The 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

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November 1991

OTA-BP-TCT-76 NTIS order #PB92-157601 Recommended Citation: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, The 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference :Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy-Background Paper, OTA-BP-TCT- 76 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, November 1991).

For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC X)402-932X ISBN 0-16 -035964-3 Foreword

The radio frequency spectrum, like the ocean, the air, and space, is a common natural resource shared by the nations of the world. It is owned by no individual or government, and its use and development is not limited to or controlled by any one country or group of countries. Rather, ensuring the wise and equitable use of this vital international resource is the collective responsibility of the world community. The radio frequency spectrum has been an integral part of domestic and international communications for more than 80 years. Radio waves make possible a wide range of communication and entertainment services, including AM and FM radio broadcasting, satellite and microwave communications, television-even baby monitors and remote garage-door openers. Today, a host of new technologies and services, such as digital audio broadcasting, high-definition television, and personal communications services, are vying with existing radio-based applications for a slice of the valuable, but crowded, radio spectrum. The World Administrative Radio Conference meeting in Spain in February 1992 (WARC-92) will attempt to reassign radio frequencies in order to take advantage of these new applications, while still accommodating the needs of existing users. The impacts of this will be felt throughout the U.S. economy and around the world. The standards and conditions set at WARC-92 will guide the development of radio-based systems and services well into the next century. U.S. preparations for WARC-92 took place in a much different international context— political, economic, and social—than past WARCs. The geopolitical map of the world is changing rapidly with the dissolution of the Eastern bloc and the Soviet Union and the rise of Japan and the European Community as potent economic powers. The International Telecommunication Union, the body that coordinates the use and development of the radio frequency resource worldwide, is embarked on a far-reaching restructuring of its functions and processes. These changes will force the United States to adapt its international radiocommunication policy in order to retain its competitive position and traditional leadership in spectrum policymaking. However, the present fragmented domestic structure for radiocommunication policymaking may impede the development of a broad long-term vision for future radio-based technologies and services. Because of these concerns, OTA has prepared this background paper for the House Committee on Energy and Commerce and the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. OTA acknowledges the contributions of the workshop participants, who helped clarify and focus the issues. OTA also appreciates the assistance of the National Telecommunications and Information Administration, the Federal Communications Commis- sion, and the State Department, as well as the numerous individuals in the private sector who reviewed or contributed to this document. The contents of this paper, however, are the sole responsibility of OTA.

JOHN H.-GIBBONS u Director

. . . III Workshop on WARC-92: Issues and Preparations, Dec. 6, 1990

Dale Hatfield, Chairman President, Hatfield Associates, Inc.

Raymond Crowell Thomas Plevyak Director Manager Industry Government Planning Standards COMSAT Bell Atlantic Ben Fisher Martin Rothblatt Attorney President Fisher, Wayland, Cooper & Leaders MARCOR, Inc. Gary Fereno Steve Selwyn U.S. Department of State Electronics Engineer Mass Media Bureau William Gamble Federal Communications Commission Deputy Associate Administrator David Sumner U.S. Department of Commerce Executive Vice President American Radio Relay League Richard G. Gould President Leslie A. Taylor Telecommunications Systems President Leslie Taylor Associates George Hrycenko Chief Scientist Thomas S. Tycz Spectrum Management Electronics Engineer Hughes Aircraft Co. Space Common Carrier Bureau and Communication Group Federal Communications Commission Tedson Meyers Thomas Walsh Attorney International Engineer Reid & Priest Office of International Communications Federal Communications Commission Richard Neat Manager Frequency Engineering ARINC Lawrence M. Palmer Program Manager NTIA U.S. Department of Commerce

NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the workshop participants. The participants do not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this background paper. OTA assumes full responsibility for the background paper and the accuracy of its contents.

iv The 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

OTA Project Staff

John Andelin, Assistant Director, OTA Science, Information, and Natural Resources Division

James W. Curlin, Program Manager Telecommunication and Computing Technologies Program

