UK State of Nature Report 2019

2019 2 State of Nature Report 2019 State of Nature Report 2019 3

Photo: David J Slater (rspb-images.com) Swallows #STATEOFNATURE State of Nature 2019 documents how human impacts are driving sweeping changes in wildlife in the UK. The loss of nature affects us all, but the greatest impacts will be upon the lives of young people and generations yet to come, if they have to live in a world impoverished of nature. In recognition of this, we asked some of the UK’s most passionate and committed young conservationists to tell us what nature means to them.

Nature provides The revival of the Thanks to the Whenever I have liberation from the Red Kite, Ospreys dedication of the chance to hustle of modern society, bouncing back, breeding schoolchildren and experience the outdoors, allowing our attention to Cattle Egrets – many species volunteers in the City, the presence of nature shift away from ourselves are bringing new life to the wildflower meadows and brings a feeling of and focus on the glorious UK but the list of declining roof gardens have been tranquillity. Seeing the and the sublime. For me species is ever growing. created, allowing pollinators, variety of animals and it is not a supplement, We must unite now to save including many butterflies, plants that our forests, it is a necessity.” these species before they’re to thrive in central London. parks and meadows BELLA LACK, 15 but a distant memory.” This shows the potential we contain gives me the DAN ROUSE, 23 all have to protect nature, urge to protect the in every place, even in our environment even more.” concrete jungles.” KHADIJAH HAQ, 14 KABIR KAUL,14

Nature is our life I wholly believe that My favourite thing I worry that people support system. As it is our duty about nature is its don’t recognise an autistic teenager, nature to protect nature and unmistakable diversity. how valuable their has provided a safe space the environment as a I am reminded of the individual actions are in to which I can crawl into, reciprocation to how woods by the captivating sparking change. Planting rejuvenate my spirits and nature takes care of us scents of wildflowers; wildflowers, drilling a few keep me going.” every single day. Nature majestic colours of birds holes in bricks, being a DARA MCANULTY, 15 allows us to eat, drink, soaring high, and simply bit ‘lazier’ in the garden, breathe, live. The least the soothing symphony can encourage so much we can do is protect it.” of birdsong.” wildlife to your doorstep – it couldn’t be easier!” YETUNDE KEHINDE, 17 PRINCESS-JOY EMEANUWA, 17 SOPHIE PAVELLE, 24

Nature is important I have never During my GCSE It is everyone’s to me because it seen a Hedgehog, exams, Dartmoor responsibility to reminds me to keep going although my parents was a refuge – wading contribute to help the even when things are used to see them all through streams, finding natural environment. hard. The fresh air and the time in the area. bats in hidden caves and Even the smallest of petrichor give me space Many others my age have making camps under actions can make the to breathe and let go and had the same experience. trees. Immersing ourselves biggest of difference, like make me feel better. Nature I’m worried that we’re in nature like this is the rewilding your own garden always gives a solution, close to losing them from antidote to our dissociation to make it insect, bird and adapts, always trying our countryside forever.” from the earth that has and mammal friendly.” hard, and I think we all JAMES MILLER, 17 driven the climate crisis.” XANDER JOHNSTON, 13 have something to learn SOPHIE SLEEMAN, 17 from nature.” ESTHER BIRD, 13 4 State of Nature Report 2019 State of Nature Report 2019 5

CONTENTS 46 Conservation STATE OF NATURE 2019 Headlines Marine presents an overview of how the country’s wildlife 6 50 is faring, looking back over nearly 50 years of monitoring to see how nature has changed in the UK, its Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories. Key findings UK countries As well as this long-term view, we focus on what 8 64 has happened in the last decade, and so whether things are getting better or worse for nature.

In addition, we have assessed the pressures Results in UK Overseas that are acting on nature, and the responses being 12 more detail 80 Territories made, collectively, to counter these pressures. and Crown Dependencies

Historical Essays 14 change 86

Drivers of Appendix 16 change 92

This report has been produced by a partnership of more than 70 organisations involved in the recording, researching and conservation of nature in the UK and its Overseas Territories. These include a broad spectrum of recording societies with expertise on a wide range of taxonomic groups, including our best and least known wildlife; research organisations responsible for gathering and analysing data that advances our knowledge of the UK’s nature; conservation charities that take action for all elements of our wildlife and habitats; and the country nature conservation bodies for the UK and it’s four countries which have provided evidence and advice in the production of this report.

Unless otherwise stated, all photos are from RSPB Images (rspb-images.com). Much of the content of State of Nature 2019 can be used This report should be cited as: to inform on the UK’s progress towards the Convention Hayhow DB, Eaton MA, Stanbury AJ, Burns F, Kirby WB, Bailey N, Beckmann B, Bedford J, Boersch-Supan PH, Coomber F, on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) Aichi 2020 targets – Dennis EB, Dolman SJ, Dunn E, Hall J, Harrower C, Hatfield JH, Hawley J, Haysom K, Hughes J, Johns DG, Mathews F, McQuatters-Gollop A, Noble DG, Outhwaite CL, Pearce-Higgins JW, Pescott OL, Powney GD and Symes N (2019) see pages 90–91 or further details. We have used the For guidance on how to interpret the The State of Nature 2019. The State of Nature partnership. CBD’s icons for the Aichi targets to indicate when results presented in this report, report content is relevant to these targets. please refer to pages 92–93. Photo: Ben Andrew (rspb-images.com) Cover photo: Mark Eaton 6 State of Nature Report 2019 State of Nature Report 2019 7

The pressures THE HEADLINES that have caused the net loss • Legislation has driven marked of biodiversity over recent reductions in emissions of some In this report we have collated the best available data on the decades continue to have a harmful pollutants, although UK’s biodiversity, with a focus on the trends in species as the key negative effect. negative impacts remain. evidence of how nature is faring. In addition to assessing the state • Agricultural productivity, • Thousands of hectares of nature we have reviewed the pressures acting upon nature, and linked to the intensification of farmland, woodland the conservation response being made to counter these pressures, of land management and the and wetland are built in order to give a rounded view of the UK’s nature in 2019. decline in farmland nature, on every year to meet the is still increasing, although needs of our increasingly with government funding urbanised population, some farmers have adopted although woodland cover wildlife‑friendly farming. has increased, new wetland Photo: Chris Gomersall (rspb-images.com) Our statistics demonstrate that habitat has been created • Average UK temperatures have and heathlands and increased by nearly 1°C since the the abundance and distribution moors restored. The impacts of climate 1980s with widespread impacts change and fishing of the UK’s species has, on on nature evident already. on species’ abundance and average, declined since 1970 distribution are evident throughout the UK’s seas. At the base of the food and many metrics suggest web, plankton communities have changed in response to warming seas. this decline has continued While some fish stocks are showing signs of recovery, the impacts of in the most recent decade. decades of unsustainable fishing persist. The precise impact of other There has been no let-up in pressures on the marine environment, such as noise and plastic pollution, the net loss of nature in the UK. remain unclear.

Prior to 1970, the UK’s Photo: Ian Francis (rspb-images.com) wildlife had already been This report showcases depleted by centuries a wide range of of persecution, pollution, exciting conservation habitat loss and degradation. initiatives, with partnerships delivering Pasqueflower inspiring results to secure a brighter Photo: Ben Andrew (rspb-images.com) future for the UK’s nature. Public Photo: Ben Andrew (rspb-images.com) support for conservation continues to grow, with non-governmental The UK has a long organisation (NGO) expenditure up by 13% 5% 41% 53% 15% By 2020 24% since 2010/11 and a 46% increase history of love for, and decline in average decline in average have decreased in of species show of species are most CBD targets in the time donated by volunteers species’ abundance. species’ distribution. abundance. strong changes. threatened. won’t be met. fascination with, its since 2000. However, public sector Our indicator of Our indicator of More species have Our wildlife is Of 8,431 species that An assessment based expenditure on biodiversity, as natural heritage. average species’ average species’ shown strong or undergoing have been assessed on the best available a proportion of gross domestic Thanks to this, tens of thousands abundance of 696 distribution, covering moderate decreases rapid change; the using regional Red data indicates that, product (GDP), has fallen by 42% of volunteers collect data on wildlife terrestrial and 6,654 terrestrial and in abundance (41%) proportion of species List criteria, 15% although progress since a peak in 2008/09, although the every year. Without their dedication freshwater species freshwater species than increases (26%) defined as showing have been classified has been made, the this report would not be possible; has fallen by 13% over a broad range since 1970, and strong changes as threatened with UK will not meet most UK’s expenditure on international since 1970; the of taxonomic groups, likewise more species in abundance, extinction from Great of the CBD’s 2020 biodiversity has grown. we thank them all. rate of decline was has fallen by 5% since have decreased in either increasing or Britain, and 2% are Aichi targets. steeper in the last 1970, and is 2% lower distribution (27%) decreasing, rose from already extinct. 10 years, although than in 2005. than increased (21%) 33% over the long not statistically since 1970. term to 53% over the significantly so. short term. #STATEOFNATURE 8 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 9

KEY FINDINGS Our species’ status metrics make groups (including vascular plants, CHANGE IN SPECIES’ DISTRIBUTION use of two broad types of data: lichens, bryophytes and a number of ua ator pee o ter Sort ter • Over the long term, 27% of species 190201 200201 invertebrate groups). These trends Abundance data from a number of well- showed strong or moderate We are able to present trends in measure the change in the proportion 120 100 established monitoring schemes in the decreases and 21% showed strong status for more species than ever of occupied sites, so our metrics 100 UK encompassing c700 species (birds, 0 or moderate increases; 52% showed effectively report the average change before in State of Nature 2019. mammals, butterflies and moths). Many little change. in range for these species. 0 This is due to new datasets of these species are popular to record 0 • Over the short term, 37% of species 190 100 and are relatively easy to identify and We show trends for species for our 0 showed strong or moderate becoming available and the 0 e e development of analytical tools to observe, making it possible to count long-term period, from 1970 to 2016 0 o pee erete decreases and 30% showed strong individuals to get a measure of relative for abundance data and from 1970 20 or moderate increases; 33% showed which enable a much broader 20 abundance. Our abundance metrics to 2015 for occupancy data. Our little change. range of taxonomic groups to report the average change in relative short-term period covers the final 0 0 • Over the long term, 17% of be represented. 190 190 1990 2000 2010 201 Strong increase abundance across these species. 10-year period of these time series. Moderate increase species showed a strong change tor 90 ree ter Little change Using multispecies indicators, Occupancy data from large-scale Moderate decrease in distribution (either increase or FIND OUT MORE Strong decrease our goal is to communicate a datasets, which we can now use to decrease). Over the short term this The occupancy indicator for 6,654 from a site, this change of 5% could rose to 39% of species. clear, objective assessment generate trends for 6,654 species p92 How to interpret this report terrestrial and freshwater species reflect more severe underlying across a wide range of taxonomic Using a different, binary categorisation: of the state of biodiversity shows that on average species’ abundance declines that we are Photo: Mike Read (rspb-images.com) in the UK. The metrics we distributions have declined by 5% currently unable to quantify. • Over the long term, 58% of species Stag Beetle present show how measures between 1970 and 2015. In 2015 the showed negative trends and 42% To examine the variation in species’ indicator was 2% lower than in 2005. showed positive trends; over the of average species’ status have distribution trends, we allocated Because species tend to decline in short term, 56% of species showed changed over time as well as species into categories based on the abundance before they disappear negative trends and 44% showed showing the variation in trends magnitude of distribution change. positive trends. between species. We focus on measuring change over two periods: the long term, NATIONAL RED LIST ASSESSMENT MARINE over nearly 50 years, and the Here we show the percentage of species in Great Britain that have been allocated Trends in abundance for marine species short term, the last 10 years. into each of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List are shown by broad taxonomic group categories. Species assessed as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable are (see pages 94–97 for more details). formally classified as threatened and therefore at risk of extinction. Demersal fish indicators show increases Percentage of species threatened = (CR + EN + VU)/(total number assessed – DD – RE). CHANGE IN SPECIES’ ABUNDANCE in average abundance in the Celtic and Key uae ator (697 species) o ter Sort ter Within multispecies indicators like Greater North Seas of 133% and 58% Endangered (EN) Near Threatened (NT) Least Concern (LC) 190201 200201 Extinct or Regionally (RE) Critically Endangered (CR) Vulnerable (VU) Data Deficient (DD) All (697) All (687) these there is substantial variation respectively between the early 1980s 10 100 between individual species’ trends. and 2017. 10 To examine this, we have allocated 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 0 Percentage of species The UK Breeding Seabird Indicator 120 species into trend categories based on shows a 22% decline in average 100 0 the magnitude of population change. abundance for 13 species between 190 100 0 • Over the long term, 41% of species 1985 and 2015. 0 0 had strong or moderate decreases e e Percentage of species Percentage Trends in the abundance of marine 0 and 26% had strong or moderate 20 mammals, for which we have data, vary increases; 33% showed little change. 20 by group; cetacean species show stable 0 0 • Over the short term, 44% of species populations since the early 1990s, and 190 190 1990 2000 2010 201 Strong increase 0% 10% 20%25%30% 40% 50% 75% 100% Moderate increase had strong or moderate decreases Grey Seal numbers continue to increase Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Little change Percentage of species Moderate decrease and 36% had strong or moderate while Harbour Seal numbers are Strong decrease increases; 21% showed little change. decreasing in a number of areas. • Over the long term, 33% of Of 8,431 species that have been are historic (1800 to mid-20th Changes in plankton communities are The abundance indicator for 697 the rate of change between the long species showed a strong change assessed against the IUCN Regional century), but losses continue; e.g. evident across the northern North Sea terrestrial and freshwater species and the short term. in abundance (either increase or shows a statistically significant decline Red List criteria, 1,188 (15%) of the two breeding birds (Wryneck and and the English Channel; the indicator The white line with shading shows decrease). Over the short term this in average abundance of 13% (95% extant species for which sufficient Serin) have been lost this century. for large copepods shows a 5% increase the smoothed trend and associated rose to 53% of species. confidence intervals (CI) -22% to data are available, are classified as Several other species have not in the northern North Sea over the last 95% CI, the blue line shows the -5%) between 1970 and 2016. Over Using a different, binary categorisation: threatened and therefore at risk been found during recent targeted 10 years, compared to a 41% decrease underlying unsmoothed indicator. this long-term period, the smoothed • Over the long term, 58% of species of extinction from Great Britain. In surveys and will almost certainly be in the English Channel. The bar chart shows the percentage indicator fell by 0.31% per year. Over showed negative trends and 42% addition, 2% of species are known classified as extinct in Great Britain of species within the indicator our short-term period, the decline showed positive trends; over the (133) or considered likely (29) to when assessments are updated. An that have increased, decreased was a statistically non-significant 6%, short term, 53% of species showed have gone extinct since 1500, and a assessment of threatened species in (moderately or strongly) or shown a rate of 0.65% per year. There was, negative trends and 47% showed further four are extinct in the wild. Northern Ireland is given on page 70. little change in abundance. however, no significant difference in positive trends. Most extinctions in Great Britain 10 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 11

KEY FINDINGS – of the UK’s wildlife, and will continue In recent years public sector STATUS OF UK PRIORITY SPECIES to do so for decades or even centuries expenditure on biodiversity The official UK Biodiversity Indicators for 214 species and change in We feature these indicators PRESSURES AND to come. The 21st century so far conservation in the UK has declined include two indicators to assess distribution for 395 species. In addition throughout State of Nature 2019. has been warmer than the previous (see figure below), both in absolute the status of species of greatest to the Priority Species Indicator, official Note that the short-term assessments RESPONSES three centuries. Since the 1980s, terms and as a percentage of GDP – conservation concern; the UK’s priority UK Biodiversity Indicators are published for UK Biodiversity Indicators are average UK temperatures have the latter by 42%, from 0.038% species. Of the 2,890 species included as annually for species groups including over five years, not 10 years as for increased by nearly 1°C. to 0.022%, between 2008/09 and As well as reporting on the state priority species on the combined list for birds, butterflies and mammals, as well the State of Nature indicators. 2017/18. Governmental expenditure of the UK’s nature, we have Pollution: emissions of many the four UK countries, data are available as other measures of biodiversity status. on international biodiversity sought to identify trends in the pollutants have been reduced to assess change in relative abundance jncc.gov.uk/ukbi conservation, including in the UK’s dramatically in recent decades, key pressures that have caused Overseas Territories (OTs), has although diffuse air and water UK Biodiversity Indicator: Change in the relative abundance of UK priority species, the net loss of nature, as well increased steadily since 2000/01. pollution continues to have a severe 1970 to 2016 as in the responses being made A measure of NGO expenditure on • Since 1970, the indicator impact on the UK’s sensitive habitats uae ator (214 species) o ter Sort ter biodiversity has increased since 170201 2011201 of abundance for 214 priority to help nature. and freshwaters, and new pollutant 21 207 2010/11, indicating growing public 120 100% species has declined by a statistically threats continue to emerge. PRESSURES ON NATURE support for nature conservation. significant 60%, and between 100 Urbanisation: there was an 0% 2011 and 2016 by 22%. te o The State of Nature 2019 reviews the 00 00 00 8% increase in proportion of UK 00 0 major pressures on the UK’s nature; 700 0% • Over the long term, 63% of species 00 00

population living in urban areas 170 100 0022 500 0 showed strong or moderate agricultural management, climate 20117 prices 001 00 002 between 1970 and 2018. 0% 00 decreases and 22% showed strong eretae of eretae e e o

change, urbanisation, pollution, of species Percentage 200 001 0 hydrological change, invasive non- Woodland management: woodland 100 or moderate increases; 16% showed 0 000 20% 200001 20050 201001 20171 20 little change. native species (INNS) and woodland cover in the UK increased Pic sector s Pic sector as % of P by between 1998 and 2018, orce nccgoi2 management. Although monitoring 9% 0 0% • Over the short term, between 2011 although only 44% of woodland Millions of people across the UK love 170 10 10 2000 2010 201 Strong increase change in these pressures, and Moderate increase and 2016, 46% of species showed is managed sustainably. and care for wildlife, as shown by Indicator 95% confidence intervals Little change the impact they have on the UK’s Source: jncc.gov.uk/ukbi-C4a Moderate decrease strong or moderate decreases and support for wildlife charities, garden Strong decrease biodiversity, has not been systematic, Hydrological change: 1,000 hectares 35% showed strong or moderate bird feeding and television viewing we have sought the most relevant (ha) of UK wetlands were converted increases; 18% showed little change. figures. Many show their support available metrics to convey how the to artificial surfaces in six years by donating time as conservation UK Biodiversity Indicator: Change in the distribution of UK priority species, 1970 to 2016 pressures on wildlife are changing. (2006–2012), although new habitat has volunteers; the measure of this has Agricultural management been created, for example through ua ator 5 species o ter Sort ter • Between 1970 and 2016, the index increased by 46% since 2000. We 170201 2011201 00 post-mineral extraction restoration. 5 5 of distribution of priority species in estimate that around 7,500,000 120 100% the UK declined by 27%. The index 250 Invasive non-native species: volunteer hours go into collecting 100 was 3% lower in 2016 than in 2011. On average 10–12 new non-native biodiversity monitoring data every year. 0% 200 species become established in the 0 • Over the long term, 37% of species Exciting and ambitious projects and 0% 150 UK annually, and 10–20% of these showed strong or moderate policy commitments highlighted 170 100 0 cause serious adverse impacts. decreases and 16% showed 100 0%

throughout the report illustrate the e Percentage of species Percentage

routt 17 100 routt 0 strong or moderate increases; 50 wide range of responses for nature RESPONSE FOR NATURE 20% 46% showed little change. in the UK and OTs, including but of 20 0 • Over the short term, between 17 10 10 2000 2010 201 Conservation in the UK is delivered course not limited to: 0 0% by a broad coalition of national 170 10 10 2000 2010 201 Strong increase 2011 and 2016, 50% of species The steady increase in agricultural • Nature-friendly farming. Moderate increase showed strong or moderate and local governments, NGOs, nicator 0% creie interas Little change productivity, a product of increased land • Climate change mitigation schemes. orce nccgoi Moderate decrease decreases and 33% showed businesses, landowners, farmers Strong decrease 1 and resource use efficiency , is linked to and private individuals, often • Legally binding limits for strong or moderate increases; the intensification of land management, working in partnership. There are pollution emissions. 17% showed little change. which has had many documented many notable successes, some • Habitat restoration schemes. Photo: Richard Brooks (rspb-images.com) impacts on the farmland wildlife found highlighted in this report, but as Bittern on 75% of the UK’s land area. • Vast landscape-scale conservation our state metrics demonstrate these projects to restore ecosystems. have been insufficient as yet to stem Climate change • Community engagement and citizen 15 or reverse the net loss of nature. science projects. 10

05 • Reintroduction schemes

00 returning once-lost species.

05 • Managing problematic

10 fferee fro fro fferee non-native species. 15 1 110 150 10 2017 nna ae 10ear rnning ean Continued monitoring of biodiversity Climate change is driving will enable us to determine whether widespread changes in the they are delivering the hoped-for abundance, distribution and ecology recovery in the UK’s wildlife. 12 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 13

RESULTS IN MORE DETAIL CHANGE IN AVERAGE SPECIES’ DISTRIBUTION BY TAXONOMIC GROUP Similarly, the occupancy indicators can be separated to show the change in average species’ distribution between 1970 and 2015 for four terrestrial and freshwater groups: insects, bryophytes and lichens, The composite nature of multispecies indicators In the graphs shown here, the white line with shading vascular plants and mammals. Some mammal and moth species are included in both our abundance means they do not show the variation in trends shows the smoothed trend and associated 95% CI, the blue line shows the underlying unsmoothed indicator. and occupancy indicator, but a number are only included in the latter (see methods). between individual species and species groups. In order to help understand changes in our Insects, 1970 to 2015 Bryophytes and Lichens, 1970 to 2015 State of Nature 2019 headline abundance and ua ator 12 species ua ator 125 species 10 10 distribution indicators better, we present 10 10 indicators disaggregated into species groups. 120 120 100 100 170 100

170 100 0 0 0 0 e CHANGE IN AVERAGE SPECIES’ ABUNDANCE BY TAXONOMIC GROUP 0 e 0 20 20 0 0 Butterflies, 1976 to 2016 Moths, 1970 to 2016 170 10 10 2000 2010 2015 170 10 10 2000 2010 2015 nicator 0% creie interas nicator 0% creie interas uae ator (57 species) uae ator (442 species) 10 10 The occupancy indicator for insects shows a decrease Over the long term the occupancy indicator for 10 10 120 120 in average distribution of 10% over the long term, bryophytes and lichens shows a 17% increase in average 100 100 and 8% over the short term. distribution, having decreased during the 1970s and 80s. 170 100 17 100 0 0 The indicator shows an 7% increase over the short term. 0 0 e e e e 0 0 Mammals, 1970 to 2015 Vascular plants, 1970 to 2015 20 20 0 0 ua ator 1 species ua ator 151 species 17 10 10 2000 2010 201 170 10 10 2000 2010 201 10 10 nicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals nicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals 10 10 120 120 The long-term decreases in average abundance in butterflies (-16%, CI -32% to 1%) and moths (-25%, CI -35% to -15%) 100 100 170 100 170 100

0 0 have not slowed; short‑term declines are 12% and 9% respectively. 0 0 e The UK Biodiversity Indicator for habitat specialist butterflies (not shown here; jncc.gov.uk/ukbi-C6) showed an e 0 0 20 20 unsmoothed decline of 68% between 1976 and 2018, showing a pattern of greater declines among habitat specialist 0 0 species than generalists that appears to be prevalent in many taxonomic groups. 170 10 10 2000 2010 2015 170 10 10 2000 2010 2015 nicator 0% creie interas nicator 0% creie interas Over the long term the average distribution of The occupancy indicator for vascular plants is 4% lower Terrestrial and freshwater breeding and wintering birds, Mammals, 1994 to 2016 mammals has decreased by 26% and is 6% lower compared to 1970, and shows little short-term change 1970 to 2016 over the short term. in average distribution. uae ator (171 species) uae ator (25 species) 10 10 10 10 120 120 GREAT BRITAIN RED LIST ASSESSMENT BY TAXONOMIC GROUP 100 100 1 100 170 100 0 0 The bars show the percentage of assessed species, in broad taxonomic groups, falling into each of the IUCN Red List 0 0 categories. Species assessed as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable are formally classified as threatened e e e 0 0 20 20 and therefore at risk of extinction. The number of species assessed is shown in brackets. 0 0 170 10 10 2000 2010 201 1 2000 2010 201 Higher taxonomic Taxonomic group Summarising these results Indicator 95% confidence intervals nicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals group (% threatened) by the main higher taxonomic e ar nang e e as t o n tinct or egiona r icens 12 a itic a Lichens (13%) t n a groups, 440 plants (18%), 232 fungi e

r nang e

The abundance indicator for terrestrial and freshwater The abundance indicator for mammals starts a Fungi and lichens e r ficie n r e e e ce r a Fungi* (44%) ngi 15 te n and lichens (15%), 111 vertebrates n breeding and wintering birds shows a 43% (95% CI in 1994 and shows little long-term change in average t e

r (40%) and 405 invertebrates (12%) e

39% to 47%) increase in average abundance over abundance. Over the short term, the indicator roptes 1055 Bryophytes (16%) are classified as being at risk of the long term but little change over the short term. remained stable, just 3% lower in 2016 compared Plants ascar pants 1527 The increase in this indicator is driven by recovery to 2006. Species trends vary and just over two-thirds Vascular plants (19%) extinction from Great Britain. of some species from very low numbers, the arrival of species show strong or moderate increases Molluscs (10%) oscs 12 In addition, there are species of colonising species, and increasing numbers of in abundance, some from very low baselines. Millipedes & centipedesiipees (5%)centipees 2 in each group that are known wintering waterbirds. These increases mask abundance to have gone extinct from Invertebrates Crustaceans (4%) rstaceans 51 declines in common and widespread breeding species: Great Britain already: 32 plants it is estimated that the total number of breeding birds Insects* (11%) nsects 277 (1.2%), 33 fungi and lichens 2 in the UK fell by 44 million between 1967 and 2009 . Spiders (16%) piers (1.8%), seven vertebrates (2.4%) and 61 invertebrates (1.6%). Terrestrial mammalserrestria (26%) aas Vertebrates Birds (43%) irs 21 A breakdown of all-Ireland

0% 25% 50% 75% 100% assessments for species in Percentage of species Northern Ireland is given *1% of fungi and 12% of insects were assessed. on page 70. 14 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 15

State of Nature 2019 focuses on recent changes in biodiversity, and the drivers of these HISTORICAL CHANGE changes, but we must remember that we have been shaping our landscape, and the wildlife within it, for millennia. It is widely accepted that the UK’s biodiversity had been massively depleted by centuries of habitat loss, management changes, development and persecution IN BIODIVERSITY before State of Nature’s 1970 baseline. We are unable to measure this depletion accurately, but know many of the significant changes which occurred over the last two hundred years.

THE GOOD • In 1941, Avocets return to the UK • The Large Blue butterfly is reintroduced • Otters returned to every county NEWS after a 100-year absence. to the West Country in 1985. in the UK by 2011. • Polecats begin a slow recovery • Salmon return to the Thames after • By 2014, the Lady’s Slipper Orchid was in Wales from a low point in a 125-year absence. flowering at 11 reintroduction sites. the 1930s. • Fisheries management enables • Corncrakes return to breed in the recovery of Herring stocks. Northern Ireland in 2016.

ACTION TO • The first nature reserve was • Wild Birds Protection Act 1876 • UK Government’s Nature • Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 introduced. • The global 2020 Aichi targets HELP NATURE established in 1821 at Walton introduced. Conservancy established in 1949. • The harmful pesticide DDT was banned in are adopted in 2010. Hall, West Yorkshire. • The RSPB was formed in 1889, • First National Park, the Peak the UK in 1984. • In 2017, UK carbon emissions drop the National Trust in 1895 and the first District, designated in 1951. • Countryside Stewardship Scheme piloted to 43% below 1990 levels. of the Wildlife Trusts in 1912. • Whaling by the UK ended in 1963. in 1991. • Beinn Eighe in the Scottish Highlands • The EU Water Framework Directive, becomes the UK’s first Gene Conservation addressing water pollution, comes into Unit protecting local Scots Pine lineages. force in 2000. 1870 to 1970 to 1930 2000

1800 to 1930 to Post- 1870 1970 2000 PRESSURES ON • The first industrial revolution spanned • The UK’s human population exceeded • The UK’s first full-length motorway, • The UK joined the Common • The Central England temperature time NATURE 1780–1830. 30 million in 1871. the M1, opened in 1959. Agricultural Policy in 1973. series was 1°C warmer in latest decade • 1,000km2 of wetlands were drained • The introduction of steam trawlers • 97% of wildflower meadows were • 10,000km2 of land were drained compared to the pre-industrial period annually between 1840 and 1880. caused a rapid increase in fishing during lost between the 1930s and 1984. in the 1970s. (1850–1900). the 1880s. • The area of crops treated with pesticides increased by 53% between 1990 and 2010. • In 2019, the UK’s sixth national report to CBD indicates that the country is on track to meet five of the 20 Aichi targets by2020 .

THE BAD • The Great Auk was hunted to extinction • Invertebrate extinctions hit a high in • Overfishing led North Sea Herring • Thirteen species of farmland bird were • The indicator of habitat specialist NEWS in the UK in 1840. England, with 12 species lost between stocks to decline by over 99% red-listed as Birds of Conservation butterflies down by 68% since1976 . • Salmon disappear from the Thames 1900 and 1910. between the 1960s and mid-70s. Concern in 1996, including Turtle Dove, • The Birds of Conservation Concern in 1833. • The loss of Mitten’s Beardless Moss from • Since the 1950s wildflowers have Grey Partridge and Corn Bunting. Red List increased from 36 to 67 Sussex in 1920 means the species goes been lost at a rate of up to nearly • The Freshwater Pearl Mussel became species between 1996 and 2015. extinct globally. one species per year per county. extinct from two Scottish rivers per year on average, between 1970 and 1998. Photos: istock We have identified the most significant In the State of Nature 2016 we reported Informed by this analysis, in the following pressures acting on terrestrial and freshwater the most significant drivers of change that pages of State of Nature 2019 we take a have acted on the UK’s wildlife since the 1970s, more detailed look at what we believe to nature in the UK: agricultural management, and attempted to quantify the impact these be the biggest threats to terrestrial and climate change, urbanisation, pollution, drivers had over that period, both to the freshwater nature in the UK currently: 1 hydrological change, INNS and woodland benefit and detriment of nature. This research agricultural management, climate change, identified that changing agricultural urbanisation, pollution, hydrological change, management. Here we examine how each management had the biggest single impact INNS and woodland management. upon nature in the UK over recent decades, of these proximate drivers affects nature, Of course, in addition to these pressures, with the great majority of that impact being the state of nature as a consequence of this, wildlife in the UK benefits from conservation, to drive species’ populations downwards. The whether it is targeted action to save and the conservation actions being taken second most significant driver was climate threatened species or the everyday actions change, which is causing range and population in response. We examine marine drivers of farmers and other land managers working change in sensitive species, alongside of change on pages 50–63. to help nature across the country. We finish landscape-scale alteration to vulnerable this section of the report by giving a brief habitats. Other important impacts included overview of conservation in the UK, and how hydrological change, urbanisation and how governments, NGOs, businesses, landowners, woodlands are managed. Positive impacts farmers and private individuals work together were detected from wildlife-friendly farming, to save nature, showcasing a broad range habitat management and the creation of new of the many efforts being taken. wildlife habitats.

