment among the people, the literary people did not write about it. But the popularity of this type of ensemble by the end of the nineteenth century was witnessed by van Aalst in the 1880's (presumably in Shanghai which is located in this same area):

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The orchestra ordinarily consists of two balloon-shaped guitars (played by girls who sing at the same time), one three- stringed guitar, one or two violins, one small drum to beat time, one flute, and one yang-ch'in. (van Aalst 1884: 36) The "balloon-shaped guitars" are pipa and the "three- stringed guitar", a sanxian, according to the author's own description in the same book (pp. 64 and 66). The "violins" must be one type of bowed-lute from the huqin family. The yangqin dulcimer, flute, and small drum are also standard instruments of this area. Van Aalst worked in Shanghai and his book was published there. The "Cantonese Orchestra" picture printed along with the above description does not match our ensemble since the transverse style of holding the pipa is more of a southern style (i.e. Chaozhou and Fujian area). We may assume, in this context, that the ensemble Aalst witnessed was a Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble or its predecessor. The instruments of the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble are, of course, found in most other string-flute dominated ensembles in China. But other ensembles of this sort possess one or two distinctly local features not present in the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble, such as the yuehu (Cantonese fiddle), inqin (long-necked lute), and houguan (oboe) in the Guangdong Music Ensemble; erxian (fiddle), yehu (coconut fiddle) and a local-style zheng (zither) in Chaozhou Music Ensemble; paiban (clappers) and the old style pipa in Fujian and Taiwan Nanguan ensembles, etc. The Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble represents the lyrical qualities of the region and, at the same time, less specialized instrumentation compared to other ensembles. This is probably one of the foremost reasons for its being adopted as the model of the modern Chinese orchestra.

The fact that the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble was considered more Chinese than the other local ensembles can be seen in its inclusion in a cultural-theatre group sent to the United States in 1948. In that group, the eight musicians played the pipa (the leader), two sizes of erhu, ruan (four-stringed lute), yangqin, di, xiao, sheng, and several percussions, all standard instruments of the ensemble. Other instruments such as qin and se (large zither) were brought along but were used only for special pieces, not as a part of the ensemble.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The playing style of the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble is very traditional in that all musicians play the same melody, but a heterophonic effect is created by the idiomatic differences among the instruments and sometimes by each player's free interpretation. Van Aalst could not resist making the statement about this type of playing when he heard the ensemble mentioned earlier: "All these instruments play, or at least try to play, in unison; still it seems to a foreigner not acquainted with their music that each performer has a part of his own, and that each aims to distinguish himself above his colleagues by making as much noise as he can." (1884: 36) Among the most famous pieces of the Jiangnan Sizhu repertoire are "Moonlight on the Spring River", "Song of Happiness", "Three Variations on Six Beats", "Procession in the Streets", "The Moon Is High", etc.

C. Western Influences

After repeated Western and Japanese humiliation in the second half of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries, Chinese intellectuals realized the necessity for modernization. The success of the Japanese Meiji Restoration set the precedent. Reform attempts in all phases were introduced, including the abolition of the centuries-old civil service examination in 1905. In its place a new education system modeled after Japan and the West was established. Western music was now taught in schools. The May Fourth Movement of 1919 added a decisive blow to the traditional culture, a culture which increasingly was being blamed for hampering the process of modernization. The whole decade of the 1920's saw a rapid transformation of society. As the historian Li Dingyi points out:

The tidal wave produced by the May 4th Move- ment soon passed, but men whose hearts were bent on saving the nation still continued to look for reasons why, ever since the Opium War, successive reforms and revolu- tions had never been able to bring the nation from weakness to strength and prosperity. They reached the conclusion that it was traditional Chinese culture that was the chief obstacle in the way of China's achievement of strength and prosperity. They therefore put forward the idea that traditional Chinese culture should be overthrown and that if the new culture of

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions the West were received, China would be saved. Out of this came the "New Culture Movement." (Li, D. 1970: 327)

Actually, traditional music was not completely neglected in music education. The qin, pipa, and erhu were taught side by side with piano and violin in Peking University during the 1920's. The National Conservatory in Shanghai (opened in 1927) also offered Chinese music in addition to keyboard, orchestra instruments, voice, and composition. But there were many more youths attracted by the new than the old. In many cases, modernization was synonymous with Westernization. Musicians trained in Western style began to think and hear music in terms of Western intonation, harmony, tone color, range, and above all, standardization of musical instruments. The new generation of musicians who played traditional instruments were also influenced by the same way of thinking. The late Western Romantic concept of largeness became the norm, and the establishment of traditional Chinese orchestras in the style of the large Western orchestras was inevitable. The following statement, written as a sort of reminiscense by Gao Ziming, a well-known traditional musician, serves to reveal the thinking of the time: Unfortunately due to individualism, the organization of the orchestra gradually diminished and eventually disappeared... By the time of the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic, national music was mainly solo music. Once in a while, three to five people or seven to eight people would get together to play pieces such as "Autumn Moon Over the Han Palace", "Old Six Beats", "Three Variations on the Plum Blossom", "All Is Well", etc. and called it ensemble playing (hezou). Actually, they all played the same melody, the result being unison playing ( izou). The fact of the matter is that they did not know the difference between unison playing and ensemble playing at that time. When there was one person playing, it was called a solo, several persons, an ensemble. There was no distinction between monophony and polyphony. The Sizhu type of performing was led by a player of drum-clappers, who sat in the center. Other string and wind instrument players surrounded him and listened to the regulating beat of the drum-clappers. They all memorized the music and never used music stands. (Gao 1965: 85)

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions This quotation confirms the practice of the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble described in the previous section. More importantly, it reveals Mr. Gao's concerns, including the need of 1) a large musical organization, 2) Western polyphony, 3) a conductor, and 4) sight reading like a Western musical group, all concepts related to Western ideas of the time. The court entertainment orchestra disappeared with the downfall of the last emperor in 1911. The small to medium-sized folk ensembles existing in the early twentieth century did not match the needs of the new generation. It is not surprising to see the rise of a new type of ensemble. Therefore, the birth of the modern Chinese orchestra is the result of the change of social structure and social taste. In fact, it is probably the most logical result of a society trying to modernize on the one hand and preserve some traditional elements on the other.