David P. Wye, Project Director

James Netter, Research Assistant

Administrative Staff Liz Emanuel, Office Administrator

Karolyn St. Clair, Secretary

Jo Anne Young, Secretary

OTA Contractor Richard G. Gould Telecommunications Systems Other Reviewers and Contributors This paper has benefited from the advice of many individuals from the government and the private sector. OTA would especially like to thank the following individuals for their assistance and support. The views expressed in this report, however, are the sole responsibility of the Office of Technology Assessment. William M. Borman Lon C. Levin Vice President and Director of Global Spectrum Attorney at Law Management Gurman, Kurtis, Blask & Freedman Motorola Inc. Fred Mates Vary Coates NTIA Office of Technology Assessment U.S. Department of Commerce Deborah A. Davis William Moran Senior Evaluator Program Manager Information Management and Technology Division NTIA U.S. General Accounting Office U.S. Department of Commerce Troy Ellington Alejandra Ornes Vice President INTELSAT Engineering and Development Richard D. Parlow GTE Spacenet Corp. Associate Administrator Andrew S. Fishel NTIA Managing Director U.S. Department of Commerce Federal Communications Commission Laina Raveendran INTELSAT Michael Fitch Senior Advisor Charla M. Rath Bureau of International Communications Communications Policy Specialist and Information Policy U.S. Department of State U.S. Department of Commerce Linda Garcia Walda Roseman Office of Technology Assessment Director Office of International Communications Joseph L. Gattuso Federal Communications Commission Telecommunications Specialist NTIA Charles M. Rush U.S. Department of Commerce Office of International Affairs NTIA John T. Gilsenan U.S. Department of Commerce Deputy Director spectrum Policy Eric J. Schimmel Bureau of International Communications Vice President and Information Policy Telecommunications Industry Association U.S. Department of State Richard Shrum Yvon Henri Director Orbital Resources Department Radio Spectrum Policy INTELSAT Bureau of International Communications and Information Policy Harold G. Kimball U.S. Department of State Division Director Office of International Affairs Francis S. Urbany NTIA Director U.S. Department of Commerce International and Agency Relations BellSouth Corp. Ben Kobb Publisher Ray Williamson Federal Communications TechNews Office of Technology Assessment

vi Page CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY ...... 1 Introduction ...... 0...... +”.”””””. “.”””””.”””””1 summary of Findings ...... 1 The Radio Frequency Spectrum ...... 4 General Background ...... 4 Radio Spectrum as Public Resource ...... 6 Spectrum Scarcity and Crowding ...... 7 Spectrum Management ...... 8 World Administrative Radio Conferences ...... 9 General ...... 9 The 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference ...... 10 U.S. Preparations and WARC Proceedings ...... 24 CHAPTER 2: RADIOCOMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES: PROBLEM AND SOLUTION ...... 27 Introduction ...... “...”.”-” 27 Spectrum Basics ...... 27 Radio Waves ...... 27 Transmission Characteristics ...... 30 Characteristics of Radio Frequency Bands ...... 32 Technologies and Services Create Congestion ...... 34 Broadcasting ...... 35 Mobile Services ...... 36 Part 15 Devices ...... 40... Point-to-Point Microwave Radio Relay Systems ...... 40 Radio in the Local Imp...... 40 Satellite Services ...... 41 Other Specialized Services ...... 42 Technology Solutions to Spectrum Crowding ...... 43 Use of Higher Frequencies ...... 43 Trunked Mobile Systems ...... 44 Reuse of Frequencies in Mobile Cellular Radio Systems ...... 44 Digital Compression ...... 44 Improved Transmission Techniques ...... 45 Summary ...... 47 CHAPTER 3: THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT FOR SPECTRUM POLICY ...... 49 Introduction ...... 49 International Spectrum Administration: The ITU ...... 49 Description ...... 49 Structure of ITU Spectrum Activities ...... 50 Importance ...... 55 Activities Outside the ITU ...... 55 Changes in the ITU ...... 56 Major Trends Shaping International Telecommunication Policymaking ...... 62 Pace of Technological Change ...... 63 Globalization ...... 63 Rising Importance of Regionalism ...... 64 Liberalization and privatization ...... 69 Telecommunications and Economics ...... 70 New Players and Alliances ...... 71 Summary and Implications ...... 73 CHAPTER 4: DOMESTIC PREPARATIONS PROCESS FOR WARC-92 ...... 75 Introduction ...... 75

vii WARC Preparation Activities ...... 75 Institutional Roles ...... 76 Federal Communications Commission ...... 76 National Telecommunications and Information Administration ...... 84 Department of State ...... 89 Private Sector and User Groups ...... 92 CHAPTER 5: IMPLICATIONS OF WARC-92 FOR U.S. RADIOCOMMUNICATION POLICYMAKING ...... 97 Introduction ...... 97 WARC Preparations: An Exercise in Democracy ...... 97 Implications for International RadioCommunication Policy ...... 98 System Is Fragmented ...... 99 No Coordinated U.S. Radiocommunication Policy...... 100 Personal Relationships Drive Preparations ...... 101 Little High-Level Commitment ...... 103 Resource Constraints ...... 103 GovernmentFrequency Data Is Inadequate ...... 104 Summary and Implications ...... 104 APPENDIX A:ACRONYMS AND GLOSSARY OF TERMS ...... 107 APPENDIX B: AGENDA FOR THE 1992 WORLD ADMINISTRATIVE RADIO CONFERENCE ...... 111 APPENDIX C: APPLICATIONS FOR NEWSERVICES ...... 115 APPENDIX D: U.S. PROPOSALS FOR WARC MALAGA-TORREMOLINOS, SPAIN,1992 ...... 122 INDEX ...... 133

Boxes Box Page 2-A. Basic Definitions of Radiocommunications Terms ...... 28 2-B. Future Phone? The PCN Is a Wireless To Watch ...... 38 3-A. Summary of Changes Proposed by the High Level Committee ...... 57 3-B. Inter-American Telecommunications Conference-CITEL ...... 66 3-C. CITEL Preparations for WARC-92 ...... 69