Photo: Mike Read (rspb-images.com) State of Nature Report 2019 19 Drivers of change

PRESSURES and farm ponds3,4. Over this period, support payments, but have now agriculture has followed a consistent fallen back. Spring-sown cereals, ON NATURE trend of increasing productivity (the which can benefit farmland wildlife ratio of inputs to outputs, a product by providing an overwinter stubble, of increased land and resource are also making a slight comeback, Agriculture has been the use efficiency), with associated in part to combat herbicide-resistant dominant use of land in the consequences for wildlife. Of course, weeds such as Black Grass. UK for centuries, driven by increased productivity does not of the need to produce food for itself impact wildlife; it is some of the Total quantities of nutrients used in the UK, 1965 to 20176 subsistence or profit since changes in management that have humans moved from hunter- delivered increased productivity that 100 AGRICULTURAL have had a detrimental effect. 100 gatherer societies to begin 100 Agricultural productivity in the UK, cultivating crops and raising 1200 a measure of intensification, MANAGEMENT animals. These practices have 1000 1973 to 20185 00

profoundly shaped historical otoe and cultural perspectives on 00 00 00 our landscapes and nature, 250 200

0 A wide range of changes in agricultural management and continue to do so today. 200 15 170 10 10 2000 2005 2017 in recent decades has led to greater food production Agricultural change has been itrogen Potash Phosphate 150 but they have also had a dramatic impact on farmland identified as the most important driver of biodiversity change 100 Reported trends for pesticide use biodiversity. For example, populations of farmland 17 100 routt over the past 45 years1, with 50 in the UK demonstrate some of the birds have more than halved on average since 1970, complexities involved in monitoring. most effects being negative. 0 and similar declines have been seen in many other 17 10 10 2000 2010 201 Although the total weight of the active There are, however, also a taxonomic groups. Targeted wildlife-friendly farming, ingredient in pesticides has fallen range of species and habitats An increasing awareness of the markedly over the past 25 years, supported by government-funded agri-environment that largely depend on impact of modern farming methods the number of hectares treated with schemes (AES), can halt and reverse these declines, agricultural management. on nature has led to changes in how pesticides, along with the frequency public funds are used to support the of treatments, have increased. but to date the only successes have been for rare and Currently, 72% of the UK’s land area is agricultural sector. Since the 1990s In addition, there have been managed for agriculture, about one- localised species. The area of land receiving effective a move away from direct production increases in the toxicity of pesticides third arable and two-thirds pastoral agri-environment measures may have helped slow subsidies to area payments, coupled and the variety of pesticides used (grassland, moor and heath). Half of with requirements to meet basic on a single crop7. the decline in nature but has been insufficient to halt the arable land is used for cereal crops, environmental standards (cross- while pastoral land is predominantly and reverse this trend. compliance) and the introduction Trends in pesticide use in the UK, used to raise sheep (over 30 million) 8 of agri-environment schemes (AES), 1990 to 2016 and cattle (over 10 million)2. has aimed to mitigate some of 0 Although historical changes have the impacts of farming and help 0 had massive impacts, it is only since wildlife recover. 70 the systematic recording of a suite 0 Although agricultural productivity of wildlife taxa began in the 1970s 50 continues to increase, the use of that we have been able to clearly link 0 fertilisers, particularly nitrogen and specific changes in management to 0 phosphates, has decreased since 20 changes in biodiversity. The changes 6 peaking in the 1980s . Numbers of 10

in farmland management over the iions treate ete ue a area sheep and cattle peaked in the 1970s 0 past 50 years that have had the 10 15 2000 2005 2010 201 and 1980s as a result of market trends PRESSURE STATE RESPONSE greatest impact on the UK’s nature ota area treate a ota eigt appie g and Common Agricultural Policy Agricultural productivity Farmland bird indicator has Area under agri‑environment include the increased use of pesticides has increased by over 150% fallen by 54% since 1970. increased to around 3 million ha. and fertilisers; increased stocking Photo: Colin Wilkinson (rspb-images.com) since 1973. rates, changes in crops and cropping 300 120 4 patterns (e.g. grasslands managed for silage rather than hay production, 3 200 80 with reseeding and drainage, crops

170 100 2 sown in the autumn rather than iion ectares routt the spring); farm specialisation 100 e 40 1 (e.g. in either arable or livestock rea are ee are rea

0 0 0 enterprises); greater mechanisation and increase in farm size; and loss of nature-friendly features such as field Photo: Andy Hay (rspb-images.com) margins, hedgerows, wooded areas 20 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 21

Agricultural management Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation INNS, pests and pathogens Pollution Woodland management

THE STATE Trends do vary across the UK Arable plants such as Shepherd’s‑ THE RESPONSE UK Biodiversity Indicator: Area of land bat species have been shown to countries and generally farmland needle, Corn Buttercup and Pheasant’s- in agri-environment schemes in the UK, benefit, at a local scale, from the OF NATURE birds are faring better in Scotland, eye have shown significant declines FOR NATURE 1992 to 2018 presence of field margins and where on average they have increased attributed to the use of fertilisers 0 boundary features that include mature since the 1990s, than elsewhere. and herbicides and a range of trees19,20. There has, however, been One of the clearest examples One of the mechanisms for 5 Upland farming has arguably management practices that reduce 0 little evidence of benefits to species of how farmland management seen less dramatic changes than the seed bank or survival through mitigating the negative impacts 21 25 occupying in-field cropped habitats . has affected biodiversity is the lowlands, with some formerly increased crop density and decreased of agriculture is through 20 Although agricultural intensification the trend in farmland birds; widespread species now restricted crop diversity16. Fertiliser use and environmentally sustainable 15 may have slowed since its late 20th the suite of bird species to an upland range. However, the conversion to arable have contributed farming practices. Although 10 century peak, and there have been recent trends in upland birds show to the loss of 97% of wildflower most closely associated with many farmers engage in notable successes in recovering multispecies declines are occurring in meadows and other species‑rich 05 farmland have declined nature‑friendly farming ee iion ectares are rea 00 some threatened species such as these habitats as well14. grasslands in the past century17. 12 2000 2015 201 Cirl Bunting and Stone Curlew, more severely than birds in voluntarily due to their own orce nccgoi1a The impacts of management changes Farming has shaped the countryside any other habitat, with a interests or as part of voluntary aggregate farmland biodiversity are not limited to those on birds. for centuries and recent research indicators continue to decline despite fall of 54% in the Farmland networks (for example, the There has been widespread uptake A similar pattern of declines is shows that some current occupants by the farming community, but the government commitments to reversing Bird Indicator since 19709. Nature Friendly Farming Network evident for butterflies in the wider including widespread bumblebees, effectiveness of AES has been hard the downward trend and a huge effort Research has revealed the countryside (figure below), though for brambles, Cow Parsley and Spear and The Farming and Wildlife to demonstrate. Despite the proven from farmers and the conservation diverse processes by which other insect and invertebrate groups Thistle have adapted well to this Advisory Group), government- value of many AES options in field sector. This may in part reflect a lag species have been affected. the available data are insufficient to landscape. Along with other adaptable sponsored AES have provided the trials, a number of broader studies in the response of wild populations to derive broad trends. There is growing generalists such as Woodpigeons For example, the shift to main impetus. Although there have failed to establish clear cause habitat change, meaning that declines concern about pollinators, largely and Jackdaws, some species appear can continue even after habitat autumn sowing has resulted are challenges to implementing and effect for population recovery at related to use of pesticides such as resilient to agricultural intensification larger geographical scales, largely as change has halted or been partly in a fall in Skylark breeding particular actions at a sufficient 22 neonicotinoids (which have seen recent and have prospered in recent a result of the complex interactions reversed . Research has identified productivity as cereal crops restrictions in permissible use) but decades, while specialist species scale to reverse declines in of different factors. Where broad- many of the issues contributing to become too tall and dense also the decrease in plant diversity and have seen widespread and often widespread species, AES provide scale successes have been identified continuing population declines, but 15 in the breeding season10, flower‑rich habitats . continuing decline. a mechanism to target the most for birds18, these have been mainly a key factor for some species is the and the loss of overwinter appropriate conservation actions related to the provision of winter food lack of implementation of remedial through stubble management and action at a coordinated landscape scale stubbles has meant poorer UK Biodiversity Indicator: Trends in breeding farmland birds in the UK, 1970 to 2017 in the relevant areas. wild bird seed mix. Some moth and sufficient to make a real difference. survival for granivores such 11 uae ator (19 species) o ter Sort ter as Yellowhammer . Increased 1702017 20122017 pesticide use has resulted 120 100% CASE STUDIES in less invertebrate food 100 0% Corncrake recovery since 2003. Alongside unusual spring tussock‑forming grassland, heath and for young Grey Partridges12, weather, a reduction in payments to mire that contains Devil’s-bit Scabious, 0 Successes for individual species have while the drainage of wet 0% delay mowing and a reduction targeted the plant that the caterpillars require been achieved where research has 170 100 0 advice may have contributed to this for food. By working with landowners, grasslands and the loss of led to the identification of a particular 0% downturn, highlighting the vulnerability Butterfly Conservation and Natural

e e a ae mixed farming systems has of species Percentage problem and resources deployed at a 0 fara aaeet of rare species to changes in policy. England helped secure Higher Level led to a decline in Lapwings13. sufficient scale to tackle it – typically 20% Stewardship for landholdings on 20 for very rare species with a restricted Calling male Corncrakes in Great Britain Dartmoor where they were able to 0 range, such as the Corncrake in the and Isle of Man, in survey years 0% introduce butterfly-friendly measures 170 10 10 2000 2010 2017 Strong increase Scottish islands. Here, farmers and 1978 to 2018 Moderate increase Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals such as controlled grazing, scrub Little change crofters receive targeted advice 100 Source: jncc.gov.uk/ukbi-C5 Moderate decrease removal, increased connectivity FARMLAND BIRDS Strong decrease regarding habitat management 1200 between patches and reintroduction and mowing regimes, and receive HAVE DECLINED of the larval food plant. By 2010, UK Biodiversity Indicator: Insects of the wider countryside, 1976 to 2017 – butterflies payments to delay grass cutting. Male 1000 MORE SEVERELY the area of occupied habitat had Corncrake numbers have risen from 00 uae ator (24 species) o ter Sort ter almost tripled, and in occupied THAN THOSE IN ANY 1702017 20122017 a low of under 500 in the early 1990s 00 areas, the counts of larval webs 120 100% to 1,289 in 2014. Although this is a OTHER HABITAT. 00 had risen tenfold. Facilitated by AES 100 success, the population is still tiny with 0% 200 funding, the project has been a great a highly restricted range and is no out of a ae orrae success, due to strong partnership 0 longer a breeding species on the Isle of 0 0% 17 10 2000 2010 201 working between the project officer,

170 100 Man. Setting this in context, the species 0 Natural England advisors, Dartmoor was once found in all counties of the 0% Land management e e National Park ecologists and the 0 of species Percentage UK and in every meadow and cornfield for butterflies24 farmers and volunteers delivering the 20% in the north of Ireland, where one late 20 management. Ongoing management 19th century author reported that “its The Marsh Fritillary is one of the advice is crucial if benefits are to 0 0% incessant cry is monotonous if not fastest declining butterflies in the 10 10 2000 2010 continue, and the follow-on project, 17 201 Increase wearisome”23. Since 2014, numbers in UK, having lost two-thirds of its Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Little change All the Moor Butterflies, is producing Decrease the core area fell for three consecutive colonies between 1990 and 2000. Source: jncc.gov.uk/ukbi-C6 similar positive results. years, with the 2017 count the lowest The main cause is the loss of damp State of Nature Report 2019 23 Drivers of change

Time series of average UK land temperatures PRESSURES in °C since 1884, expressed as anomalies relative ON NATURE to the 1961 to 1990 average3

15 Increasing temperatures

and rising sea levels are just 10 two symptoms of the complex climatic changes that have 05 been apparent in the UK CLIMATE CHANGE 00 over recent decades. The graph to the right shows annual 05 mean temperature for the UK, 10 Climate change, caused by human activities, expressed as anomalies relative to the fro fferee 1961–1990 average. The blue line is 15 is one of the most significant threats to global a smoothed trend, which is roughly 1 110 150 10 2017 biodiversity, and is projected to become increasingly equivalent to a 10-year running mean. nna ae 10ear rnning ean severe through the course of this century1. While The UK has experienced significant warming, with mean annual climate change has had the second largest impact days. There has also been an increase Climate change is also affecting temperature in the most recent in the amount of sunshine by 6% from conditions at sea; sea surface (after agricultural change) on UK nature over the decade (2008–2017) nearly 1°C 1961–1990 to 2008–20173. temperature has increased by 0.6°C last 40 years, impacts on wildlife have been mixed2. warmer than the 1961–1990 average. from the 1961–1990 average and the These trends are apparent in all Rainfall shows more variability There is growing evidence that climate change sea level has risen by 16cm since the countries, and across all seasons, between years, making trends more start of the 20th century. Sea-level is driving widespread and rapid changes in the with spring warming being the most difficult to spot. However, the most rise increases pressure on intertidal abundance, distribution and ecology of the UK’s pronounced (1.1°C warming). There recent decade has been 8% wetter habitats and may lead to more has been a reduction in the number than the 1961–1990 average, with wildlife, causing changes to species communities severe flooding and coastal erosion of days of ground frost and an trends being most apparent in winter by waves4. and will continue to do so for decades or even increase in the number of growing and summer. centuries to come. Conserving and restoring nature‑rich areas of the UK will contribute to mitigating climate change and benefit species, PROJECTIONS FOR 21ST 20th century climate change – Projections for 21st century climate: while strategies to counter the negative effects CENTURY CLIMATE most recent decade 2008–2017 by 2070 compared to 1961–1990 average of climate change will help species to adapt The current predictions of the future to its increasing influence in future. UK climate, published most recently in November 2018, are provided by the UK Climate Projections5,6. Projections are made for several different emissions scenarios. Given current levels of emissions, we present those for a high Temperature Rainfall Temperature Rainfall emissions scenario. 0.7 to 4.2°C ON LAND 1°C warmer 8% increase WINTER -1% to +35% warmer There is projected to be a greater chance of warmer, wetter winters 0.9 to 5.4°C SUMMER -47% to +2% and hotter, drier summers and warmer PRESSURE STATE RESPONSE by mid-century the chance of hot All the top 10 warmest years Climate change Protecting nature-rich areas summers, resembling the 2018 since records began have has already impacted secures carbon, benefits heatwave, will increase from <10% to occurred post-1990. population trends species and provides vital 10–20%. Rainfall patterns will change

0 1.5 of moths (explaining ecosystem services – significantly; increasing in winter and

1.0 40% of the decline) providing benefits all round. decreasing in summer. Sea-level rise and aphids (explaining will occur for all emission scenarios

0.5 level 60% of the increase). 0.0 and at all locations around the UK Temperature Sea level Sea surface temperature Sea with the associated risk of increased -0.5 16cm rise 1.5 to 4°C c30cm coastal flooding. Extreme weather AT SEA 0.6°C warmer since start of AT SEA -1.0 warmer to115cm* 20th century Difference (°C) from 1961–199 -1.5 events, such as drought and flood, will increase in frequency.

*Relative to 1981–2000. Photo: Peter Cairns (rspb-images.com) 24 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 25

Agricultural management Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation INNS, pests and pathogens Pollution Woodland management

THE STATE CHANGES IN TIMING There is growing evidence that THE RESPONSE PROTECTING AND ENHANCING Butterfly banks warming has driven significant THE PROTECTED AREA NETWORK The onset of seasonal events is now OF NATURE changes in plant communities in FOR NATURE earlier for a wide range of marine There is strong evidence that the Scottish Highlands, with declines and terrestrial species. Species’ protected areas remain a vital in arctic-montane species17, and Temperature, rainfall and responses vary: for terrestrial plants Responses to combat the conservation tool in spite of shifting in specialist snow-bed species18. and invertebrates this has been by species’ distributions. For eight other climatic factors consistent The impacts of seasonal changes negative effects of climate about four days on average for a invertebrate taxa, colonisations have with a warming climate in climate vary across different change on species involve 1°C increase in temperature, while occurred on protected sites more affect the abundance and taxa. Summer drought can have a planning and conservation for birds the figure is two days on often than expected by chance based significant impact on the growth and occurrence of individual species, average12. Different responses by action at a range of scales. on the availability of protected areas22. survival of tree species, leading to acting on range, population different parts of the food chain may It will be essential for us More specifically, colonisations by major changes in the composition and phenology (the timing disrupt ecosystems if the availability of to understand the risks seven butterfly and bird species Photo: Patrick Cashman (rspb-images.com) and structure of woodland19. of seasonal events)7,8,9. prey and the timing of peak predator and identify areas, habitats are over four times more likely in requirements do not align. Although Whether an individual species is seen protected areas than expected by and species groups At an ex-arable farmland site in there are examples of this impacting to benefit from, or to be adversely chance23,24 – this is probably because DISTRIBUTIONAL CHANGES that are most vulnerable. Wiltshire, 200ha of species-rich particular populations13 there is, at affected by, climate change within such sites better preserve important grassland has been created for Small Red Damselfly present, only weak evidence that a particular geographic region, areas of semi-natural habitat. ASSESSING THE RISKS TO the benefit of specialist plants and this mismatch has driven observed the resultant shifts in species’ There is also some evidence that SPECIES IN ORDER TO butterflies. For butterfly species at long‑term declines in predatory distributions will impact on the protected areas reduce the risk of PRIORITISE RESOURCES the north of their climatic range species, such as insectivorous birds14. structure of communities. This population extinction towards the in the UK, such as the Adonis Blue can impact community processes A detailed assessment accounting southern range-margin of species’ and Silver‑spotted Skipper, varied POPULATION TRENDS and species’ interactions (such as for potentially confounding and distributions24. This may be because topography with steep, warm predator-prey relationships and exacerbating factors applied to 402 protected areas protect high-quality south‑facing slopes is essential. Garden Tiger Moth competition) which can in turn drive species suggested that 35% are at risk habitats or because conservation To support existing populations further population change20. of range loss, particularly among the management at those sites reduces and increase connectivity in the bryophytes and vascular plants, while negative impacts of climate change. landscape, butterfly banks have Photo: Jeroen Stel (rspb-images.com) 42% may expand their range. Notably, Notwithstanding this, areas projected been constructed by bulldozing chalk three-quarters of the upland species to have suitable climates would up from the field into an S-shaped In the UK many species, including considered are predicted to be at risk need to be targeted for habitat bank. This ingenious shape ensures birds, butterflies, moths and from climate change21. restoration and creation to provide that its sides face in all possible dragonflies, have moved north over space for species to move into, and directions, providing warm slopes the last four decades. Shifts for these Example results for four taxonomic improved habitat connectivity is vital, groups (birds, bryophytes, carabid throughout the day and provides groups averaged 23km per decade particularly for less mobile species. beetles and spiders) from assessment a variety of microclimates to between the 1970s and 1990s, and of climate vulnerability for Great Britain support a wide variety of insects. 18km per decade between the SITE-BASED MANAGEMENT across 17 taxa, separating those species A population of Small Blue butterflies 1990s and the mid-2000s10. In the regarded as negatively impacted BogLIFE – Lowland raised has become established just marine environment, warming seas 25 (medium and high risk), from those bog sites two years after it was created. have led to changes in plankton with potential opportunities to benefit and fish distribution resulting in (medium and high opportunity)21. The Cumbria BogLIFE project is Conserving carbon changes to species composition. undertaking large-scale restoration and conserving species 100% Such shifts in range rely on there Photo: Tom Marshall (rspb-images.com) works, using specialist contractors 0% A recent project mapped the best being suitable habitat to permit and innovative techniques that are: 0% places for nature across the UK and movement and establishment, and Our State of Nature metrics show 70% • Re-creating wetter, boggier ground – calculated the amount of carbon 0% on species’ ability to disperse. The declines in moths and butterflies by blocking drainage ditches and contained in the vegetation and top 50% threat from climate change therefore creating “bunds” (little walls of 26 across the UK, although trends in 0% 30cm of soil . Across these nature- interacts directly with other pressures undamaged, wet peat) that will hold Scotland are, on average, stable. MANY SPECIES, of ee eretae 0% rich areas, the amount of carbon, if on species, meaning that impacts A recent study modelling climate 20% water within the bog. lost to the atmosphere, would equate 11 can be exacerbated . impacts on species’ abundance BOTH ON LAND 10% • Removing some areas of trees that (very conservatively) to two gigatons 0 concluded that across all moth AND IN THE SEA, irs roptes arai piers have started to grow in the artificially of CO2, equivalent to four years of the RELATED DRIVERS OF CHANGE eetes species, approximately 40% of the HAVE SHIFTED High risk Medium opportunity dry conditions – as bogs do not UK’s annual overall CO2 emissions. Medium risk High opportunity naturally have trees growing across p54 Marine > Climate change significant decline could be attributed Risks and opportunities Limited impact Only 34% of this carbon is currently to climate change15. Increases in the THEIR RANGES their surface. protected. Poor habitat condition p18 Agricultural management abundance of flying aphids is probably NORTHWARDS IN • Reintroducing bog plants to areas often means that stored carbon is due to warmer temperatures, which RECENT DECADES. with a bare peat surface. This has being lost to the atmosphere – as has p26 Hydrological change 16 27 reduce generation time , leading to included growing trials of Sphagnum been well documented for peatlands . more aphid generations in a year. mosses to replace peat in gardening, Mapping is the first step to integrating with commercial potential across these carbon and nature-rich areas lowland peat agricultural soils. into plans and initiatives to secure their protection, restoration and maintenance to ensure long-term benefits for both nature and people. State of Nature Report 2019 27 Drivers of change

PRESSURES Drainage activity in post-Second Some of the most acute problems World War Britain rose to a peak in of over-abstraction have occurred in ON NATURE the 1970s due to government grant lowland chalk stream systems, which payments – about 1 million ha was are of global ecological importance. drained in that decade alone2. An The Water Framework Directive Many of the pressures affecting estimated 300,000ha of lowland wet (2000)9 committed EU member the distribution and quality grassland were lost between 1970 and states to achieving good qualitative of freshwater habitats relate 19853, and 1.5 million ha of upland and quantitative status of all water to historical land drainage. blanket peatland was drained in the bodies (including marine waters up HYDROLOGICAL mid-century, mainly through the to one nautical mile from shore) by Drainage of the great fens of East Anglia began in Roman mechanical digging of surface grips 2015. Of all of our waters, rivers are (channels designed to lower the water perhaps facing the most pressures. CHANGE times and continued with 4 table) . Upland drainage reduces Despite the requirements of the WFD, further major drainage in the carbon storage and can contribute there has been a slight decline in 17th century. Technological to lowland flooding, with impacts on the percentage of water bodies with innovations introduced during people and their livelihoods. The loss “good” or “high” ecological status, the 19th century transformed of wetlands continues to be a cause to 35% in 2018. Diffuse pollution from Throughout history humans have sought to alter natural 10 seasonally flooded marsh and for concern; land-cover maps show agriculture remains a key issue . water systems for their benefit – such that there are few that between 2006 and 2012 over Physical changes to rivers, lakes and pasture into the agronomically pristine freshwater ecosystems remaining in the UK. 1,000ha of wetland was converted estuaries, such as flood defences productive farmland we see 5 Many rivers have been straightened, piped and dammed, to artificial surfaces . and weirs, affect the ecology of over today1. Field drainage has a third of our waters, preventing Alongside general land drainage, loss marshland and agricultural land has been drained, been a major technical factor them from functioning naturally. of specific wet features on farmland Further pressures on the hydrological groundwater abstracted and floodplains built upon. Species in relieving modern farming has been substantial. Up to 90% of network come from climate change reliant on the range of wet habitats affected by these from previous limitations on lowland ponds in the UK were lost in (both increasing flood risk and production. Improvements the 20th century, through neglect or changes have seen long-term declines and face ongoing prolonged droughts) and INNS, direct human intervention6. Those that to farming productivity have which have had major impacts on pressures of unsustainable water abstraction and the remain face increasing pressure due simultaneously led to the loss freshwater ecosystems. These issues continuing drainage and conversion of wetlands to other to agricultural land drainage, pollution, of other ecosystem services are discussed further in the relevant isolation and urban development7. land uses. Recent large-scale projects addressing some including water regulation sections elsewhere in this report. Rapid population growth in recent of these issues include the rewetting of upland peat bog and soil stabilisation. that had been drained for agriculture and forestry; the decades has led to an increase in RELATED DRIVERS OF CHANGE demand for freshwater. This has p34 Invasive non-native species, re-creation of lowland wetland habitats; river restoration; been particularly apparent in South pests and pathogens and pond creation. Despite these landscape-scale projects, East and Eastern England where the extent of wetland habitats remains greatly reduced 22% of freshwater is abstracted. p38 Pollution These regions are categorised by the compared to the middle of the last century. Environment Agency as overexploited8. p22 Climate change

Photo: Richard Revels (rspb-images.com)

PRESSURE STATE RESPONSE In 2018, just 35% of water Change in distribution of Since 2010, the bodies had “good” or freshwater invertebrate Nature After Minerals “high” ecological status. species, 1970 to 2015. partnership has created 2,000ha of wetland 120 through the restoration of minerals sites

80 across the UK. Up to 90% of lowland ponds 170 100 in the UK were lost in the 20th

e e 40 century, through neglect or 0 direct human intervention6. Photo: Richard Brooks (rspb-images.com) Marsh Harrier 28 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 29

Agricultural management Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation INNS, pests and pathogens Pollution Woodland management

THE STATE THE RESPONSE • Over 8,000ha of new habitat of the trial, and of an additional (including 2,000ha of wetland) unauthorised release on the Tay at OF NATURE FOR NATURE created and managed since 2010. around the same time, on both the 16 • With specialised ecological advice, natural and the human environment . Conclusions from this work include: Changes in the populations UK Biodiversity Indicator: Breeding water and wetland birds in the UK, Given that good hydrological a range of habitat features can be created to benefit rare species. • Beavers have an overall positive of water and wetland 1975 to 2017 – Abundance indicators management can bring • 13% of all the UK’s breeding Bitterns influence on biodiversity with birds can be closely linked All water and wetland birds (26 species) major benefits for humans a wide range of species benefiting o ter Sort ter now nest in restored mineral sites. to hydrological changes, 1752017 20122017 through the provision of from the habitats created, including 100% • When training is delivered with and although the impacts vary 120 clean water for consumption fish, amphibians and a wide range for industry partners, best practice 100 of invertebrates. widely across species, and 0% and industrial use, and flood can be shared. other factors interact and play prevention, many recent • Ecosystem services are provided, 0 Examples of habitat creation include their part. The breeding water 0% policy actions have primary such as increased groundwater 175 100 0 the UK’s largest created reedbed storage, water flow stabilisation and wetland bird indicator for 0% aims in these areas. However, through the Hanson–RSPB Wetland e e 0 and flood prevention. the UK fell by 6% between 1975 of species Percentage as good hydrological practices Project in Cambridgeshire and 1,000ha 20% • A number of species may be and 2017, but over the short 20 also benefit nature, this is of new habitats created over 10 years adversely impacted, including Aspen through the CEMEX–RSPB partnership. term has increased slightly, 0 0% increasingly recognised as woodland lichens, bryophytes, 11 175 10 10 2000 2010 2017 Strong increase by 3% . Moderate increase having all-round benefits Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Bringing back fungi communities and some Little change 16 Source: jncc.gov.uk/ukbi-C5 Moderate decrease by policymakers. the Eurasian Beaver invertebrates . Within the indicator, species Strong decrease can be split into groups based on In England, the five-year River CASE STUDIES Beaver breeding habitat. Species associated Birds of slow-flowing and standing water(6 species) Birds of wet grassland (8 species) Otter Beaver Trial is being led by with slow-flowing and standing Creating new wetlands on Devon Wildlife Trust with research 200 200 water, and with reedbeds, have 175 175 mineral extraction sites by the University of Exeter and is on average shown increasing 150 150 due to report in 2020. In Wales, trends, with a range of species 125 125 plans for a trial are being developed 100 benefiting from new habitat 100 75 75 by the Welsh Beaver Project. e 175 100 e e 175 100 e created through the restoration 50 50 The future for Beavers of gravel pits after extraction has 25 25 0 0 finished and improvements in river 175 10 10 2000 2010 2017 175 10 10 2000 2010 2017 • There is an estimated 120,000ha Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals of “potential Beaver woodland” – management. Conversely, birds Source:Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/wild-bird- Source:Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/wild-bird-https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/ Photo: Nick Upton (rspb-images.com) wild-bird-populations-in-the-uk wild-bird-populations-in-the-uk of fast-flowing (typically upland) populations-in-the-uk populations-in-the-uk appropriate broad-leaved woodland in suitable proximity to freshwater – rivers, and wet grasslands, have Birds of reedbeds (4 species) Birds of fast-flowing water(4 species) Eurasian Beavers are native to the declined on average. Declines have UK, and were once widespread across in Scotland. been most notable in breeding 10 120 Scotland, England and Wales, but Photo: Kevin Harwood (rspb-images.com) • In 2014, 84% of respondents in a waders of lowland wet grassland 150 100 were hunted to extinction by the end survey of mid-Argyll residents were such as Lapwing and Snipe, due 120 0 of the 16th century. in favour of Beavers continuing to The restoration of worked-out sand to habitat loss. Outside Scotland, 0 0 live in the area17. and gravel extractions to wetlands Beavers are well known for their e 175 100 e a large proportion of these species’ 175 100 e 0 0 has become widespread in recent dam-building habits and can be • The monetary value to society of the populations are now confined to 0 20 decades and provides an important considered as ecosystem engineers, Knapdale trial has been estimated at sites managed as nature reserves. 0 0 175 10 10 2000 2010 2017 175 10 10 2000 2010 2017 opportunity for increasing the extent with the ability to rapidly alter the up to £6.7 million with the monetary Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/wild-bird- Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/wild-bird- of wetland habitats. Partnerships hydrology of the landscape they cost of civil engineering impacts and wild-bird-populations-in-the-ukpopulations-in-the-uk wild-bird-populations-in-the-ukpopulations-in-the-uk between conservation organisations occupy. By blocking flows, they slow timber loss being put at no more and operating companies help to down the passage of water and create than £44,00018. Change in distribution of freshwater invertebrate species, 1970 to 201512 ensure success. For example, as pools with diverse structures while • The Scottish Government concluded part of the Nature After Minerals modifying the local habitat through in 2016 that Beavers were in ua ator Occupancy modelling has in water quality (such as a recovery project, the RSPB, Natural England, natural coppicing, opening of glades Scotland to stay and in May 2019 120 revealed interesting patterns in from acidification) are likely to the Mineral Products Association and and creating deadwood. they were granted European 100 the distribution of several groups have played an important role, the British Aggregates Association Protected Species status. Recent efforts to restore Beavers to of aquatic macroinvertebrates. but hydrological management to work alongside quarry companies 0 Scotland were led by the Scottish With an increasing number of Beavers Freshwater invertebrates, Stoneflies restore rivers, changing river flow and planners to create new spaces 170 100 (Plecoptera), Caddisflies (Trichoptera), conditions and the presence of Wildlife Trust and Royal Zoological in the wild and in fenced trial sites 0 for nature at worked-out quarries. aquatic bugs (Hemiptera), specific local-scale habitat features Society of Scotland with Scottish in England and Wales, and provided e e 0 Transforming previously industrial Dragonflies (Odonata), Mayflies may have played a part for some Natural Heritage and Forestry that the right balances can be struck, 13,14,15 sites to places where nature can 20 (Ephemeroptera) and freshwater species . In addition, concerns Commission Scotland. As a trial, four it may be that this charismatic molluscs were recorded at a remain about the status of aquatic thrive is a powerful symbol of what 0 families of Beavers were released ecosystem engineer is making 10 10 2000 2010 can be achieved through effective 170 2015 declining number of sites through macroinvertebrates more generally, at Knapdale in Argyll in 2009. An a long‑awaited return to the UK. nicator 0% creie interas the 1970s and 1980s, followed by including the widespread impacts partnerships. Highlights of this intensive programme of monitoring strong increases in the years since. of sediment and pesticide run-off, approach include: and research assessed the impact The drivers for this recovery are not as well as the localised impacts fully understood, and improvements of pollution events. State of Nature Report 2019 31 Drivers of change

PRESSURES UK urban and rural population, 1970 to 2018 0 Urbanisation has direct consequences ON NATURE for wildlife in terms of land use and 50 land cover changes, but it also acts The UK’s human population 0 to fragment landscapes by creating iions barriers between habitats, thus has risen steadily over the 0 isolating some populations and in turn last century, mainly centred 6 20 reducing their genetic fitness . A wide ouato around urban areas (see variety of green spaces exist within 10 figure)2. This has required urban environments, the biodiversity URBANISATION large-scale infrastructure 0 value of which varies with the degree 170 10 10 2000 2010 201 developments, to meet ran ra of fragmentation, management, local Source: https://population.un.org/wup/Country-Profiles/ demands for food, goods and population density and surrounding land use. Increases in air, light and human movement. While Analyses presented in State of Nature noise pollution, human disturbance The end result of urbanisation – the process of making the increasing intensity of 2016 showed that urbanisation accounted for a greater impact and predation by domestic animals development within specific an area more urban – can vary from extensive sprawl, on species than any other habitat particularly affect biodiversity in where built land is interspersed with green spaces, urban zones potentially conversion3. Comprehensive data urbanised areas. to intensively urbanised areas where compact built reduces impacts on the on habitat loss to urbanisation are Nevertheless, most urban wider countryside, the not available, but we know that an environments are separated from green space. environments are not completely biodiversity value of additional 1,600 miles of road were covered with built structures but Urbanisation need not always result in biodiversity loss: existing urban green spaces constructed in Great Britain between contain a substantial area made up of 2006 and 20184. Permanent damage the conversion of an intensively managed arable field and wildlife-rich natural domestic gardens, parks, allotments, to soil function and increased diffuse cemeteries, ponds, road verges and to a housing estate with gardens, a community orchard areas can be impacted. pollution from urban run-off are two brownfield sites. Detailed analysis of and a pond may provide net gain for species diversity detrimental results of covering land four British urban centres (Bristol, and abundance. Conversely, much valuable habitat, with built, impermeable surfaces. Edinburgh, Reading and Leeds) In recognition of this, Scotland including brownfield and semi-natural habitat, has been show that over 60% of the total has recently introduced a new landcover is “green” – with residential lost or damaged by development. Management and Environmental Health Indicator gardens making up 24–36% of each habitat creation projects can improve habitat diversity, for sealed soil, which enables city7. While much of this area is not development to be tracked more resource availability and connectivity across green managed for the benefit of nature, robustly. Between 2009 and 2018, the value of green infrastructure spaces within urban environments. As well as helping the area of sealed soil in the Clyde for biodiversity is worthy of biodiversity, these can enhance ecosystem function catchment, for example, increased consideration and it is also important 1 from 4.38% to 5.2%, representing for the health and well‑being and help human well-being . 5 an area of 41,149ha . of the human inhabitants.