II. THE MODERNCHINESE ORCHESTRA

A. History i. Period of Formation (1930's-1940's) All sources, written and oral, agree that the modern Chinese orchestra was developed from the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble. Judging from the early instrumentation and repertoire of the modern Chinese orchestra, and from the fact that the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble, though a local genre, employed the most popular Chinese instruments, it is fairly accurate to accept this conclusion. Further- more, the very first musical group which became the predecessor of the first modern Chinese orchestra was formed in Nanking (then the capital of the Nationalist Government) in the lower Yangtze valley area. The first appearance of the orchestra in its full form, however, took place in Chungking, the temporary capital in south- west China during the Sino-Japanese War. In the BCC Chinese Orchestra 35th Anniversary Special, the author states:

The organization of a national orchestra to broadcast "national" music by our company began in 1935. At that time we were located in the capital [Nanking] and called the Central Broadcasting Station. The then acting manager, Mr. Wu Daoyi and a few other administrators felt the urgent need for national music in broadcasting

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions programs and proposed the forming of a national music department. With the enthusiastic preparation by Messrs. Chen Jiltie, Kan Tao, Hu Liezhen, etc., we began to perform and broadcast music with traditional instruments such as erhu, pipa, xiao, di, etc. Later, Messrs. Gao Ziming and Gan Nan joined the group and the Central Broadcasting Station National Orchestra was founded. But it was still very small in size. The war broke out in 1937 and the Central Broadcasting Station was moved with the Government to the temporary capital [Chungking].... By June 1939 the Music Department [of the Station] operated a 14-member national orchestra and a 28-member [Western] orchestra, both of which performed frequently. (Fang 1970: 1) The precise date of the beginning of the ensemble (1935) is documented by another write on the orchestra's fortieth anniversary program. (Wei 1975: n.p.) In the writing of Gao Ziming, a description of the first concert in modern format is given: In 1942 a new national orchestra, consisting of about twenty teachers and students [of the Central Broadcasting Station] appeared in the temporary capital. In the concert, performers sat facing the audience in two opposing fan-like half circles. A music stand was placed in front of each member (the sight reading practice) .... Another person, standing in front of the orchestra, holding a baton in his right hand, conducted lively with his back to the audience. A high music stand with its back against the other stands was placed in front of the conductor, a practice completely different from the old Sizhu ensemble. (Gao 1965: 86) Thus, using the traditional Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble as a foundation, the modern Chinese orchestra first appeared in 1935; the first concert in Western format by this kind of orchestra took place in 1942. Both sources quoted refer to the same orchestra, the Central Broad- casting Station Chinese Orchestra, which has been moved to Taiwan and renamed the BCC (Broadcasting Corporation of China) Chinese Orchestra. As a result of the orchestra',

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions vigorous activities in the 1940's, including two training sessions for young musicians, this new style of Chinese orchestra spread widely to schools and communities and the history of Chinese music began a new page. As also mentioned earlier, the rise of the modern Chinese orchestra was also influenced by Western ideas. The large symphony orchestra of the late Romantic Period was the model in the formation of the modern Chinese orchestra:

In organizing an orchestra, [we] use the yuehu or nanhu I as the first violins of the Western orchestra, nanhu II as the second violins, zhonghu as the violas, dahu as the violoncellos, dihu as the contrabasses, yangqin as the piano, 11- hole xindi as the flute, xiao as the clarinet, bangdi as the piccolo, haidi as the oboe, large guan as the trombone, suona as the trumpet, muqin as the xylophone, dagu as the timpani, xiaogu as the little [snare] drum, diaopo as the cymbals, and pengling as the triangle. (Gao 1965: 87)

Obviously, the author was not completely familiar with a Western orchestra during this period for he included the piano as a standard orchestral instrument. It seems he was looking for "equivalents" in both shape and sound. Indeed, he did not hesitate to recommend the inclusion of Western instruments into the modern Chinese orchestra:

It is all right to use Western musical instruments to substitute for the lack of low brass instruments. For instance, a hundred-member strong orchestra can use 4 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trombones, and can also use 2 oboes in the high register. Due to the poor quality of the strings (usually made of gut used in cotton making) of the dahu and dihu, which result in unpure and even noisy sound at times, we adopt 8 cellos and 4 double-basses to replace them. (Gao 1965: 105-6)

This experiment was not carried far. However, for a long time, the cellos and double-basses did stay in the modern Chinese orchestra, a clear indication of the need felt for a bass range. Even today, some modern Chinese orchestras still prefer cellos and double-basses over the newly made

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions low bowed strings such as dahu and dihu. Smaller ensembles mix even more Western instruments with Chinese ones.

The 1940's period was one of trial and error. In addition to performing, members of the Central Broad- casting Station Chinese Orchestra and specialists engaged in improving the instruments' range and temperament. Some of the medium and low range instruments were creations of that period.

