THE Waterloo Soldier an Archaeological Investigation at the Heart of the Conflict

THE waterloo SOLdier An archaeological investigation at the heart of the conflict

Patrimoine the Waterloo soldier An archaeological investigation at the heart of the conflict

RELEASE Wallonia Public Services Dominique Bosquet, Geneviève Yernaux, Alain Fossion & Yves Vanbrabant Wallonia Public Services Operational Directorate-General of Planning, Housing, Operational Directorate-General of Planning, Housing, Heritage and Energy In collaboration with Pierre Lierneux Heritage and Energy Ghislain Geron, General Manager Archaeology service - Walloon Brabant Rue des Brigades d'Irlande, 1 External Directorate B-5100 Jambes Rue de Nivelles, 88 B-1300 Wavre EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Design and production Aude Van Driessche & Dominique Bosquet Pierre Paquet, BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES Inspector general f.f. Bosquet D., Yernaux G., Fossion A. & Vanbrabant Y., 2015. The Waterloo Soldier: An archaeological investigation at GRAPHIC DESIGN the heart of the conflict. Namur, SPW-Département du Ken Dethier patrimoine, 22 p. LAYOUT For further information : Ken Dethier & Aude Van Driessche Tél. : +32 (0)10.480.455 [email protected] PRINTING Service public de Wallonie In case of dispute, Ombudsman of Wallonia : Wallonia Public Services Marc Bertrand DGT - Cross Branch Directorate-General of budget, Tél. : 0800.191.99 – le-mediateur.be logistics and information technology and communication The text is the sole responsibility of the authors. Department of Asset Management The editor has sought to respect the illustration copyrights Directorate of Publishing according to official regulations. Rights holders who, Chaussée de Charleroi 83 bis despite the editor's research, were not able to be found, are 5000 Namur requested to notify the editor. Belgium

1st edition, 2015 COVER Ken Dethier & Aude Van Driessche Legal Deposit : D/2015/11802/26 ISBN : 978-2-8056-0181-1

Wallonia Public Services Namur, 2015 1. the discovery

Prior to the construction of the new 3 hectare the troops from Nassau, Hanover - including car park planned during the bicentenary the King's German Legion - and Brunswick arrangements, the Archaeology Service (SPW- (Damamme, 2003, p. 199-217). DG04/Heritage Department) conducted a rescue archaeology operation consisting of From the very beginning of the dig, the exami- opening up trial trenches 6.5ft wide by more nation of the skeleton revealed the presence of than 30ft long, across the entirety of the a lead ball in the area of the right lung, leaving 300,000 ft² site. This operation resulted in the little doubt as to the cause of death and the sup- discovery of a skeleton, located 1,600ft from the position that the victim belonged to one of the Lion's Mound, or, more specifically, in the D39 army corps who had fought in the battle of June trench, whereas the other 119 trenches yielded the 18th. The next step was to try to find out as negative results. This was exactly the place in much as possible about this soldier's personal 1815, at seven o'clock in the morning, (or four story and the circumstances of his death. hours before the start of the battle), where the rear Allied lines were located, several hundred This booklet contains all the details of the ar- yards from the ambulance which had been set chaeological investigation, the conclusions that up at the Mont-Saint-Jean farmhouse and in were drawn from it, and the questions which we proximity to the Dutch-Belgian troops, and have yet to answer, and probably never will…

Trench D 39: detail

Brussels East Ring

1 m

Lion’s Hamlet

Archaeological trial trenches Lion’s Mound 100 m Trench D 39 (skeleton)

Top, trenches at the Memorial Site. Below, the plan of the 120 archaeological trenches that were opened at the Pierre Warnier Michael, Geomatics Service SPW, performs a topographical survey of the skeleton with a high location of the car park and detailed view of the D39 trench. precision GPS.