Photo: David Broadbent (rspb-images.com)

PRESSURE STATE RESPONSE There was an 8% increase Between 2006 and 2018, The concept of net gains in the proportion of the 1,600 miles of road for biodiversity through UK’s population living were constructed development have in urban areas between in Great Britain. recently been enshrined 1970 and 2018. in planning policy in England and Wales.

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Agricultural management Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation INNS, pests and pathogens Pollution Woodland management

THE STATE vulnerable species, including urbanisation can increase species’ THE RESPONSE ecosystem service delivery, and Heritage Fund and in collaboration heathland reptiles such as Sand richness for some groups, which has the health and well-being needs of with Wiltshire Wildlife Trust. Lizard and Smooth Snake, and rare been associated with the mosaic of people to access urban green space. OF NATURE FOR NATURE Reducing the impact of artificial ground-nesting birds like Nightjar habitats available9. Urban areas have However, these aims may not always lighting on bats and insects and Woodlark. Although direct loss of been shown to support higher bee be aligned and there is a tension Unsurprisingly, the UK’s urban DIRECT HABITAT LOSS heathland habitat through land-use species’ richness than non-urban between intensive development, Artificial night lighting is one of the areas are where most people Development for housing, industry change is now controlled by planning habitats and a recent study found that providing ecosystem services that most pervasive – and yet under- make a connection with nature. and infrastructure projects such as and environmental legislation, it residential gardens and allotments need extensive areas (e.g. flood recognised – causes of environmental 8 10 road and rail result in a loss of natural was still occurring until the 1990s . are pollinator hotspots . Green There is therefore enormous control), and providing accessible pollution. Globally, external lighting is 16 habitats, as well as fragmentation Development in surrounding areas infrastructure such as sustainable potential for engaging people green space for recreational needs . increasing by around 6% per year; in the UK we have more than 9 million and change to those that remain. continues to increase the pressure drainage systems can provide habitat to take action in their own One solution is to employ a hierarchy on remaining isolated heathland for a wide range of species, including of green infrastructure from larger, street lights, and more and more Heathland is one of the habitats gardens or to act together in patches, through increased fire risk, amphibians and invertebrates, but more distant places to smaller buildings are illuminated at night on that has been most impacted by local green space projects. urbanisation. The UK’s remaining predation by domestic animals and many sites do not fulfil their potential and more local ones. the grounds of security or aesthetics. human disturbance. as wildlife habitats11. This is being supported by policy lowland heathland is distributed Among known impacts on wildlife, and planning regulations to ENGAGING WITH predominantly in southern England, Hedgehogs, now classified as such as on night-flying insects, NATURE IN URBAN AREAS GARDEN WILDLIFE and most is in close proximity to Vulnerable to extinction on Great ensure best practice in new there is now overwhelming expanding urban centres. Direct Urban environments can support Britain’s new Red List for mammals developments and management Increasingly, people are being evidence that bat communities are loss, fragmentation and degradation high levels of biodiversity and offer due to long-term declines12, are of existing green spaces, as well encouraged to garden with wildlife in profoundly affected by light pollution. through nitrogen deposition and opportunities for some species. showing positive signs in low-density as through empowering citizens mind, and there is the potential for Many species – including all but one disturbance has negatively impacted Low and intermediate levels of substantial biodiversity benefits within of those on the Great Britain Red urban habitats. Since 2012, fewer to take individual and collective urban Hedgehog sites have been the domestic gardens that constitute List – avoid lit areas for foraging responsibility for the nature lost and, where populations remain, substantial areas of our cities. or commuting, while the illumination Hedgehog numbers appear to be on their doorstep. of historical buildings (or any roosting growing13. Other species appear to CASE STUDIES site) at night can prevent bats URBAN PLANNING WITH have shifted from their traditional Connecting communities with accessing their roosts. habitats; Foxes and Herring Gulls, for MULTIPLE AIMS the nature on their doorstep Some local planning authorities example, increasingly occupy the UK’s Recent changes mean that planning are taking steps to decrease light major cities, which can cause conflict Launched in March 2019 by Earthwatch policy in England enshrines the pollution, particularly in areas with with humans. There is concern for the Europe, Naturehood is transforming concept of net gains for biodiversity sensitive bat species, for example conservation status of both of these urban green spaces into wildlife through development; similar policies by requiring forms of lighting that species in their traditional habitats, havens by bringing people together. of net benefit were introduced in direct the illumination to only those but in urban areas where food is Wales in 2016. The extent to which Naturehood’s approach empowers and areas where it is needed17. Individuals readily available (particularly from Hedgehogs have this may be achieved is unknown, connects people with both nature and can help to lessen light pollution refuse) they are able to achieve high as there are no robust systems their wider community. Individuals are by switching off exterior lights at population densities. undergone massive in place yet for before-and-after supported to take action to help and night, focusing security lights more Many people in urban areas feed construction comparisons. For monitor local wildlife in their gardens, precisely, choosing bulbs with lower long-term declines, wildlife, including birds, Foxes, example, a review of a subset of balconies or window boxes, while light intensity and avoiding placing Badgers, Hedgehogs, and – development mitigation for bats in Naturehood’s engagement officers outside lights on white walls, where but there are positive sometimes unintentionally – invasive buildings found that, for a range of work across communities to create their effect is magnified. Simply non-native Grey Squirrels and Brown reasons, mitigation measures varied connected networks of habitat to closing curtains at night also makes 15 signs in low-density Rats. There is more to learn about the in their success . There is increasing support biodiversity. an important difference! recognition that urban planning impacts of this supplementary food The first four Naturehoods are now up urban habitats. strategies need to be designed to for wildlife conservation, but it is clear and running in Oxford and Swindon, provide maximum benefit for multiple that many local populations benefit, with support from the National Lottery and national increases in some aims; for biodiversity, for wider familiar birds such as the Goldfinch Photo: Andy Hay (rspb-images.com) have been supported by the growth in garden bird feeding14.

Hedgehog Photo: David Woodfall (rspb-images.com) State of Nature Report 2019 35 Drivers of change

PRESSURES Floating Pennywort ON NATURE

The impact of non-native species has long been recognised as a major driver of environmental damage. Impacts are evident INVASIVE across all ecosystems, with particularly severe impacts on NON‑NATIVE SPECIES, native woodlands, freshwater habitats and islands – which often have unique floras and PESTS AND PATHOGENS faunas, due to their isolation from nearby continents. There are currently around 2,000 non-native species known to be Humans are increasingly moving species around the globe established in Great Britain, and and releasing them, deliberately or accidentally, into the wild. an average of 10–12 new species Some will be moved as contaminants of trade. The number of establish each year; around 12% of these cause serious adverse non-native species colonising or becoming established in the UK impacts and are therefore Photo: GBNNSS continues to grow. Around 12% of established non-native species classed as invasive (INNS)1,2. • Initially harmless airborne pathogens could be devastating to UK newt cause adverse economic, environmental or societal impacts and Over 1,200 non-native species can become more virulent as the populations; current efforts focus on are therefore classed as invasive non-native species (INNS). have been recorded in Ireland. result of hybridising with formerly countering the risk of its introduction benign native microbes. Planting of to the wild via amphibian collections As impacts often take time to emerge, and INNS These figures are likely to increase exotic pine stands in the UK appears or the international pet trade. It as climate change proceeds. INNS can establishment and spread will be facilitated by climate to have facilitated the introduction has already caused mass mortality have a number of adverse impacts. change, that figure is likely to rise. While eradications of of two exotic races of the fungus events in continental Europe, leading • They may outcompete or predate Dothistroma septosporum into to the near extinction of the Fire INNS from islands, for example, can have direct benefits native species, as has happened with Scotland, which now pose a threat to Salamander Salamandra salamandra American Mink and Water Vole3. for impacted species, preventing species from establishing native Scots Pine, both directly and in the Netherlands9. in the first place is recognised globally as the best strategy • INNS may bring with them diseases through potential hybridization and INNS can also reduce the benefits to which native species have little or introgression with the endemic race4,5. for avoiding environmental damage and minimising we gain from nature. For example, no resistance, such as squirrel pox • Hybridisation of a novel species with invasive plants can choke up the financial cost of subsequent management. from American Grey Squirrels that a closely related, native one can also waterways and increase flood risk, is fatal to native Red Squirrels. risk effective extinction of the native while others may cause damage to one by loss of its unique/separate Photo: Paul Sawer (rspb-images.com) species of economic importance. In genetic identity, as is currently 2010 the total annual cost of INNS to Toad 6 happening with Scottish Wildcat . the British economy was estimated 10 Novel pests and pathogens can have at approximately £1.7 billion . impacts beyond the species they directly attack. For example, the PRESSURE STATE RESPONSE spread of Ash dieback is likely to affect the many species that rely upon Ash 12% of established The number of INNS Simple biosecurity measures bark, roots or even its decomposing ON AVERAGE 10–12 non‑native species established in Great Britain can keep INNS off islands. leaves. Declines in Ash are predicted NEW NON-NATIVE have a demonstrated has increased steadily. Breeding seabird numbers to lead to the loss of insects, lichens, negative ecological have shown a rapid positive SPECIES NOW ESTABLISH mosses and liverworts, many of which or human impact, and 60 response to successful 7 EACH YEAR IN GREAT that figure is likely to rise. rat eradications on UK are found largely or solely on Ash . islands, including Lundy, BRITAIN, OF WHICH 40 Amphibian diseases have become Canna, Ramsey, the Shiants a leading cause of the decline and AROUND 12% WILL and the Scilly Isles. 20 extinction of many amphibian CAUSE SERIOUS Nuer of ee populations around the world8. The ADVERSE IMPACTS. 0 emerging infectious chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans Photo: Craig Churchill (rspb-images.com) Muntjac Deer 36 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 37

Agricultural management Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation INNS, pests and pathogens Pollution Woodland management

THE STATE Over 3,200 non-native species have rapidly, having more than doubled THE RESPONSE CASE STUDIES been recorded in Great Britain, since 1999 (see figure below). The Removing INNS OF NATURE with around 2,000 established and greatest numbers of INNS are found FOR NATURE reproducing in the wild. Two hundred in woodlands and urban ecosystems, Although islands are often seen as and thirty-four species have had a followed by coastal, freshwater being particularly vulnerable to INNS, Globally, INNS are one of the While the control of established documented negative ecological and grassland habitats13. they have the advantage of offering main drivers of biodiversity loss or human impact12. The number of INNS is important, the GB a contained system from which INNS and constitute a particular threat terrestrial invasive species becoming RELATED SECTION INNS Strategy emphasises can be removed. Great Britain and to fragile ecosystems, such as established in Great Britain has grown the need for prevention, early Ireland are archipelagos, and several p80 UK Overseas Territories those on islands. Of 247 animal steadily and numbers of marine detection and rapid response successful projects to remove non- extinctions where the cause is species have increased even more to potential establishment. native species have been carried out here, such as the eradication of known, INNS were implicated in Stopping problems before rats on the islands of Canna, Lundy, Photo: Kate Lawrence (rspb-images.com) 58%, and in 31% of cases where they start makes huge savings Ynys Seiriol (Puffin Island) and the species have gone extinct in the both in terms of money and Shiants. On the British mainland, OVER 3,200 of its kind. Before baiting began in wild, INNS were the only cause ecological damage. The EU projects have successfully eradicated NON-NATIVE SPECIES 2010, numbers of Wilson’s Petrel were 11 Coypu, Muskrat, African Clawed Toad, cited . While INNS have been and the UK Government have in the low tens, but five years later HAVE BEEN RECORDED Fathead Minnow and Black Bullhead. implicated in extinctions from response plans to deal with hundreds were regularly seen flying Eradication projects are currently UK OTs, there are none recorded IN GREAT BRITAIN. new threats, and to date over suitable breeding habitat that underway on UK OTs, including Gough from Great Britain and Ireland. these have proved effective had been infested with rats for over Island, Bermuda and Gibraltar. 14 at preventing colonisation a century . Such recovery is not true After clearing an INNS from an area, in all cases, however. For example, UK Biodiversity Indicator: Number of new invasive non-native species established in or along 10% or more of Great of some new species. Britain’s land area or coastline, 1960 to 2018 (final columns in each habitat refer to nine years rather than 10) the recovery of the impacted species even 30 years after Rhododendron or habitat can be remarkably quick. removal from Scottish Atlantic Oak 0 South Georgia was declared rat-free in woodland, the ground flora had not 15 50 2018, following the largest eradication returned to its target condition .

0 Chinese Mitten Crab INNS awareness

0 Action plans include ways to reduce the risk of zoo escapes, contaminants 20

Nuer of ee from angling equipment and introductions via recreational 10 boating. Invasive freshwater plants 0 and animals can spread quickly and 10 170 10 10 2000 2010 10 170 10 10 2000 2010 10 170 10 10 2000 2010 1 17 1 1 200 201 1 17 1 1 200 201 1 17 1 1 200 201 impact whole ecosystems. Killer reater are erretra Shrimp, widely considered one of orce nccgoi the most damaging INNS in Europe, spread from the Ponto-Caspian region Photo: John W Anderson of Eastern Europe. There are three American Mink and Gannet established populations in the UK, elsewhere records are mainly from Seabirds have proven eastern and central Europe to date. Killer Shrimp can cause population particularly vulnerable declines of many native species, preying on other shrimp species, to mammalian INNS, fish larvae and eggs16. Photo: GBNNSS Campaigns such as Check, Clean, in the UK and OTs. Dry and Be Plant Wise17 aim to improve biosecurity by raising awareness with key stakeholders, anglers and boat users, in order to slow the spread of such invasive freshwater species and prevent their establishment in new areas. However, the latest analyses suggests that public awareness of INNS issues has not increased over the past decade, although awareness has improved among key groups such as anglers and boaters18. State of Nature Report 2019 39 Drivers of change

PRESSURES Diffuse pollution represents a from industry and water treatment significant risk to freshwater in the works, but others remain difficult to ON NATURE UK, and arises from the run-off of combat. New threats have arisen with soil, nutrients and pesticides from the introduction of novel agrochemical farming and forestry, contaminated and pharmaceutical products5. There are few places left on drainage from urban areas and the Emissions of reactive nitrogen (NOx), earth unaffected by the deposition of pollutants from the air. sulphur and particulates into the by-products of modern human Point source emissions from industry, atmosphere have decreased since life. Pollution presents a sewage treatment works and fish 1970, though NOx remains a key wide range of threats to the farming add to this pollutant load. source of nitrogenous pollution to environment and the species High levels of phosphates and nitrates the atmosphere. Ammonia emissions POLLUTION are the most frequent causes of rivers, (which contribute to the formation of that inhabit it, as well as to lakes, estuarine and coastal waters NOx) fell overall by 11% between 1980 human health and well-being. failing EU Water Framework Directive and 2017, but have risen since 2013 Pollutants come in a diverse (WFD) water quality objectives3,4, and and constitute a major short-term range of forms, including but impacts can linger for years. threat to sensitive habitats. Dairy A wide range of pollutants, from many sources, and beef cattle, fertiliser application not limited to plastic waste; Recent decades have seen reductions threaten wildlife and have an impact on all habitats. and poultry are major sources chemicals in water, soil and in many forms of pollution, most of ammonia emissions6. Perhaps the most widespread current harm is caused air; noise and light emitted notably point source discharges by excess nutrients (phosphate and compounds of from cities and transport; nitrogen) in air and water. Legislative control has been and nutrient enrichment Trends in annual emissions of various air pollutants, 1970 to 20176 of sensitive habitats. successful in reducing emissions of many pollutants and 120

there are signs of a partial recovery in nature, including Air pollution and nutrient 100 enrichment affect biodiversity fish returning to rivers, and lichen and bryophyte 0 and ecosystem services, harm

species (that are sensitive to air pollution) expanding in 170 100 0 range. Sensitive habitats in particular, however, remain human health and contribute e e 0

to climate change. Widespread or onia 10 100 vulnerable. New government initiatives, partly in changes have been recorded 20 response to international targets, should lead to further to sensitive ecosystems in the 0 improvement. Public concern regarding pollution has UK, with farming, transport and 170 10 10 2000 2010 2017 itrogen oies onia pr ioie been strengthening recently, particularly over the industry being key pollution proliferation of plastic waste in the environment, and sources. Eutrophication, there is a widespread appetite for positive change. acidification and toxic pollution of ecosystems have been shown to drive declines in the presence, abundance and health of sensitive species of plants, lichens and other fungi1. There is strong evidence that nutrient enrichment via nitrogen deposition has impacted plant species in a wide range of habitats2. PRESSURE STATE RESPONSE Nitrogen and ammonia Occupancy trends in The UK has committed emissions have decreased lichens and bryophytes to legally binding limits since 1970. suggest some recovery. for sulphur dioxide, reactive nitrogen, 120 140 ammonia and particulate 120 matter by 2020, and 100 80 further reductions by 2030. 80 170 100 170 100 60 e e

e e 40

or onia 10 100 40 20 0 0

Photo: Chris O’Reilly (rspb-images.com) Photo: Ray Kennedy (rspb-images.com) 40 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 41

Agricultural management Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation INNS, pests and pathogens Pollution Woodland management

THE STATE THE RESPONSE from farming-related diffuse and empower the rural community pollution and Nitrate Vulnerable to act as stewards of the river. Zone regulations impose additional OF NATURE FOR NATURE Moninea Bog, Northern Ireland protection measures in many areas (for example, they cover around 55% Moninea Bog, an Area of Special Most semi-natural habitats, UK Biodiversity Indicator: Percentage of nitrogen-sensitive habitat area in UK countries The marked reductions in many of English agricultural land). Scientific Interest (ASSI) and Special where nutrient nitrogen critical loads were exceeded in 1995–97 and 2014–16 and over two-thirds of our classes of polluting emissions Area of Conservation (SAC), is a wildflowers (such as Harebell 100 has been driven by broad- CASE STUDIES lowland raised bog in the south and Betony), require levels of scale legislative control, often west of Northern Ireland, which 0 Catchment Sensitive Farming nitrogen to be low7. Nitrogen following coordinated action is especially important for its high Since 2006, the Catchment Sensitive cover of Sphagnum moss species enrichment has led to across the UK and the rest of 0 Farming (CSF) partnership has worked and the presence of all three native 14 changes in plant and fungal Europe . Sulphur emissions with over 20,000 farmers, covering a sundew species. In 2007, a field communities and the declines 0 from coal-fired power stations third of the farmed area of England study by the Centre for Ecology & of individual species, with and industry in the UK, which to improve water quality. Workshops, Hydrology showed that ammonia 20 species that prefer nutrient- caused “acid rain” and damaged farm events and one-to-one advice from neighbouring farm operations eretae of ete atat area eretae are targeted in areas designated was causing severe direct damage poor environments showing 0 ecosystems across northern 15 201 15 201 15 201 15 201 15 201 as high priority for agricultural to the site’s vegetation, including a decline in distribution, on 17 201 17 201 17 201 17 201 17 201 Europe, have been cut by pollution. Topics covered by the algal slime on trees and bleaching of average (see graph below). a N Sota ae 97% since the 1970s6. Further orce nccgoi5a programme include fertilizer and mosses. Following a reduction in the Further up the food chain, reductions in sulphur emissions pesticide management; soil health level of farm operations in 2009/2010, moth species whose larvae are expected when a mandatory and structure; silage, slurry and fuel further investigation in 2017 found depend on low nutrient- Many waterways are now cleaner New trends shown here (below) reveal 0.5% cap of sulphur content in oil regulations; and Nitrate Vulnerable that there was already substantial than they have been for many interesting patterns in the distribution adapted plants declined shipping fuel comes into force Zones. Field officers also provide help recovery on the site. The results are years. In 1957, the Natural History of bryophyte and lichen species since and advice with grant applications now being prepared for publication, strongly between 1970 on 1 January 202015. Museum declared the lower Thames 1970. While the drivers of this recovery for farm infrastructure upgrades but already provide an example 8 and 2010 . Despite recent “biologically dead”, with news reports are not fully understood, the increases The reduction of NOx has been part and capital works. In target areas that measures to reduce ammonia progress in input reduction, describing it as a vast, foul-smelling in occupancy began in the 1990s, of government clean air strategies monitored since Phase 1, nutrient, emissions can be expected to deliver in 2014–16 62% of all UK drain. Now it is used by a wide variety as levels of air pollution started to for many years, driven largely by sediment and faecal indicator substantial biodiversity benefits within sensitive habitats exceeded of fish, with Atlantic Salmon, Brown reduce, and is almost certainly related concerns about public health impacts organism concentrations have five to 10 years. Trout and River Lamprey all recorded to the recovery of species sensitive to the recommended “critical and greenhouse gas emissions. reduced by 5–22% and monitored in recent years10. However, despite pollution12. This is likely to reflect an Recently, measures to reduce pesticide concentrations (exceeding nutrient load”, above which these improvements, only 35% of UK increase in the distribution of common ammonia emissions from agriculture 0.1µg/l) by 34%17. they are at risk of harmful surface water bodies were classed as species sensitive to acid deposition and other sources have been adopted A key element of the programme effects. The figure is 85% for being in high or good status (based but tolerant of increasing nitrogen or are under consideration across aims to develop local farmer–to- Northern Ireland and for on the WFD combination of biological, deposition, reflecting changes in air all UK countries (for example, the farmer learning networks. One BROAD-SCALE 9 chemical and structural measures) pollution. Evidence suggests, however, Department for Environment, Food England is close to 100% . example in the Evenlode catchment, in 201811, and species such as the that many specialist lichen species and Rural Affairs (Defra)’s Clean Air LEGISLATIVE Oxfordshire, involves farmers Freshwater Pearl Mussel continue to continue to decline in abundance Strategy 2019), driven by binding CONTROLS HAVE alongside the local community suffer declines related to water quality. as well as distribution13. international targets to reduce measuring the effectiveness of CSF DRIVEN DOWN emissions by 8% by 2020 and 16% interventions through FreshWater by 2030 from a 2005 baseline16. EMISSIONS OF Watch, Earthwatch’s citizen science Change in the distribution of species of fertile environments Change in the distribution for bryophytes (569 species) All current UK AES now contain options MANY POLLUTANTS. project. The data collected encourage (411 species) and infertile, nutrient poor, environments and lichens (696 species) 1970 to 2015 or mandatory cross‑compliance better catchment management (524 species) based on Ellenberg N scores obligations to protect watercourses ua ator ua ator 10 10 Photo: David Genney

120 120 Solorina crocea

100 100

0 0

0 0 e 170 100 e e 170 100 e 0 0

20 20

0 0 170 10 10 2000 2010 2015 170 10 10 2000 2010 2015 ertie enironent species nfertie enironent species roptes icens State of Nature Report 2019 43 Drivers of change

PRESSURES UK woodland cover increased by during the 1970s3 while Ash dieback 9% between 1998 and 2018 and is and Acute Oak Decline are currently ON NATURE currently estimated at 3.17 million ha. seriously affecting three of our most Scotland has seen the largest area common and widespread tree species. increase (156,000ha), while Northern The pathogen Phytophthora ramorum Looking back in history Ireland had the greatest proportional mainly affects Larch within plantations woodland cover in the UK increase (39%) but remains the least but is known to infect other tree and WOODLAND declined gradually, largely wooded UK country. Conifers account shrub species; its arrival has led to to make way for agriculture. for 51% of the UK’s woodland area, widescale preventative felling. varying from 26% in England to 74% in Estimated at 15% in England Increasing deer numbers (both Scotland2; much of this is commercial MANAGEMENT at the time of the Domesday native species such as Roe and plantation of non-native tree species. survey, it had fallen to non-natives such as Muntjac), have Ancient woodland, highly important a heightened impact on woodland 5% by the end of the First in terms of biodiversity value and and its dependent wildlife as they World War. In 1919, the supporting a wide range of specialist reduce natural regeneration and alter Forestry Commission was species is estimated to cover only The area covered by woodland in the UK continues to woodland structure through increased around 2.4% of UK land and the lack increase from very low levels a century ago, but its established to provide a grazing and browsing4. Recreational of an up-to-date inventory hampers strategic timber reserve use, particularly in woodland close to integrity is under threat from invasive plants, pests and its protection. urban areas, has detrimental impacts diseases. Nature in woodland is under pressure from a and, assisted by policy incentives to encourage Woodland area by country, 1998 to 2019 on soils, invertebrates and flora lack of management, overgrazing by deer, increasing through trampling and compression5. private planting, the area of 0 Disturbance associated with an levels of recreational disturbance and nitrogen pollution. woodland increased rapidly. 5 increasing variety of leisure activities 0 Numbers of many woodland birds and butterflies continue Although well below the adversely affects wildlife, including to decline. Of particular importance due to their high nature European average of 37%1, 25 birds and mammals6. A changing value and restricted range, the Atlantic oak and hazel woods woodlands now cover around 20 climate in combination with invasive 15 and native pests and pathogens of the UK’s western coasts and Scotland’s Caledonian pine 13% of UK land. However, o etare non-native conifers such 10 form a complex and interacting set forests have both suffered severe loss and fragmentation. 05 of threats that will favour some tree as Sitka Spruce dominated Ancient woodlands across the UK have been lost through 00 species, while making conditions early restocking, and with 1 2005 2010 2015 201 worse for others. Species’ distributions ngan aes cotan ortern rean conversion to plantation forestry and face continued limited tree species, age are expected to alter as a result, with threat from infrastructure and housing development. diversity and high-density The pressures affecting woodland, evidence already pointing to a decline Addressing the problems facing woodland and trees of the planting, this benefited and trees in the wider countryside, are in the abundance and distribution of woodland specialist lichens7. wider countryside is increasingly recognised as a major only a narrow range of diverse and dependent on location and species. Changes in management wildlife, and eliminated Population trend for Muntjac deer – conservation issue, which is the focus of a wide range have had major effects. Historic UK Breeding Bird Survey Index, species that depended on rotational coppice systems were of ambitious consortium projects involving both research 1995 to 2018 habitats on which these replaced by clear fell and replanting and conservation action. 50 woods were planted on. during the 20th century, then followed With growing recognition by a recent move to continuous cover 00 250 of the conservation value of systems, often with very limited management. Many woods have 200 15 100 native woodland, many new become fragmented, intersected 150

woods and replantings now e by roads and development that 100 use diverse tree mixes or degrade habitat and form barriers 50 to wildlife movement. Increasingly, allow natural regeneration 0 and follow sustainable the prevalence of tree disease is a 15 2000 2010 201 PRESSURE STATE RESPONSE Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals management practices, in serious concern. Dutch elm disease Woodland area in the UK has The UK woodland butterfly Area of woodland resulted in the loss of 20 million trees increased since 1998. indicator has fallen by 50% sustainably managed, accordance with the UK since 1990. about 44% of the total. Forestry Standard.