2. Period of Evolution (1950's-1960's)

After the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949, interest in the modern Chinese orchestra increased rapidly, in large part due to the systematic encouragement of a national music by the government. The work started in the previous years was carried on with vigor. The central theme was still the same - to establish a modern Chinese orchestra that was both Chinese and modern:

Even though our national musical instruments are varied and colorful, judging from the contemporary point of view, they are insufficient and backward. For instance, the tone quality is not pure, the range is narrow, modulation is difficult, etc. We spoke of many types of local ensembles which are usually small to medium in size and are not suitable to the musical taste of today's masses. The whole country is in the midst of building the highpoint of a socialist society. Glorious life needs equally grandiose performing styles to match. (Yang 1957: 73) As this statement shows, large orchestras were formed to serve the needs of the masses and socialism. Actually this need was a trend resulting from the modernization begun earlier. Yang's concern with the tone quality, range, etc. is the result of the musical style becoming "modern". His statement was echoed by another writer concerning tuning system: Using the Chinese temperament can better express national characteristics. But from the view point of progress, the traditional temperament does not suit modern national ideas. Modern compositions require complex changes in tonality.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Traditional temperament cannot solve this problem. The twelve-step equal temperament possesses other good qualities also. So, the adoption of the twelve-tone equal equal temperament is the necessary road we must now take. (Wang 1959: 23) These two writers' concerns are typical. By the middle of the twentieth century, only illiterate musicians could "tolerate" the untempered and heterophonic style of traditional music because the educated class had been trained in Western system. Qin music, a tradition enjoyed by only a small and exclusive literate class, was one of the few traditional genres excluded from these new trends. The first full scale modern Chinese orchestra of the new regime was also associated with a radio station, this time the Central Broadcasting Station in Peking, a 35-member group formed in April 1953. (Zhang 1955: 22) Throughout the 1950's and the early 1960's, discussions of instrumentation occurred again and again. Some musicians experimented with the Mongolian Morinhu (horse- head fiddle) as the bass fiddle; some looked for Chinese historical brass instruments to cope with the modern-day lack of this type of instrument; some others emphasized the use of certain instruments to preserve and express local tone colors outside of the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble tradition.

Improvement of the national instruments along the principles of equal-temperament, accurate intonation, and increased range played a decisive role in the development of the modern Chinese orchestra. Large scale conferences with displays of newly improved instruments were held in 1954 (Peking), 1958 (Shanghai), 1959 (Peking), and 1964 (Peking). As late as April 1977, a conference on the improvement of low register instruments was held in Soochow, an indication of the continuing concern with range. Most of the instruments presently employed in the modern Chinese orchestra are results of these improvements. Less successful experiments included the three-stringed erhu, and the combination of xiao and di in one bamboo pipe. Without going into detail, the following is a summary of some of the more positive results of instrument improvement seen today:

1) Enlargement of the erhu fiddle into zhonghu, dahu and dihu; and invention of the gehu (4-stringed cello-like fiddle with a finger board, tuned and played like a cello using a cello bow).

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2) Enlargement of the ruan plucked lute into zhongruan, daruan, and diruan. 3) Changing of all frets in the lute-type instruments to chromatic and tempered arrangements. 4) Making of some flutes with wood instead of bamboo, and constructing them into two sections for adjustment in tuning; also making of a complete set of 12 flutes, one in each pitch of the chromatic scale for performance in different keys (not to be confused with the set of the historical flutes made for tuning purposes). 5) Invention of the quick-change tuning mechanism for the yangqin, and expansion of the range of the instrument on both ends.

6) Development of the low-pitched sheng and construction of the paisheng, a mouth organ which although blown was played by means of a keyboard. 7) Development of a keyed mechanism on the zheng zither for quick modulation, and increasing of the strings from 16 to 18 and 21, etc.

8) Invention of the paigu, tuned set of drums of graduated sizes. All improvements are geared toward increasing volume, widening range, and enabling easier modulation. (see pictures published in Anonymous 1975; Mao 1965), seem to have been accepted by the people whole- heartedly, since they preserve both traditional elements and at the same time improve the older models for proficiency and modern taste. By the mid-1960's, the orchestra's instrumentation was fairly standardized. The Central Broadcasting Station Chinese Orchestra in Peking, by then 52-piece strong, became the model of most other orchestras in the country. Peking offered three other famous professional orchestras, those belonging to the Central Dance-Drama Company, the Central Document Film Company, and the People's Theatre. Shanghai boasted two famous professional orchestras, the Shanghai Chinese Orchestra and the Shanghai Film Company Chinese Orchestra. Literally thousands of professional and amateur orchestras were established in schools, communes, factories, army units, etc.

China is large in geography and the Chinese people diverse in dialects and customs. The idea of establishing a pan-Chinese style orchestra is in line with the government's policy to unify the country. To use the well-known

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble from the heartland of China as the basis for a national orchestra is based upon the same motivation as the use of Peking opera as a national opera and Mandarin as a national language. It is no coincidence that the first modern Chinese orchestras of both the Nationalist Government and the Communist Government were sponsored by the state-owned radio stations. The use of music to promote a national spirit is evident.

B. The Repertoire As might be expected, the early repertoire of the modern Chinese orchestra is identical with that of the Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble, including pieces transcribed from the pipa solo repertoire, instrumental interludes from local operas, instrumental pieces from Guangdong music, and some folk and classical instrumental pieces from the lower Yangtze valley area. Composers began to expand the repertoire. In the 1940's three full-time composers of the Central Broadcasting Station Chinese Orchestra wrote many new works, "introduced the modern element - harmony, and adopted equal temperament to create the Chinese harmony." (Gao 1965: 104) "Harmony" in this context is the triadic chordal progressions taught in the schools since the early twentieth century. Due to the result of this new education, the traditional untempered and heterophonic ensemble playing is replaced by precise intonation, dynamic control, and uniformed rhythm. How- ever, in order to express the Chinese flavor, traditional ways of embellishment (especially on solo instruments) have been largely preserved. To this date, the majority of music performed by the modern Chinese orchestra, traditional or newly written, is tonal. The atonal and avant-garde styles of the West have been experimented with for this type of orchestra in Hong Kong but have evoked little public interest.