4 THE WATERLOO SOLDIER THE WATERLOO SOLDIER 5 the discovery 2. The skeleton

2.1. Anthropological analysis The skeleton is lying on its back and the shoul- ders are free. The pelvis and legs are slightly The skeleton was discovered 80cm beneath the tilted to the left and the torso is slightly bent modern day surface, inside a layer of colluvium to the right. The arms are bent and lying away which had accumulated for over a century due to from the body, the right arm at a right angle and erosion from intensive agriculture. This gradual the left at an obtuse angle. The left hand would sedimentation protected the body from damage have been resting on the stomach and the right by ploughs, which however, slightly shifted some hand on the right border of the pelvis. The legs of the bones when the colluvial layer was still are flexed, the left in unstable equilibrium, with thin. The proximity of the very acidic topsoil the knee slightly raised in relation to the rest of also contributed to making some alteration to the body. Several foot bones are still present (the the bones. And lastly, the skeleton was slightly first metatarsal and the proximal phalanx), but disturbed on its discovery, the skull being fractu- they seem to have been moved. As for the rest, red by the shovel of the digger used to excavate the bones are mostly still in anatomical order, the trenches. The skeleton is well presented as some in unstable equilibrium, such as the bones a whole, even if some bones are missing, and, of the right foot and those of the pelvis. There considering that no traces of amputation or have been slight shifts in the body's volume trauma were observed – while without being able and the dynamic of the bones testifies to the to completely exclude this possibility - the state it decomposition of a clothed individual buried was found in seems to be due solely to the condi- in the ground (or within a filled space), because tions of burial and discovery already mentioned. within an empty space, such as a coffin, the uns- This is the case for most of the scull, of which only table equilibria would not have been preserved. a few fragments are preserved, and also for the fe- Anthropological and archaeological evidence mur, left patella, ribs and also the bones of the feet indicates that this man was wearing trousers and hands. The skull, the knee and the left foot and maybe a shirt, a hypothesis supported by have been affected by the digger's shovel, but this slight movements in the volume of the body, in does not seem to be the case for the right foot and terms of the chest, right shoulder and forearm. hands, which were rather disturbed by ploughing. The absence of metal buttons, however, rules out the presence of a uniform jacket. This may have been removed in order to examine the wounded man. The piece of fabric that was found under the spinal column (see §3.2), possibly a torn- off epaulette, seems to be the only vestige of this jacket. Although it is difficult to speculate further, even so, considering the position of the bones, it is easy to imagine an individual who has been thrown or has fallen backwards and who – on being rapidly buried with earth - has disappeared from sight. Nevertheless, the body has only been stripped of its military possessions (uniform, jacket, weapons) and therefore argu- The preservation of certain connections between the bones (the right foot is shown here) shows that the ments are in favour of the hypothesis of a body body was quickly buried, with its clothes on. that has been buried rapidly.