4 120 50

40 3 80 30 (1990 = 100) 2 20

Index 40 o etare 1 o etare 10

0 0 0

Photo: David J Slater (rspb-images.com) Photo: Norman Russell (rspb-images.com) 44 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 45

Agricultural management Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation INNS, pests and pathogens Pollution Woodland management

THE STATE THE RESPONSE The importance of maintaining, increasing and enhancing woodland OF NATURE FOR NATURE for nature conservation alongside a range of ecosystem services is widely recognised in a number of Despite the overall expansion Breeding woodland birds in the UK, 1970 to 2017 Grants are available to ambitious consortium projects across in the area covered by uae ator encourage new woodland the UK. Cairngorms Connect aims woodland, woodland species 10 planting and the sustainable to enhance habitats, species and continue to decline, as 120 management of existing ecological processes over 600km2 of

100 Scotland’s Cairngorms National Park, evidenced by the UK woodland woodland. For example, Photo: Richard Revels (rspb-images.com) including Caledonian pinewoods bird indicator which fell by 0 funding is available under Rural 170 100 and montane willow communities13. Ash dieback 25% between 1970 and 2017. 0 Development Programmes In England, the Woodland Trust is e e Ash dieback (caused by the fungus Declines are most pronounced in 0 to deliver local biodiversity leading a consortium project to plant Hymenoscyphus fraxineus) is one of woodland specialists such as Lesser 20 objectives (for priority habitats 50 million new trees over 25 years to several invasive tree diseases recorded Spotted Woodpecker, Spotted and priority species), water create a “Northern Forest”, spanning 0 in the UK recently that has the Flycatcher and Willow Tit, and 170 10 10 2000 2010 2017 objectives (to improve water the country from Hull to Liverpool14. eneraists 12 ooan irs 7 peciaists 25 potential to cause major ecological, suggested causes include a decline in Launched in 2019, the online Woodland orce ttpsgogoernentstatisticsiirpopationsinte quality or help reduce flood social and economic impacts. With appropriate woodland management, Wildlife Toolkit15 provides woodland risk) and climate change an estimated 126 million trees within changes in tree species composition managers with a one-stop resource to UK Biodiversity Indicator: Change in widespread butterflies in woodland in the UK, 9,10 woodland and 60 million in the wider and loss of landscape connectivity. mitigation or adaptation . inform about distributions of important 1990 to 2018 countryside, Ash is the UK’s third Woodlands acquire species at As the figure below shows, the area wildlife, assess woodland condition and most common tree17. First recorded different stages of maturity, with uae ator (24 species) o ter Sort ter of woodland managed sustainably create appropriate management plans. 10201 201201 on imported saplings during 2012, specialist bird species generally 120 100% (which includes measures relating to the disease has spread rapidly to all occupying woods over 80 years old, maintaining biodiversity, ecological, CASE STUDIES 100 four UK countries. Recent analysis and with a high level of structural 0% economic and social functions) has has shown 955 species, ranging diversity, while generalist species can 0 remained level, at around 43% (44% 0% from bryophytes to mammals, are exploit younger woodland8. 10 100 in 2019), over the last decade. The 0 associated with Ash, of which 45 are The long-term decline in the UK 0% Scottish Government has a stated e e obligate (only occurring on Ash) and a 0 aim to increase woodland cover from 18,19 woodland butterfly indicator, which of species Percentage further 62 are highly associated . 20% around 18% to 21% of Scottish land includes well-known species such 20 11 The disease is now well established, as Common Blue, Marbled White area by 2030 although much of this 0 0% and the economic cost has been and Meadow Brown, is thought 10 2000 2010 201 Increase will be non-native planting, limiting Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Little change its biodiversity value. In Wales the estimated to be in the order of to be due to reduced sympathetic Decrease Source: jncc.gov.uk/ukbi-C6 £15 billion20. There are many management and a decline in latest Government strategy states an Photo: Mike Read (rspb-images.com) uncertainties over the prognosis for open spaces within woods. ambition to create 100,000ha of new, well-located woodland by 2030 to native Ash woodlands; mature trees Photo: Colin Wilkinson (rspb-images.com) help Wales meet its carbon emission Celtic Rainforest Project die slowly and most populations Pedunculate Oak reduction targets12. Planting targets The Celtic rainforests – Atlantic show some level of tolerance; this has can deliver the greatest benefits if woodlands in Ireland and the UK been shown to be strongly heritable. they ensure new woodland is in the with an open woodland structure, While a worst-case scenario would right place and not compromising mild and humid conditions, and rich see loss of a high proportion of Ash, other valuable habitats; priority is plant assemblages – comprise a large lessons from other epidemic tree given to creating both new native proportion of Europe’s rare temperate diseases suggest that maintaining a and new mixed woodlands that can rainforest habitat. In the UK they are wide genetic base and reducing other deliver multiple benefits. threatened by invasive non-native stressors will maximise tolerance. 20 plants (particularly Rhododendron), Guidance focuses on ameliorating UK Biodiversity Indicator: UK area of poor grazing regimes, a lack of the potential impacts and encouraging forestry land certified as sustainably ecological functioning by retaining managed, 2001 to 2019 management and atmospheric nitrogen deposition16. By tackling invasive plants, existing Ash trees, encouraging 50 developing restoration techniques and natural regeneration of Ash and other 5 Ancient woodland demonstrating best practice, the Celtic native species, reducing herbivore 0 Rainforest Project aims to increase impacts and reducing competition 5 from INNS. Research has sought to covers just 2.4% 0 resilience, enhance ecosystem function establish which other tree species 25 and return woods to a favourable are able to support Ash-associated of the UK. 20 conservation status across four areas of 15 north and mid-Wales. This ambitious EU species and several, including Oak, 10 LIFE-funded project runs from 2018 to Elm and Beech (where native), 5 21 Percentage of woodland area certified of woodland area Percentage 2025 and involves a range of statutory can support at least half . 0 2001 2005 2010 2015 201 and NGO partners, led by Snowdonia orce nccgoi1 National Park Authority. State of Nature Report 2019 47 Conservation

An analysis of drivers of change, continued declines in reported in State of Nature biodiversity in response 2016, estimated that 19% of to farmland management the total impact (17% positive, (see page 20) – but we also 2% negative) on nature in recent know that nature‑friendly decades arose from a wide array farming, supported of conservation activities such by government‑funded AES, can as nature-friendly farming, deliver a range of on‑the‑ground habitat management and benefits for wildlife. The key, the creation of new wildlife it appears, is a matter of scale habitat. This demonstrated and resources. The collective that the conservation response to the pressures on response can work, and is nature is helping, and should backed up by a number of be celebrated, but declines in well-evidenced examples of nature are continuing. conservation success (see WORKING Here, we give a brief overview conservationevidence.com). of just some of the approaches Harder to assess is the extent used in the conservation of the to which the state of nature FOR NATURE: UK’s wildlife, and the challenges would be worse without this we face in trying to improve conservation action. We know, CONSERVATION the state of nature. for example, that there are IN THE UK Photo: Colin Wilkinson (rspb-images.com)

CONSERVING SPECIAL PLACES The preceding pages have reviewed the biggest The UK has a long heritage of UK Biodiversity Indicator: Extent of UK or hydrology, and in some cases drivers of change acting on the UK’s nature, how these preserving special places, with the nationally and internationally important management must evolve in response pressures have changed over recent years and world’s first nature reserve declared in protected areas, 1950 to 2019 to an improved understanding of West Yorkshire in 1821. As pressures 0 the habitat or species’ requirements. their impact on wildlife, both in the past and now. on the wider environment have At the same time, reserves must be We have also given examples of some of the inspiring increased, with the widespread loss of 25 able to welcome in people, and thus conservation action taken in response to these habitats such as heathland, wetlands 20 balance the needs of both visitors and and ancient woodland, such reserves the wildlife they come to experience. 15 pressures. Here we look at how conservation acts have become ever-more important. as a force to help nature, to mitigate against the worst The State of Nature partnership 10 CASE STUDY is collectively responsible for tet iion ectares human impacts on nature and to nurture recovery 5 Redgrave and Lopham Fen in Suffolk approaching 5,000 individual nature from decades or even centuries of pressure. 0 is the largest remaining calcareous reserves, with a combined area over 10 170 10 10 2000 2010 150 201 valley fen in England, but decades five times the size of Greater London. n an t sea ota orce nccgoi1 of water abstraction and nutrient In addition, the designation of sites enrichment caused huge degradation and landscapes of high nature value Protection is only part of the story: to the site. Restoration work, as ASSIs or Sites of Special Scientific nature reserves and protected funded by the EU and led by the Interest (SSSIs), Special Areas of areas require careful and nuanced Suffolk Wildlife Trust, relocated the Conservation (SACs) and SPAs provides management to enable species abstracting borehole, removed 77ha special legal protection to prevent and communities to flourish. In of encroaching scrub, and scraped damaging activities and thus conserve 2019, the proportion of protected 23ha of fen completely clear to important habitats and species. There sites assessed as being in favourable enable recovery. Forty-two ponds has been a massive increase in the condition was 43% for SACs, 50% were created to help the threatened area of designated land and sea in for SSSIs and 52% for SPAs, with Fen Raft Spider. The rewetted fen the UK, owing to the designation of the majority of non-favourable holds 270 plant species and a rich inshore and offshore Marine Protected sites assessed as “unfavourable- invertebrate community; extinction Areas (MPAs) since 2013, although recovering”. Very few habitats are of the Fen Raft Spider has been designation, of itself, does not ensure stable and most require management avoided and it is now expanding effective conservation. of grazing levels, woodlands successfully in the new habitat. Photo: Malcolm Hunt (rspb-images.com) 48 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 49

RESTORING LANDSCAPES BROADER ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY The need to think big to turn around the fortunes of nature has been Our impact on the UK’s land and increasingly well recognised; such seascapes is pervasive – the impact thinking that was crystallised in of climate change is felt everywhere, Professor Sir John Lawton’s 2010 three-quarters of land is affected report, Making space for nature1, directly by farming policies, 33% which called for “more, bigger, of quota managed fish stocks are better, joined” wildlife sites. Vitally, harvested unsustainably, urbanisation this extends conservation thinking is widespread. So, clearly, we need beyond reserves, to the need to policies that ensure that the need reduce fragmentation – whereby for space to live, work and play, food nature is stuck in isolated islands in production, and use of other natural a hostile sea of intensively managed resources is met sustainably, in a countryside – by creating corridors way that allows nature to flourish. Photo: Colin Wilkinson (rspb-images.com) between sites for wildlife to flow We have talked, for example, are vital to ensure healthy marine the UK’s progress towards the global through, or stepping stones to help about how policies to encourage ecosystems (page 63). 2020 targets (Aichi targets) on pages species jump across. In addition, wildlife-friendly farming can be 90–91. As the parties to the CBD begin Lawton called for “buffers” around Photo: David Wootton (rspb-images.com) integrated with food production and It is well recognised that policies to discuss a post-2020 framework, we wildlife sites, softening the intensive CASE STUDY Conservation are working with the needs of nature (page 21), and to protect biodiversity and the wait to see whether this will contain management that often runs up Great strides are being made local and national government to how legislation to control acidifying environment bring huge benefits policies, and associated goals, that will to reserve boundaries. Finally, to introduce such approaches, protect, restore, expand and link wet pollution has enabled the recovery to human well-being, from clean encourage the transformative change Lawton’s call for “better” needs to and demonstrate partnership grassland habitats across 2,000km2 of some bryophytes and lichens air and water, healthy soils for food which the recent Intergovernmental be addressed. The management of working between government, of the Lough Erne Basin, home to (page 41). At sea, policies that prevent production, and the health and Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity large areas of potentially wildlife-rich NGOs, businesses, farmers and threatened wader populations and the overexploitation of vulnerable well-being impacts that result from and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) report semi-natural habitat, such as in local communities. For example, rare plants such as the Fen Violet fish stocks, encourage fishing connection with nature. Globally, stated was required to avoid global the UK’s uplands, is unsympathetic in Northern Ireland, NGOs including and Irish Lady’s-tresses Orchid. techniques that minimise bycatch these issues are recognised by the declines in nature from continuing. to biodiversity. the RSPB, Ulster Wildlife and Butterfly and habitat damage, and protect the UN’s Sustainable Development most important areas from fishing Goals5 and by the CBD. We discuss

FOCUSING ON SPECIES Lady’s Slipper Orchid RESOURCES FOR CONSERVATION While conservation policies to of coordinated and targeted action in Ultimately, our ability to act UK Biodiversity Indicator: Expenditure on biodiversity in the UK, 2000/01 to 2016/17 address the pressures on nature, at least part of their UK range as part to conserve the UK’s nature is te o 00 00 00 delivered across landscapes, will of species recovery projects (SRPs). constrained by resources. In 2017/18, 00 help, for some species this will not Most of these had received little or no an estimated £456 million of UK 700 be sufficient. Many of the most conservation action aimed explicitly public sector funding was spent on 00 00 2 0022 celebrated conservation successes at recovering their populations . biodiversity in the UK. This funding 500

20117 prices 001 of recent years – the return of the Pine However, there are imbalances in has been declining, by 29% over the 00 002

Marten to Wales, the restoration of the targeting of such efforts. While last five years, and by 34% since a 00 eretae of eretae the breeding range of Red Kites, the conservation action targeted at one high point in 2008/09. As a proportion o 200 001 establishment of Lady’s Slipper Orchid species can help others – for example, of GDP this represents a fall of 42% 100 at 11 sites in Northern England – have reedbed creation for Bitterns is likely from 0.038% to 0.022%. It should be 0 000 been the consequence of targeted to have benefited a wide range of noted, however, that the lower level of 200001 20050 201001 20171 action, based on robust science taxa, including Water Voles and public sector funding for international Pic sector s Pic sector as % of P and conservation best practice. the Reed Leopard moth3, and agri- biodiversity conservation (£205 million orce nccgoi2 Programmes such as Back from environment options intended to in 2017/18), including that in the UK’s Steve Knell (rspb-images.com) the Brink, in England, have brought boost rare farmland birds such as OTs, has risen by 111% over the last The increase in NGO spending on go into collecting the biodiversity numerous partners together to target Stone-curlew have benefits for a range this group making up just 9.5% of five years. conservation provides evidence monitoring data upon which the State action for priority species, including of taxa, including threatened arable the terrestrial and freshwater species By contrast, spending on for increased public concern for of Nature reports rely, every year. the Lesser Butterfly Orchid, Barberry plants4 – our invertebrates and plants identified as priorities. A further 26% biodiversity in the UK by NGOs the state of nature, and the value So, although financial investment is Carpet Moth and Ladybird Spider. are clearly receiving less specific of species with SRPs are invertebrates with a focus on biodiversity and/ which they place on it, as does the crucial, as are government policy and attention than mammals and birds. (mainly butterflies), despite this group A review of the 1,063 terrestrial and or nature conservation, while not rapid increase in volunteering to legislation, we must remember that This contrasts with growing evidence representing 39% of priority species, freshwater species listed as priorities matching government investment, help nature conservation (page 10). the most successful conservation that insects are showing rates of and only 13% of plant and fungi on the UK Biodiversity Action Plan has increased in recent years. It Volunteers donate an immense action arises from partnerships, decline that may be greater than species were identified as having had (BAP) – which has now been replaced reached £239 million in 2017/18, resource to conservation in the UK; across governments, charities, other taxonomic groups. Of those SRPs, despite this group making up by conservation policies at the having increased by 24% over for example, we have estimated that business, landowners and individuals species that have been the subjects 52% of all species listed as UK BAP devolved country level – found that the previous five years. around 7,500,000 volunteer hours working together. of SRPs, 61% are vertebrates, despite priority species2. only 114 of these have been the focus State of Nature Report 2019 51 Marine

The UK Marine Strategy1 The abundance indicators below use Greater North Sea 6,7 provides a framework for data from two trawl surveys for a • Demersal species indicator shows protecting the UK marine small proportion of the hundreds a statistically significant increase of of demersal fish species that live environment while allowing 58% over the long term (1983–2017) on or near the sea floor (e.g. Cod, and non-significant trend of -5% over sustainable use of marine Haddock, Saithe). Very little is the last 10 years. resources. The update in 2019 known about the vast majority of • Over the long term 11% of species unmonitored and unregulated fish provides a status assessment of showed strong or moderate populations. The Celtic Seas (based marine biodiversity and drivers decreases and 78% showed on 11 species) and the Greater North of change, closely related to strong or moderate increases; Sea (based on nine species) indicators broader geographic assessments 11% showed little change. both show increases in average MARINE 2,3 across the North East Atlantic . abundance as follows: Change in average species’ abundance – We draw on these assessments Celtic Seas Greater North Sea demersal fish in the State of Nature 2019 KEY FINDINGS uae ator (9 species) • Demersal species indicator shows marine section. a statistically significant increase of 00 133% over the long term (1985–2016) MARINE FISH – CELTIC SEAS 00 and a non-significant increase of 22%

AND GREATER NORTH SEA 1 100 From seabirds and marine mammals at the top of the over the last 10 years. 200 The abundance of marine fish and the e marine food web to plankton at the bottom, there have • Over the long term 27% of species 100 composition of marine communities showed strong or moderate have been influenced by commercial 0 been large spatial and temporal changes in species’ decreases and 64% showed strong 1 10 2000 2010 2017 nicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals abundance and distribution in UK seas in recent decades1. fishing and climate change. Over or moderate increases; 9% showed the long-term period for which little change. Monitoring the marine environment is a more logistically data are available (1980s to 2017), Data for pelagic fish species that live challenging task than monitoring terrestrial habitats. increases are evident as a result of Change in average species’ abundance – in the water column (e.g. Herring, warming sea temperatures which Celtic Seas demersal fish Blue Whiting and Mackerel) indicate Species data are collected across large areas, but have enabled a large proportion of uae ator (11 species) increases in average abundance in geographic coverage varies and long time series are smaller-bodied pelagic fish species 00 both the Celtic and the Greater North (e.g. Sardine and Sprat) to increase Seas over the same period. Groundfish only available for a more limited set of taxa. Monitoring 00 in abundance4. Through the 1980s surveys are less reliable for schooling

is carried out for seabirds at breeding colonies around 15 100 and 90s fishing pressure led to 200 pelagic species and therefore the the UK and for marine mammals and fish stocks declines in a number of larger-bodied e direction of trend is more appropriate 100 in the Greater North Sea and Celtic Seas. species such as Cod5 (page 59). to report than the average magnitude 0 of change. Over the last 10 years, however, 15 10 2000 2010 201 Other aspects of marine nature are monitored in relation improved fisheries management nicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals to specific drivers of change in the marine environment. has allowed some commercially Pressures interact with each other and, in some cases, fished species to increase from very low baselines. impacts are difficult to disentangle, often having synergistic Photo: Hans-Petter Fjeld and cumulative effects. For this reason, following our key Cod metrics of the state of marine nature, we present metrics for taxonomic groups associated with specific drivers, namely climate change and fisheries, to give an overall picture of the state of marine nature.

Photo: Paul Sawer (rspb-images.com) 52 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 53

Marine key findings Climate change Fishing Other

BREEDING SEABIRDS PLANKTON – THE BASE Phytoplankton Colour Index, Abundance indicator for small and large OF THE FOOD WEB English Channel copepods in the northern North Sea The last comprehensive census was in UK Biodiversity Indicator: Breeding seabirds in the UK 00 1998–2002 and reported over 8 million The base of the marine food web is 10 uae ator 1 species o ter Sort ter seabirds breeding in Great Britain and 12015 20102015 formed by widely varied groups of 250 10 100% 8 120 10 Ireland annually . The latest census, organisms, including phytoplankton 200 120 Seabirds Count, is underway, and 100 (photosynthetic plant-like microscopic 0% 150 100 (1980 = 100)

will conduct a full survey of nearly organisms) and zooplankton (animal 10 100 0 0 100 12,000 known breeding colonies. It 0% plankton including copepods e 0 e e 1 100 will provide a comprehensive update 0 and larvae of some commercially 50 0 on the status of all 25 seabird species 0% important species of crabs and 20

e e 0 0 of species Percentage 10 10 2000 2010 2017 0 breeding in the UK. In order to lobsters), which are sensitive to 10 10 2000 2010 2017 20% Indicator Smoothed trend Confidence intervals dedicate time to the census, updates 20 changes in nutrients, salinity Indicator Smoothed trend Confidence intervals of the annual Seabird Monitoring and temperatures. a opepos arge opepos 0 0% Programme report have been put 1 10 2000 2010 2015 Strong increase Similarly, in the English Channel the Moderate increase Plankton communities respond Abundance indicator for small and large on hold for two years, but the most nicator Little change PCI is 95% higher in the last decade orce nccgoi5 Moderate decrease rapidly to environmental changes, copepods in the English Channel recent update of the Seabird Indicator and 18% higher in the last five years. Strong decrease making them a good indicator is presented here. of change in marine ecosystems Changes in diatoms and dinoflagellates 10 showed moderate increases; 46% Regional differences are apparent 10 Since 1986, the Breeding Seabird although attributing observed change are associated with changes to showed little change. Over the short for seabird populations, particularly 10 Indicator for 13 species declined by to specific drivers can be difficult. trophic pathways and differing roles 120 term, between 2009 and 2014, 54% of those linked to the impact of climate 19 22% and by 6% between 2009 to 2014. Plankton communities are undergoing in the carbon cycle . Increases in the species showed strong or moderate change and fisheries, and declines 100 directional change and trends in English Channel contrast with periods 10 100 0 Between 1986 and 2015, 31% of decreases and 38% showed strong appear stronger in the Greater North of decrease and overall stability 0 plankton lifeforms (organisms with e species showed strong or moderate increases; 8% showed little change. Sea than the Celtic Seas and the in the northern North Sea. 0 9,10,11,12 the same functional traits, meaning decreases in abundance and 23% English Channel . 20 that they occupy a similar niche or Abundance indicator for diatoms and 0 feed in a similar way) imply change in 10 10 2000 2010 2017 dinoflagellates in the northern North Sea 17 Indicator Smoothed trend Confidence intervals plankton community functioning . a opepos arge opepos 10 MARINE MAMMALS Changes in phytoplankton and 10 Over many decades, the abundance of zooplankton abundance vary by Marine mammals, particularly Seals are easier to survey as they haul and in west Scotland (an area which 10 planktonic larvae – for example, of fish sea area and by group. Data are 120 cetaceans, are challenging to monitor, out on land to moult (Harbour Seal) holds over 20% of UK Harbour Seals). and crustaceans – has increased in but our knowledge of their abundance or breed (Grey Seal) and consistent Elsewhere in the Celtic Seas there is available to calculate an indicator of 100 (1980 = 100) most areas associated with increasing and distribution is growing. Since monitoring has been carried out insufficient data to assess status. phytoplankton biomass, using a proxy 0 0 temperatures. Although the total 1994, there have been three large- regularly for both species around measurement of ocean colour from e The wide-ranging nature of these 0 abundance of large copepods is scale surveys to estimate cetacean UK coasts since at least the 1990s the Phytoplankton Colour Index (PCI)18 marine mammals means that 20 more variable, the composition has abundance in European waters, and 1980s respectively15. Trends and relative abundance indicators 0 influences outside of the survey 10 10 2000 2010 2017 changed to an increasing dominance the most recent in 2016 yielding have been assessed between 1994 for phytoplankton (total diatoms and area may affect abundance and Indicator Smoothed trend Confidence intervals of more temperate species as a result abundance estimates for nine and 2014 for the UK Marine Strategy dinoflagellates) and for zooplankton Diatoms Dinoflagellates distribution. Marked distributional of climatic change, highlighting the cetacean species that regularly occur update16, which reports annual (small and large copepods) since 1958. changes have been recorded in need to retain taxonomic resolution in in UK waters. There is, however, only increases in Grey Seal numbers, but Graphs on this page show examples Abundance indicator diatoms and total Harbour Porpoise; previously found monitoring programmes to effectively sufficient data to calculate trends trends for Harbour Seals vary. Since of this variability, with contrasting dinoflagellates in the English Channel primarily in the northern parts of the identify the drivers of change. for three species in the North Sea 1994, Harbour Seal abundance has patterns between the northern North 10 North Sea, the centre of their range (Harbour Porpoise, White-beaked decreased in colonies on the north Sea and the English Channel. 10 has shifted southward14,16. RELATED DRIVER OF CHANGE Dolphin and Minke Whale). While and east coasts of Scotland but 10 Phytoplankton Colour Index, the areas surveyed are not wholly increased on the east coast of England 120 p54 Marine – Climate change Northern North Sea 100

consistent between surveys and 10 100 0 confidence in trends is low, numbers Photo: Ben Andrew (rspb-images.com) 00 0 e e of all three species appear to have 0 Grey Seal 250 remained stable13,14. For the other 20 200 0 six species for which trends are not 10 10 2000 2010 2017

150 Indicator Smoothed trend Confidence intervals available, abundance estimates were 10 100 Diatoms Dinoflagellates similar to or larger than previous 100 estimates for comparable areas. e 50 Small copepods are key prey for larval 0 10 10 2000 2010 2017 fish and tend to dominate the Indicator Smoothed trend Confidence intervals zooplankton in the southern and central North Sea and so are key Over the most recent decade the PCI trophic links in these areas. Declines for the northern North Sea is 67% in small copepods in the North Sea higher than in the 1960s, and over the have been linked to changes in last five years is 29% higher than the primary productivity20. mid to late 2000s. State of Nature Report 2019 55 Marine

The impacts of climate change Time series of average annual sea surface temperatures in °C for UK coastal waters, 2 outlined earlier in this report expressed as anomalies relative to the 1981 to 2010 average focused on terrestrial species 20 and habitats. All elements 15 of the marine ecosystem are 10 highly interconnected and 05 climate change causes knock-on 00 effects from primary producers 05 through the food web to 10

15 CLIMATE CHANGE predators and even habitats. fro fferee 20

25 ENVIRONMENTAL 170 10 10 2000 2010 201 AND OCEAN nna ae 10ear rnning ean ACIDIFICATION CHANGES Understanding how the temperature, has increased since the 1970s. of the 20th century, putting salinity and pH of our seas are Conversely, salinity in deep waters in increasing pressure on intertidal changing is critical, as they all play the same region decreased between habitats and increasing the risk of an important role in marine 1960 and 2000, remaining stable in severe flooding and coastal erosion5. 3 Our seas are shaped by complex and interacting climatic factors ecosystem functioning. more recent years . • Seasonal stratification, which as a result of human activity and the large oceanographic • Long-term records show a warming • Acidification, caused by the uptake restricts the extent of mixing climatic systems which occur in the marine environment over trend in UK waters, despite short- of CO2, has reduced the pH of waters between shallow, warmer waters and term natural variability. On average, around Europe, apparently more deeper, cooler waters, is occurring decadal cycles. Our understanding of specific mechanisms coastal sea surface temperatures rapidly so in UK waters than in the earlier on average and lasting continues to improve and there is clear evidence that climate have been 0.6°C warmer in the most North Atlantic as a whole. This has longer6. Stratification influences change is causing rising temperatures which are affecting recent decade compared to the the potential to adversely affect plankton growth rates, bloom 1961–1990 average1. organisms that require calcium timing and species composition currents, mixing and salinity as well as increased acidification of carbonate. Acidification is also and distribution, so changes to the The blue bars show the annual the seas. Marine ecosystems are consequently impacted through of particular concern as it could timing and strength of mixing have anomalies relative to the 1981–2010 further reduce the rate at which CO impacts on the distribution and direct and indirect effects on the distribution and abundance of average, shown as the grey horizontal 2 is absorbed from the atmosphere, abundance of marine animals that line, and the blue line shows the species groups, including plankton, fish, seabirds and marine thus aggravating climate change4. depend on plankton for their food. 10-year running mean. mammals, as well as on entire habitats – from the intertidal zone • On average, the sea level has • The salinity of surface waters risen by 16cm since the start to the deepest parts of the seas. to the north and west of the UK

Photo: Nick Upton (rspb-images.com)

PRESSURE STATE RESPONSE Eight of the 10 warmest Ocean processes have been Building resilience in years for UK sea surface affected and large‑scale marine systems will temperature have shifts in distribution help mitigate the effects occurred since 2002. revealed throughout of climate change on

2.0 the marine food web. vulnerable species. 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 fferee fro fro fferee -2.5

Photo: Ernie Janes (rspb-images.com) 56 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 57

Marine key findings Climate change Fishing Other

RESPONSES THROUGH Colder-water species, Calanus fish species through availability of Deep-diving seabirds such as RESPONSE and animals, and store carbon that finmarchicus, moving polewards food to larval stages of fish23. Impacts Guillemot and Puffin have also been otherwise would be released into the THE FOOD WEB of climate change on Cod recruitment adversely affected, with declines seen FOR NATURE atmosphere and contribute to climate via plankton may explain the apparent at colonies around the North Sea27, change effects. slow recovery from overfishing and most conspicuously in the Northern Alongside overarching policies, Managing vulnerable habitats PHYTOPLANKTON underline that despite recovery in fish Isles28. Surface feeding seabirds, or commitments and action to stocks, future fisheries management species that depend on them, such as Saltmarsh: over 45,000ha of Phytoplankton are at the base of the minimise climate change impacts needs to consider climate effects terns, Kittiwakes and Arctic Skuas, are saltmarsh around the UK coast marine food web. Phytoplankton (by reducing CO2 emissions to limit on stock productivity. likely to be more sensitive to changes delivers the natural benefits of carbon growth and production can be temperature rise to no more than to prey as a result of increasing sequestration and coastal protection, affected by various factors, including 1.5°C) the focus has been to seek Being replaced by warmer-water TOP PREDATORS sea surface temperatures. Indeed, and supports a wide variety of species. nutrient availability, temperature and to build natural resilience in marine species, Calanus helgolandicus, southerly colonies in Europe have However, saltmarsh is threatened light levels. Phytoplankton biomass, moving northwards Species at the top of the food web, ecosystems through: 7 already been abandoned or show by sea-level rise. Site-based as presented in the PCI (page 53), such as large fish, seabirds and • Protecting and recovering sites, substantial declines29. adaptive management plans include has been used as a proxy for primary marine mammals, are susceptible to habitats and species. interventions such as managed production in a number of studies8,9. the changes in distribution and timing The impact of climate change on • Creating a well-managed network realignment to enhance resilience34. Long-term increases in phytoplankton of seasonal events for plankton and marine mammals remains poorly of habitats to aid the movement of biomass of 21% and 13% have been fish species they rely on for food. understood30. Changes most likely Maerl beds: calcareous red seaweeds species affected by climate change. reported in the coastal and open Sandeels are an important trophic to be detected will be shifts in that form maerl beds, providing • Reducing the impact of North Sea, respectively, between the link in the food web, being a key prey distribution of species at the edge of homes for diverse communities 8 other pressures such as 1980s and early 2000s . More recently species for these predators. There their range as water warms. Species of plants and animals. They are unsustainable fishing32. however, estimates of primary FISH is now good evidence that declines such as the Striped Dolphin may vulnerable to changes in pH, affecting production in the North Sea indicate in the abundance and nutritional extend their range polewards into To achieve these things the UK skeleton formation, and changes in Marine fish populations have been a declining trend as well as changes quality of Sandeels has reduced the UK waters, while the more northerly Government has supported the work temperature affecting growth and influenced by commercial fishing, and in species composition and timing breeding success and populations distributed White-beaked Dolphin may of the UK Marine Climate Change reproduction. Reducing harm from in addition, climate change has led of seasonal events, with knock-on of seabirds such as Kittiwake24,25,26,27. increasingly shift out of UK waters31. Impacts Partnership (MCCIP), which bottom trawling and reducing impacts to distributional changes16,17 at rates effects on zooplankton abundance The cascade of mechanisms are includes scientists, government, from freshwater run-off will improve and fish recruitment9. up to three times faster than those still being investigated but include their resilience35. 18 agencies and NGOs, to provide advice detected for terrestrial species . the impact of fishing on Sandeel on climate change impacts and a Horse mussel beds: large, long-lived ZOOPLANKTON A large part of the increase in populations as well as increasing sound evidence base on which to build and slow-growing bivalve mussels abundance of fish species described in sea surface temperature, the timing Copepods (small planktonic climate change adaptation plans. can build up over time to create this report has been due to improved and strength of ocean stratification, crustaceans) make up a large structurally complex reefs sustaining fisheries management, allowing some and in mismatch in reproductive The MCCIP has published a series proportion of the zooplankton 33 communities of barnacles, scallops commercially fished species to recover timings with availability of prey28. of report cards on how to manage biomass and play a key role in from low baselines. At the same time, protected species or habitats known and crabs. As they are very slow to converting energy from primary 70% of the demersal species studied to be vulnerable to climate change recover after disturbance, reducing Photo: Clement Bardot producers up the food web. around the UK have responded impacts. Conservation of these or removing human pressures Warming temperatures have driven to warming sea temperatures by species and habitats will support is the most effective method northward shifts in the distribution of changes in abundance across their marine communities, or plants of increasing resilience36. zooplankton in the North East Atlantic, distribution19. Specifically, this has from the 1960s to the late 1980s, led to increases in the populations bringing smaller warm-water copepod of smaller-bodied, non-commercial species into UK waters10,11. species, such as Boarfish in the Celtic Photo: Kevin Sawford (rspb-images.com) Seas20,21. For pelagic fish, there is An example of this has been the Kittiwake northward shift in the relative evidence of community change from proportions of two closely related cold-water assemblages (Herring and copepod species, the cold-water Sprat) in the 1960s–80s to warmer- Calanus finmarchicus and the warmer- water assemblages (Mackerel, water relative C. helgolandicus (see Sardine and Anchovy) from the 1990s map on this page). The implications of onwards, although changes in the these shifts are widespread, not least distribution of prey, also affected by because of changes to community climate change, may have played a composition but also because role as well21,22,17. seasonal patterns of production and Disentangling the drivers of change in overall abundance vary between the marine environment is complex. these species. This has consequences The impact of warming seas varies for predators of plankton, including geographically and by species, and 12 fish , which in turn can impact on by interactions between species. species at higher trophic levels, such The mismatch of the timing of life 13,14,15 as seabirds . history events between predators and prey has the potential to impact