Figures Figure Page l-1. Radio Frequency Spectrum and Selected Services ...... 5 l-2. International Telecommunication Union Regions of the World ...... 11 2-1. Frequency Band Designations ...... 31 2-2. Radio Wave Transmission ...... 32 ,2-3. Terrestrial and Satellite Transmission Ranges ...... 33 2-4. Broadcasting-Satellite Service-Sound ...... 36 2-5. Growth in Cellular Phone Service, 1984-91 ...... 37 3-1. Current Structure of the International Telecommunication Union ...... 51 3-2. international Radio Consultative Committee Study Groups Preparing for WARC-92 ...... 54 3-3. International Telecommunication Union Structure: Changes Recommended by the High Level Committee ...... 59 4-1. Organization of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission ...... 77 4-2. Organizational Structure of the Industry Advisory Committee ...... 82 4-3. organization of the U.S. National Telecommunications and Information Administration ...... 85

Tables Table Page l-1. Radio Frequency Bands and Uses ...... 7 l-2. International Telecommunication Union World Conferences Since 1979 ...... 10 Chapter 1 Introduction and Summary

The most pressing communications problem at this particular time, however, is the scarcity of radio frequencies in relation to the steadily growing demand. Increasing difficulty is being experienced in meeting the demand for frequencies domestically and even greater difficulty is encountered internationally in attempting to agree upon the allocation of available frequencies among the nations of the world.l Harry S Truman, Feb. 17, 1950

Introduction interests come together to craft the proposals the United States will present at the conference. The In February 1992 the International Telecommunic- U.S. preparations for WARC-92 brought together ation Union (ITU)—the organization responsible many diverse interests, including broadcasters seek- for harmonizing and regulating international tele- ing to bring digital audio to listeners at home and in communication and radio services-will hold a the car; the national security community attempting World Administrative Radio Conference for Deal- to protect frequencies used for aircraft testing; ing with Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of promoters of innovative mobile services provided the Spectrum (WARC-92). WARCs are interna- by satellite; and a multitude of other users, e.g., tional conferences that bring together the nations of amateur radio operators, police and fire departments, the world to coordinate radiocommunication tech- and the makers of microwave ovens and baby nologies and services worldwide. WARC-92, the monitors. The task of sorting out and synthesizing most wide-ranging WARC since 1979, will seek the views of these participants is divided between ways to designate radio frequencies for many the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), advanced communication and entertainment serv- which examines the needs of the private sector and ices, including new mobile radio services, digital State and local governments, and the National audio broadcasting, high-definition television, and Telecommunications and Information Administra- new services for communication in space. The tion (NTIA), which referees Federal Government decisions made at WARC-92 will determine how interests. These two agencies submit their final and when these new services will be implemented proposals in the form of recommendations to the and will influence the development of new radio Department of State, which presents official U.S. technologies and applications well into the next proposals at WARCs and other international tele- century. The United States, as one of the world communications meetings. leaders in radiocommunication technology and pol- This report examines the U.S. preparations proc- icy, has a major stake in the outcomes of WARC-92. ess for WARC-92, highlighting efforts to integrate the needs and concerns of various interest groups. It also reviews the forces and trends affecting the The decisions made at WARC-92 will United States as it approaches WARC-92, and is determine how and when new radio intended to inform future congressional oversight of services will be implemented and will the domestic and international radiocommunication influence the development of new tech- policy process. nologies and applications well into the next century. Summary of Findings Despite inefficiencies and problems, the domestic process of preparing proposals for inter- In the United States the process of preparing for national spectrum conferences works reasonably a WARC begins years in advance of the actual well at present. Participants in the process, in conference. Federal Government and private sector government and in the private sector, consider the

IHarry S T~ quoted in Stanley D. Metzger and Bernie R. Burrus, “Radio Frequency Allocation in the Public Interest: Federal Government and Civilian Use,” Duquesne University Law Review, vol. 4, No. 1, 1965-1966, p. 1. –l– ● 2 WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy process generally fair and responsive. Federal agencies have processes in place that allow them to More formal and rigorous government respond relatively effectively to WARC issues and planning and high-level coordination, to develop coordinated positions. Final U.S. proposals for WARC-92 were developed in a timely supported by increased staff and funds, fashion. Nevertheless, long-standing problems con- could strengthen U.S. leadership in in- tribute to a process that can be overly contentious ternational radiocommunication tech- and political. Further, it is not clear that the U.S. nologies, services, and policy. proposals reflect the broader goals of U.S. international radiocommunication policy. More formal and rigorous government planning and high-level coor- trum policy will continue to serve the country well. dination, supported by increased staff and funds, Several trends make this assumption questionable: could strengthen U.S. leadership in international radiocommunication technologies, services, and 1. In the last decade, the use of radiocommunica- policy. tion services has expanded dramatically as technology has opened new applications. The The United States is at a crucial turning point rapid pace of technology development and in the history of spectrum use and management. increases in the use of radio services have put Technological, economic, and political forces are great stresses on the structures and processes converging to radically alter the context within for managing radio-based communications which domestic and international spectrum deci- both domestically and internationally. Tech- sions and policies are made. The domestic system nological issues are now more complex and by which the radio spectrum is used and managed is interwoven with economic, social, and politi- stretched to its limits. Congested spectrum has been cal concerns. a recurring problem for U.S. spectrum managers for 2. The international scene is in a period of rapid over 40 years. Demand for spectrum has continually and far-reaching transition. Old alliances are increased, but technology has usually been able to crumbling and emerging actors, such as the expand the number of services and users. Today, newly independent nations of Eastern Europe, however, the numbers of radio-based services and are making international negotiations more users are growing so quickly that the perceived complex than in the past. The ITU is poised to scarcity of spectrum has once again become an significantly restructure its organization and important public policy issue. While the U.S. functioning, including the possibility that world spectrum management system generally has worked radio conferences will be held every 2 years.3 adequately in the recent past, burgeoning demand In this rapidly changing international environ- for radio frequencies once again threatens the ment, the United States is seeking new alli- Federal Government’s ability to promote innovation ances and strengthening existing relationships. and efficiency, while at the same time accommodat- 2 The FCC and NTIA, for example, are actively ing existing users. At the international level, involved in efforts to strengthen the Inter- WARC-92 reflects and highlights the ongoing American Telecommunications Conference problems of spectrum management, and represents (CITEL), the regional telecommunications an important opportunity for addressing the world’s forum for the Western Hemisphere.4 spectrum needs. 3. The United States has no overarching policy Because domestic problems of spectrum manage- framework or plan within which to address ment do not appear to have significantly detracted international radiocommunication issues, in- from U.S. international policy in the past, it is cluding preparations for WARCs. While there tempting to assume that current domestic structures is much international expertise in the govern- and processes for determining international spec- ment and considerable technical expertise in