THE WATERLOO SOLDIER 7 The skeleton This is an adult male (Bruzek, 2002; Murail et disease). Equally notable is the presence of al., 2005). Based on the analysis of the pelvis small wrinkles on the enamel of all teeth still (Schmitt, 2005), the age at the instant of death in place, a condition called dental hypoplasia has been estimated as being between 20 and reflecting stress suffered during the formation 29 years old (most likely between 23 and 25 of the tooth, perhaps due to nutritional defi- years old), as confirmed by observations made ciencies or poor diet, lung infections, eruptive concerning the rest of the skeleton, both in fevers, viral infections or, more rarely, heredi- terms of the clavicles as well as the sacral tary causes. No decay was found. Tooth wear vertebrae, whose fusion (during growth, the shows an imperfect closure (or occlusion) of sacral vertebrae fuse to form the sacrum) is the jaw and indicates that the subject had a still in progress. According to the dimensions slight underbite. It is interesting to note that the of the femur (Olivier & Aaron, 1978), this man first molar and second premolar of the lower must have been 161, 6cm (+/- 2.98 cm) or 5'36" left jaw show an alteration of the labial surface tall. The morphology of his skeleton appears (outer side) of the crown which is not the case 5 cm somewhat gracile and the humeri seem pro- on the right side, nor for the two remaining portionately shorter than the other long bones. upper left cheek teeth (cheek height). This alteration consists of parallel ridges oriented The Soldier's sacrum (right) is affected by spina bifida: the vertebral arches are not closed, unlike those of a The mandible is fragmented at the ramus and perpendicularly to the occlusal surface of the healthy sacrum (left). shows no loss of teeth during the individual's jaw, and it is possible that this reflects wear lifetime. The maxila is very incomplete and from a specific repetitive activity, such as the In terms of pathology, this man suffered from a back part is much better preserved and displays fragmented. The third molars of the lower opening with the teeth of the paper packages congenital defect, a form of spina bifida, indicated no trace of impact. In addition, a bone callus jaw and the upper third molar on the left are of powder cartridge in use at the time. If this by the total lack of fusion of the sacral vertebral was observed on one rib, likely following an missing, or perhaps never formed (this is cal- is indeed the case, it can be deduced that the arches. Only the first three sacral vertebrae have old fracture. Finally, Schmorl nodes (a sort led agenesis). A thin layer of tartar is visible man was right-handed, and was tearing the been preserved but the spacing of the side walls of slipped disc) are visible on several thoracic on most of the teeth and there is also an early cartridges held in his left hand while holding makes it clear that it had to be the same for the vertebrae. loosening of incisors and canines (periodontal his rifle ready to be reloaded with his right. last two. This means that, unlike the average person whose spinal cord is protected by bone in the In conclusion, this young adult man, who was area of the sacrum, here it must have been only rather frail and probably slightly hunchbacked covered by the skin of the back. In other words, and with an underbite, received a fatal bullet it must be spina bifida occulta, the benign and in the right lung. Although traces of the im- most common form of this deformity. It may go pact are no longer perceptible, the state of rib unnoticed at birth and as long as the problems preservation makes it likely that the bullet hit associated with this abnormality do not become him from the front, a hypothesis which looks obvious (incontinence, paralysis etc.). This soldier supported by the position of the skeleton when also seems to have suffered a kyphosis of the spine it was discovered. He suffered from spina bifida, which would have given him a stooped appea- a birth defect that could have prevented him rance. It is probably possible to correlate this with from being able to take part in the gruelling ma- the osteoarthritic damage of the dorsal vertebrae noeuvres of the armies of the time and ought to that has occurred. The mild osteoarthritis present have prevented him from fighting in battle. The in some of the bones of the feet cannot be due to arthritis and the possible existence of kyphosis age-related articular wear, but seems instead to of the spine could themselves be linked to birth indicate a particular activity requiring the repe- defects, but they could also result from a par- tition of certain movements and the solicitation ticular activity such as marching and carrying of certain muscles and tendons. At the site of the heavy equipment such as was indeed the pack right lung, where the bullet was found, the front carried by these men. It is not impossible that The left molars, scratched by grains of powder (left picture shows magnification x 60) have been worn down by part of the ribs is very fragmented, whereas the the latter conditions are closely connected. repeatedly tearing open paper cartridges.

8 THE WATERLOO SOLDIER THE WATERLOO SOLDIER 9 The skeleton The skeleton 3. Items in connection with the skeleton

3.2. The piece of fabric embroidered a Several items were found in contact with the skeleton or in its immediate vicinity. Whether with copper thread at the time of excavation or after restoration, identifying them has helped reconstruct a Attached to the back of the spine was a piece b significant portion of the soldier's personal of serge, which has been identified as having history. been fabricated in England due to its two-up, two-down weave. On the side which has been in contact with the spinal column, it is possible 3.1. The lead ball to distinguish the fabric well as a series of cannetille elements (coiled metal wire embroidery c The lead ball, was located in the middle of the thread) in copper thread. The reverse side of right ribs. It weighs 23g and measures 16.4mm the item has the appearance of a rather coarse in diameter, a calibre which corresponds to the felt, made of meshed fibres. This is most likely g French projectiles designed for the model 1777 dress uniform embroidery from a tail (bottom musket, nicknamed the "five foot six clarinet", of the uniform jacket) or a schabraque (saddle because of its size (Logie, 2003, p.17). English cloth). Judging by its large size, the piece of fa- musket balls had a larger calibre, 32g in weight bric might also have been attached to a sergeant d f and 19mm in diameter. The wound caused by major's baldrick worn around the neck, but this projectile was certainly lethal and renders our man seems a little the hypothesis that the wounded man moved too puny to have been away from the front, several hundred yards to the promoted into such e south, on his own, very unlikely. It is therefore a position. The poor very likely that he had help to withdraw from the state of preservation of front in order for his injuries to be examined and this fabric scrap does treated. not admit of any better identification.