Boarfish State of Nature Report 2019 59 Marine

Marine fish and shellfish SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES are harvested around the The UK also has a legal commitment to fish sustainably by 2020 and the UK, representing the most assessment of this relies on a measure of the maximum average long-term widespread direct human catch that can be taken from a population without reducing the ability of pressure in UK waters1. Fish that population to reproduce itself, termed the Maximum Sustainable Yield stocks of commercial interest (MSY). The official UK Government indicator shows that the percentage of fish stocks fished at or below levels considered to be capable of producing span international boundaries; MSY has increased from 7% in 1990 to 49% in 2017, down from a maximum currently nine nations operate of 54% in 2013, and 33% of quota managed fish stocks are still harvested fisheries in the Greater North unsustainably. The UK administration’s latest assessment of progress towards FISHERIES Sea2 and 14 in the Celtic Seas3. Good Environmental Status (GES) under the Marine Strategy Regulations5 When fish communities are confirmed GES will not be met by 2020 for fish, commercial fish and shellfish, heavily fished, the larger, and benthic habitats. more profitable fish are UK Biodiversity Indicator: Proportion of marine fish (quota) stocks of UK interest Fish populations are complex and precious resources: they are removed and the size-mix of harvested sustainably of immense value to the fishing industry and provide food and the fish stocks is changed. 100

employment for many people, but they are also an integral part Smaller, less commercially S 0 of the marine food web and are vital for the survival of many other valuable, less reproductive individuals become more species, including seabirds, seals and cetaceans. 0 dominant, affecting the

As well as directly affecting fish populations, fishing activities structure and stability of the 0 have wider impacts on marine species and habitats, including ecosystem4. Our abundance physical damage to the seabed caused by bottom contacting fishing indicators for marine fish 20

species, both pelagic and to F with respect exploited interest gear and bycatch of seabirds and marine mammals. Bycatch also 0

demersal, show signs of of marine fish (quota) stocks UK Proportion 10 15 2000 2005 2010 2017 includes non‑target fish species, which in turn introduces the issue recovery from a history Proportion eo Proportion aoe Proportion nnon orce nccgoi2 of discarding unwanted catch at sea. of overexploitation. In recognition of this, restrictions on fishing practices, effort and equipment use are set, ideally based on scientific evidence, to reduce the environmental damage caused by fishing. Good monitoring information must be available to ensure that decision-making SIZE COMPOSITION OF FISH COMMUNITIES is underpinned by a sound evidence base and takes due account Indicators of the size composition Further evidence for recovery, subsequently to 12% in 2017. Increases of fish communities reflect long- specifically in the North Sea, is shown in the indicator could be driven by an of the trends and status of the marine ecosystem as a whole. term impacts of fishing pressure. by the Large Fish Index. The average increase in a few large commercial fish Ecosystem-based fisheries management is therefore fundamental One such indicator, the Typical Length percentage of large fish in a catch species7 and in future is likely to be to securing the urgent and necessary recovery of marine nature. Indicator6, reveals deterioration declined through the 1980s and 90s, affected by climate-related changes of the size structure of the fish to a low of 2% in 2001, but increased in species’ distributions8. communities in the North Sea and Celtic Seas between the 1980s and UK Biodiversity Indicator: Proportion of large fish (equal to or larger than 50cm), 2000s, such that these communities by weight, in the North Sea, 1983 to 2017

are now dominated by small-bodied 20 fish. Since 2010 this indicator

varies spatially but demersal fish 15 and elasmobranch (shark and ray) communities have shown signs 10 of recovery and the pelagic fish

community shows fluctuating trends. (>= 50cm) fish large The indicator remains low compared 5 PRESSURE STATE RESPONSE to the observed size structure in of at et eretae the early 1980s, and is at record low 0 Fishing activity – 33% of quota Demersal fish communities The UK has a commitment to 1 10 2000 2010 2017 managed fish stocks are are recovering from meet GES for fish and other levels for pelagic and demersal fish nicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals harvested unsustainably. overexploitation in the past, marine wildlife and habitats in the south-eastern North Sea. Source: jncc.gov.uk/ukbi-D1a but Good Environmental by 2020. Status (GES) has not yet been achieved in either the Greater North Sea or the Celtic Seas.

Photo: Chris Gomersall (rspb-images.com) 60 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 61

Marine key findings Climate change Fishing Other

EXTENT OF RESPONSE and especially gear modification SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES by introducing higher visibility While there have been improvements PHYSICAL DAMAGE FOR NATURE netting (an innovation of one of the in the sustainability of fisheries over fishermen), has drastically reduced the last decade with North East the bycatch of auks but other areas The most widespread impacts on Atlantic trends for fishing pressure REDUCING BYCATCH of concern have been identified24. seafloor habitats occur as a result of declining and biomass increasing, frequent use of bottom contacting The UK has international commitments DISCARD BAN these positive trends have been gear. Physical disturbance can affect to reduce cetacean bycatch to as close challenged in recent years due to seafloor habitats adversely, with shifts Percentage area (%) to zero as possible20 and yet bycatch A fundamental change in fisheries High disturbance (categories 5–9) a number of factors, including the in benthic community composition Low disturbance (categories 0–4) of several species remain at levels of management has been to tackle the advent of the discard ban being No habitat data being reported9. These shifts are driven considerable conservation concern. practice of discarding unwanted fish phased in during 2015–19. Urgent Disturbance levels by the replacement of larger, long- 0 Low disturbance Current activities include coordinated at sea, in some regions accounting action was advised in the early 2000s 1 lived, slow-reproducing species with 2 stakeholder-led approaches to for up to 80% of a catch. Not only was to avoid the collapse of the Cod and 3 identify practical, affordable, and small, fast-growing species. 4 this seen as an unacceptable waste associated fisheries and harm to the

5 effective mitigation and monitoring of protein with potential economic 32 In the absence of long-term 6 marine environment , and while 7 methods are being developed. These impacts, but it had significant improvements have been made we monitoring datasets to assess the 8 9 High disturbance include acoustic and light deterrents, unintended and negative impacts on status of marine seafloor species are once again dealing with the near modifications to equipment to improve some fish stocks as well as distorting directly, a modelled approach collapse of Cod stocks in the North GSHHG world shore line – Available under GNU Lesser General Public License selectivity and timed closures based marine food webs25 (which may have 33 combining habitat sensitivity with Sea . It is clear more needs to be at www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/shorelines/gshhs.html. on real-time monitoring data16,21. included supporting increases in impacts from fishing vessels over done to ensure all UK fish stocks are some discard-scavenging seabirds 12m in length using bottom contacting Currently between 0.5% and 5% of diverse, resilient and attain biomass Between 2010 and 2015, the most recent assessment indicates that pressure such as Northern Fulmar). The gear has been used to produce a UK fishing activity is monitored at levels that maintain full reproductive and disturbance caused by fishing activities are widespread within UK waters, practice was widely condemned disturbance map (see opposite)10. sea, which varies by activities16. capacity. Healthy stocks are vital for a occurring to some degree in 57% of the cells. High-disturbance categories (5–9) and measures under the Common In this way habitats may be classified Observer programmes are the main resilient and profitable fishery and for accounted for 31% to 75% of the area of assessed UK sub-regional seas, the most Fisheries Policy introduced a discard as highly disturbed (categories 5–9), source of monitoring data, but other wider marine health. disturbed regions being the southern Celtic Seas and the English Channel. ban for commercially harvested stocks either because they are heavily fished data sources, including cameras, The UK has a commitment to meet which was phased in between 2015 or are highly sensitive. Photo: Laurie Campbell (rspb-images.com) acoustic and satellite options, Good Environmental Status (GES) for and 201926. could be used more effectively to The assessment does not take into fish and other marine wildlife and improve monitoring. However, serious concerns exist that account trawling activity prior to habitats and the pressures impacting the ban is not being implemented and 2010 nor the current activity of Where gill net vessels are equipped upon them by 2020. The recent enforced properly27,28 and that this smaller vessels, so disturbance may with acoustic deterrents known as update of the UK Marine Strategy could result in overfishing, given levels be underestimated in some areas. “pingers”, bycatch rates of Harbour Part 1 concluded that GES had been of unaccounted mortality29. Evidence Pressure is modelled evenly across Porpoise in UK waters have been achieved for four pressures (e.g. of the continued practice of discarding each grid cell so smaller-scale spatial much lower, with no clear evidence eutrophication and contaminants), despite the ban was provided by variation in fishing activity may not of habituation, reducing porpoise was partially achieved for underwater the DiscardLess project in 2018, be represented accurately, which bycatch by around 15%, to 1,468 noise and four components of stating that “…according to the 2017 could have an effect on the estimate individuals in 201421. biodiversity and was not achieved data reported to ICES (International of overall disturbance. for three pressures and three These problems have been known Council for the Exploration of the Sea), components of biodiversity (including for over 20 years, and conservation discards have remained high and both fish and commercial stocks). strategies are being developed for landings of undersized fish … have Sustainable fisheries management BYCATCH AND ENTANGLEMENT cetaceans in each of the UK countries remained negligible, even for the fish requires consideration of the broader Bycatch (the catching of non-target is assessed to be above precautionary Seabird bycatch hotspots have been and in 2018 Defra, with the support stocks already fully covered by the impacts on habitats, species and species) can be a serious issue for thresholds in relation to population identified in areas around the UK of the Devolved Administrations, landing obligation that year”30. trophic interactions, and while these some species. The most common size, suggesting “considerable where coastal gill nets and other commissioned Joint Nature Best practice avoidance measures to have started to be taken into account interactions between cetaceans and conservation concern”19. Despite this, static fishing gear are used, and Conservation Committee (JNCC) to reduce the number of unwanted fish through management measures, fishing gear in the UK involve small Grey Seal populations in the Celtic also in demersal longline fisheries develop a UK Plan of Action (PoA) on caught, alongside comprehensive including through protected areas, cetaceans like Harbour Porpoise and Seas are increasing, thus suggesting off the west coast of Scotland11,12. Seabird Bycatch, in order to “deliver remote electronic monitoring progress is slow and often falls short Common Dolphin. It is estimated that wider population mixing between A risk assessment identified that the a coherent approach to understand with cameras, are vital to avoid of the ideal. Monitoring and data 1,500 small cetaceans and 400–600 Scottish populations than previously seabirds most sensitive to bycatch and where necessary reduce seabird overfishing. This will ensure the ban collection also remains poor, with 12% seals are caught as bycatch each thought18. Additional information include species of conservation bycatch in UK fisheries”. The UK PoA, is implemented and will also improve of stocks being of unknown status34, year11,12,13, as well as an increasing on bycatch mortality of cetaceans concern, such as Puffins and Shags19. which is still a work in progress, our understanding of the scale of including nearly all elasmobranch number of cases of Humpback and comes from strandings: around 800 is in accordance with UK and EU 22,23 the problem and provide accurate (shark and ray) stocks; understanding Minke Whale entanglement off cetaceans strand around the UK coast regulations . Some best practice information on the health of fish of catches is poor due to low levels Scotland from ropes to the surface every year, and between 1990 and already exists, e.g. in the Filey Bay stocks in order to inform sustainable of effective monitoring at sea. from pots on the seabed14,15,16. 2017, 17% of Harbour Porpoise, 43% (Yorkshire) inshore gill-net fishery for management and protection of Common Dolphin and 36% of Minke Sea Trout and Salmon, a combination Annual bycatch mortality for Harbour of vulnerable species31. Whale strandings were determined as of a new by-law, regular monitoring, Porpoise17, Grey Seal18 and Common being the result of bycatch16. Dolphin13 in the Celtic Seas and for Humpback Whales around Scotland15 62 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 63

Marine key findings Climate change Fishing Other

PRESSURES ON (69%) had the highest plastics load was still observed in 7% of assessed RESPONSE areas and safety exclusions zones In response, voluntary management with Scottish Islands the lowest, areas – mainly in south-eastern parts around offshore windfarms, are measures across c22km2 started in the MARINE NATURE but still at 58%. of the North Sea and in some coastal FOR NATURE considered to provide a contribution early 2000s, and Lyme Bay Reefs are waters of the Celtic Seas. Discharges to the Scottish MPA network for now a 236km2 MPA and SAC. Bottom POLLUTION: NOISE of chemicals from the oil and gas vulnerable marine ecosystems contact fishing was ended on the Fishing and climate change have the industry decreased by 40% between MARINE PROTECTED and specific species, Blue Ling and reef in 2011 and the area is managed most widespread impacts on marine Since 2015, data exist on the levels 2009 and 201411. AREA NETWORK Sandeels19. However, overall these in a collaboration between the local wildlife, but more localised effects of impulsive (short, sharp) sound areas would not make a sufficient fishing industry, conservationists and come from a range of human activities from seismic surveys for oil and gas There are concerns about The UK has signed up to international contribution to making up the scientists to provide benefits for both in the marine environment and these exploration, explosions and pile accumulation of persistent organic agreements to establish an shortfall in the MPA network20. fishing and conservation. can be categorised into two main driving, as well as some naval sonar. pollutants in food webs; one particular ecologically coherent network of categories: 1) pollution, including In parts of the northern North Sea group of chemicals, polychlorinated well managed Marine Protected The effectiveness of MPAs in European While the full recovery of marine marine plastics as well as noise and seismic surveys may have occurred biphenyls (PCBs), have been reported Areas (MPAs) to protect and enhance waters is less well reported than for communities can take many years23,24, contaminants, and 2) development, on 146 days in 20159. Such impulsive at toxicologically significant levels in complex ecosystems and to ensure tropical systems, so the monitoring within three years positive responses including aggregate extraction, port noise may cause changes in the 40% of UK-stranded porpoises and sustainable use so that the marine of sites closed to human activity, like were seen for species’ richness, activities and renewable energy behaviour of marine mammals, for shown to threaten long-term viability environment is safeguarded for Lyme Bay, described below, has been total abundance and community developments (e.g. windfarms). Our example by causing the temporary of Killer Whale populations. While future generations to enjoy. seen as a key element in the evidence composition25. Recovery was also understanding of the impact of many displacement of Harbour Porpoises10. other similar chemicals have declined Since 2016, additional sites have been base to direct UK and European reported for three indicator species, of these pressures on populations is following international bans, PCBs designated, including five Special marine conservation management. including the habitat-forming bryozoan, limited. The spatial distribution and POLLUTION: CONTAMINANTS stopped declining in 1998. Areas of Conservation (SACs) for Ross Coral, which plays a key role in intensity of these activities is important AND EUTROPHICATION Harbour Porpoise, and management CONSERVATION AND formation of the reef and is known to to consider in order to identify DEVELOPMENT: ENERGY approaches have been adopted in SUSTAINABLE FISHING provide the structurally complex habitat hotspots which could be linked to Pintail essential for juvenile fish26. many areas. As of May 2019, in total, Lyme Bay has been noted as being potential environmental pressures. the UK network consists of 355 MPAs an area of “high species richness The fishing community benefited from which encompass 25% of UK waters16. that includes rare and threatened POLLUTION: MARINE PLASTIC increased income from selling catches species”21, with high-biodiversity reefs However, management measures under a “Reserve Seafood” label, formed of mudstone, limestone and have been documented in 60% of and increased catches of crabs and chalk. Key species include the Pink Sea MPAs but only fully implemented in scallops, both of which are associated Fan, Ross Coral and the commercially 10% of sites17. In Scotland, 27 MPAs with the protected reef habitat. This is fished Great Scallop. have specific fisheries measures particularly noteworthy for scallops, landings of which have decreased in place and are being developed There has been concern for many over the same period elsewhere Photo: Oliver Smart (rspb-images.com) with the fishing industry and other years about effects of bottom-towed in the UK27. Photo: Ray Kennedy (rspb-images.com) stakeholders for a further 12 MPAs18. fishing gear on these habitats and Eutrophication, which is caused by Other area-based measures, including the long-term impact on the long- excessive amounts of nitrogen and Oil and gas production declined from voluntary reserves, restricted fisheries lived, slow-growing reef species21,22. Harbour Seal phosphorus entering the water, a peak in 1999 due to decreasing Photo: Mark Hamblin (rspb-images.com) results in algal blooms which can reserves12. In line with international Photo: Matthieu Sontag impact on other organisms, deplete The issue of plastics in our seas targets to reduce climate change, oxygen in the sea and reduce overall has recently come to the fore and there has been a substantial increase water quality. Contamination of the United Nations Environment in renewable energy developments marine waters with a range of Programme has listed it as a critical in UK waters and offshore wind hazardous substances has reduced problem1. Incidents of entanglement now represents two-thirds of new in recent years and the worst point 13 and ingestion of plastics by marine installation energy capacity . There is sources of pollution have been animals have been widely reported2 increasing research into the cumulative addressed, including a marked and our understanding of the scale impact and long-term effects of reduction in the frequency of oil at which microplastics are found windfarm developments, with concerns spills. However, agricultural run-off in the oceans is growing3,4. One about collision risk for seabirds into marine habitats remains an issue long-running study of accumulated and displacement of seabirds and in some local areas and eutrophication 14,15 plastics in the stomachs of Fulmars, cetaceans from foraging grounds . a widespread seabird that forages exclusively at sea, goes some way to show trends in marine litter. In the 93% OF BEACHED EUTROPHICATION North Sea, 93% of beached Northern FULMARS IN THE NORTH WAS OBSERVED Fulmars investigated between 2010 and 2014 had ingested some plastic, SEA HAD INGESTED IN 7% OF with an average of 33 particles SOME PLASTIC, ASSESSED AREAS. 5 per bird . This is an increase from WITH AN AVERAGE OF fewer than 10 particles per bird in the 1970s and 80s6,7,8. The English 33 PARTICLES PER BIRD. Channel (68%) and East of England State of Nature Report 2019 65 UK countries

COMBINED ABUNDANCE INDICATOR BASED ON ENGLAND-SPECIFIC TRENDS FOR BIRDS (171 SPECIES), BUTTERFLIES (55 SPECIES) AND MAMMALS (15 SPECIES) It is not appropriate to compare indicator trends between countries as data from different taxonomic groups have been used.

a auae ator (241 species) o ter Sort ter on the magnitude of population 170201 200201 All (241) All (238) change, over the long and the ENGLAND 120 100% short‑term periods. 100 0% • Over the long term, 35% of species showed strong or moderate declines 0 0% and 31% showed strong or moderate 170 100 0 increases; 34% showed little change. England’s landscapes have been modified by human activity 0% e e Percentage of species Percentage • Over the short term, 46% of species for millennia. Ever since the clearance of the “wildwood”, 0 20% showed strong or moderate declines its associated habitats and eradication of megafauna, 20 and 29% showed strong or moderate 0 0% increases; 25% showed little change. biodiversity has undergone major changes. Few, if any, English 170 10 10 2000 2010 201 Strong increase Moderate increase • Over the long term, 38% of species habitats can be described as truly “wild”; however, human Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Little change Moderate decrease showed a strong change in Strong decrease activity has modified and created the semi-natural habitats abundance (either increase or decrease). Over the short term on which much of the current fauna and flora depend. The abundance indicator for 241 The white line with shading shows this rose to 46% of species. Major changes to the landscape have happened through history; terrestrial and freshwater species, the smoothed trend and associated for which England-specific data 95% CI, the blue line shows the for example, the drainage of Fenland started in the 17th century. Using a different, binary are available, shows a statistically underlying unsmoothed indicator. categorisation of species with Through the 20th century the intensification of agriculture has non-significant decline in average The bar chart shows the percentage positive and negative trends: led to loss and fragmentation of semi-natural habitats. Despite abundance of 1% (95% CI -7% to of species within the indicator • Over the long term, 51% of species +4%) between 1970 and 2016. Over that have increased, decreased this, England still contains a range of internationally important showed negative trends and 49% this long-term period the smoothed (moderately or strongly) or shown showed positive trends; over the habitats, such as its lowland heathland, ancient woodland indicator fell by 0.03% per year. Over little change in abundance. short term, 59% of species showed our short-term period, the decline and chalk grasslands in the south, the blanket bogs along the Within multispecies indicators like negative trends and 41% showed was a statistically non-significant these there is substantial variation positive trends. Pennines, the coastal estuaries and saltmarshes that provide 3%, a rate of 0.29% per year. between individual species’ trends. vital foraging habitat for wintering waterbirds, and the sea cliffs There was, however, no significant To examine this, we have allocated difference in the rate of change and offshore islands that support internationally important species into trend categories based between the long and the short term. numbers of breeding seabirds.

ENGLAND-SPECIFIC TRENDS IN ABUNDANCE FOR BIRDS, BUTTERFLIES AND MAMMALS

a rou auae ator • The abundance indicator for 10 55 butterfly species starts in 1976 10 and overall shows a statistically KEY FINDINGS 120 significant decline in average

100 abundance of 23% (CI -39% to -6%).

170 100 0 Over the short term, the indicator

0 was 15% lower in 2016 compared 1% 5% 35% 46% 13% e to 2006. decline in average decline in average of species have of species show of species are 0 species’ abundance. species’ distribution. decreased in abundance. strong changes. threatened. 20 • The abundance indicator for Our indicator of average Our indicator of average More species have shown England’s wildlife is Of 7,615 species in 0 15 mammal species starts in 1998 species’ abundance in species’ distribution in strong or moderate undergoing rapid change; England that have 170 10 10 2000 2010 201 and overall shows a statistically England of 241 terrestrial England, covering 5,942 decreases in abundance the proportion of species been assessed using Birds (171) Butterflies (55) Mammals (15) significant increase in average and freshwater species terrestrial and freshwater (35%) than increases defined as showing strong IUCN Regional Red List Unsmoothed indicator abundance of 21% (CI +17% to (mainly birds) shows species over a broad (31%) since 1970; likewise changes in abundance, criteria, 13% have been +25%). Over the short term, the little change since 1970; range of taxonomic more species have either increasing or classified as threatened Based on smoothed trends created was 2% higher in 2016 compared to however, butterflies groups, has fallen by 5% decreased in distribution decreasing, rose from with extinction from using England-specific data: 2006. The increase in this indicator indicator was 2% higher in 2016 show significant declines since 1970, and is 1% (31%) than increased 38% over the long term to Great Britain. • The abundance indicator for 171 bird is driven by the recovery of species compared to 2006. in abundance, while lower than in 2005. (24%) since 1970. 46% over the short term. species starts in 1970 and overall from very low numbers, conservation the indicators for birds shows a statistically significant successes and colonising species, and mammals show increase in average abundance as well as increasing numbers significant increases. of 23% (CI +18% to +28%). Over of wintering waterbirds.

Photo: Andrew Mason (rspb-images.com) the short term, the indicator 66 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 67

England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales

CHANGE IN SPECIES’ DISTRIBUTION IN ENGLAND PRESSURES AND RESPONSES

a oua ator 52 species o ter Sort ter 5 The occupancy indicator for 5,942 1702015 20052015 Nature continues to be under can benefit priority farmland birds There are many landscape-scale terrestrial and freshwater species, 52 52 pressure in England. Intensive and have knock-on benefits for certain initiatives active in England, funded 120 100% for which England-specific trends are management of agricultural land, wildlife groups; however, their impacts by NGOs, government agencies 100 6,7 available, shows a decline in average 0% largely driven by policies and on other species remain unclear . or through other sources, like the distribution of 5% between 1970 and incentives since WW2, has been In 2017, the total area of land in all National Lottery Heritage Fund. 0 2015. In 2015 the indicator was 1% 0% identified as the most significant higher-level or targeted AES was Examples include the Great Fen, lower than in 2005. Because species 170 100 0 factor driving species’ population 1.4 million ha, which represents an a 50-year vision to link two fenland 0% 1 3 tend to decline in abundance before e change in the UK . As agricultural land increase of 20% over the last decade . reserves in Cambridgeshire; Moors 0 of species Percentage they disappear from a site, this change constitutes 69% of England’s area2, However, in order to offset ongoing for the Future, which aims to restore 20% of 5% could reflect more severe 20 these changes have had a major declines in the UK Government’s and conserve upland habitats in the underlying abundance declines that 0 0% detrimental impact on its biodiversity. Farmland Bird Indicator (FBI), it has Peak District and South Pennines; 170 10 10 2000 2010 2015 Strong increase we are currently unable to quantify. Moderate increase By 2017, the England farmland bird been estimated that 26–33% of FBI regional forest projects; and the nicator 0% creie interas Little change index had fallen 55% below its 1970 populations would need to be subject Wallasea Island Wild Coast Project, The bar chart shows the percentage of Moderate decrease Strong decrease level, while farmland butterflies to AES-type management5. the UK's largest-ever coastal wetland species within the indicator that have have declined by 10% on average restoration project. An ambitious increased, decreased (moderately The creation of the EU’s LIFE strong or moderate increases; or decrease). Over the short term since 19903. collaborative project Back from the or strongly) or shown little change programme brought benefits to 45% showed little change. this rose to 45% of species. Brink was launched in 2017 and in distribution (measured as the Just 9% of England is wooded. This England’s wildlife; for example, the aims to save 20 of England’s most proportion of occupied sites). • Over the short term, 39% of species Using a different, binary categorisation: represents a 45% increase since 1945, major wetland habitat creation, threatened species from extinction showed strong or moderate but most of this expansion has been restoration and management To examine the variation in species’ • Over the long term, 57% of species and help a further 200. decreases and 32% showed strong through the planting of non-native undertaken through two LIFE projects distribution trends, we allocated showed negative trends and 43% or moderate increases; 28% showed conifers4. Our woodland wildlife is saw Bitterns increase from 11 Defra launched its 25-year trends into categories based on the showed positive trends; over the little change. under pressure. In 2016, the breeding booming males in 1997 to 181 in 2018. Environment Plan in 20188. This sets magnitude of distribution change. short term, 57% of species showed • Over the long term, 23% of negative trends and 43% showed woodland bird indicator for England This habitat creation also benefited out the government’s ambitions • Over the long term, 31% of species species showed a strong change positive trends. was 24% lower than in 1970, while the colonising wetland species, including to help the natural world regain showed strong or moderate in distribution (either increase indicator for woodland butterflies has invertebrates such as the Fen and retain good health in England, decreases and 24% showed fallen by 58% since 19903. Wainscot and Marsh Mallow moths, including the creation or restoration as well as wildlife more generally. The of 500,000ha of wildlife-rich habitat Agri-environment schemes (AES) Seabird Recovery LIFE Project in the outside the protected site network. represent the main policy mechanism Isles of Scilly has recently successfully for reversing widespread declines of NATIONAL RED LIST ASSESSMENTS FOR ENGLAND ENGLAND-SPECIFIC IUCN eradicated rats from St Agnes, and farmland wildlife. Research has shown RED LIST ASSESSMENTS both Manx Shearwater and European Here we break down the IUCN Red List assessments for Great Britain to show that a targeted approach, such as the Storm-petrel have once again bred how the proportion of threatened species, based on the number assessed, varies In order to maximise comparability Higher Level Stewardship scheme successfully on the island. by broad taxonomic group in England. The bars show the percentage of assessed between taxonomic groups and (active between 2005 and 2015), species falling into each of the IUCN Red List categories. Species assessed as countries, this report focuses on IUCN Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable are formally classified as Red List assessments undertaken at threatened and therefore at risk of extinction. a Great Britain or whole Ireland level; Photo: Michael Harvey (rspb-images.com) Percentage of species threatened = (CR + EN + VU)/(total number assessed – DD – RE). however, several taxonomic groups The number of species assessed is shown in brackets. have been assessed for extinction risk just within England. These show that: nang e e ar e as t o n tinct or egiona r nerterates 11 a itic a t n a

e • Out of 1,859 vascular plant taxa

r nang e a e r ficie n r e assessed, 36 have been classed as e e ce r a

erterates 277 te n n t extinct and a further 370 (21%) of e r

ngi e extant species, for which sufficient 12 an icens data are available, are formally

Pants 22 classified as threatened and therefore at risk of extinction

ota 715 from England.

0% 25% 50% 75% 100% • Out of 48 extant terrestrial mammals eretae of ee assessed, for which sufficient data are available, 12 (27%) are Of the 7,615 species found in England Of the extant terrestrial and formally classified as threatened that have been assessed against freshwater species found in England, and therefore at risk of extinction the IUCN Regional Red List criteria, assessed using IUCN Regional Red List from England. 971 (13%) of the extant species, criteria, 330 plants (15%), 154 fungi for which sufficient data are available, and lichens (12%), 105 vertebrates are formally classified as threatened (40%) and 382 invertebrates (11%) are and therefore at risk of extinction classified as being at risk of extinction from Great Britain (the scale at which from Great Britain. Red List assessments are made). State of Nature Report 2019 69 UK countries

NORTHERN IRELAND-SPECIFIC TRENDS IN ABUNDANCE FOR BREEDING BIRDS, WINTERING WATERBIRDS, BUTTERFLIES AND MAMMALS Due to poor taxonomic coverage of • The abundance indicator for 41 a statistically significant decline available data, a single combined breeding bird species starts in 1994 in average abundance of 38% abundance indicator was not created and overall shows a statistically (CI -44% to -33%). Over the short for Northern Ireland; however, significant increase in average term, the indicator was 27% lower smoothed abundance indicators were abundance of 66% (95% CI -45% in 2016 compared to 2006. calculated for four separate species to +87%). Over the short term, the • The abundance indicator for nine groups. These were created using indicator shows little change in butterfly species starts in 2006 NORTHERN IRELAND Northern Ireland-specific data for all average abundance, being 1% lower. and overall shows a statistically species, except for three of the four • The abundance indicator significant decline in average bat species which used published for 36 wintering waterbirds species abundance of 43% (CI -67% to -20%). trends for all Ireland. starts in 1988 and overall shows • The abundance indicator for five

Norter rea rou auae ator mammal species (four bat species

Northern Ireland’s landscape is dominated by agricultural 200 and Rabbit) starts in 1998 and overall 1 land, which makes up around 75% of the total area . 10 shows a statistically significant This farmed environment is criss-crossed with a range of 10 increase in average abundance of 10 91% (CI +71% to +111%). Over the special habitats resulting from the wet and mild climate. 120 short term, the indicator was 30% 1 100 100 higher in 2016 compared to 2006. There are internationally significant areas of blanket 0 e e bog and large inland and coastal water bodies, including 0 0

Lough Neagh, the largest freshwater lake in the British 20 0 Isles, which supports around 100,000 wintering waterbirds, 1 1995 2000 2005 2010 201 and myriad lakes, fens and raised bogs. Northern Ireland Wintering waterbirds (36) Breeding birds (41) Butterflies (9) Mammals (5) Unsmoothed indicator holds species found nowhere else in the UK, including the Irish Hare, Irish Damselfly, Irish Whitebeam, Cryptic Wood White and Pollan. With 650km of coastline, the sea No occupancy-based indicator is currently available for Northern Ireland. loughs, estuaries and marine environment are a significant component of Northern Ireland’s biodiversity.