W.S. Department of Commerce, National Telecommunications and InfonnationAdministratio~ U.S. Spectrum Management Policy :Agendafor the Future, NITA Special Publication 91-23 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 1991), p. 13. Ssee tie di~m~~ion of me ~$s figh ~vel Cowttee (JILC) in ch. 3 and the summary of the HLC’S remmendatiom in box 3-A. 4See ch. 3, box 3-B for a discussion of ~TEL Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 3

the private sector, it is not clear that this expertise is being used effectively to best Successful U.S. international spectrum realize the long-term goals of the United policymaking will require that domestic States. The failure to adequately address the and international policies be more effec- strategic aspects of domestic and international spectrum policy in the past has contributed to tively integrated. international radiocommunication policy that today lacks vision and direction. In the absence of overall strategic policy planning, U.S. The lack of a unified national radiocommuni- approaches and preparations for international cation policy, including international spectrum conferences may not be adequate to the tasks goals, will hurt the United States’ ability to of the future. negotiate and compete globally. Many of the problems in the radiocommunication policy process The implications of domestic spectrum policy- reflect more general failures in highlighting the making extend beyond narrowly defined U.S. importance of U.S. radiocommunication policy and interests. Domestic and international spectrum 5 pursuing integrated goals that are based on well- interests are converging. Until recently, policy- defined technological, economic, and social priori- makers approached international telecommunica- ties. The United States has no comprehensive tion policymaking and negotiation as an extension of long-range plan or vision for the future of radiocom- national priorities—merely ‘‘internationalizing’ munications, and thus no comprehensive framework domestic policy. In many cases, the focus on within which to make strategic spectrum policy domestic communication issues tended to overlook decisions, either domestically or internationally. the implications of those issues for international telecommunications and the interests of U.S. busi- This country depends on a system which empha- nesses and other communications users in the global sizes “market forces,’ but which reemphasizes market. Conversely, many policymakers assumed planning and prioritizing. This approach reflects a that national spectrum problems could be solved long held U.S. view that formal spectrum planning domestically-either by reallocating spectrum or is not efficient and not desirable. There is a belief increasing efficiency-without considering interna- among some government policymakers that the tional pressures. government should not plan spectrum use as much as it should respond to priorities set by the private Today, international concerns are rapidly becom- sector (and government users) through market forces. ing part of domestic radiocommunication policy- A more formal planned approach, they argue, would making. There is a growing recognition among prejudge future radiocommunication needs and con- government policymakers and telecommunications strain technologies and services yet to be developed. analysts that many domestic spectrum problems One of the objectives in a market-oriented approach have an inherent international dimension that must is to build flexibility into the system that will allow be accounted for in domestic proceedings. U.S. the United States to respond to the new needs and spectrum policy must be decided in the international technologies of the future in a timely way. This context within which the radio spectrum is managed. approach, based on a diversity of interests compet- This will require that domestic and international ing before the government, may give the system the policies be more effectively integrated. Processes flexibility it needs to adequately meet the evolving and decisions that take inadequate notice of interna- short-term needs of both the government and the tional considerations will not be effective. The private sector, but overreliance on such market establishment of an Office of International Commu- forces may threaten the effective pursuit of broader, nications in the FCC (see ch. 4) indicates increased longer-term goals and priorities. Market forces can recognition of the importance of international con- delay introduction of new products and services and cerns for domestic policy. lead to inefficiencies (recall AM stereo and the battle