1 cm

N 1 cm

20 cm This French lead ball hit the Soldier from the front, causing a fatal injury.

It was not possible to identify the piece of fabric with cannetille copper wire embroidery (right; detail of a Here is how the items that were found were located on, around and under the Soldier: the lead ball (a), the piece piece of cannetille to the bottom right) found under of fabric with cannetille embroidery (b) the fragments of the purse, the coins, the ball of cinnabar and a flint (c) the the spinal column: Adornment for lower part of spoon (d), the knife and another flint e( ), the belt buckle (f) and the fragment of the wooden box (g). uniform, schabraque, shoulder belt?

10 THE WATERLOO SOLDIER THE WATERLOO SOLDIER 11 The skeleton Items in connection with the skeleton A C

B 1 cm

These fragments of fabric embroidered with beads (photo to the right, magnification x 40) belongs to the Soldier's pouch, similar to the example from the period shown below.

D 3.3. The contents of the purse

At the right femoral-pelvic joint were found 28 coins, to which were stuck three fragments of fabric. These consist of two small pieces of a knitted type of textile on which glass beads have been sewn, a piece of felt fabric, probably 1:1 woven, and a piece of canvas fabric. Given the location of these items, it seems likely that this Among the currencies studied, one was identi- In total, our soldier has over 15 francs in silver army, which strongly influenced the Hanoverian is the remains of the Soldier's purse. These fied as Austrian (right page, A), two - and very coins, to which must be added several copper troops, a group of six men would receive 6 purses, often decorated with sewn beads and probably two other - were from Hanover (B) and coins, a little over a month's pay for an enlisted pounds of bread, 10 pounds of meat and 2 pints called reticules or aumônières were frequently eight which were minted in Paris(C). Noted also man. A rifleman in the French army would receive of rum. But clearly, the supply corps was deficient used in the 19th century. was a 12 denier coin of bronze bell metal (D), 0.30 francs a day and a grenadier corporal, 0.05 in every nation's army. The wage was irregular, minted in Lille in 1791-1792 during the French francs. An infantry battalion commander would the provisions didn't arrive. The only solution for Revolution, and two small silver coins, one of receive 10 francs a day. A British soldier would these armies on the march was therefore looting which is from Brunswick and was in circulation earn between 8 pence and 3 shillings 912 pence the surrounding villages. Napoleon Bonaparte for more than a century (IIII GUTE PFENNIG). = 1 shilling = 5.6g of 900 ‰ silver). The scale of summed this practice up very well when he said: salaries was therefore much greater among the "The war must feed the war." Note also that at the English troops and non-commissioned officers time, a worker's salary varied, on average, from than in the French army (Holmes, 2001) and 1 to 2 francs a day (Paillot, 1951). Workers were Hanoverian soldiers received lower wages than therefore better paid than the soldier. both the English and the French. Out of this wage, the soldier, no matter what his nationality, In order to create a link between the coins and would need to put aside enough money to pay the Soldier's nationality, it is necessary to look at for his equipment, generally for underclothing, the money in circulation during the Napoleonic uniforms and shoes. This contribution varied Empire. In France, at the end of the Revolution, according to the weapons and the year. The closer monetary anarchy reigned and Bonaparte, First one gets to 1815, the more the material condi- Consul, was trying to restore order in this matter. At the time of discovery the coins, which were piled tions of the average soldier improved. In theory However, despite increased resources, the French up, were stuck together by oxidation (left; you can at least, armies provided nourishment for their Mint was unable to supply the new money in also see the ball of cinnabar and the flint). These copper coins (right) are very worn and were the small troops, whether it were an additional wage, or the sufficient enough numbers and old money conti- change of the time. provision of bread, meat and drink. In the British nued to circulate. At markets, across the whole of