KEY FINDINGS 66% 38% 43% 11% increase in average species’ decline in average species’ decline in average species’ of species are threatened. abundance of breeding birds. abundance of wintering abundance of butterflies. Of 2,450 species in Northern waterbirds. Our indicator of average species’ Our indicator of average species’ Ireland that have been assessed abundance in Northern Ireland Our indicator of average species’ abundance in Northern Ireland of using IUCN Regional Red List of 41 breeding bird species has abundance in Northern Ireland nine butterfly species has fallen criteria, 11% have been classified increased by 66% since 1994. of 36 wintering waterbird species by 43% since 2006. as threatened with extinction has fallen by 38% since 1988. from Ireland as a whole.

Photo: Andy Hay (rspb-images.com) Photo: David Wootton (rspb-images.com) 70 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 71

England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales

NATIONAL RED LIST ASSESSMENTS FOR NORTHERN IRELAND PRESSURES AND RESPONSES Here we break down the IUCN Red List assessments for the whole of Ireland to show Of the 2,450 species found in The dominance of farmland within affecting heathland4. Northern diversity on moorland or grassland how the proportion of threatened species, based on the number of assessed, varies Northern Ireland that have been the Northern Ireland landscape Ireland is one of the least forested habitats10, but positive effects for some by broad taxonomic group in Northern Ireland. The bars show the percentage of assessed using the IUCN Regional Red means its biodiversity is particularly regions in Europe and much of mammals11. Targeted prescriptions, assessed species falling into each of the IUCN Red List categories. Species assessed List criteria, 272 (11%) of the extant vulnerable to change in agricultural what does exist (4.3% of land area) through the Countryside Management as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable are formally classified as species, for which sufficient data are management. Over recent decades is made up of plantations of non- Scheme, have been shown to have threatened and therefore at risk of extinction. available, are formally classified as there has been a large-scale move native Sitka Spruce. These have often a positive effect for some priority 12 Percentage of species threatened = (CR + EN + VU)/(total number assessed – DD – RE). threatened and therefore at risk of away from mixed farming to a been planted in unsuitable areas, farmland birds . extinction from Ireland as a whole (the predominantly pastoral system, such as on blanket bog or in sensitive The number of species assessed is shown in brackets. Northern Ireland holds several scale at which Red List assessments leading to the loss of semi-natural river catchments, and have had a important seabird colonies. Rathlin nang e e ar e as t o n tinct or egiona are made). habitats, overwintering stubbles detrimental impact on important r nerterates 1 a itic a

t Island is the largest; however, n a 1,3 e

biodiversity. Only 0.04% of the land

r and hedgerows . More than 40% nang e a e Of the extant terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity here is threatened by r ficie n 4,7 r e e e ce r a of Northern Ireland’s land area now area comprises ancient woodland . erterates 51 te n species found in Northern Ireland, invasive non-native mammals and n

t 4 e comprises improved grassland . assessed using IUCN Regional Agricultural intensification, driven the island has been identified as one r e

These changes have put pressure Pants 1 Red List criteria, 140 plants (10%), by UK and European policy, has been of the high-priority islands in the UK on the natural environment and its 11 vertebrates (22%) and 121 identified as the most significant for eradication of vertebrate INNS13. 250 biodiversity and have led to pollution ota invertebrates (14%) are classified as factor driving the decline in species’ issues. Northern Ireland produces Northern Ireland has no National 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% being at risk of extinction from Ireland populations across the UK8. eretae of ee 12% of the UK’s ammonia emissions, Parks but Areas of Special Scientific as a whole. Agri‑environment schemes (AES) mostly from agriculture, while only Interest (ASSIs) cover 7% of its total represent the main policy mechanism representing 6% of the land area, area; this figure incorporates Lough to turn around losses of farmland and has the greatest percentage of Neagh (395km2). Data published wildlife. Since 2018 there has been nitrogen-sensitive habitats exceeding by the Department of Agriculture, an increase of nearly 30,000ha in critical ammonia levels for both lower Environment and Rural Affairs higher-level AES in the country with and higher plants5. Large areas, (DAERA) show recent declines in both BIRDS OF CONSERVATION CONCERN IN IRELAND the launch of the new Environmental particularly in County Armagh and ASSI condition and the proportion There has also been an all-Ireland in population and range, population List. The number of Red-listed species Farming Scheme. Prior to this data County Down, suffer from excessive of protected terrestrial area under bird assessment, which means that size, localisation and international increased by 12 and Amber-listed shows that only 5,000ha were in a levels of nitrogen pollution6 and less favourable management14. Within Northern Ireland’s birds have been importance, as well as global and species by five since the previous higher-level AES in 2017 representing than one-third of monitored river the marine environment, the total assessed alongside those of the European status. Species are placed review in 2007. New additions to the a 90% decline over the last 10 years9. water bodies in Northern Ireland were Marine Protected Area increased Republic of Ireland. The most recent on the Green, Amber or Red List, last Red List include six duck species, Studies have shown mixed results on at or above a good standard in 20151. from 269km2 in 2009/10 to 2,566km2 Birds of Conservation Concern in indicating an increasing level of as well as a suite of passerines the impact of AES on biodiversity in in 2016/17. Management plans for Ireland 2014–20192 uses different conservation concern. that have undergone population Away from agricultural land, bogs Northern Ireland. Assessments of the the Northern Ireland MPA network criteria from the IUCN Red List, declines and/or range contractions. are damaged by peat cutting and Environmentally Sensitive Areas scheme Of the 185 species assessed in an are being developed through the assessing each species that breeds Populations of breeding waders heavy grazing, with the latter also identified no benefits for the botanical all-Ireland context, 37 (20%) were EU funded Marine Protected Area or overwinters against a set of continue to decline and the long-term placed on the Red List, 90 (49%) on the Management and Monitoring objective criteria. These criteria future for these species is uncertain. Amber List and 58 (31%) on the Green (MarPAMM) project to bring these include historical decline, trends Photo: Andy Hay (rspb-images.com) sites into favourable condition14, Puffin as only 4.48% of MPAs in Northern Photo: Andy Hay (rspb-images.com) Ireland are currently considered to be under favourable management15. Conservation management plans are being produced for the Special Areas of Conservation network funded through the Northern Ireland Rural Development Programme and DAERA’s Environment Fund, and by NIEA. Two large EU-funded Interreg projects – Co-operation Across Borders for Biodiversity and Collaborative Action for the Natura Network were launched in 2017. Together these aim to produce 25 conservation action plans for designated sites, restore over 4,500ha of blanket bog and save threatened species including Curlew, Hen Harrier, Irish Damselfly, Marsh Fritillary and White-clawed Crayfish. State of Nature Report 2019 73 UK countries

SCOTLAND-SPECIFIC COMBINED ABUNDANCE INDICATOR BASED ON TRENDS OF MOTHS (175 SPECIES), BIRDS (143 SPECIES), BUTTERFLIES (25 SPECIES) AND MAMMALS (9 SPECIES) Due to poor taxonomic representation before the mid-1990s, the abundance indicator was created from 1994 onwards. It is not appropriate to compare between countries, as data from different taxonomic groups have been used.

Sota auae ator (352 species) o ter Sort ter species into trend categories based on 1201 200201 All (352) All (344) the magnitude of population change, 10 100% over the long- and the short-term

120 periods. 0% SCOTLAND 100 • Over the long term, 49% of species 0% 0 showed strong or moderate declines 1 100 and 28% showed strong or moderate 0 0%

e e increases; 24% showed little change.

0 of species Percentage • Over the short term, 48% of species Scotland holds some of the most diverse landscapes in the UK. 20% 20 showed strong or moderate declines 0 From the remote montane habitats of the UK’s highest peaks 0 0% and 33% showed strong or moderate 1 2000 2010 201 Strong increase and the extensive expanses of blanket bog and upland heath Moderate increase increases; 18% showed little change. Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Little change Moderate decrease • Over the long term, 45% of to the West Atlantic oakwoods, Caledonian pine forests, lochs, Strong decrease species showed a strong change coasts and seas, Scotland supports a wide variety of wildlife. The The abundance indicator for 352 The white line with shading shows in abundance (either increase or landscapes hold species found nowhere else in the UK, including terrestrial and freshwater species, the smoothed trend and associated decrease). Over the short term this the Wild Cat, Capercaillie and the endemic Scottish Primrose, for which Scotland-specific trends are 95% CI, the blue line shows the rose to 62% of species. Northern February Red Stonefly and Scottish Crossbill1. available, shows a statistically significant underlying unsmoothed indicator. Using a different, binary decline in average abundance of 24% The bar chart shows the percentage categorisation of species with positive The marine environment is a critical component of Scotland’s (95% CI -33% to -15%) between 1994 of species within the indicator and negative trends: and 2016. Over this long-term period that have increased, decreased natural history. The area within 12 nautical miles of the coast is • Over the long term, 60% of species the smoothed indicator fell by 1.2% (moderately or strongly) or shown 1 showed negative trends and 40% greater than its total land area . The deep seas around Scotland per year. Over our short-term period, little change in abundance. showed positive trends; over the host the UK’s only underwater mountains, known as seamounts. the decline was a statistically non- Within multispecies indicators like short term, 56% of species showed significant 12%, a rate of 1.3% per year. Scotland is also recognised as being of international importance these there is substantial variation negative trends and 44% showed There was no significant difference in 2 1 between individual species’ trends. positive trends. for its breeding seabird colonies and marine mammals . the rate of change between the long To examine this, we have allocated and the short term.

SCOTLAND-SPECIFIC TRENDS IN ABUNDANCE FOR BIRDS, MOTHS, BUTTERFLIES AND MAMMALS

Sota rou auae ator • The abundance indicator for 200 25 butterfly species has been 10 broadly stable since 1979, with a 10 statistically non-significant increase 10 in average abundance of 9% 120

175 100 (CI -27% to +45%). Over the short KEY FINDINGS 100 0 term, the indicator was 19% lower e e 0 in 2016 compared to 2006. 0 • The abundance indicator for nine 24% 14% 49% 62% 11% 20 decline in the average decline in average of species have of species show of species are 0 mammal species starts in 1998 species’ abundance. species’ distribution. decreased in abundance. strong changes. threatened. 175 10 10 2000 2010 201 and overall shows a statistically Birds (143) Moths (175) Butterflies (25) Mammals (9) significant decline in average Our indicator of average Our indicator of average More species have shown Scotland’s wildlife is Of 6,413 species in Unsmoothed indicator species’ abundance in species’ distribution in strong or moderate undergoing rapid change; Scotland that have abundance of 9% (CI -14% to -4%). Scotland of 352 terrestrial Scotland, covering 2,970 decreases in abundance the proportion of species been assessed using Based on smoothed trends created • The abundance indicator for 143 bird Over the short term, the and freshwater species terrestrial and freshwater (49%) than increases defined as showing strong IUCN Regional Red List using Scotland-specific data: species starts in 1994 and has been indicator was 5% lower in 2016 has fallen by 24% since species over a broad (28%) since 1994, likewise changes in abundance, criteria, 11% have been • The abundance indicator for broadly stable with a statistically compared to 2006. 1994. Moths show range of taxonomic more species have either increasing or classified as threatened 175 moth species starts in 1975 non-significant decline in average significant declines in groups, has fallen by 14% decreased in distribution decreasing, rose from with extinction from abundance of 4% (CI -9% to 0%). abundance, while the since 1970, and is 2% (33%) than increased 45% over the long term to Great Britain. and overall shows a statistically Over the short term, the indicator indicators for birds and lower than in 2005. (20%) since 1970. 62% over the short term. significant decline in average was 7% lower in 2016 compared butterflies have remained abundance of 25% (CI -49% to -1%). broadly stable over time. Over the short term, the indicator to 2006. was 10% lower in 2016 compared to 2006. Photo: Mark Hamblin (rspb-images.com) 74 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 75

England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales

CHANGE IN SPECIES’ DISTRIBUTION IN SCOTLAND PRESSURES AND RESPONSES

The occupancy indicator for Sota oua ator 270 species o ter Sort ter Pressure on Scotland’s diverse stocks are showing signs of recovery. Caledonian forest remains today and 1702015 20052015 2,970 terrestrial and freshwater 270 270 landscapes has resulted in biodiversity Other pressures, such as those measures are in place to increase species, with Scotland-specific 120 100% losses and gains. There is evidence associated with climate change, ocean this. Cairngorms Connect is an data, shows a decline in average 100 that some wildlife has fared better in acidification, marine plastics, fisheries, ambitious new partnership with a 0% distribution of 14% between 1970 Scotland over recent decades than in offshore renewables and other 200-year vision to enhance habitats, 0 and 2015. In 2015 the indicator was 0% the UK as a whole. The woodland bird developments, are still challenging and species and ecological processes

2% lower than in 2005. Because 170 100 0 and farmland bird indicators increased there is evidence of change in pelagic across the Cairngorms National Park. species tend to decline in abundance 0% by 69% and 14%, respectively, between habitats and plankton communities. This focus on native tree species e e before they disappear from a site, this 0 of species Percentage 1994 and 2017; while the all-species’ occurs elsewhere in Scotland, e.g. the 20% INNS continue to impact habitats and change of 14% could reflect larger 20 butterfly indicator was classed as stable Central Scotland Green Network. native species across Scotland and declines in underlying abundance that between 1979 and 2017. However, 0 0% new incursions continue to occur on Invasive species are being tackled we are currently unable to quantify. 170 10 10 2000 2010 2015 Strong increase the number of breeding seabirds nicator 0% creie interas Moderate increase its islands. Stoats, not native to the on some islands. The Shiant Isles, Little change decreased by 38% between 1986 and The bar chart shows the percentage Northern Isles, were found on Orkney home to around 10% of the UK’s Moderate decrease 20162, with surface-feeders particularly of species within the indicator Strong decrease in 2010 and rats have reinvaded Puffins, were declared rat-free in 2018 affected, and upland birds declined by that have increased, decreased Handa Island5,6. following a successful eradication decreases and 20% showed strong in distribution (either increase 17% between 1994 and 20173. (moderately or strongly) or shown programme. The Orkney Native or moderate increases; 47% showed or decrease). Over the short term Agricultural land constitutes 68% of no change in distribution (measured On land, pressures come from many Wildlife Project was launched in 2018 little change. this rose to 45% of species. Scotland’s area7. Agri-environment as the proportion of occupied sites), sources, including agriculture, upland to eradicate the non-native Stoats and schemes (AES) represent the main based on set thresholds of change. • Over the short term, 37% of species Using a different, binary categorisation: management, land-use change, the EU-funded Biodiversity for LIFE policy mechanism to reverse showed strong or moderate habitat fragmentation, changes in project recently started to protect To examine the variation in species’ • Over the long term, 62% of species declining farmland wildlife. In 2017, decreases and 30% showed strong grazing levels, pollution and invasive against further non-native incursions distribution trends, we allocated showed negative trends and 38% 1 million ha of Scotland were in a or moderate increases; 33% showed non-native species (INNS). Climate by producing biosecurity plans and trends into categories based on the showed positive trends; over the higher-level AES8. Studies have shown little change. change places additional burdens establishing rapid response hubs. magnitude of distribution change. short term, 57% of species showed AES do benefit some wildlife groups, • Over the long term, 23% of on Scotland’s wildlife and sometimes • Over the long term, 33% of species negative trends and 43% showed particularly when targeted to specific Over the last 10 years there species showed a strong change exacerbates the impacts from other positive trends. species such as Corncrake. These has been a significant change in showed strong or moderate pressures. Northern species that targeted management prescriptions marine management, with the directly or indirectly depend on cooler also benefit wider biodiversity1,9. introduction of marine planning climates for survival, e.g. Mountain However, general monitoring of and progress towards completing Ringlet, Cross Whorl Snail and biodiversity responses to AES in the Scottish Marine Protected NATIONAL RED LIST ASSESSMENTS FOR SCOTLAND Dotterel, are particularly vulnerable. Scotland has been poorly resourced Area network11. Some species, including several Here we break down the IUCN Red List assessments for Great Britain to show Of the 6,413 species found in Scotland relative to other UK countries. butterflies, appear to be expanding how the proportion of threatened species, based on the number of assessed, that have been assessed using the north due to a warming climate4. The area of woodland in Scotland has varies by broad taxonomic group in Scotland. The bars show the percentage of IUCN Regional Red List criteria, more than doubled since the 1940s, assessed species falling into each of the IUCN Red List categories. Species assessed 642 (11%) of the extant species, for Scotland’s seas are also subject to a and now covers 19% of the land area. as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable are formally classified as which sufficient data are available, range of pressures. Progress has been threatened and therefore at risk of extinction. Much of this increase is due to the are formally classified as threatened made on improving water quality, planting of non-native conifers1,10. and therefore at risk of extinction contaminants and eutrophication Percentage of species threatened = (CR + EN + VU)/(total number assessed – DD – RE). Just 6% of the highly fragmented The number of species assessed is shown in brackets. from Great Britain (the scale at which in coastal waters and some fish Red List assessments are made). nang e e ar e as t o n tinct or egiona

r Photo: Richard Revels (rspb-images.com) nerterates 2505 a itic a t n a e

Of the extant terrestrial and r nang e a

e Mountain Ringlet r ficie n r e e e ce r a freshwater species found in Scotland,

erterates 257 te n n t

e assessed using modern IUCN Regional r

ngi e

157 Red List criteria, 265 plants (13%), 153 an icens fungi and lichens (11%), 92 vertebrates

Pants 2075 (37%) and 132 invertebrates (5%) are classified as being at risk of extinction ota 1 from Great Britain.

0% 25% 50% 75% 100% eretae of ee State of Nature Report 2019 77 UK countries

WALES-SPECIFIC ABUNDANCE INDICATORS FOR BREEDING BIRDS, WINTERING WATERBIRDS, BUTTERFLIES AND MAMMALS

ae rou auae ator • The abundance indicator for 200 37 wintering waterbird species 10 starts in 1970 and overall shows 10 a statistically significant increase in 10 average abundance of 30% (CI +13% 120

170 100 100 to +46%). Over the short term, the

0 indicator was 20% lower in 2016 e e WALES 0 compared to 2006. 0 • The abundance indicator for 20 0 33 butterfly species starts in 1976 170 10 10 2000 2010 201 and overall shows a statistically Breeding birds (83) Wintering waterbirds (37) Butterflies (33) Mammals (7) significant decline in average From the mountains of Snowdonia and the Brecon Beacons, Unsmoothed indicator abundance of 52% (CI -69% to -34%). through enclosed farmland dominated by livestock Due to poor taxonomic coverage of abundance of 37% (95% CI +31% Over the short term, the indicator production, and down the numerous wooded valleys to the available data, a single combined to +43%). Over the short term, the was 14% lower in 2016 compared estuaries and sea, Wales holds a diverse range of habitats and abundance indicator was not created indicator was 10% higher in 2016 to 2006. for Wales; however, smoothed compared to 2006. The increase wildlife. The Welsh Sessile Oak woodlands, regarded as part of • The abundance indicator for abundance indicators were calculated, in this indicator is driven by the seven of 40 mammal species in the “temperate rainforests” of Europe, hold rich communities using Wales-specific data, for four recovery of a few species from Wales (six bat species and Rabbit) of bryophytes, lichens and fungi, while the mountains host separate species groups. very low numbers, conservation starts in 1998 and overall shows successes and colonising species; rare invertebrates, including the Snowdon Leaf Beetle, and • The abundance indicator for 83 a statistically significant increase common and widespread breeding importantly, we have insufficient in average abundance of 43% (CI 1 arctic-alpine plants such as Snowdon Lily . bird species starts in 1994 and data on some declining species to +31% to +55%). Over the short term, include them in the indicator. The Welsh coastline stretches for over 2,000km. The islands off overall shows a statistically the indicator was 20% higher in 2016 significant increase in average compared to 2006. Pembrokeshire, Anglesey and the Llŷn Peninsula hold seabird colonies of global significance, including the world’s largest Manx Shearwater breeding colony and the UK’s fourth largest gannetry2. Cardigan Bay supports one of the larger semi- CHANGE IN SPECIES’ DISTRIBUTION IN WALES resident populations of Bottlenose Dolphin found in the UK. ae oua ator 277 species o ter Sort ter 1702015 20052015 • Over the long term, 30% of species 277 277 showed strong or moderate 120 100% decreases and 23% showed strong 100 0% or moderate increases; 47% showed

0 little change. 0% • Over the short term, 39% of species 170 100 0 showed strong or moderate 0% e e 0 of species Percentage decreases and 30% showed strong

20% or moderate increases; 30% showed 20 KEY FINDINGS little change. 0 0% 170 10 10 2000 2010 2015 Strong increase • Over the long term, 24% of Moderate increase nicator 0% creie interas Little change species showed a strong change Moderate decrease in distribution (either increase or 52% 10% 30% 46% 8% Strong decrease decline in the average decline in average of species have of species show of species are decrease). Over the short term this species’ abundance of species’ distribution. decreased in strong changes. threatened. The occupancy indicator for The bar chart shows the percentage rose to 46% of species. butterflies. distribution. Our indicator of average Wales’ wildlife is Of 6,500 species in Wales 2,977 terrestrial and freshwater of species within the indicator Using a different, binary Our indicator of average species’ distribution in More species have shown undergoing rapid change; that have been assessed species, with Wales-specific that have increased, decreased categorisation of species with positive species’ abundance in Wales, covering 2,977 strong or moderate the proportion of species using IUCN Regional data, shows a decline in average (moderately or strongly) or shown and negative trends: Wales of 33 butterfly terrestrial and freshwater decreases in distribution defined as showing strong Red List criteria, 8% distribution of 10% between 1970 no change in distribution (measured species has fallen (30%) in Wales than • Over the long term, 59% of species species over a broad changes in distribution, have been classified as and 2015. In 2015 the indicator was as the proportion of occupied sites), by 52% since 1976; range of taxonomic have increased (23%) either increasing or threatened with extinction showed negative trends and 41% 6% lower than in 2005. Because based on set thresholds of change. however, widespread groups, has fallen by 10% since 1970. decreasing, rose from from Great Britain. showed positive trends; over the species tend to decline in abundance breeding birds, wintering since 1970, and is 6% 24% over the long term to To examine the variation in species’ short term, 57% of species showed before they disappear from a site, waterbirds and mammals lower than in 2005. 46% over the short term. distribution trends, we allocated negative trends and 43% showed (just seven species) show this change of 10% could reflect trends into categories based on the positive trends. significant increases. more severe underlying abundance magnitude of distribution change. declines that we are currently unable to quantify. Photo: Drew Buckley (rspb-images.com) 78 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 79

England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales

NATIONAL RED LIST ASSESSMENTS FOR WALES PRESSURES AND RESPONSES

Here we break down the IUCN Red List assessments for Great Britain to show • Out of 1,316 lichens assessed, As elsewhere in the UK, nature in Again, this has had benefits, such as The EU Celtic Rainforests LIFE project how the proportion of threatened species, based on the number of assessed, 22 have been classed as extinct Wales is under pressure. Management increases in area and condition of started in 2018 and plans to improve varies by broad taxonomic group in Wales. The bars show the percentage and a further 208 (18%) of extant of agricultural land has been identified some priority habitat and reduced the conservation status of this key of assessed species falling into each of the IUCN Red List categories. species, for which sufficient data are as the most significant factor driving habitat fragmentation, as well as woodland habitat, through the Species assessed as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable available, are formally classified as species’ population change in the evidence of increases in generalist control of invasive species and the are formally classified as threatened and therefore at risk of extinction. 3 threatened and therefore at risk of UK . With 88% of the Welsh land area woodland and upland breeding implementation of active woodland Percentage of species threatened = (CR + EN + VU)/(total number assessed – DD – RE). extinction from Wales. utilised for agriculture, nature across birds, but areas of concern remain. management, grazing and restoration. the uplands and lowlands has been, These include declines in dwarf shrub The number of species assessed is shown in brackets. • Out of 850 bryophytes assessed, Wales’ extensive mountains and and remains, vulnerable to change in heath and the abundance of priority six have been classed as extinct 9 uplands make an important nang e e ar e as t o n tinct or egiona r farming practices such as grassland bird species . nerterates 20 a itic a t

n and a further 146 (18%) of extant a contribution to its landscape. e

r and moorland management, nang e a e r ficie n species, for which sufficient data are Around 11% of Wales’ land (including The Cambrian Mountains have been r e e e ce r a

erterates 2 te n livestock type and stocking densities,

n available, are formally classified as

t much land under agricultural selected as part of the European e

and a reduction in mixed and

r threatened and therefore at risk of management) is within protected sites Endangered Landscapes Programme. ngi e 10 arable farming. More than 90% of an icens extinction from Wales. for nature, but assessments show that Summit to Sea is a five-year project semi‑natural grassland habitats in • Out of 225 rust fungi assessed, the majority are not in good condition working with farmers and the local Pants 205 Wales have been lost since the 1930s4. seven have been classed as extinct or well managed for the wildlife community to bring about ecological, Agri-environment schemes (AES) that depends on them. The Welsh farming and economic benefits in ota 500 and a further 41 (20%) of extant species, for which sufficient data represent the main policy mechanism Government’s Natural Resources mid-Wales, from the Pumlumon 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% to reverse the declines in farmland Policy recognises the importance of massif down the Dyfi Valley and into eretae of ee are available, are formally classified as threatened and therefore at risk wildlife. In 2017, 3,500km2 of Wales well-managed protected sites, at the Cardigan Bay10. Of the 6,500 species found in Wales WALES-SPECIFIC IUCN was in a higher-level scheme (ESA, centre of resilient ecological networks, of extinction from Wales. The Welsh marine environment that have been assessed using the RED LIST ASSESSMENTS Tir Cymen, Tir Gofal or Glastir to delivering nature’s recovery as well • Out of 44 extant terrestrial mammals is under pressure and the Welsh IUCN Regional Red List criteria, Advanced), a 21% decline over as providing benefits for people. In order to maximise comparability assessed, for which sufficient data Government has an obligation 523 (8%) of the extant species, for the previous decade5. between taxonomic groups and are available, 13 (32%) are formally Woodland cover in Wales has to establish a network of Marine which sufficient data are available, countries, this report focuses on IUCN classified as threatened and Evidence to date suggests that Welsh quadrupled to 15% since a low point Protected Areas (MPAs). To date, 139 are formally classified as threatened Red List assessments undertaken at therefore at risk of extinction AES have only been partly successful of 4% in 1918. Most of this increase MPAs have been designated, covering and therefore at risk of extinction a Great Britain or whole Ireland level; from Wales. in achieving their biodiversity goals. has been due to the post-World War II 69% of Wales’ inshore waters11, but from Great Britain (the scale at which however, several taxonomic groups A recent study points towards Tir planting of non-native conifers. Only more work is needed to ensure Red List assessments are made). have been assessed for extinction risk Gofal (1999–2012) having positive 48% of woodlands are considered these areas are properly managed Of the extant terrestrial and just within Wales. These show that: impacts on wider bird populations6. native and just 14% are classed as for nature. Over recent decades freshwater species found in Wales, • Out of 1,467 plants assessed, However, other research has pointed ancient and semi-natural. Woodland invasive rats have been eradicated assessed using IUCN Regional Red List 38 have been classed as extinct towards limited positive benefits for condition is negatively impacted by from several Welsh islands and a new criteria, 202 plants (10%), 97 fungi and a further 256 (18%) of extant arable plants, grassland fungi, bats, grazing pressures from domesticated Biodiversity for LIFE project funded and lichens (8%), 86 vertebrates species, for which sufficient data butterflies, Water Voles and Brown and wild animals (which can be by the EU aims to protect seabirds 7,8 (36%) and 138 invertebrates (5%) are are available, are threatened with Hares . Tir Gofal was superseded too little or too much), as well as from future predator incursions by 4 classified as being at risk of extinction extinction from Wales. by Glastir Advanced in 2012. invasive species, pests and diseases . producing biosecurity plans for UK from Great Britain. islands, including five in Wales.

Photo: Graham Eaton (rspb-images.com) Bottlenose Dolphins State of Nature Report 2019 81 UK Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies

UNIQUE, GLOBALLY number is estimated to exceed The CDs support a range of wildlife IMPORTANT WILDLIFE 100,000 species. Many of the OTs not found in the UK countries. are isolated oceanic islands, and Due to their more southerly location, The OTs and CDs hold wildlife as a result they typically hold high the Channel Islands have a higher populations of global importance. numbers of endemic species. At least diversity of some wildlife groups, From the wild sub-Antarctic islands of 1,549 have been documented to date, particularly reptiles and amphibians. the South Atlantic, to the rainforests with 30% found on St Helena alone1. As islands, the marine environment is of the Caribbean and the tropical This compares to 348 known endemic an important element of all the CDs. islands of the remote Pacific, they species in Great Britain2. The OTs in hold many unique species and wildlife There are numerous examples the South Atlantic and Antarctic are concentrations found nowhere else of long-term biological studies across of global importance for their seabird THE UK OVERSEAS in the world. the OTs and CDs; however, there is colonies and contain one third of the currently insufficient information So far 32,216 native species have been world’s albatrosses and a quarter available to create multispecies recorded across the OTs; however, of its penguins1. TERRITORIES indicators, as shown for the UK information is patchy, and the actual AND CROWN and some of its component countries. DEPENDENCIES GLOBALLY THREATENED SPECIES IN THE OTs AND CDs Here we show the percentage of species found across the OTs and CDs that have Three species were formally assessed been allocated to each of the IUCN Red List categories. All birds and most of the as globally Extinct in the 20th century, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and bony/cartilaginous fish have now been globally and three have been added so far assessed for the IUCN’s Red List. More assessments are needed to better understand this century. A further 15 species the true status of other wildlife groups. The United Kingdom’s responsibilities go far beyond are currently classified as Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct)3. the immediate shores of its constituent countries. Percentage of species threatened = (CR + EN + VU)/(total number assessed – DD – RE). The number of species assessed is shown in brackets. The three Crown Dependencies (CDs) lie close Five thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight OT and CD species oa nangere (Globally) Near Threatened (NT) oa east oncern species 5 (Globally) Extinct/Extinct in the Wild (RE) oa ritica nangere oa nerae (Globally) Data Deficient (DD) to home, while 14 Overseas Territories (OTs) are have now been assessed against the IUCN global Red List criteria. scattered around the globe. Together they support Bony fish 215 populations of species of global significance, Of these, 560 (10%) of extant irs 50 species, for which sufficient data some found nowhere else on earth. are available, are classified as

aas 150 threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable), and Reptiles and 11 amphibians therefore at risk of global extinction. artiaginos Of the different taxonomic groups, fish 110 40% of cartilaginous fish – sharks, 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% rays and skates – 36% of reptiles eretae of ee and amphibians, 11% of mammals, The IUCN’s Red List of Threatened species3. This documents the global 8% of birds and 2% of bony fish are Species represents the world’s most extinction of 45 species across the assessed as being threatened with comprehensive information source OTs. Most of these are historic (since global extinction. KEY FINDINGS on the global conservation status of 1500 AD) but losses have continued.