5~~ @end ~asnoted by OTA ~ 1985. See U.S. Conwss, Offim of T&~ology Assessmen~ Internan”onal Cooperation and competition in CiVilian Space Activities, OTA-ISC-239 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing OffIce, July 1985). ● 4 WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

making has reduced policy planning to a reactive exercise. No single government agency is responsible for planning for new radio services, In this context, WARCs are especially important and no government agency has been because they serve as focal points for both short- and mandated or assumed a leadership role long-term spectrum planning. More importantly, in domestic and international spectrum they represent a critical opportunity for drawing together the interests of government and industry in policymaking. developing the broader issues of international radiocommunications policy. Without WARCs, spectrum planning and policy development on an international level would likely be greatly reduced. With regularly between VHS and Beta).6 OTA notes that a shift to scheduled WARCs a real possibility in the future private sector decisionmaking in communication (see ch. 3), the United States could have an policy “has created a vacuum in the policymaking important opportunity to focus ongoing attention on process with respect to societal decisions about the “big picture” of international spectrum policy communication that are not easily made by summing and to develop integrated long-term strategies for up individual preferences or deferring to market using spectrum resources and pursuing effective power. ’ No single government agency is responsi- international policies. ble for planning for new radio services, and no government agency has been mandated or assumed The Radio Frequency Spectrum a leadership role in domestic and international spectrum policymaking.8 General Background The radio frequency spectrum refers to the total Cooperation on long-range planning or even on range of radio frequencies (3 kHz-300 GHz) that can establishing a long-term vision for U.S. spectrum be used for telecommunications (see figure l-l)9 It policy is almost nonexistent. While the Federal makes possible many of today’s most important Government agencies involved in spectrum policy- communications technologies and services. Radio making have established internal procedures for waves are used to transmit information and enter- addressing specific radiocommunication issues (e.g., tainment of all kinds, including television and radio WARC preparations), and do cooperate on policy programming g, long-distance and cellular telephone formulation in these areas, beyond these narrow service, safety and navigation services for aeronauti- concerns, coordination among government agencies cal and maritime use, radar and defense communica- and between the government and private sector on tions-even the signals used by baby monitors and longer-term domestic and international spectrum remote garage-door openers. Radio-based technolo- issues is mostly informal. In lieu of explicit mecha- gies and systems are increasingly being used to nisms for formulating strategic international radio- connect to the public telephone network, allowing communication policy, the process depends largely users access while traveling or in rural areas without on the individuals involved and on the relationships wired service. New services are being developed they have formed over time. While such coordina- constantly, but the limited availability of adequate tion may be effective on a day-to-day basis, the lack spectrum may constrain future advances in radio- of long-term strategic guidance in spectrum policy- communication services.

6Si@lcanfly, tie FCC is now in the process of se~ing Standmds for future high-deftition television systems, ratier tin let-tie market tie its course. W.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment Critical Connections; Communkarionfor the Future, OTA-CIT-407 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1990), p. 361. 8N~$5 effofi5 t. ~plement me ~ecomen~tiom of is Iewnt ~po~ on spec~ ~mgement indicate tit government policymakers are beginning to grapple with some of these issues. ?Radio frequencies are measured in hertz, which is a measure of the number of cycles a radio wave completes in 1 second-1 hertz (Hz) represents one cycle per second (see ch. 2). Prefmes are used to indicate numbers of hertz in multiples of 10: kHz= thousand Hz; MHz= 1 million hertz; and GHz= 1 billion hertz. The radio fkquency spectrum is only one segment of the larger electromagnetic spectrmrL which comprises all light and radio waves and includes audible sound, radio waves (the radio frequency spectrum), infrared light visible light, ultraviolet ligh~ x-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays. Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 5

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The spectrum is divided or “allocated” into frequency ‘bands’ that correspond to certain ranges of frequencies and specific radiocommunication The radiofrequency spectrum has long services (see table 1-l).10 Individual radio services, been viewed as a vital natural and such as AM and FM radio broadcasting, television, national public resource, and protecting navigation, and satellite services, also use specific and enhancing this limited resource has bands of frequencies. For example, FM radio broad- been a Federal Government and con- casting uses the frequencies 88-108 MHz. Within gressional concern dating back to the some of these radio service bands, the spectrum is early part of this century. further subdivided into separate “channels,” which are assigned by the government to individual users. For example, 90.9 MHz in the FM radio band is assigned to radio station WETA in Washington, DC. Congress also has a long history of seeking to The same charnel can also be assigned to other radio ensure the development of this resource for the stations in distant cities, thus allowing the radio public good, dating back even before the creation of frequencies to be reused. In some frequency bands, the FCC in 1934.13 Concern over radio spectrum and many users and even different services, share the services resurfaced in 1958, only 1 year before the same segment of spectrum. Radio systems used for 1959 general World Administrative Radio Confer- point-to-point and mobile communications services, ence: for example, share many frequency bands.ll The development of so valuable a natural resource as the radio spectrum is a matter of paramount importance. The spectrum is a publicly owned Radio Spectrum as Public Resource natural resource the importance of which increases year by year as its use for varied purposes grows. It The radio frequency spectrum has long been has long been apparent that the capacity of this viewed as a vital natural and national public re- resource is not unlimited and that its effective source, and protecting and enhancing this limited utilization cannot be expanded indefinitely. The resource has been a Federal Government function interdependence of regulatory measures and technol- dating back to the early part of this century. In 1925, ogy in making possible the most effective use of the then Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover de- spectrum is a significant point that requires most clared: painstaking study. The use of the spectrum requires as careful planning and administration as any other 14 The ether [sic] is a public medium, and its use national resource. must be for a public benefit. The use of a radio channel is justified only if there is public benefit. The Today, spectrum policy is increasingly recog- dominant elements for consideration in the radio nized as an important area of national telecommuni- field is, and always will be, the great body of the cations policymaking. In the last several years listening public, millions in number, countrywide in Congress, the executive branch, and the FCC have distribution. 12 been studying and seeking solutions to spectrum