The modern Chinese orchestra distinguishes three major types of composition and playing style: 1) Unison (gizou), 2) Ensemble (hezou), and 3) Solo (duzou) which is, in reality, one solo instrument accompanied by orchestra (hereafter identified as Solo-ensemble style). 1) Unison: a carry-over of the traditional ensemble playing style. However, in its modern execution precise intonation is required. This type of music is distinguished by the contrast of different tone colors among sections of instruments and sometimes by solo instruments. Many pieces in this style were pieces from the

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Jiangnan Sizhu Ensemble repertoire. Composers of these works are generally unknown. The most famous examples include "Moonlight Over the Spring River", "The Moon Is High", "Crazy Dance of the Golden Snake", "Step by Step Higher", "Happy New Year", and "Song of Happiness" (featuring a more prominent di flute part). 2) Ensemble: compositions harmonized in triadic harmony; they include transcriptions of folk songs, harmonizations of traditional pieces in the first category, and newly composed works. Here, solo passages for one or several instruments are common. Some of the works present clear modulations in tonal system, such as from minor to major and back to minor. Famous examples of this category are"Year of Happiness" by Liu Mingyuan, "The People and Their Own Army" by Chen Gen and Tang Ke, and "Dance of the Yao People" by Liu Tieshan and Mao Yuan (originally written for Western orchestra, now transcribed for Chinese orchestra).

3) Solo-Ensemble: by far the most popular category. It is in this type of music that the traditional virtuoso techniques are most highly developed. Essentially, these pieces are mini-concertos (without the formal structure of a Western classical concerto). Some famous examples include "Spring Comes Early to the Commune" (banhu and ensemble) by Shi Lu and Xie Yi, "A New Song of the Herds- men" (di and ensemble) by Jian Guangyi and Wang Zhiwei, "Spring Morning on Hainan Island" (sheng and ensemble) by Gao Jingxiang, and "Spring Awakening on Mount Yangming" (bangdi and ensemble) Dong Rongsheng. The prominence of solo passages in the first two categories and in the entire piece in the third category may be related to traditional Chinese attitudes, such as the preference of distinctive melodic lines and elaborate embellishment, which could be better presented by solo instruments.

There are other types of composition (fewer in number) for the modern Chinese orchestra, for instance, compositions written or arranged for one section of the orchestra to explore the tone quality and playing style of that particular section. Examples are Rhythm on the Strings" (for plucked strings) arranged by Wang Zhuzhou, "Sing a Mountain Song" (for erhu unison and yangqin) by Yu Chuanyin, "Galloping Across the Vast Grassland" (for erhu unison and ensemble) by Wang Guodong and Li Xiuqi, and many logu (gongs and drums) pieces. Some of the works (unison or ensemble) emphasize the logu so much that they can be regarded as belonging to the chuida (winds and

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions percussion) tradition mentioned above. Examples of this type in the unison style are "Crazy Dance of the Golden Snake", "Happy New Year", etc. and in the ensemble style are "Fishermen's Triumphant Song" by the Song and Dance Company of Zhejiang Province and "Strive for a Good Harvest" by Li Minxiong. In a modern Chinese orchestra concert, several instruments are sometimes separated from the orchestra to perform chamber music, a tradition with a separate repertoire. In addition, solo pieces on the classical instruments (qin, zheng, xiao, etc.) are also possible. The orchestra may also accompany solo singing, chorus, and folk and classical dances.

C. The Physical Lay-out The physical difference most noticeable between a modern Chinese orchestra and a traditional ensemble lies in the division among the sections. Traditional ensembles tend to be divided in two sections (as mentioned earlier) while the modern Chinese orchestra is always divided into four sections, somewhat similar to the Western classical orchestra. However, instead of the Western strings, wood- winds, brasses, and percussion, the modern Chinese orchestra's four sections include bowed strings, plucked strings, winds, and percussion. The exclusion of the brass section is due to the lack of this type of instrument in China's heritage. The inclusion of the plucked strings (lute-type and zither-type) is due to the abundance of these types of instruments in China. The yangqin dulcimer also is included in the plucked string section. The wind section, generally smaller than its Western counterpart, consists of chiefly flutes, oboes, and mouth organs. The percussion, a distinctive Chinese character- istic, ranges from the woodblock to a large battery of instruments. The bowed strong section has the largest number of players and is the leading section of the orchestra, partly owing to Western influence and partly because of the popularity of these instruments in China since the nineteenth century. Western influence is also seen in the use of a conductor and in the arrangement of players on stage. The bowed strings and the plucked strings are placed on both sides of the conductor while the winds are generally placed in the middle. The percussion is located at the rear of the stage. The more adventurous Chinese orchestras even sub-divide their major bowed strings (erhu) into the first erhu and the second erhu (the equivalents of the two violin sections of the symphony orchestra). Whether the bowed

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions strings should be seated on the left or right side of the conductor is a subject under discussion. The "older" school places their bowed strings to the left of the conductor (like the first violins) while the "newer" school places them on the right. The reasoning for the newer method is as follows: (Dai 1961: 17) 1) In playing, an erhu's sound hole points toward the left rear side of the player. Placing the players on the right of the conductor would make the sound holes face the audience and consequently project the sound better.