Photo: Alastair Wilson (rspb-images.com) Over At least 32,000 1,549 45 10% 40% species have been species are endemic to species have become of species are of sharks, rays and recorded across the OTs, the OTs. 30% of these are globally Extinct across threatened with skates, 36% of reptiles but the actual number found on St Helena alone. the OTs and CDs. Most global extinction. and amphibians, 11% of of species present is are historic, but three Of the 5,898 OT and CD mammals, 8% of birds estimated to exceed species have formally species that have been and 2% of bony fish 100,000 species. been assessed as globally assessed for the global found across the OTs Extinct in the 21st century. IUCN Red List, 10% are and CDs are classified as A further 15 species classed as threatened threatened and therefore are classified as and therefore at risk of at risk of global extinction. Possibly Extinct. global extinction.

Photo: Alastair Wilson (rspb-images.com) Wandering Albatross Bird Island, South Georgia 82 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 83

These pages show the Number of species global status of wildlife found across the UK 6.3% OTs and CDs and a 15 selection of pressures and 5.6% 7.4% conservation responses. OT/CD (Globally) Extinct (Globally) Extinct in the Wild (Globally) Critically Endangered (Globally) Endangered (Globally) Vulnerable number of Total species assessed for the global IUCN Red List 7.0% 14 16 6.0% 1 Pitcairn Islands 1 1 10 36 645 4 Similar proportions of globally 2 4.8% 13 Cayman Islands 1 20 25 41 1,570 threatened species occur across 6.0% many of the OTs (<10%); however, 3 3 Turks and Caicos Islands 7 21 42 1,525 nearly one in five species on 12 4.4% 4 Bermuda 5 1 31 16 39 1,313 St Helena, Ascension and 5 13 27 46 1,681 Tristan da Cunha are formally 5.8% 6 British Virgin Islands assessed as being globally 6 Anguilla 1 7 16 39 1,472 2 5.4% threatened with extinction. 4.4% 7 Montserrat 10 14 40 1,522 5 7.7% 7 7.4% 8 Falkland Islands 1 1 15 15 424

1 9 British Antarctic Territory 2 3 92 17 South Georgia and the South 10 6 7 264 Sandwich Islands

St Helena, Ascension and 5.1% 11 36 2 58 50 49 955 7.8% Tristan da Cunha 10 12 Gibraltar 3 9 33 790 8 18.3% 13 Bailiwick of Jersey 1 8 9 30 824 The size of the circles denotes 14 Bailiwick of Guernsey 1 8 6 28 789 the proportion of extant species 15 Isle of Man 1 6 7 26 652 assessed as globally threatened 11 with extinction on the IUCN Red 6.7% 16 Cyprus Sovereign Base Areas 3 12 22 547 List (see Methods, page 96). 9 17 British Indian Ocean Territory 1 11 78 1,258

Gough Island mouse eating seabird chick King Penguin Black-browed Albatross Turks and Caicos Rock Iguana 11 St Helena’s wildlife has developed in extreme isolation and supports at least 502 endemic species. Much of its threatened wildlife is associated with the island’s cloud forest1. Only small isolated fragments of this habitat remain. A Darwin Plus-funded project is underway and aims to secure the future of this rare habitat and its endemic invertebrates.

 Although it is extinct on mainland Photo: Ben Dilley Photo: Ben Dilley Photo: Roger Tidman (rspb-images.com) Photo: Ben Dilley Photo: Sarah Havery 13 UK, the globally Near Threatened 14 Black-backed Meadow Ant still occurs 1 The UK and its OTs are together 11 Gough Island, within Tristan da 10 South Georgia, one of the world’s 10 OTs support some of the world’s 3 The Caribbean OTs hold 17 Critically on Jersey and Guernsey. Here the responsible for the fifth largest area of Cunha, is one of the most important last great wildernesses, was officially largest albatross colonies. Incidental Endangered reptiles. The Turks and species is threatened by habitat loss, ocean in the world. The Pitcairn Islands global seabird colonies; however, declared rodent-free in 2018, following bycatch in global fisheries represents Caicos Rock Iguana is only found on changes in management and invasive Exclusive Economic Zone covers an introduced mice are having a the largest global eradication of its the main threat to these birds and a few small isolated offshore islands species. Action is being taken to area of 834,000km² and was declared a devastating impact on native wildlife. type. Introduced rats were having ongoing declines in three albatross and is suffering further losses due to maintain and, where possible, increase no-take MPA in 2016 as part of the Recent estimates put the total number a devastating effect on seabirds species on South Georgia have been habitat changes and invasive species. the remaining populations. One such Blue Belt programme (see page 84). of seabird eggs/chicks lost annually to and other wildlife. identified7. The Albatross Task Force8 A three-year partnership project, project is the reintroduction of grazing mouse predation at 1,739,000, including has dramatically reduced bycatch by up funded by the Darwin Initiative, 15 The Isle of Man is a hotspot for Basking on Guernsey’s south coast. The species the Critically Endangered Tristan to 99% in some areas and is engaging aims to help secure the species’ Shark activity around the British Isles. is just about to be legally protected Albatross5. Gough has been rated with the Japanese and Taiwanese high future by establishing effective Here researchers are fitting this globally in Jersey. as the island with the third greatest seas fleets, which have the highest controls and biosecurity around Vulnerable species with satellite tags need of eradication action globally6, overlap with South Georgia albatross, remaining populations. to better understand their movements and an ambitious project is now in to further reduce these impacts. and the pressures they face4. development (see goughisland.com). 84 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 85

THE BLUE BELT INVASIVE SPECIES & THE UK OTs The Blue Belt programme is one of Key environmental assets protected Work by the Joint Nature Conservation Introduced INNS are one of the in Tristan da Cunha, while introduced The removal of invasive species the largest conservation initiatives within the Blue Belt programme Committee (JNCC), in partnership primary threats to biodiversity across plants are invading terrestrial habitats is a major undertaking, but many ever undertaken: the UK Government include the largest coral atoll on with OT governments and UK-based the OTs and have been implicated in the Falkland Islands. control and eradication schemes provided almost £20 million for long- earth, the Atlantic’s second largest consultancy Environment Systems, in the global extinction of some of are underway. The most significant A variety of approaches are being term protection for 4 million km2 Green Turtle nursery and the world’s has modelled storm surge episodes in their endemic species. Estimates recent achievement is the clearance of used to address this threat, starting of ocean across the OTs between only known aggregation of male Caribbean OTs and used pre- and post- of the impacts of invasive mice on rodents from South Georgia. Here, the with the vital work of preventing 2016–2020. Large-scale MPAs have and female Whale Sharks, plus the hurricane satellite data to specifically Gough Island World Heritage Site spread of other non-native species, further introductions by strengthening already been designated around biggest single penguin colony on the identify the role of mangroves in put the number of seabird chicks/ such as plants, is also being tackled. biosecurity. An EU BEST-funded St Helena, the British Indian Ocean planet. A key enabling factor for the mitigating surge impacts on local eggs predated at 1.7 million per three-year biosecurity project has Fundraising and planning for an Territory, the Pitcairn Islands, and development of large-scale MPAs has communities and infrastructure. year, but this figure could exceed been raising public awareness in attempt to restore Gough Island South Georgia & the South Sandwich been satellite surveillance, which can 3 million. Feral cats threaten the In addition to identifying where the Caribbean territories, while a in 2020 continues, to prevent the Islands, with further protections being help deter illegal fishing vessels. Critically Endangered Turks and mangroves have played this UK Government project has drafted extinction of the Tristan Albatross scheduled for Ascension (2019) and Caicos Rock Iguana, while feral pigs mitigating role, “opportunity spaces”, model biosecurity legislation for and Gough Bunting. At a cost of over Tristan da Cunha (2020). HABITAT RESTORATION have been recorded digging up where it might be possible to territory governments to consider £9 million, this is one of the largest OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE UK OTs turtle nests in Montserrat. It is not Over 1.76 million km2 of these re-establish a particular habitat, have and has undertaken a comprehensive conservation interventions planned only invasive mammals that pose a MPAs have been designated as The extreme 2017 hurricane events in been identified, to help enhance programme of horizon-scanning and across the OTs. significant threat – introduced insects IUCN Category I fully protected the Caribbean provided clear evidence the resilience of the natural capital pathway analysis across all the OTs. threaten the only native tree species “no-take zones”, while other areas of the functional, humanitarian on the island. This technique has permit some sustainable use of and economic value of the natural been applied to Anguilla to identify marine resources. The fundamental environment in mitigating inland mangrove restoration possibilities approach of the Blue Belt programme flooding and coastal zone storm and assess the potential role of newly Two endemic bird species, the St Helena Plover The Fin Whale, which has been recorded in the 1 is to work with OT governments surges. These events highlighted the established mangroves in reducing and Montserrat Oriole, were down-listed from seas around 13 OTs , was down‑listed from and communities to ensure local importance of not only protecting the risk of flooding, to make the case Critically Endangered to globally Vulnerable by globally Endangered to Vulnerable on the priorities for marine conservation coastal and inland vegetation but for restoration for economic and the IUCN, due to conservation action; however, IUCN Red List in 2018. The global population 3 management are adopted, and that also actively intervening to restore disaster resilience purposes. threats to both species continue . has approximately doubled since the 1970s, local capacity is built for monitoring key habitats. This is particularly true but numbers remain well below pre-industrial This trend to intervene to restore 3 and management. Considerable of coastal mangrove systems that whaling levels . and extend important habitats in the research is underway to set knowledge reduce the impacts of hurricane- OTs is critical to reverse the pattern baselines and to develop appropriate generated storm surges. of degradation and loss. management plans.

Photo: RSPB Four of St Helena’s endemic plants, including Five Caribbean OTs’ reptiles, including the the St Helena Tea Plant, have been up-listed to Sombrero Ameiva, have been up-listed to Critically Endangered globally on the IUCN Red Critically Endangered globally on the IUCN List since 2015. These species are threatened Red List since 2013. All these species are being by habitat fragmentation and very few affected by introduced non-native species3. individual mature plants remain3.

The endemic St Helena Giant Earwig was declared The St Helena endemic She Cabbage Tree globally Extinct in 2014, with the last confirmed was up-listed to Extinct in the Wild in 2015 adult seen in 1967. Habitat degradation and the following the death of the last wild specimen impact of non-native species is thought to have in 2012. Some cultivated specimens have been contributed to its demise3. replanted in semi-wild situations3.

Photo: Roger S Key

Pitcairn Island THE GOOD THE BAD NEWS NEWS 86 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 87

CONNECTION WHO TO CONNECT TO NATURE – RESEARCH SO FAR TO NATURE Previously, connection was thought However, research from Australia16 Females have higher connection fixed in childhood, with studies showed that current experiences scores than males, and connection examining how childhood experiences also increase adult connection. Given dips in teenage years18 (see As wildlife populations decline relate to adult behaviours. For this potential flexibility in adulthood figure). Thus, developing different there is increasing concern example, how outdoor learning is connection we need to understand interventions for different life stages about people’s willingness practiced, its purpose and setting more about connection variation to may improve lifetime connection can influence how an ethic of care for develop successful interventions. In and behaviour. to act to reverse this. While nature or understanding of natural the UK population, connection differs social, cultural and political processes is developed15. by gender and age17. factors influence attitudes and behaviour, and there is a Predicted Connection to Nature Index 50 (CNI) scores for ages 5–75 years from recognised gap between people’s generalized additive models (GAMs). CNI 5 values and actions, one reason scores ranged from 1 to 5 for this lack of engagement is 0 N Sore considered to be disconnection Photo: Tony Hamblin (rspb-images.com) 5 from nature: “Simply put, CONNECTION TO NATURE DESCRIPTION humans don’t protect what they 0 “Connection to nature” describes an Sometimes referred to as nature 1 don’t know and value.” individual’s relationship with nature connectedness or relatedness, it is often 25 0 20 0 0 0 Insights from disciplines such as and their perception of belonging discussed in terms of disconnection e psychology and sociology indicate the to the wider natural community4. and reconnection4. eae ae 0% creie interas Connection is a complex and importance of people’s “connection to Research has focused on the how, multidimensional characteristic. nature” (henceforth “connection”) for where and why of connection: types Connection is not developed just HOW DO WE DEVELOP CONNECTION? FUTURE DIRECTIONS – motivating behaviour to help. The State of experience that develop connection, through contact and simply getting UNDERSTANDING, MONITORING of Nature 2016 report highlighted that, relationship with place or psychological Evidence is building on promising emotion, give meaning, showcase people outside does not mean they AND EVALUATION FOR while there was regional variation, most response creating the connection6. mechanisms for developing nature’s beauty, include contact and will grow a wildflower meadow or CONSERVATION SUCCESS UK children had lower connection than Most research is on the latter6, with connection. One way of initially develop compassion connect people petition for nature5. Instead, connection desired for motivating conservation connection expressed as involving connecting people is by engaging to nature22. RSPB research on adults 2,3 is made up of emotional, cognitive behaviour . While the future relies on feelings of freedom, safety7, sense them with nature in their lives. People found that, as well as those creating and behavioural aspects – feelings children, teenage and adult connection of identity8,9, enjoyment, oneness, often value green spaces because emotion or meaning, activities that about nature, knowledge and actions. must be considered for addressing empathy and responsibility7,9–11. of cultural benefits19. Health and involved different senses, included conservation issues now. well-being benefits can motivate learning and heightened compassion people to take part in nature activities. also increased participant’s intention For example, relaxation is a strong to act for nature23. Drawing people’s WHY IS PEOPLE’S CONNECTION IMPORTANT FOR NATURE? driver for people feeding birds20 attention to details in nature and and pleasant green spaces can repeated engagement, key elements One approach for changing someone’s Photo: Mark Hamblin (rspb-images.com) 21 behaviour on a subject is to give that increase community cohesion . of The Wildlife Trusts’ 30 Days Wild campaign, help sustain people’s Understanding how to influence subject personal, emotional value. University of Derby research connection and maintain behaviour4. human behaviour is a priority for Increasing people’s awareness and recommends that activities that create concern can help instigate actions conservation. Detailed investigation supporting nature, as recognised by into what works to connect different international conservation targets (e.g. audiences across their lifetimes Aichi 1). Low connection leaves people will help long-term conservation with little attachment to what is, or action. Measurement of population was, present. Consequently, people level trends, for example in may not notice biodiversity loss, or, England through Natural England’s in what’s known as “shifting baseline Monitor of Engagement with the 24 syndrome”, only recognise loss within Natural Environment surveys , their experience rather than what has are necessary to evaluate large‑scale gone before12. By connecting people, effects. Overall, improving the hope is they will be engaged by understanding about the current nature, concerned by the Photo: Tom Simone (rspb-images.com) relationship between connection declines and more motivated to act, and action, how connection varies directly or indirectly, for example While values do not always match higher likelihood of conservation and consequences for behaviour, through supporting stronger behaviour, in children, higher levels behaviours, such as reducing electricity is vital for conservation success. government action. of connection are related to greater use13, and more positive attitudes likelihood of helping nature3. In adults, towards interventions, for example higher connection is also related to integral swift bricks in homes14. 88 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 89

MONITORING THE The efforts of volunteers reflect the The Biological Records Centre (BRC) WHY IS THIS identify which species most urgently developers about sensitive sites long-standing interest in natural curates the datasets compiled by require conservation attention. and special species. history in the UK, which can be traced many NRSS, which can be used to Given the squeeze on resources STATE OF NATURE: MONITORING Finally, by combining data across back to the expertise of naturalists map the ranges of species and identify for conservation, such prioritisation species, we can look at broader WHO, WHAT such as Gilbert White in the late 18th important sites and regions. While SO IMPORTANT? is essential for ensuring resources patterns in nature – such as shown century and John Ray a century before structured monitoring schemes remain are used efficiently. AND WHY? by the State of Nature headlines, and him. Many highly respected experts the “gold-standard”, recent statistical Monitoring builds our knowledge Furthermore, repositories of species in the UK Government’s biodiversity on the identification and ecology developments that account for of the natural world, and underpins data are essential tools for spatial indicators8. Trends in wildlife can This State of Nature 2019 report, of specific taxonomic groups are recording biases5,6 mean we are now our efforts to conserve it, and to planning and defending wildlife from tell us about the health of the and those published in 2013 and volunteers with decades of experience able to use these data to detect trends halt and reverse declines in nature. inappropriate development. Datasets environment more widely, and what 2016, attempt to assess the state and expertise, without whom in the occurrence of species over several Measures of abundance and/or on the NBN Atlas and those held by impact human activities are having on recording schemes would not exist. decades. These trends play a pivotal distribution, particularly those of the UK’s nature based on a LERCS can aid the identification of the it. The reporting of the UK’s progress role in the State of Nature reports, derived from standardised repeated synthesis of the best available most valuable sites for wildlife, and in meeting international targets for WHAT DO THEY DO? allowing us to report changes in a broad measurements, allow trends to be biodiversity data. This would not be used to inform Nature Recovery biodiversity and sustainability (see spectrum of the country’s wildlife. calculated and species’ status to be Broadly speaking, biological data and Network maps. This would enable page 90) relies heavily on volunteer- be possible without the huge determined. Formal assessments the schemes that govern its collection reserve designation, the targeting of collected biodiversity data. effort put into the recording and UK Biodiversity Indicator: Records added such as IUCN Red Lists, which use the can be divided into two categories. to the NBN, 2004 to 2019 conservation management such as monitoring of wildlife, most of it best available data to place species Firstly, there are structured surveys 250 AES and woodland grant schemes, in categories of threat using a suite done by volunteers. that are conducted at predefined and inform local authorities and of standardised criteria, are used to sites using a set methodology – 200 WHO HELPS MONITOR such as in the Wider Countryside Photo: Ben Andrew (rspb-images.com) THE UK’S WILDLIFE? Butterfly Survey (WCBS)3. Data 150 from surveys such as the WCBS are While professional scientists and 100 conservationists collect much submitted to survey coordinators, valuable data on biodiversity in the increasingly using online forms. Data iions Nuer of reor 50 UK themselves, this is outweighed by are analysed using well-established statistical approaches to produce 0 the huge contribution of volunteers anar anar anar a annual trends in abundance, with 200 2010 2015 201 who submit records and take part in orce nccgoi1 structured surveys on a vast range corrections made to account for of wildlife. It has been estimated that biases such as when survey coverage Data from many sources, including the 18,700 volunteers are involved in is greater in some regions than BRC, are made available through the structured monitoring schemes that others. The robust design and National Biodiversity Network’s (NBN) cover bats, birds, butterflies and plants quality assurance procedures of such database, the NBN Atlas. The NBN alone, and the financial value of their schemes mean they produce high- Atlas launched in 2017 and, at the time contribution has been estimated at quality assessments, and datasets time of writing, holds a remarkable £20.5 million per annum1. In addition, that can be used for numerous 223,027,119 species’ occurrence as many as 70,000 volunteers submit research purposes. records, covering 45,448 species in records to national recording schemes The other category is “unstructured” 824 datasets, accessed through the and societies (NRSS)2, or to local biological records – observations of NBN Atlas7 – and this figure continues environmental records centres (LERCs), species at a given time and place to grow rapidly, with jumps caused by for a great range of taxonomic groups. that were not collected as part of a the input of new datasets (see above). While we do not have precise data on structured survey. This means that However, this is still incomplete, trends in the extent of this volunteer the methods used and the data with not all data flowing smoothly effort, we know that the contributions collected may vary, and there may be from surveys, recording schemes, of time by volunteers (including but not uncontrolled biases associated with the consultancies, scientists and LERCs to limited to monitoring) to conservation data, for example because observers the NBN. Furthermore, an unknown organisations are estimated to have choose where to go, and so may favour but undoubtedly huge volume of data increased by 46% since 2000. wildlife-rich sites, and are more likely remains in observers’ notebooks, to submit records of rare and special UK Biodiversity Indicator: Index of photo libraries, social media feeds volunteer time spent in selected UK species than more commonplace ones. or simply as fading memories. conservation organisations, 2000 to 2017 However, such ad-hoc records cover Small Tortoiseshell 10 a huge range of species for which

10 there are insufficient resources, or

10 expert recorders, to run a structured

120 scheme. There are over 90 national

100 recording schemes covering a wide 4 0 range of taxonomic groups as diverse as slime moulds, stoneworts and e 2000 100 e 0

0 leaf‑mining moths.

20

0 Photo: Sue Kennedy (rspb-images.com) 2000 2005 2010 2017 orce nccgoi2 90 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 91

PROGRESS TOWARDS a global assessment of progress, and tells readers about the UK’s Extinction of threatened species: “By 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented Global Biodiversity Outlook 5, which progress towards them, adding to the and their conservation status, particularly of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained.” The INTERNATIONAL is expected to be published in June text in the UK’s sixth national report State of Nature 2019 shows that 15% of the 8,418 species assessed are regarded as threatened with 2020. This will be the final report on to the CBD4. extinction in Great Britain, although it is not known how this percentage has changed over time. The COMMITMENTS: collective global progress over the abundance of species identified as conservation priorities, including many of the species at greatest THE AICHI TARGETS last decade, and will signal whether LOOKING FORWARD – risk of extinction, has fallen to 40% of its 1970 value, and continues to fall in the short term (by 22% national actions have been sufficient 2020 AND BEYOND between 2011 and 2016). The status of species more widely continues to fall in response to a wide to halt biodiversity loss by 2020. range of pressures, with a measure of species’ abundance down by 13% over the long term, and one of 2020 is a crucial year – a new set of Unfortunately, recent predictions1 species’ distribution down by 5%. While this report demonstrates how targeted conservation action can SAVING NATURE GLOBALLY global targets will be negotiated, there suggest that the majority of the Aichi prevent extinction, and gives examples of wonderful and inspiring successes, it is clear that more needs Recent reports1 have shown that is expected to be an uplift in national Biodiversity Targets are unlikely to be to be done to address the needs of threatened species and thus meet this target. humankind is failing to halt the loss of commitments to tackle climate change met at a global scale. biodiversity globally, which continues and it will be a key milestone for the at an alarming rate. The demands UN Sustainable Development Goals7. THE UK’S CONTRIBUTION TO Sustainable management of marine living resource – see pages 58–61. Some UK fish stocks are showing of land-use conversion and other These moments and commitments THE GLOBAL PICTURE signs of recovery in response to sustainable fisheries measures, but not all stocks are fished at pressures now mean that very few have the potential to deliver increased sustainable levels, and issues such as bycatch and trawling damage to seabeds persist. habitats on earth are untouched by The UK’s sixth national report to action and ambition for nature, and people, and 1 million species are at the CBD4 was submitted in March to strengthen the connections and risk of extinction1. The recent global 2019 and drew upon a huge range solutions between the synergetic report of the Intergovernmental of information, such as the UK’s issues of nature, climate change and Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity Biodiversity Indicators5 (which feature sustainable development. Sustainable agriculture, aquaculture and forestry – see pages 18–21, 26–27 and 42–45. Incentives, and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)1 heavily in the State of Nature 2019 such as AES, have been developed to encourage the sustainability of agriculture, aquaculture and issued stark warnings, including that: report), as well as many other robust forestry in the UK. However, there has been a recent decline in the area of land under higher-level scientific sources. The report assessed • Nature and its vital contributions AES, and critically relevant indicators of wild birds show either no recovery from previous depletion that the UK is on track to meet five of to people, which together embody (woodland) or continuing decline (farmland). the 20 targets. Although progress has biodiversity and ecosystem THE UK functions and services, are been seen towards another 14, this has not been sufficient to meet the deteriorating worldwide. GOVERNMENT HAS Pollution reduced – see pages 38–41. Legislative controls have led to dramatic reductions in pollution targets; one target was not assessed. • Direct and indirect drivers of ASSESSED THAT THE from point sources in recent decades. Diffuse pollution in air and water remains a key pressure In addition to this UK reporting, the change have accelerated during impacting on the status of species and habitats. Some sources remain above safe levels, however, Scottish Government has published COUNTRY IS ON the past 50 years. and their influence on sensitive habitats is still considerable. regular reports on Scottish progress TRACK TO MEET FIVE • Goals for conserving and sustainably 6 towards the targets . OF THE 20 AICHI using nature and achieving sustainability cannot be met by The Aichi Biodiversity Targets are TARGETS BY 2020. Invasive alien species prevented and controlled – see pages 34–37. Systems have been developed, at current trajectories, and goals often multifaceted, ambiguous, hard a Great Britain and all-Ireland scale, to prevent colonisation by INNS, and some progress has been for 2030 and beyond may only be to assess objectively, and sometimes made in tackling established species. However, 10–12 new non-native species establish in Great Britain achieved through transformative lack clear mechanisms for measuring each year on average, and around one in 10 of these causes adverse impacts. changes across economic, social, progress. In the UK, governments, political and technological factors. advised by the country nature conservation bodies, are responsible The Convention on Biological Diversity for reporting progress against the 2 (CBD) is a global treaty, opened targets to the Secretariat of the CBD. Protected areas increased and improved – see pages 47 and 63. The UK’s protected area network covers for signatures in 1992, intended to There have been disagreements 25% of the UK’s land area and 24% of its sea area. On land, these totals include landscape designations tackle this crisis. The 10-year Strategic between government and some NGO which do not have the primary purpose of conserving biodiversity and ecosystem services. Terrestrial 3 Plan for Biodiversity was adopted State of Nature partners regarding changes since 1995 mainly reflect the establishment of SACs and SPAs, plus the designation of two in October 2010, and includes five both the interpretation of data and National Parks in Scotland in 2002/03. There has been a large increase in the extent of MPAs since strategic goals underpinned by 20 of the targets themselves, perhaps 1995, but especially since 2010. The proportion of protected sites assessed as in favourable condition global biodiversity targets – the Aichi inevitably given these conditions. has remained stable (43% of SACs, 50% of SSSIs and 52% of SPAs, in 2019), with an increase in the Biodiversity Targets, named after the It is notable, however, that these percentage of site features which are recovering (31%, 35% and 27%, respectively); it is recognised Japanese prefecture in which they differences centre on a minority that it will take a long time for species and habitats to recover to favourable condition. were agreed. Parties to the CBD and of the 20 Aichi targets. other multilateral environmental The text on the opposite page focuses agreements use these targets to Financial resources from all sources increased – see page 49. There has been a substantial short-term on those targets which are central to set priorities, develop action plans decline in public sector spending on biodiversity in the UK, which has fallen by 29%, from £641 million actions to help biodiversity in the UK, and establish national targets, and to £456 million, between 2012/13 and 2017/18. Over the same period, however, the UK’s expenditure and thus the UK’s contribution towards are expected to report on their on biodiversity internationally has increased by 111%, from £97 million to £205 million. progress at regular intervals. The the global effort to help biodiversity. most recent of these national reports Much of the content of State of Nature (the sixth) is being used to create 2019 is relevant to these targets, 92 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 93

HOW TO INTERPRET WHAT DATA HAVE WE USED? WHAT ARE THE GRAPHS TELLING ME? • We present trends in abundance uae ator (697 species) o ter Sort ter national monitoring schemes The measures we present, at a UK 190201 200201 THIS REPORT (for 697 species) and occupancy and biological records. and individual country level, show All (697) All (687) (for 6,654 species) for terrestrial and 10 100 • Abundance trends are for native the following: freshwater species across the UK, 10 We have included this section species only, but, unless otherwise • Change over time – Species Indicator 0 and trends in abundance (five taxa) 120 to help you understand the stated, recent colonist and non- –– The average change in the status for marine species or species groups. 100 0 native species were included in the different measures presented of species, based on abundance 190 100 • Abundance trends are based on 0 occupancy trends. However, due to or occupancy data. 0 0

in the State of Nature 2019 e changes in the number of individuals the low number of these species, of species Percentage report and how they should be • Categories of change 0 at a monitored site, a measure as a result of the time period and 20 –– The percentage of species in 20 interpreted. For full details of that reflects a species’ population record number filtering, their impact each trend category e.g. strong 0 0 the methods and how these size. Occupancy trends are based on the average trend lines is likely 190 190 1990 2000 2010 201 Strong increase Moderate increase 1 increase or little change. measures were calculated, on changes in the number of sites to be minimal . Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Little change where a species is present. This is a • Extinction risk Moderate decrease as well as caveats around • We present assessments of national Strong decrease measure that reflects the range of a –– An assessment of Red List status interpretation, please refer to Red List status for 8,431 native species. species. It is usually measured as site for each species occurring pages 94–97. occupation at a 1km2 scale. • Details of our data sources and in that country. the species they cover are given • These trends came from a wide Please note that our measures are in the additional online material. Results reported for each Results reported for each range of sources, including not directly comparable with those figure include: figure include: presented in the previous State of Nature reports because the current • Total percentage change in the • The percentage of species that report is based on an increased indicator over the long term and the showed strong or moderate HOW ARE OCCUPANCY AND ABUNDANCE METRICS RELATED? number of species, updated methods short term. changes, and those showing little change, in each time period. The status of species as measured National Red Lists assessment and, in some cases, different • Annual percentage change over the by abundance is considered a Key data sources. long term and the short term. • The percentage of species showing Endangered (EN) Near Threatened (NT) Least Concern (LC) Extinct or Regionally (RE) Critically Endangered (CR) Vulnerable (VU) Data Deficient (DD) strong changes (decreasing and key metric for conservation – Change over time – • To assess if species’ status had on increasing combined) in each providing information as to how Species Indicator average improved or otherwise species are faring and assessing time period. 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% in recent years, we compared the the effectiveness of conservation Percentage of species These graphs show indicators based rate of change in each abundance • The overall percentage of species measures or the impact of particular on the abundance data and occupancy indicator before the short-term with trends below or above zero in pressures. However, such data are data separately. period to the rate of change during each time period, illustrated by the taxonomically limited and in contrast Species indicator graphs show the the short-term period. vertical line across the grey little the volume of opportunistic species’ change segment of the graph. average change in the status of Categories of change records2 extends the taxonomic, species based on either abundance Thresholds for assigning species’ spatial and temporal coverage of Each species was placed into one of or occupancy data. The shaded areas trends to the five categories are species datasets and analyses. five trend categories based on annual show the 95% confidence intervals given on page 96. A small number Recent statistical developments 0% 10% 20%25%30% 40% 50% 75% 100% percentage changes. around the indicator line for the of species did not have a short-term have enabled greater use of these Percentage of species abundance trends and 90% credible assessment as data were unavailable datasets for the estimation of species’ intervals for the occupancy trends 3,4,5 for recent years. occupancy trends . (see page 96). Occupancy and abundance trends are Extinction risk from Great Britain, Ireland or often related, and there is evidence globally. This is the percent of We summarised the Great Britain that they tend to operate in the same extant species, for which sufficient Bleeding Tooth Fungus Red Lists to present the proportion of direction6,7. However, the relationship data are available, classified as WHAT TIME PERIOD DOES species in each threat category overall, between the two measures of change Critically Endangered, Endangered THIS REPORT COVER? and by different taxonomic groups. can be complex. In particular there or Vulnerable in the latest IUCN In each country we interpret existing We show abundance trends in is evidence that the magnitude of Red List assessments. Great Britain Red Lists, based on species from 1970 to 2016 and change in occupancy trends is smaller those species occurring in a particular UK Biodiversity Indicators occupancy trends from 1970 to 2015. than changes in abundance. This country, with the exception of We refer to this as our long-term is because many species can show Where appropriate, trend figures from Northern Ireland, where we used all- period. Our short-term period runs substantial variation in abundance the official UK Biodiversity Indicators10 Ireland Red List assessments. For the from 2006 to 2016 or 2005 to 2015. without disappearing from sites or are presented to complement the State OTs and CDs we summarised available occupying new ones. Additionally, of Nature 2019 analyses. The Priority global IUCN Red List assessments. for some species or species groups Species Indicator is made up of two abundance and occupancy trends Results reported for each parts: one showing change in species’ move in opposite directions, but this figure include: abundance and one showing change 8,9 is less common . • The overall percentage of species in species’ occupancy. All other species- assessed that are regarded based indicators shown are based as threatened with extinction on trends in abundance.