l~c ~roce~~ of ~location refers t. tie desi~tion of a ~oup of radio frequencies to a service or family of related s~ims. For e~ple, tie bad 88.0- 108.0 megahertz (MHz) is allocated to (FM radio) broadcasting. Assignment of frequencies refers to the granting of a right to use a specific iiequency or band of frequencies to an end user or service provider. For example, the FCC has assigned 542-548 MHz (television channel 26) in Washington DC to WETA. For more in-depth discussion of the procedures of allocation and assignmen~ both domestic and intermtional, see Richard Gould, Telecommunications Systems, Inc., ‘‘Allocation of the Radio Frequency Spectrum,’ contractor report prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment, Aug. 10, 1990. Ilsharing sWc~is accomplish~ inmanydifferent ways. Users can share by time (taking turns orusingforspecified hours of tie day), by g~~phy (users can share the same frequency if they are far enough apart so tbat signals do not interfere), or by technologies that reduce interference. Sometimes sharing is planned, as in the case of channeling arrangements, but sometimes it is not-cellular radio providers have a specific block of spectrum they must use, but individual customers use the service on demand. 12Quo@d in Mm D. Pagh (cd.), A Ugislative History of(he Communications Act (New York, NY: Oxford Ufivm5ity press, 1989), P. 9. lsFor a more complete description of the early history of radio regulation leading up to the Communications Act Of 1934, see Pagh W- cit., foo~ote 12. MU.S. ConWess, Semte Committee on ktem~te and Foreign Commerce, Commission To Investigate Utilization of Radio Frequemies Allocated to the Government, 85th Cong., 2d sess., Report No. 1854, July 18, 1958, p. 2. Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 7

Table l-l—Radio Frequency Bands and Uses

Name Frequency range Examples of services Very low frequency (VLF) 3 to 30 kHz Marine navigation Low frequency (LF) 30 to 300 kHz Marine and aeronautical navigation equipment Medium frequency (MF) 300 to 3,000 kHz AM radio broadcast, LORAN maritime navigation, long-distance aeronautical and maritime navigation High frequency (HF) 3 to 30 MHz Shortwave broadcast, amateur radio, CB radio Very high frequency (VHF) 30 to 300 MHz Private radio land mobile services such as police, fire, and taxi dispatch; TV channels (2 through 13); FM broadcasting; cordless phones; baby monitors Ultrahigh frequency (UHF) 300 to 3,000 MHz UHF TV channels; cellular phones; common carrier point-to-point microwave transmission used by long-distance phone companies; satellite mobile services Superhigh frequency (SHF) 3 to 30 GHz Radar, point-to-point microwave, and satellite communication Extremely high frequency (EHF) Above 30 GHz Satellite communications and space research SOURCES: Harry Mileaf (cd.), Electronics One, revised 2d ed. (Roehelle Park, NJ: Hayden Book Co., Inc., 1976), p. 1-14; and John J. Keller, “No Vacancies,” The Wall Street Journal, Nov. 9, 1990, p. R14. concerns. In the 102d Congress, five bills relating to consume it. Radio frequency spectrum is finite in spectrum use and management have been intro- that only a certain range of frequencies can be used duced, the Emerging Telecommunications Technol- for communication at any given level of technology. ogies Act of 1991 (H.R. 531, H.R. 1407, and S. And although technological advances continue to 218)15 and the Amateur Radio Spectrum Protection expand the range of usable frequencies, the funda- Act (H.R. 73 and S. 1372). NTIA recently completed mental properties of radio waves make some radio a comprehensive study of the U.S. domestic spec- frequencies more useful, and hence more valuable, trum policymaking process that includes recommen- than others. For example, the transmission charac- dations on how the system might be improved.l6 The teristics of radio waves in the 1-3-GHz band (see ch. FCC is conducting a study of spectrum use in order 2) make them especially valuable for many mobile to identify underused portions of the spectrum for and fixed services.18 possible inclusion in a “spectrum reserve” that could be used for the development of emerging The problem is that more and more technologies 17 communications technologies and services. and communication services are vying for a slice of Spectrum Scarcity and Crowding the valuable radio spectrum, and demand for spectrum is growing rapidly, both for new services, such The radio frequency spectrum is a finite-but as high-definition television (HDTV) and personal reusable—resource. It is reusable in the sense that communications services (PCS) (see box 2-B), and when one person stops using a certain frequency for the expansion of existing services such as another person can start. Using the resource does not cellular telephony. The ITU has recorded as many