2) A plucked string instrument (lute-type) is held in the left hand of the player in a diagonal position facing away from his body. Placing the players on the left side of the conductor would better project the sound and at the same time display the player's right hand technique more clearly. The size of the modern Chinese orchestra ranges from a dozen players to fifty or more. The flexibility in size is a traditional Chinese musical concept. In fact, when the orchestra is small enough and the music is relatively simple, the duty of the conductor is given back to the percussion player, an old tradition, as we have seen earlier. Until recently the trend had been expanding the orchestra in size to match the symphony orchestra. However, a return to smaller orchestras seems to be in process. The leading music figure He Luding has recently written:

We must not organize a seventy to eighty (-man) Chinese orchestra simply because foreign orchestras have seventy to eighty people .... Many of our instruments possess their own characteristics. When six or seven of them are performed together, it is easier to explore their tone colors and idiomatic techniques of each individual instrument. Putting seventy to eighty people on the stage without proper handling can be muddy and confusing. (He 1979) Instrumentation differs slightly from orchestra to orchestra, especially since there is still no final agree- ment as to which of the bass instruments are more effective: the two-stringed or 4-stringed dahu and dihu, the four- stringed gehu and bass gehu, or the cello and double-bass.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The following chart of instrumentation as suggested in a teaching manual published in Taiwan is given for its inclusion of four possible sizes of orchestra. One of the footnotes accompanying the chart states that except for the winds, the other instruments can be adjusted in numbers. Some of the instruments such as the se (large zither) and the konghou (harp) are not commonly used today. The equivalents of the dahu and dihu are gehu and bass gehu outside of Taiwan. The percussion section lists fifteen instruments in the original chart but is omitted here.

Fig. 6 - Suggested Instrumentation for Four Sizes of Orchestra (Jiaoyubu 1976: 112) 20 30 40 50

bangdi 1 1 1 1 hengdi 1 1 1 1 or xiao - 1 1 1 winds lUdi sheng (high, medium, low) 1 2 2 3 guan - - 1 1 suona or haidi - 1 1 1

gaohu or banhu 1 2 2 3 erhu 4 6 8 10 bowed zhonghu 2 2 4 4 strings dahu (4-str., CGDA) 2 2 3 4 dihu (4-str., EADG) 1 1 2 2

pipa or liuyeqin 1 2 2 3 yueqin 1 1 1 2 sanxian 1 1 2 2 plucked daruan (4-str. CGDA) 1 2 2 3 strings yangqin 1 1 1 1 zheng or konghou - 1 1 1 se - - 1 1 percus- logu 1 2 3 4 sion

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions D. Conclusion

The modern Chinese orchestra was created during a period in Chinese history when the large court entertainment orchestra was gone forever and the traditional ensembles were slowly disappearing. The need for a new and large music organization coincided with the national spirit calling for a modern and strong country. In the previous sections we observed the conscious effort of modernization in the development of this young orchestra. The improvement of the instruments, adoption of equal temperament, and other methods undertaken by musicians did change the sound of Chinese music to a certain extent. But then they created a new sound which is both modern and Chinese to a large number of Chinese people. The degree of Chinese taste in this type of music depends a great deal on the individual composers and the manner of performance. Some of the pieces may sound like poorly conceived Western imitations despite the use of the pentatonic scale, while some others may sound distinctly Chinese despite the use of triadic harmony. To the twentieth-century educated Chinese who do not like the traditional music for sociological reasons, or to those who cannot tolerate traditional music because of their Western educational background, this hybrid genre offers a fine middle-of-the-road answer. Along with the rise of this new orchestra coincided with the emergence of the public concert hall tradition (again influenced by the West), one which replaced the tea house tradition as the entertainment center of the educated class. Thus, the modern Chinese orchestra became a musical group to be performed mainly on the stage in a concert hall and to be listened to attentively. The popularity of the modern Chinese orchestra can be seen in its wide distribution and growing numbers. Often, orchestras outnumber the traditional local ensembles that are still enjoyed by some people. Main- land China, as mentioned above, possesses a number of fine professional orchestras and thousands of non-professional ones. Their recordings are abundant. The nineteen- member orchestra that accompanied the 1978 U.S. tour of the Performing Arts Company of the People's Republic of China is a good example of their discipline and artistry in the modern method. Taiwan also possesses many non- professional orchestras, with the historic BCC Chinese Orchestra as the leading spirit. It toured Southeast Asia in 1951 and 1956 and the U.S. in 1957. Under the directorship of Wang Ching-ping (Wang Zhengping), it presently has 55 members, but is still non-professional.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Many modern Chinese orchestras exist in Hong Kong, the most famous one being the 75-member Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra founded in 1977 by its present director, Ng Tai-kong (Wu Dajiang). This government-supported Chinese orchestra is the first professional orchestra of its kind outside of Mainland China. Of all the modern Chinese orchestras, this one is probably the most "modern" in that the performers read from staff notation (while most Chinese orchestras use cipher notation), the concerts include avant-garde compositions. In addition, while taking the stage, the orchestra members are followed by the first-chair erhu player and, finally, the conductor. Chinese communities outside of the Chinese Main- land, Taiwan, and Hong Kong also have modern Chinese orchestras. According to a survey I made in late 1978 and early 1979 (see Appendix 3), there are at least eight modern Chinese orchestras, all non-professional, in the United States. The oldest and the largest one is the Chinese Music Ensemble of New York, founded in 1961 by Chang Tsuan-nien (Zhang Quannian). The twenty-eight members come from all walks of life (students, cooks, businessmen, blue-collar workers, etc.) and range from newly arrived immigrants to second-generation American- born Chinese teen-agers. There is also an all Euro- American modern Chinese orchestra at Northern Illinois University (DeKalb) which I founded in 1975 for educational purposes. All fifteen members of the orchestra are college students. Among the many appearances of this group is the recent tour to Taiwan and Hong Kong in late 1978. This is perhaps an example of Western appreciation of the existence of this new genre of Chinese music, a departure from the early Western stress on the qin and pipa. In retrospect, the entertainment orchestras of the courts always favored foreign musical elements (instruments and music). As time went on, these elements became synthesized and Sinicized. The modern Chinese orchestra, judging from its historical consequence and contemporary social position, is an entertainment orchestra in a modern society. What we are witnessing now in the development of this young orchestra is probably the begirning of another wave of exotic influence, in this case Western elements, being introduced into Chinese music. The outcome of these developments will be determined in the future.