Photo: Mark Eaton 94 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 95

METHODS DATA COLLATION The occupancy time series were based Summary of the total number of species and the number of species included in each of the UK species’ status metrics on the opportunistic recording data by taxonomic group. Sources for all contributing datasets are listed in the additional online content. We collated as many datasets as collected by NRS; a full list is available possible describing population Number of species The methods on this page in the additional online content. These change of native UK species in order schemes collect data on a vast array of Population change metrics Red List UK total describe the process used to to populate the population change taxonomic groups, from slime moulds Taxonomic group Abundance Occupancy collate measures of species’ metrics (see table on facing page to spiders. However, it can be difficult status and how these were and additional online content). Most FRESHWATER AND TERRESTRIAL to use datasets of opportunistic of these datasets contained species’ Birds* 171 241 244 combined into three metrics: records to assess changes over time, time series derived from statistical as recording effort varies across the Mammals** 25 20 46 49 1. A multispecies indicator, models, rather than raw counts UK and over time. Amphibians and reptiles 2 13 which charts average species’ or observations. ** The majority of the species’ Insects*** 499 (butterflies and moths) 3,437 2,773 23,947 change over time. Population change was described occupancy time series included in Myriapods 50 92 169 either by changes in the relative 2. A Categorical Change our assessment were extracted from Arachnids 402 639 1,560 abundance of species (changes in the metric, which describes the Outhwaite et al. (2019)2, who used number of individuals) or the relative Crustaceans 51 80 proportions of species in five hierarchical occupancy modelling in a occupancy of species (changes in the Molluscs 129 192 264 Bayesian framework3,4 to help control change categories based on number of sites where a species is biases. They modelled occupancy at a Bryophytes 569 1,055 1,056 the direction and magnitude found, so effectively the change in 1km2 scale, and we retained species Lichens 696 1,662 2,354 of average annual change range of the species). The long-term time series with a minimum of 10 Non-lichenised fungi 153 15,195 period was 1970–2016 for abundance over the long-term and short- years of reliable estimates, based on time series and 1970–2015 for Vascular Plants 1,351 1,527 1,577 term periods. at least 50 records with no more than occupancy time series, due to a time Total 697 6,654 8,431 a 10-year gap in records5,6. 3. A Red List metric, which lag in the collation and reporting of MARINE biological data. The respective short- Raw occurrence records were presents the proportion of Fish 11 modelled directly for this report for species at risk of extinction. term periods were 2006–2016 and 2005–2015. two taxonomic groups, mammals, Birds 13 The methods are based on using the methods described Mammals 7 Data were derived from a wide range above, and vascular plants, using an those used in the second of sources; details of the datasets Zooplankton 4 species groups alternative approach, Frescalo State of Nature report and behind our analyses, and the species Phytoplankton Colour Index 1 species group (details described on facing page). published subsequently in they cover, are given in the additional Total 31 species and 5 species groups 1 online material. In addition to datasets of species’ Burns et al. (2018) . * UK total is regularly occurring breeding and wintering species. population change, we collated The species’ abundance time series ** A proportion of mammal species and moth species were included in both the abundance metrics and the occupancy metrics. See additional national IUCN Red List assessments online material for species appearing in both metrics. included in our assessment met *** Groups included: aculeates, bugs, beetles, caddisflies, dragonflies, flies, grasshoppers, lacewings, mayflies, moths and stoneflies. (see table). the following criteria: • Two or more comparable estimates PROCESSING SPECIES DATA Vascular plant data from this process provided estimates and standard deviation from the of a species’ abundance were made (means and standard deviations) GAM results were used to generate Within the collated dataset of For vascular plants, the Botanical between 1960 and the present, with of a species’ frequency within each a distribution of estimates for each abundance time series, a small Society of Britain and Ireland is a broad geographic coverage across time period. One hundred generalised species’ year combination from number of time series had missing the main source of high-quality the species’ UK range. additive models (GAMs) per species which 1,000 random samples were values, zero values or an end date distribution data, with data holdings • Results, or at least the methodology were then fitted to 100 random draws drawn. Estimates were then capped prior to 2016 and required minor stretching back to the 19th century for data collection and/or analysis, from a species’ frequency estimate (2, -2) to prevent disproportional processing following the methods and beyond. Here, we use data from had been published. distribution specified by the Frescalo contributions from species exhibiting used for previous reports1. Data for 1930–2018 to derive broad time- means and standard deviations. extreme trends and rescaled onto • Start and end estimates for each any years prior to 1970 were removed. period specific estimates of frequency This process enabled us to predict the occupancy scale (0 to 1). species were at least 10 years apart. for 1,351 plant taxa. To achieve Moth data smoothed trends from the 100 GAM this, we divided this period into five Marine data If more than one dataset was available fits for a species across all years, while Data for 766 moth species were broad time segments; four of these for a species, precedence was given to retaining a measure of uncertainty. Marine fish time series were based analysed using data from Rothamsted were retained for analysis, due to the most robust dataset, based on the Finally, the estimated frequency in on two “bottom trawl” surveys: Insect Survey light trap network. the fact that they were considered survey method subject to the fewest 1970 was taken as our baseline year, Greater North Sea International Otter The generalised abundance index to be largely unbiased with respect known biases, and maximising the with subsequent values normalised Trawl Q1 and Celtic Seas Scottish sample size and time period covered. methodology proposed by Dennis et to species’ relative frequencies due 7 to this point. Otter Trawl Q1. These datasets al. (2016) was used to produce UK to Atlas-focused recording activity. If two or more datasets were of have been tidied and refined abundance trends. Four hundred and We then applied the “Frescalo” To combine these time series with similar quality and duration, then an by Marine Scotland10,11, giving thirty-two species produced reliable algorithm9 to these data to adjust the occupancy time series from average was calculated and used. estimates of abundance per km2 trends based on expert assessment for variable recording effort within other taxa they required conversion by length category for each species of the underlying data and and across time periods. Outputs to the same scale. The mean the analysis results8. in each survey visit. 96 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 97

Before creating the population change year. CI for each Species Indicator were expressed as a proportion of that These criteria are based on a variety for England, Northern Ireland, monitored – the method, effort and metrics, for each survey as required we: created using bootstrapping across in the first year, with exceptions1. of parameters, including the rate Scotland and Wales, but in some cases extent of surveying – can influence 16 • Summarised the average abundance species ; in each iteration (N=10,000) Each measure of total change was of change in species’ abundance or this was not possible. whether the results were suitable for 2 a random sample of species was then converted to an annual average occupancy, total population size, our analyses, and indeed the species’ per km for each length category of We have produced abundance selected with replication and the index rate of change, which was used to number of populations and an trend itself. each species in each year in each population change metrics (Species was recalculated. categorise species’ change. We placed assessment of threats. survey area. Indicators and Categorical Change Although some rare species are each species into one of five trend • Summarised the average abundance We generated smoothed Species The IUCN’s Red List of Threatened metrics) across all species for targeted by specific schemes, many of categories, defined as follows: per km2 for each species in each year. Indicators and associated CI using Species represents the world’s most Scotland and England, but only at the monitoring schemes that produce 17 • Strong increase: Annual change • Retained only species contributing a generalised additive model . We comprehensive information source a taxonomic group level for Wales the datasets included in this report greater than or equal to +2.81%, to the first 99% of abundance per focus on the total and annual average on the global conservation status and Northern Ireland. have a wide range geographically 2 change in the smoothed Species the rate of change that would lead of species. but may not have sufficient sampling km and with a time series spanning Occupancy change metrics Indicator in the results and also to population size or occupancy density locally to pick up changes in at least 10 years, in order to exclude Data downloaded from were produced using the same present the unsmoothed indicator. doubling or more over 25 years. localised or particularly rare species. rare or poorly sampled species. www.iucnredlist.org (21/07/2019) methodology as the UK level indicator • Moderate increase: Annual change As a result, trends for relatively • Coded species as either “demersal” Occupancy indicators were created were used to calculate the number of for England, Scotland and Wales. between +1.16% and +2.81%. few of these species are reported. or “pelagic”. using the methods developed for species assessed under the various Insufficient data were available to Our population change metrics Indicator C4b of the UK Biodiversity • Little change: Annual change threat category for each OT and CD. apply the approach to Northern The Continuous Plankton Recorder may therefore be biased towards Indicator suite6 and used the lambda between -1.14% and +1.16%. These were based on “Land Region” Ireland or to the species sub-groups (CPR) Survey dataset provided data for the more common, widespread and method. This indicator is based • Moderate decrease: Annual change queries for all OTs and CDs, with the used at the UK-wide scale. Calanus species but also for several generalist species, as well as being on annual growth rates and the between -2.73% and -1.14%. exception of the Bailiwick of Jersey zooplankton groups rather than Equally, even when metrics have been biased towards certain taxonomic credibility intervals are derived from and Guernsey exclusive economic for individual species. Similarly, the • Strong decrease: Annual change produced, it should be noted that the groups. The datasets also differ in the posterior distribution of the zones, Isle of Man territorial waters, PCI gives a representation of ocean less than or equal to -2.73%, the population change and distributional spatial coverage. For some species Bayesian occupancy models used to Cyprus Sovereign Base Areas and the colour, which is considered a proxy rate of change that would lead to change metrics for the constituent groups estimates are based only on generate the estimates. British Antarctic Territory, which used of the phytoplankton biomass. This a population halving or more over countries were based on fewer species Great Britain and mammal estimates spatial queries19. means that additional considerations The annual average rate of change in 25 years. and suffered from greater bias towards contain some Isle of Man sites. are required in order to interpret how each Species Indicator was calculated This categorisation was based on How threatened a species is may vary well-recorded taxa. These, however, represent relatively marine biodiversity is changing over based on the total change in the long across its range, and often regional small differences in extent and are the magnitude of change, not the For national Red Lists, we used time, as a single trend from the CPR term; the indicator value in its final or national Red Lists are produced, likely to only influence the trends statistical significance of that change. lists of species present in England, may encompass change in a range of year, and the short term; the change in documenting which species are of localised species. Statistical significance is determined Scotland and Wales to interpret the individual species. the indicator in its last 10 years. If the threatened at different spatial scales20. by interannual trend variance, which existing Great Britain Red Lists in a We use outputs from hierarchical CI around the final estimate did not is influenced by sample size, and to We have brought together all the national context – this means that the occupancy models as this method has PRODUCING OUR MEASURES OF contain 100, the long-term change was the actual interannual variation in national Red Lists for Great Britain status of a species outside a nation shown to perform well at dealing with SPECIES’ POPULATION CHANGE considered significant. If the CI around population change, which is determined that have been produced using the may influence the Red List results common forms of bias encountered the indicator values in the start and end Separate change metrics were created by species’ life history. This means that latest guidelines from the IUCN18,20. presented for that nation. In the case when analysing biological records4. years did not overlap, the short-term based on the species’ abundance time statistical power varies between species For more details of the Red Lists of Northern Ireland, we have used As with all modelling approaches, change was considered significant. series and the species’ occupancy time and between taxonomic groups. It is used, please see the additional all-Ireland Red List assessments for there are several assumptions that series. Previously we have combined Testing for change over the common practice to use the magnitude online material. species occurring in Northern Ireland, should be met when using the these data types into a single metric period of the indicator and rate of population change, rather as this allowed the consideration of a approach. Given the number of We summarised the global and of change in line with other authors12. than statistical significance, in order broader taxonomic scope than data species included in the analysis, there Each abundance Species Indicator regional Red Lists to present the However, recent research has to categorise conservation status from Northern Ireland alone. may be occasions where some of the was assessed for change between percent of species in each category indicated that the magnitude of these assessments. Thus, our values are assumptions are not met, for example two non-overlapping time periods. and the percent considered two measures of population change the best available estimates for each CAVEATS intense targeted surveys for certain Each indicator was modelled using a threatened across all species, and may not be strongly correlated13,14. species, but we must acknowledge species may not be fully accounted linear model of the form: in (index) at different taxonomic levels. We The datasets presented in this report Within the abundance and occupancy that many species’ trend estimates are for in the detection model. However, ~ year + year: Period, where “Period” followed recognised guidelines21 and are a summary of the information datasets the same species contributed highly uncertain. while the model may not be perfect was a binary variable specifying the used the best estimate (the mid-point) available. However, although they to the Species Indicator and the for all species, it is likely to be better non-overlapping short-term and prior In addition, we presented a binary when calculating the percent of extant cover many species, the datasets Categorical Change metric. than a model that ignores variation (1970–2005) time periods1. split of the proportion of species species, for which sufficient data have not been selected to reflect a with positive and negative trends, representative sample of UK species, in detectability. SPECIES INDICATORS are available, classified as globally CATEGORICAL CHANGE regardless of magnitude. Threatened (CR + EN + VU)/(Number either within or between taxonomic Although official guidelines are used To create the abundance Species assessed – EX – DD). groups or habitats. This means For each species we calculated the to produce national Red Lists, there is Indicators, all individual species’ time IUCN RED LIST ASSESSMENTS that we should be cautious about total change then the average annual room for variation in interpretation of series were converted to species COUNTRY-LEVEL REPORTING extrapolating findings beyond the change over the entire long-term At a global level, the IUCN coordinates these guidelines and so there are small indices by expressing each annual species assessed. period and the recent short-term the process of assessing which species We do not have the same volume of differences in the way different authors estimate as a percent of the first year period – although in many cases the are threatened with extinction, and information on species’ trends within We have put together datasets have compiled the national Red Lists of the time series and the index was start and/or end years did not match has developed Red List assessment the UK’s constituent countries as we collected using different methods, summarised here. This is particularly calculated as the geometric mean of 18 these years exactly. Total change criteria to make the process as do for the UK as a whole. We have measured at a variety of spatial scales true in defining which species are the species indices15. Species indices was either a published modelled transparent and consistent as possible. attempted to repeat analyses, as and analysed using different statistical not threatened (of Least Concern). starting after 1970 entered the index output or the estimate in a smoothed presented for the UK, in the sections techniques. How a species has been at the geometric mean value for that species index in the penultimate year 98 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 99

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7. NBN (2019). NBN Atlas, https://nbnatlas.org/. 3. Outhwaite CL, et al. (2018). Prior specification Walton, Rob Ward, Tom Webb, Tony Bat Conservation Trust, British Finally, we wish to thank the in Bayesian occupancy modelling improves ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 8. JNCC (2019). UK Biodiversity Indicators 2018 Weighell, Andrew Whitehouse, Trust for Ornithology, Butterfly thousands of dedicated volunteer Category. http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-4229. analysis of species occurrence data. Ecological Indicators, 93: 333–343. Ben Williams, James Williams, Matt Conservation, Centre for Ecology recorders who collect much of the The monitoring and research that Progress towards international 4. Isaac NJ, et al. (2014). Statistics for citizen Williams, Jeremy Wilson, Kedell and Hydrology, People’s Trust for data upon which our knowledge of commitments: the Aichi targets science: extracting signals of change from underpins this report, and our wider noisy ecological data. Methods in Ecology and Worboys, Simon Wotton, Toos van Endangered Species, Rare Breeding the state of nature is based. Many are 1. IPBES (2019). Summary for policymakers of the Evolution, 5: 1052–1060. knowledge of the state of nature in global assessment report on biodiversity and Noordwijk and Glyn Young, as well Birds Panel, Rothamsted Research, supporters of the organisations within 5. Outhwaite CL, et al. (in prep). Complexity of the UK, its four component countries ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental as all the photographers for the RSPB and Wildfowl and Wetlands the State of Nature partnership and Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and biodiversity change revealed through long-term and its Crown Dependencies and trends of invertebrates, bryophytes and lichens. use of their images. We would also Trust. Marine data were provided contribute to systematic monitoring Ecosystem Services. IPBES secretariat, Overseas Territories, is conducted by Bonn, Germany. 6. Isaac NJB, et al. (2019). C4b: Status of UK priority like to thank Nadia Chelache, Kirsty largely by the Marine Biological and recording schemes. Without their species – Distribution D1c. Status of Pollinating a wide variety of organisations and 2. Convention on Biological Diversity (2019). Fotheringham, Vicki Wright and their Association, Marine Scotland and the efforts, our knowledge of the health www.cbd.int/. Insects, Technical background document: Deriving Indicators from Occupancy Models UK thousands of individuals. We do not 3. Convention on Biological Diversity (2019). colleagues at Flag Communication Ltd Sea Mammal Research Unit. of the UK’s nature would be just a Biodiversity Indicators 2019 Biological Records Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, including have space here to recognise their Centre, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology. www.flag.co.uk. fraction of what it is. We hope we can Aichi Biodiversity Targets. www.cbd.int/sp. contributions individually, but offer Data were provided by the Biological 7. Dennis EB, et al. (2016). A generalized continue to work together with these 4. JNCC (2019). United Kingdom’s 6th National abundance index for seasonal invertebrates. our collective thanks to them all. In addition to data, time, effort Records Centre from the following Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. volunteers to improve our knowledge, Biometrics, 72: 1305–1314. and expertise from individuals and recording schemes and societies: jncc.gov.uk/our-work/united-kingdom-s-6th- In addition to the authors of this and thus provide an increasingly national-report-to-the-convention-on-biological- 8. Harrower CA, et al. (2019). UK moth trends from organisation across the partnership, Aquatic Heteroptera Recording diversity/. Rothamsted Insect Survey light trap network (1968 report, conservationists and scientists robust basis for informing future to 2016). NERC Environmental Information Data the National Trust, People’s Trust Scheme; Bees, Wasps and Ants 5. JNCC (2019). UK Biodiversity Indicators. https:// Centre. https://doi.org/10.5285/e7e0e4ad-f8c1- from the State of Nature partners and conservation efforts. Additionally, jncc.gov.uk/our-work/uk-biodiversity- for Endangered Species, RSPB and Recording Society; Botanical 46fc-85b5-6d88057024b8. indicators-2019/. other organisations have provided we would like to thank all of the 9. Hill MO (2012). Local frequency as a key to Woodland Trust funded production Society of Britain and Ireland; 6. SNH (2018). Scotland’s Biodiversity Progress data, analyses, case studies and volunteers who are involved in the interpreting species occurrence data when of this report. British Arachnological Society – to 2020 Aichi Targets, Interim report 2017. recording effort is not known. Methods in guidance, and have given their time to many conservation projects underway SNH, Inverness. Spider Recording Scheme; British Ecology and Evolution, 3: 195–205. We are grateful to the many charitable 7. United Nations (2019). UN’s review drafts during the production of around the UK to address the issues 10. Greenstreet S & Moriarty M (2017). Manual for Bryological Society; British Dragonfly Sustainable Development Goals. https:// trusts, grant-giving bodies, companies version 3 of the groundfish survey monitoring the State of Nature 2019 report. facing our wildlife. Without them, sustainabledevelopment.un.org. Society – Dragonfly Recording and assessment data product. Scottish Marine and private individuals that provide the challenge would be much greater. In particular, we wish to thank Nida Al Network; British Lichen Society; and Freshwater Science, 8: 1986–1. vital funding for the monitoring 11. Moriarty M, et al. (2017). Derivation of Fulaij, Ben Andrew, Neil Bailey, Richard British Myriapod and Isopod Group – APPENDIX of wildlife in the UK. Additionally, groundfish survey monitoring and assessment Bashford, Paul Bellamy, Catherine Centipede and Millipede Recording How to interpret this report data product for the Northeast Atlantic Area. government agencies conduct or , 8: 1984–1. Bertrand, Isabel Bishop, Julie Boswell, Schemes; Butterflies for the New 1. Outhwaite CL, et al. (in prep). Complexity of Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science support much of the recording, data biodiversity change revealed through long-term 12. Van Strien AJ, et al. (2016). Modest recovery of Nigel Bourn, Tom Brereton, Emma Millennium Recording Scheme; biodiversity in a western European country: collation, analysis and reporting of the trends of invertebrates, bryophytes and lichens. Brookman, Andy Brown, Paul Buckley, Chrysomelidae Recording Scheme; 2. BRC (2018). National Recording Schemes and The Living Planet Index for the Netherlands. state of the UK’s wildlife that has made Biological Conservation, 200: 44–50. David Bullock, Phil Burfield, Suzanne Conchological Society of Great Britain Societies. Biological Records Centre, this report possible. In particular, Wallingford, UK. 13. Chamberlain DE & Fuller R (2001). Contrasting Burgess, Finlay Burns, Niamh Busby, and Ireland; Cranefly Recording patterns of change in the distribution and the Joint Nature Conservation 3. Dennis EB, et al. (2017). Efficient occupancy Charlie Butt, Pauline Campbell, Chris Scheme; Empididae, Hybotidae & model-fitting for extensive citizen-science data. abundance of farmland birds in relation to Committee, Natural England, Natural PloS one, 12: e0174433. farming system in lowland Britain. Global Carnegy, Colin Cheesman, Colin Dolichopodidae Recording Scheme; Ecology and Biogeography, 10: 399–409. Resources Wales, the Department for 4. Isaac NJ, et al. (2014). Statistics for citizen Clubbe, Sandy Coppins, Nina Cornish, Fungus Gnat Recording Scheme; science: extracting signals of change from noisy 14. Dennis EB, et al. (2019). Trends and indicators Agriculture, Environment and Rural for quantifying moth abundance and occupancy Rebecca Craske, Amy Crosweller, Gelechiid Recording Scheme; ecological data. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, Affairs Northern Ireland and Scottish 5: 1052–1060. in Scotland. Journal of Insect Conservation, 23: Clare Dinham, Chloe Elding, Chris Ellis, Grasshopper Recording Scheme; 369–380. Natural Heritage make significant 5. Outhwaite CL, et al. (2018). Prior specification Sam Ellis, John Faulkner, Tom Finch, Ground Beetle Recording Scheme; in Bayesian occupancy modelling improves 15. Gregory RD, et al. (2005). Developing indicators contributions to the provision of for European birds. Philosophical Transactions Simon Foster, Jennifer Fulton, David Hoverfly Recording Scheme; analysis of species occurrence data. Ecological monitoring across the separate parts Indicators, 93: 333–343. of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 360: 269–288. Gibbons, Richard Gregory, Amy Hall, Lacewings and Allies Recording 6. Van Turnhout CA, et al. (2007). Scale-dependent of the UK. Other UK, national and local 16. Freeman S, et al. (2001). Statistical analysis of an Phillip Hammond, Sarah Havery, Julia Scheme; National Moth Recording homogenization: changes in breeding bird government bodies also do much diversity in the Netherlands over a 25-year indicator of population trends in farmland birds. Henney, Dan Hoare, Russel Hobson, Scheme; Riverfly Recording Schemes: BTO Research Report. to support the recording of wildlife period. Biological Conservation, 134: 505–516. Mark Holling, Ali Hood, Julian Hughes, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and 7. Zuckerberg B, et al. (2009). The consistency and 17. Wood SN (2011). Fast stable restricted and habitats, as do a wide variety of stability of abundance–occupancy relationships maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood Tom Hunt, Lyndon John, Jo Judge, Paul Trichoptera; Soldier Beetles, Jewel estimation of semiparametric generalized linear non-governmental organisations not in large-scale population dynamics. Journal of Kirkland, Neil Lambert, Emily Lomax, Beetles and Glow-worms Recording Animal Ecology, 78: 172–181. models. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: represented within the State of Nature Series B (Statistical Methodology), 73: 3–36. Richard Luxmoore, Chris Lynam, Craig Scheme; Soldierflies and Allies 8. Chamberlain DE & Fuller R (2001). Contrasting partnership. National governments patterns of change in the distribution and 18. IUCN (2012). IUCN Red List Categories and Macadam, Dario Massimino, Andrew Recording Scheme; Staphylinidae Criteria: Version 3.1. Second edition. IUCN, Gland, and non-governmental bodies support abundance of farmland birds in relation to McCutcheon, Anne-Marie McDevitt, Recording Scheme; Terrestrial farming system in lowland Britain. Global Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. the monitoring of wildlife within the 19. IUCN (2019). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Conor McKinney, Nova Mieszkowska, Heteroptera Recording Schemes; Ecology and Biogeography, 10: 399–409. UK Overseas Territories. 9. Dennis EB, et al. (2019). Trends and indicators Species. Version 2019 – 2. https://www. UK Ladybird Survey; Weevil and iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 20/07/2019. Kate Mitchell, Meadhbh Moriarty, for quantifying moth abundance and occupancy A number of organisations play in Scotland. Journal of Insect Conservation, 23: 20. IUCN (2012). Guidelines for Application of IUCN David O’Brien, Steffen Oppel, Megan Bark Beetle Recording Scheme 369–380. Red List Criteria at Regional and National Levels: Parry, John Pinel, Jenny Plackett, a key role in running structured and by the Mammal Society. Many Version 4.0. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and 10. Defra (2019). UK Biodiversity Indicators 2018. Stephanie Prince, Niamh Roche, Lucy monitoring schemes for wildlife other State of Nature partners https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/ Cambridge, UK. biodiversity-indicators-for-the-uk. 21. IUCN (2016). Guidelines for reporting on Rogers, Kate Slater, Cleo Small, Helen in the UK, providing the trends in contribute biological records to these the proportion threatened. Version 1.1. Smith, James Stevenson, Roy Tapping, abundance that underpin key State schemes, and support the evidence Methods October 2016. of Nature metrics. These include base that underpins this report 1. Burns F, et al. (2018). An assessment of the Rachel Taylor, Philippa Tomlinson, state of nature in the United Kingdom: a review Mike Townsend, Kevin Walker, Paul Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, in a myriad of ways. of findings, methods and impact. Ecological Indicators, 94: 226–236. 2. Outhwaite CL, et al. (2019). Annual estimates of occupancy for bryophytes, lichens and invertebrates in the UK (1970–2015). [Dataset] NERC Environmental Information Data Centre. https://doi.org/10.5285/0ec7e549-57d4-4e2d- b2d3-2199e1578d84. 106 Key findings Drivers Conservation Marine UK countries UK OTs and CDs Essays Appendix State of Nature Report 2019 107

PARTNERS Bumblebee Conservation Trust Mammal Society Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew bumblebeeconservation.org mammal.org.uk kew.org

A Focus On Nature Butterfly Conservation Manx BirdLife Royal Society for the Protection of afocusonnature.org butterfly-conservation.org manxbirdlife.im Birds (RSPB) rspb.org.uk A Rocha Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (CEH) Marine Biological Association (MBA) arocha.org.uk ceh.ac.uk mba.ac.uk Royal Zoological Society of Scotland rzss.org.uk Action for Conservation Centre for Environmental Data Marine Conservation Society actionforconservation.org and Recording (CEDar) mcsuk.org Scottish Badgers nmni.com/CEDaR scottishbadgers.org.uk Amphibian and Reptile Marine Ecosystems Research Conservation (ARC) Chartered Institute of Ecology and Programme Scottish Environment Link arc-trust.org Environmental Management (CIEEM) marine-ecosystems.org.uk scotlink.org cieem.net Association of Local Environmental MARINELife Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) Records Centres (ALERC) Chester Zoo marine-life.org.uk nature.scot chesterzoo.org alerc.org.uk National Biodiversity Network (NBN) Scottish Wild Land Group Badenoch & Strathspey Conchological Society of Great Britain nbn.org.uk swlg.org.uk and Ireland Conservation Group National Forum for Biological Scottish Wildlife Trust conchsoc.org bscg.org.uk Recording scottishwildlifetrust.org.uk Continuous Plankton Recorder nfbr.org.uk Bat Conservation Ireland Shark Trust cprsurvey.org batconservationireland.org National Trust sharktrust.org Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust nationaltrust.org.uk Bat Conservation Trust (BCT) States of Guernsey (Durrell) bats.org.uk National Trust for Scotland gov.gg durrell.org nts.org.uk Biodiversity Ireland Trees for Life Earthwatch biodiversityireland.ie Natural England (NE) treesforlife.org.uk earthwatch.org.uk gov.uk/government/organisations/ Biological Records Centre (BRC) Ulster Wildlife Trust Freshwater Habitats Trust natural-england brc.ac.uk ulsterwildlife.org freshwaterhabitats.org.uk Natural History Museum Botanical Society of Britain University of Plymouth Friends of the Earth nhm.ac.uk and Ireland plymouth.ac.uk/research/institutes/ friendsoftheearth.uk bsbi.org Natural Resources Wales (NRW) marine-institute Froglife naturalresources.wales British Arachnological Society (BAS) University of Sheffield froglife.org britishspiders.org.uk Northern Ireland Bat Group sheffield.ac.uk Isle of Man Government bats-ni.org.uk British Bryological Society (BBS) Vincent Wildlife Trust gov.im britishbryologicalsociety.org.uk Northern Ireland Environment Agency vwt.org.uk iSpot (The Open University) daera-ni.gov.uk/northern-ireland- British Dragonfly Society (BDS) Whale and Dolphin Conservation iSpotnature.org environment-agency british-dragonflies.org.uk (WDC) British Lichen Society Jersey Government Department ORCA uk.whales.org of the Environment orcaweb.org.uk britishlichensociety.org.uk Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT) gov.je/Government/Departments/ British Mycological Society (BMS) People’s Trust for Endangered Species wwt.org.uk PlanningEnvironment (PTES) britmycolsoc.org.uk Wildlife Trusts John Muir Trust ptes.org British Pteridological Society (BPS) wildlifetrusts.org johnmuirtrust.org Plantlife ebps.org.uk Woodland Trust Joint Nature Conservation plantlife.org.uk British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) woodlandtrust.org.uk Committee (JNCC) bto.org Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh jncc.gov.uk WWF rbge.org.uk Buglife wwf.org.uk Local Environmental Records buglife.org.uk Centre Wales Zoological Society of London (ZSL) lercwales.org.uk zsl.org

Photo: Ben Andrew (rspb-images.com) The State of Nature 2019 report is a collaboration between the conservation and research organisations listed below:

Freshwater Habitats Trust

ispotnature.org

Northern Ireland Bat Group

Vincent Wildlife Trust

www.nbn.org.uk/stateofnature2019