12 THE WATERLOO SOLDIER THE WATERLOO SOLDIER 13 Items in connection with the skeleton Items in connection with the skeleton France, altercations were common, because mer- the very least the tarification of exchange rates Obviously, establishing an individual's nationa- chants were afraid of the abrupt demonetisation of was mandatory. Napoleon Bonaparte created lity on the basis of several coins poses somewhat the old currency and refused to accept any money the Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, consis- of a challenge. Ideally we would use a body of but that of the Empire. In 1810, the struggle for a ting primarily of Hesse-Kassel, Brunswick, indicators that would be reinforced by analysis streamlined currency continued: bell metal coins Hanoverian and Prussian territories and ter- of the coins' origin. In 1815, currency from the will no longer be accepted as legal tender effective ritories west of the Elbe, and set to rule over Napoleonic Empire had spread across all of Two new flints were still to be found in connec- as of the 1st of November [...] coins of the value of them his brother, Jérôme Bonaparte. In 1807, continental Europe. As the French were aware tion with the deceased, one in his purse, and 6 sous and 12 sous will no longer be legal tender. the French monetary system was established that the use of other currency than that of the the other in his satchel (see § 3.4). They were Over the course of time, despite production diffi- throughout this kingdom, but as this decision Empire was in the course of being banned, a fashioned by truncated retouching (Barnes, culties in every Mint of the Empire, the money in was very unpopular, Jérôme saw the necessity Frenchman naturally would not have had coins 1937, p. 330-333, fig. 6, fig. 7c; fig.) using a circulation eventually become standardised and of minting money in the traditional currency of of German origin in his purse. An Englishman, dark grey, fine-grained flint. The type of flint, essentially consisted of the Emperor's silver coins. the former countries. The Kingdom therefore meanwhile, would not have been in possession and the dimensions of these pieces leads us to used both the German system of thalers and of French and German currency but would have suppose that they were designed to be mounted Furthermore, the wars of firstly the Revolution pfennigs as well as the French system of francs those of his own country instead. On the other on a musket of the type British Land Pattern, and then those of the Empire entailed the and centimes. However, our soldier's purse hand, French currency did circulate among the more commonly known as a "Brown Bess", incorporation of new territories into France, contains Hanoverian coins... Hanoverian troops, as well as the currency of that was in service between 1750 and 1850 where the French currency was imposed, or, at their own country and the surrounding states, in the English army (K. Charpier, personal one of which was Brunswick. The hypothesis that communication; Logie, 2003, p. 17). French this soldier was part of the Hanoverian troops flints were exclusively fashioned using yellow can therefore be advanced. flint (K. Charpier, personal communication; Schleicher, 1927, p. 367).

As well as the coins and the flint a small ball of a reddish material of an unknown nature was submitted for three analyses: visual observations using a scanning electron 1:1

1 cm microscope (SEM), molecular analyses using a Raman micro spectrometer (named after one of its inventors) and chemical analyses using the Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy module (EDS). These detailed analyses helped identify cinnabar as the main component of the ball. Cinnabar is a mercury sulphide, deposits of which were found in Spain and Slovenia, and which has been in use since ancient times, including as a pigment (Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, XXXIII). At the beginning of the 19th century, it was used as a pomade for the treat- ment of skin conditions and syphilis (Mialhe, 1845, p. 150), as well as certain diseases and the wounds of horses and cattle (Moiroud, 1831 p. The British used a dark grey flint to shape the flints for their firearms. The flints that were found near 622), and any of these uses could be possible in the Solder (top photo) were calibrated for the Brown the case before us. Bess (see here the detail of the flint mounted on the hammer), a musket used by the Allies during the In 1807, Napoleon created the Kingdom of Westphalia, at whose head he placed his brother Jérôme Bonaparte. battle. On the right, the ball of cinnabar, a mercury Hanover; Brunswick oxide used in 19th century pharmacy.