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This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I Li, or Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial. Trans. from the 1917 Chinese with introduction, notes, and plans by John Steele. London: Probsthain. Jiaoyubu. Shehui Jiaoyusi. - 1976 la 6 la • •••• (Chinese• , Music Teaching" Material for Public High Schools). •.• Taipei: Liming. Kishibe Shigeo k ) f4i 1965 "A Chinese Painting of the T'ang Court Women's Orchestra," in The Commonwealth of Music, ed. by G. Reese and R. Brandel in Honor of Curt Sachs. New York: Fress Press: 104-117. *~. s 1973 • t (A Historical Study of •the Music in the Tang Dynasty) Trans. into Chinese by Liang Zaiping (. and Huang Zhijong iJ g , Taipei: Zhonghua Shuju. ,. Li Chunyi 1964 - ] (Sketch of a History1] " of Ancient Chinese Music) Section 1; enlarged ed. Peking: Yinyue Chubanshe.

Li Dingyi (Li Ting-i) .% - 1970 A History of Modern China. Trans. by L. Bennett and Yang Hsueh-feng. Dartmouth: Oriental Society. Liezi 9 1960 The Book of Lieh-tzu; a new translation by A.C. Graham. London: Murray. Mao Jizeng (Mao Chi-tseng) &A j 1965 "Reform of Traditional Musical Instruments," Chinese Literature, August: 110-116. Needham, Joseph 1962 Science and Civilization in China: Vol. IV, Part 1 - Physics and Physical Technology. Cambridge: University Press. Picken, Laurence 1965 "Early Chinese Friction-chordophones," Galpin Society Journal, XVIII, March: 82-89.

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This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I Zhoungguo Yinyue Shiliao • 1976 (Historical Records and Documents of Chinese Music) Vol. I. Taipei: Dingwen Shuju. *Ming Shi VJf (History of the Ming Dynasty) based on the Wuyin Dian & Edition, 1739. Yuezhi Z (Records of Music): 757-796. *Qing Shigao 5 ( (Manuscript of the History of the Qing Dynasty) based on the Qing Shiguan g(3 Edition, 1927. Yuezhi (Records of Music): 797-876.f~. *Yuan Shi t ( (History of the Yuan Dynasty) based on the Hungwu ~s 9 Edition, 1370. Liyuezhi P$ g 2 (Records of Rites and Music): 718-756.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Appendix 1 - Tuning and Range suona (large) g....,P. ' lliuyeqin of Instruments. (Based on suona (large) liuyeqin Wang and Xiao 1961: 26, except liuyeqin and sanxian) or B------bangdi I suona (low) pipa

/ • ,.. --_- /"-- qudi banhu yueqin -.

or 0 xindi ! gaohu ' zhongruan = . -_

sheng (high) A erhu I daruan

sheng (low) erhu II diruan

p.---,I guan (high) zhonghu yangqin (large) - . ,Q'

guan (medium) gehu ".9 0 0

(low) , ft gehu (low) zheng guano

' idi & sanxian (large) " a e t" ? 5 or -6 31

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Appendix 2 - Examples of Scores

1) Excerpt from The General's Order (northern version), unison style in cipher notation with percussion parts in characters and symbols as published by the Zhongguo Changpienchang: Selections of Folk Music Issued by the China Records. Shanghai: Shanghai Wenhua, 1956: 13. (See Discography 9)

A-G-D i

A 3 5" ~t rt MM~ 5 2 3 5 3 3 2 1232 1216 "t•;•: ..! _ w?...• S -t; -re -t;-

4 , A , (2) 0 0 0l 0 . II I

__ __ *AJ~ 4ifI 't4i i fBr ___I$)~Q Rit 1 1 2 3 5 6 4 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 0532 3 2 3

Ait -s-E-V -t; o o 0 o o o• e & oo & o Fo , , o t, o o o I o o _ I S og o 3 ! o o_._ o_._ ogio,

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2) Excerpt from A New Song of the Herdsmen, solo-ensemble style in cipher notation as published by Guowuyuan Wenhuazu Wenyicongkanxiaozu: Program for the Arts, Vol. I. Peking: Renmin Wenxue, 1973 : 136. (See Discography 3)

30 35 Iv vv t 111 I1yy I v 1IY 2 1 I6 5 3 61i 6 5 3235 6 6 2 213 565 8 53 232 1. 6

2 0 0 0 0 oo 2 T O ool O ?oo ooo ? ~o o I? i i I - OI o lo- 2 o a o 0 0 2123jJ o o o3 ?oo

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This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Footnotes for Appendix 3: i. This survey was conducted by me in late 1978 and early 1979 by questionnaire and phone calls. (Romanization in this chart follows the Wade-Giles System). 2. Most ensembles undertake educational activities of various types (demonstrations, lectures, workshops in schools and communities).

3. Produced by the Chinese-American Ethnic Heritage Studies Project of the Chinese Culture Center, the Chinese Association of San Francisco has made a video-tape program entitled, The Elegant Sound of Silk and Bamboo and a teacher's handbook on Chinese music for educational purposes. 4. Under a grant of the Wayer Haeuser Foundation, the Chinese Traditional Arts group has made a video- tape for educational purposes entitled, Chinese Musical Instruments and Their Music.