15~1 bee of these bills ~o~d ~U~e tit me govement m~e av~ab]e for tramfer to the private s~tor zoo MHz of total spectrum baudtidth. H.R. 1407, the administration’s counter proposal to companion bills H.R. 531 and S. 218, also includes the requirement tbat spectrum be distributed to users through a competitive bidding process. IGBI’I’IA, u.S. Specmm Management Policy, op. Cit., fOO~Ote 2. 17pti Ofthe impe~s for this initiative has come from developments in other countries. Kc c~ Sikes has noted that Europe and Japan have taken steps to reserve speetrmn in the 1-3-GHz band and that the United States should follow suit in order to maintain its technological and competitive edge. Speech before the Practicing Law Institute and the Federal Communications Bar Association conference, Washington DC, Dec. 6, 1990. 18F~ed sewice ~fers t. telecom~mtion s~i~s more ~mmo~y ~o~ as po~t.to-po~~ microwave, or r~io-relay systems. For a d&CUSSiOIl of the teehnical properties of the various radio fkquency bands, see Gould, op. cit., footnote 10. 8 ● WARC-92: Issues for- U.S. International Spectrum Policy

new frequency assignments in the last 10 years as in the previous 80 years of radio communications.19 In response to a recent FCC announcement that it The problem is finding ways to expand would license 200 radio charnels to provide new existing services and promote new radio mobile communications services, the Commission technologies while simultaneously ac- received almost 100,000 applications from potential commodating existing users who have providers. 20 successful services and large capital investments. The result, and the most critical problem facing spectrum managers today, is a shortage of unused spectrum and serious congestion of the most valuable bands.21 The problem is a recurring one. In the space services (see the discussion of major WARC- 1920s the use of radio for broadcasting in the United 92 issues below). States exploded-interference threatened to over- whelm the industry. The problem resurfaced in the Spectrum Management United States in the late 1950s when a report was Managing the use of the spectrum is an extremely issued on the allocation of television channels and complex task both because of the variety of services hearings were held regarding the allocation of and technologies involved, and because radio waves spectrum between government and nongovernment 22 easily cross geographic and political boundaries. users. Internationally, the problem dates back tO The functions of spectrum management are two- the 1930s. At that time new aeronautical services fold.25 First, spectrum managers must try to accom- had begun to compete with broadcasters and mari- modate all the various services with their differing 23 time users for radio spectrum. technical characteristics and requirements. They do this by allocating bands, or blocks, of spectrum to Today, the accelerated pace of technology devel- the various services, such as broadcasting, mobile, opment, coupled with a rapidly changing world amateur, and satellite services. Second, spectrum environment in economics and politics, has made managers establish conditions of use for radiocom- coordinating the use of the radio frequency spectrum munication services in order to ensure that use is as increasingly complex, and has raised the issues of fair and efficient as possible. Because radio waves radiocommunication and spectrum policy to new do not respect national borders, spectrum allocation prominence. 24 In broad terms, the problem is finding and use must be coordinated internationally as well ways to expand existing services and promote new as domestically. The most visible outcome of this radio technologies while simultaneously accommo- function is controlling interference between users dating existing users who have successful services and between services. Managers also try to ensure and large capital investments. At the international that use of the spectrum is as efficient as possible. level, WARC-92 is an important attempt to sort out The international Radio Regulations that govern these issues for many applications, including mobile radiocommunications worldwide, for example, set services, high frequency broadcasting, and new levels on transmitter power to limit interference and

19Mmk IAwyn and Peter Coy, “Airwave Wars,” Business Week, July 23, 1990, p. 48. ~“rhe scramble for Frequencies, ’ Telcom Highlights International, vol. 13, No. 4, June 12, 1991. 21some bel&e, however, tit the SW-$ cshofige~~ is ~ ~c~ con~pt—~t it has ken crated by tie processes used to allocate and assign spectrum resources. Changing the process for distributing these resources, they argue, would eliminate any scarcity. See George Gilder, “What Spectrum Shortage?” Forbes, May 27, 1991. ZU.S. Congms, Semte Cohttee on ~ters~te and Foreign Commerce, Allocation of TV Channels: Report of the Ad Hoc Advisoq CO~-ttee on Allocations, Committee Pr@ Mar. 14, 1958; U.S. Congress, House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Allocation of Radio Spectrum Between Federal Government Users and Non-Federal Government Users, Hearings June 8 and 9, 1959. ~For a dismssion of the histow of radio saicm and the development of the ITU, s= George A. cod~g, Jr. and Anthony M. Rutkowski, The International Telecommunication Union in a Changing World (Dedb.arq MA: Artech House, 1982). ~Some a~ys~, e.g., iden~led the shortage of available spectrum as the biggest hurdle facing the Widesprmd development of P~so~ communication networks. Charles Masou “Wireless Technologies Draw Interest” Telephony, vol. 220, No. 12, Mar. 25, 1991, p. 10.