14 THE WATERLOO SOLDIER THE WATERLOO SOLDIER 15 Items in connection with the skeleton Items in connection with the skeleton 3.4. The contents of the satchel (France) to ensure that they bore no regimental 3.5. The fragment of box: possible be initials and date of birth. If, however, it is a markings capable of indicating the corps to identification of the soldier? box whose use is linked, for example, to military A couple of inches from the body, at around which the Soldier belonged. They were then usage, the inscriptions could commemorate an leg height, four objects were located, which restored by the conservation laboratory of the Among the objects found in connection with the important event in the career of the owner - were probably contained in a satchel, of which Department of Archaeology (SPW-DGO4 / wallet of the Soldier, the fragment of burr alder whether it be our soldier or not - or may even be no trace remains. There is a spoon, a fragment Heritage Department) and by the UTICA asso- box on which appear the letters "FCB" and the related to the object that was contained inside. of a burr alder box with two inscriptions on it ciation (Saint-Denis, France). After radiography date "1792" became the focus of attention and, (see § 3.5), and, under the right femur, an iron and after restoration, no marks appeared and as among the many enthusiasts of Waterloo in par- Furthermore, if the letters really are initials, in buckle, probably from a belt, and a knife. The the spoon, the knife and the buckle are of a com- ticular, fuelled hopes of identifying the victim. which order should they be read? Does the "F" metal objects were first x-rayed at the Faculty of mon make that were widely in use at the time, However, from a strictly scientific point of view, correspond to the surname or name? In the text Veterinary Medicine at the University of Liège they were of no help in narrowing down which many questions remain unanswered and signi- and register of the time, both are possible. The and at the UTICA laboratory in Saint-Denis regiment the Soldier belonged to. ficantly temper that hope. First and not least same question applies to the "B". As for the "C" concerns the identification of the owner of the it would then relate to the middle name, which item. Certainly the victim is a good candidate, is sometimes mentioned on conscription lists, but other equally plausible scenarios make it but not always. Large numbers of candidates possible to doubt this. It is possible that the item are therefore eligible, as well as meaning that was given to him by a third person, whether the identification of the regiment to which the a member of his family or not and this could victim belonged is also subject to question. have been before or during the battle. In the If it is possible that the victim was enlisted in same vein, it could be somebody else's box. Or Kielmansegge's 1st (Hanoverian) Brigade (ac- it might be, for example, that the box belonged cording to de Callataÿ, cited in Vander Cruysen, to a deceased comrade and it was being kept 2014 ; 2015), this still remains a supposition, as a keepsake or so that it could be returned to based on evidence which although convin- family or loved ones. Thus, assuming that the cing, is just as circumstantial - the presence of inscriptions definitely represent initials and a Germanic currency in the Soldier's wallet and date of birth, there is no evidence whatsoever that either is that of the victim.

Another question concerns the nature of the item itself. Is it a snuffbox, a writing case or a box 3 cm for military usage? As the item is in fragments, it is very difficult to say and the possibilities are endless. This question directly influences the 5 cm significance of the letters and the date. Indeed, if this is a strictly personal object, it might actually

After their exhumation from the ground (top photos), the spoon, belt buckle and knife contained in the wallet of the soldier were x-rayed (black and white radiographs) before being restored. The pictures show the quality of the work performed by the PWS Restoration Laboratory and the UTICA laboratory (Saint Denis, France).

1 cm

During the investigation the letters "CB" on the fragment of box were already visible. After restoration, it read "FCB" and on the other side, "1792". The use of this small container is still not known, but it could possibly be a tobacco box.