5. In addition to concerts and educational activities, the Chinese Music Society of North America has held conferences and published newsletters to promote Chinese music. 6. See also Ronald Riddle's "Music Clubs and Ensembles in San Francisco's Chinese Community," in Eight Urban Musical Cultures: Tradition and Change, ed. Bruno Nettl. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978: 223-259. Even though the article deals mainly with Cantonese musical and theatre clubs, it gives information on the Flowing Stream Ensemble and Lawrence P.L. Lui (Chinese Music Association of San Francisco), both engaging in Cantonese music and modern Chinese orchestra music.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Appendix 4 - Discography I. SUGGESTEDRECORDINGS AND CASSETTES i. Fishermen's Trumphant Song. China Records M-2036 (1974)

2. The Red Flower of Dazhai Blossoms Everywhere. China Records M-1019 (1974). 3. Spring Comes Early to the Commune. China Records M-972 (1973) 4. Spring Morning on Hainan. China Records M-720 (1965) 5. Wave Upon Wave of Golden Wheat. China Records M-2217 (1976)

6. Year of Happiness. China Records M-2306) (1977); reissue of earlier pieces.

7. The Moon Is High. China Records M-2328 (1978); reissue of earlier pieces. 8. Moonlight Over the Spring River. Art-Tune (Hong Kong) AC-630, cassette; reissue of Mainland Chinese recordings. 9. BCC Chinese Music Special - Chinese Orchestra 42nd Anniversary. Four Seas Records (Taipei), 2 discs (1977) 10. Chinese Classical Music by the Chinese Classical Orchestra of BCC. BCO-1. (Taipei) 11. Chinese Music Delux. Pony (Taipei) 12STC-0152/3/4, 3 cassettes (1973) 12. [Untitled] Queen Records (Taipei) QNL-5050 (1969); reissue of an old Mainland recording. 13. Chinese Classical Instrumental Music. Folkways FW- 6812 (1951); recording of the 1948 cultural group. 14. Chinese and Southeast Asian Music performed by members of the Ethnomusicology Program, Northern Illinois University. Crest Records NIU-8277 (1977) 15. West Meets East - Chinese and Indonesian Music performed by the Asian Music Ensemble, Northern Illinois Univer- sity. Hong's Foundation for Education and Culture (Taipei); to be issued.

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A. Jiangnan Sizhu (Silk and Bamboo) Ensemble In #7, 8, 10, 12, 13. The Moon is High (untempered): 12, (tempered): 7. #8 consists of eight standard pieces of this genre (six on side one and the first two on side two) B. Modern Chinese Orchestra i. Unison (some overlap with Category A) In #8 - 12, 14 - 15. 2. Ensemble In #1 - 6, 9 - 10. Dance of the Yao People: 6; A Long, Long Life to Chairman Mao:2; The People and Their Own Army:3; The People's Commune is Young Forever:4; Year of Happiness:6. 3. Solo-Ensemble In #1 - 6, 9 - 10, 15. A New Song of the Herdsmen:3; Spring4 Awakenin on Mount Yang ing:10, 15; Spring omes arly to the Commune:3; Spring Morning on Hainan Island: 4, 6; The azhai Flower Blooms at the River's Source : 5.

4. Ensenble, percussion dominated In #1, 9, 11 vol. 3, 14. Crazy Dance of the Golden Snake:14; The General's Order (northern version):9; Happy New Year:9; Step by Step Higher:l0, 1 vol. 3; Fishermen's Triumphant Song:l; Strive for a Good Harvest:1. 5. Plucked Strings In #4, 9, 14. Rhythm on the String:4. 6. Erhu Unison In #2, 4 - 5, 14 - 15. Galloping Across the Vast Grassland:2; Sing a Mountain Song:4. 7. Voice accompanied by orchestra In #10.

*Most recordings and cassettes include some pieces for solo (unaccompanied) instruments such as pipa, zheng, etc.

*All the recordings and cassettes listed are available for dubbing (cassettes only) from the author.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions GLOSSARY A. MUSICALINSTRUMENTS

ban {k houguan banhu k huobusi ) , ;"• $ bangdi • $ (=bangzidi) Huqin A bei jiangu •t bili konghou -• 4' bo - liuyeqin • dahu •i • lUdi 4 daruan KI { ' maling • di Maoyuangu j

diaobo y • Morinhu diengu R ft muqin 4..

digehu ~t4 muyu - diruan 4 Pi~ nanhu (=erhu) ' Duyungu '• k paiban 4' & erhu 3 paigu 41 k erxian (fiddle) 4 s5~ paisheng • erxian (lute) ? pengling • fangxiang # ? pi fengshou konghou • • 4 pipa ~t , % gaohu &• Qiangdi • gehu ~ ~ Qianggu X .

guan qin

haidi 4 ' qin

hengdi p, qing )-

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions qinqin 4s zheng ' qudi I zhong 4 ruan zhonghu 4 $1 sanxian zhongruan 4 Pi - se B. OTHERTERMS sheng chuida A T shuizhan J.. duzou 4 suona Fanbu Hezou F • • d, tang J Guoyuetuan [ • tao guchui j. o 4 tiqin hezou ~- tongbo jisi 9 • •[ -. touguan Jiangnan Sizhu is • •• wuxian pipa b, logu Ij ( wuyingu S • Minzu Yuedui $$ ~ I xiao Minzu Yuetuan 4$• I xiaogu kL Nanguan \~j ., xindi •f Qingyue 4 Xiqin • qizou Xinglongsheng i ~ Shibuji I"4f ! , yangqin 34 (4) Siyiwu 19~ yaogu Wenchang j yazheng U [ Wuchang a yehu ~$l Yayue fJf yuehu •• Yanxiang $ f . yueqin Yanyue -t - yunlo Zhongyuetuan r47q (J Jl. 39

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The orchestra accompanying the Performing Arts Company of the People's Republic of China in their 1978 U.S. tour. Picture reprinted from the program book. The cello and the doublebass have been modified from their Western models.

CENTER back : two yunlo. front wuyingu, paigu.

LEFT back : banhu, zhonghu? di, di, sheng. front : erhu, erhu, haidi, suona. RIGHT back : cello, zheng, doublebass. front : zhongruan, pipa, yangqin, liuyeqin, sanxian.

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Additional Comments Regarding Chinese Orchestras in the United States

As Han Kuo-huang has shown, the Chinese orchestra is a changing entity, subject to and continuously building on outside influences. Those ensembles in the United States experience the particular challenge of reflecting both American and Chinese musical changes and social pressures. In Appendix 3 (p. 34 , this issue), Han has listed the presently established U.S. Chinese orchestras. As is clear from the locations, most ensembles are found in the major urban centers of Chinese (predominantly Cantonese) population. In addition, there are musicians in scattered academic communities, e.g. Columbus, Ohio (Ohio State), and Lafayette, Indiana (Purdue). These performers, whose origins are in all parts of China, tend to be academics for whom the music is an avocation. They gather on an ad hoc basis and in some cases participate in other kinds of Chinese music, such as that which is needed by Peking Opera clubs. Han also notes (p. 34) the great variety of occupations among the members of the largest New York ensemble. Though there are several musicians on the West Coast who support themselves by playing and teaching Chinese music,i a diversity of non- music professions is typical. That is, the people who form Chinese orchestras are on the whole non-professionals. But had they been in the right part of China at the right political time, some of these musicians would have been professionals. One example of a confrontation with both the changing Chinese political realities and the as-yet unchanged American economic possibilities is the case of a New York cabby who was one of the finest young di players in Mainland China; now he drives taxi 10 or more hours a day to make a living. There is no American market for his kind of musical professionalism. One perhaps concomitant feature of the non-professional ensembles is their frequent organization as social club as well as musical group. The large New York ensemble, for example, rehearses late Sunday morning in a 3rd-floor walk-up in Chinatown. Some of the equipment is stored there, and the space is available at other times. If, for example, there should be visiting musicians in town, the group may invite them there to share a meal. As is suggested by this, members of one ensemble often know people in other orchestras. Among the small Midwestern groups, there is considerable cooperation and even commuting. A concert at Northwestern University in 1977 drew on

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions performers from the area group (listed in Han's article as the Chinese Music Society of North America), from Northern Illinois University ( 1 1/2 hours away), and from Purdue (4 hours away); the guest artist was a pipa player from California. In addition to the Americans forming the students' orchestra at Northern Illinois, ther are a few scattered Caucasians in the Chinese ensembles, but Chinese is the usual language at the rehearsals of most groups. The musical practices combine Western and Chinese elements. Notation is usually hand-copied, then duplicated for everyone. It may either be taken from a copy of purchased notation, or, more likely, is the product of someone's arrangement of a tune or series of tunes; either Chinese characters or Arabic numbers will be used. Some ensembles rehearse in a Western manner, isolating problems, working on them out of the whole context; others play through entire pieces over and over again until they are learned, rarely stopping in the middle. The American ensembles know the mundane problems of being a small cultural unit within a pervasive system. Where in the United States do you get a replacement snakeskin for the cracked head of an erhu soundbox? What professions can you have and still be a pipa player, the technique for which requires long fingernails on the right hand? Where do musicians get more instruments if they cannot make them or if the instruments are not commonly imported? Perhaps it was the unavailability of a sheng which prompted one ensemble to make a substitute out of one of the sheng's direct descendents, the Western harmonica.

The American context, then, imposes certain constraints or forms habits among Chinese orchestra musicians which may differ somewhat from the patterns within a Chinese setting. Common to both, however, is the Chinese political scene. A brief though inevitably oversimplified account of the Chinese political situation as it affects cultural events will distinguish three main groups of people: the Mainland Chinese, the native Taiwanese, and the mainland-born people who moved to Taiwan as the Communists took over. This last group is the most politically conservative and culturally tends to encourage the older traditions. The mainland, however, adopted Mao Tse-tung's directive to adapt Western methods to Chinese purposes. At one extreme, then, there is political motivation for the maintenance of old and regional musical styles, and at the other, a pragmatic readiness to adopt any style which would further a specific message. With the

This content downloaded from 130.216.224.242 on Tue, 8 Jul 2014 18:39:43 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions U.S. recognition of the Mainland, there may be even more Westward-directed artistic attention. Or perhaps even some Eastward glances from us, if the Boston Symphony tour of China and performance of a pipa concerto is any indication.

In America, the effect on Chinese orchestras of the political split appears most obviously in the repertoire, at least insofar as titles are concerned. If a concert is given for a predominantly Chinese audience here, a Communist tune called "Happy Spinning Workers" would not be appro- priate everywhere, regardless of its non-referential musical content.

Usually the audience is Chinese. Some of the ensembles do play for college groups, museum visitors and even department-store shoppers, but this is not a music with which many non-Asians are acquainted. So the Chinese orchestra in the United States remains a Chinese entity, albeit subject to Western input and socioeconomic pressures.

Judith Gray Wesleyan University

1. Han Kuo-Huang and Alan Thrasher, personal communication. 2. Han Kuo-huang, personal communication.

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