16 THE WATERLOO SOLDIER THE WATERLOO SOLDIER 17 Items in connection with the skeleton Items in connection with the skeleton the presence of the Hanoverian troops in the of the victim at between 20 and 29 years (Grove 4. Conclusion area where the discovery was made during at et al. 2014a ; 2014b). Again, this convergence of least a part of the battle (Bosquet et al., 2014). data may be noted, but is not sufficient, by itself, But, as we are unaware of the exact time of to settle with any certainty the interpretation of death, it is also possible to postulate that the that date. The discovery made in 2012 at Waterloo is of the battlefield and given the seriousness of Hanoverian troops were not on the scene at the unique, no other skeleton having thus far his injury, the Soldier must have been trans- time and that there is in fact no link between In order to identify the victim and, where been discovered during any previous excava- ported there by one or other of his comrades, the two whatsoever. appropriate, investigate a possible descent, it tions on the site. It also seems set to remain unless he was dropped when dead at the place is necessary to be able to answer the questions the only one, as trial trenches opened in this where the archaeologists discovered him, two As stated above, the significance of the date, raised with sufficient certainty, which is, to say area and at the site of the memorial yielded centuries later. partly due to the identification of the object, the least, a daunting, if not impossible, task. no other remains. So this is a special case that is also subject to speculation. If it really is the the excavation and analyses have allowed us Today we are left with the rather touching victim’s date of birth, then our man died at age Therefore, the Soldier of Waterloo remains, and to identify fairly accurately, although grey image of a young man who was frail, slightly 23 at Waterloo, which is in agreement with the probably always will remain, an anonymous areas remain, as is often so often the case in hunchbacked and affected with a spinal de- anthropological analysis which situates the age victim of this grisly conflict. archaeology. formity which, in the present day, would have been corrected immediately. As such, the study of coins that the Soldier carried with him leads us to suppose that The question relating to his presence in terms he was Hanoverian or at least of Germanic of the memorial has been the subject of much origin. Assuming this to be the case, then we discussion within the team responsible for its must also favour the theory of the rapid burial design, as well as between the various resear- of the body after decease, as the Allies, unlike chers who have been studying him in such the French who lost, took away their dead detail. Ultimately, it seemed to everybody immediately after the battle. The presence of that the greatest homage that could be paid the coins and other personal items, showing to him was to consider him, with the respect that the body was not looted, also lends sup- to which he is entitled and that the museum port to this hypothesis. Several elements from exhibit has sought to ensure, as the anony- the scientific enquiry also indicate that this mous and silent representative of the dozens burial was carried out intentionally and ur- of thousands of men who perished that day in gently. In the absence of fighting on that side the same tragic circumstances.

18 THE WATERLOO SOLDIER THE WATERLOO SOLDIER 19 Items in connection with the skeleton Conclusion 5. bibliography 6. Illustration Credits

The photographs, drawings and graphics presented in this work are all copyright of SPW, except for those mentioned below.

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20 THE WATERLOO SOLDIER THE WATERLOO SOLDIER 21 bibliography Illustration Credits 7. Acknowledgements

Since the very first investigations concerning the Soldier up until the presentation of the skeleton at the Memorial and the production of this booklet, there have been many who have contributed to the success of this project. Our sincere thanks go to:

Ghislain Belmans (SIEN), Alain Guillot-Pingue (SPW - DGO4 - Director of archaeology a.i.), Pierre Blanche, Philippe Hamoir (ULg-Faculty of Veterinary Cristel Cappucci (SPW - DGO4), Medicine), Vincent Humé (SPW - DGO4), Kevin Charpier (Musée de la pierre à fusil [Flint Firearm Museum], Luçay-le-Mâle, France), Pierre Paquet (SPW - DGO4 - Inspector General f.f.), Agostino Da Cunha (Europa 50), Caroline Relier (UTICA, Saint-Denis, France), Jan De Coster (Belgian Association for Research and Historical Reconstruction ASBL), Hélène Remy,

Uriel Delicourt (SPW - DGO4), Heydan Rossini (SPW - DGO4), Aude Salmon (De Pinxi), Julien Devos (SPW - DGO4), Muriel Van Buylaere (Research and archaeologi- Éric Dewamme (Royal Belgian Institute of cal surveys ASBL), Natural Sciences), Yves Vander Cruysen (Second alderman of the Catherine Didelot (UTICA, Saint-Denis, municipality of Waterloo), France), Pierre Verly, Nathalie du Parc Locmaria-d’Ursel (President of Madeline Votion (SPW - DGO4), the “Waterloo 1815” intercommunity), Didier Willems (SPW - DGO4 - Provincial Ghislain Geron (SPW-DGO4-General Manager) archaeologist).

22 THE WATERLOO SOLDIER AWEM Acknowledgements