~For more discussion of thew ~ctiom, see ~ U.S. Specfim ~a~ge~nt policy, op. cit. foo~ote 2; U.S. Congress, office of ‘1’whnoIogy Assessment, Radiofiequency Use and Management, OTA-CIT-163 (Washingto~ DC: U.S. Government Printing Ofilce, January 1982), pp. 25-26. Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 9 can mandate that certain technologies be used to promote efficiency, such as single-sideband broadcasting (see ch. 2). Domestic spectrum policymaking must take careful account of the implications In the United States, the agencies responsible for of international decisions if the interests managing the spectrum are the FCC, an independent of the United States are to be adequately agency, and NTIA in the Department of Commerce. protected. The FCC oversees the use of the spectrum by the private sector and all State and local government users, and NTIA manages the spectrum used by the Federal Government. Internationally, spectrum is basis rather than as a result of any long-range allocated and regulated by the ITU through the planning or cooperative effort. Some domestic WARCs that are held to review and revise the Radio spectrum mechanisms and activities, including WARC Regulations.26 preparations, do take account of international parameters such as the international Table of Frequency The problems of domestic spectrum management Allocations, but these activities often concentrate on do not exist in isolation from the larger international specific issues or radio services. They at-e not guided context within which so much of spectrum policy is by strategic policy decisions made in a framework of decided. Rather, domestic and international spec- long-term international spectrum goals and priori- trum policymaking are interdependent processes- ties. Longer-term domestic spectrum policymaking each influences the other. Domestic allocations, for has largely proceeded independently of international example, generally conform to the international concerns—policy is first set domestically and then Table of Allocations and the Radio Regulations extended to the international arena. The failure to maintained by the ITU and revised at the WARCs. aggressively link long-term international policy Those international allocations and regulations, in efforts with domestic needs could threaten U.S. turn, are the product of negotiation among many technological and policymaking leadership and countries, each pursuing its own national goals. could undermine future success in U.S. international Domestic spectrum policymaking must take careful spectrum policymaking. account of the implications of international decisions if the interests of the United States are to be adequately protected. World Administrative Radio The more advanced our technology becomes, and Conferences the more complicated our frequency utilization, the more apparent it is that there must be complete correlation of the national and international aspects General of frequency use.27 The function of a WARC is fundamentally While these concerns are recognized by domestic technical, but the process of spectrum allocation and spectrum policymakers, it is unclear how well management has always been both a political and 28 domestic and international spectrum policymaking technical process. It is the means by which the is integrated. Few attempts have been made to world distributes the resources of the radio fre- rationally lay out and harmonize international and quency spectrum. The Final Acts of WARCs have domestic spectrum policy goals, and what accord international treaty status, and must be approved and does exist has occurred on a reactive, piecemeal ratified by member governments. Once ratified, they

26~e 1~, stri+? Sp$j.khg, does not “~mge” spectrum use on a day-today basis. Rather, it allocates spectrum bands, defines categories of services, and sets the technical and administrative rules which govern spectrum use intermtionally. Individual national governments usually follow these rules, but still retain fti authority in deciding how their domestic spectrum resources will be used. zv~old E. Fellows, tw~ony at he~gs ~fore a Subcommittee of the Committee on ~ters~te and FoNign Commerce, 011 Allocation Of RltdiO Spectrum Between Federal Government Users and Non-Federal Government Users, 86th Cong., 1st sess., June 8 and 9, 1959, p. 36. ~For a discussion of the politic~ a~ts t. ~ ad WARC activities, see J~es G. Savage, The politics o~znternationuz Telecommunications Regulation (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989). 10 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum policy

are generally adhered to by all ITU members.29 As Table l-2—International Telecommunication Union such, they carry enormous weight in setting future World Conferences Since 1979 international radiocommunication policy, alloca- 1979 General WARC (WARC-79) tions, and services. There are three types of adminis- 1980 — trative radio conferences. First, the general WARCs 1981 — held by the ITU address all radio services and 1982 Plenipotentiary (Nairobi, Kenya) spectrum allocations, and can review and revise any 1983 Mobile Services WARC (Distress and Safety) or all of the international Radio Regulations. Gen- 1984 High Frequency Broadcasting WARC (First Session- eral WARCs were held in Atlantic City, 1947; HFBC-84) Geneva, 1959; and Geneva, 1979. Despite the wide 1985 WARC on the Use of the Geostationary-Satellite Orbit range of issues it will cover, WARC-92 is not a and the Planning of Space Services Utilizing It (First general conference since it will not examine the Session-ORB-85) — complete international Table of Frequency Alloca- 1986 tions and all of the Radio Regulations. 1987 High Frequency Broadcasting WARC (Second Session- HFBC-87) Instead, WARC-92 is a specialized WARC. WARC for the Mobile Services (MOB-87) Specialized WARCs generally examine issues relat- 1988 WARC on the Use of the Geostationary-Satell ite Orbit ing to specific frequency bands or radio services. and the Planning of Space Services Utilizing It (Second Session-ORB-88) WARC-92, for example, will examine mobile serv- 1989 Plenipotentiary (Nice, France) ices, high frequency broadcasting, and new space 1990 — services, among others. Since 1979 four specialized 1991 — WARCs have been convened, covering High Fre- 1992 WARC for Dealing With Frequency Allocations in quency Broadcasting (HFBC-84/87), space services Certain Parts of the Spectrum (WARC-92) and orbital assignments for satellites (ORB-85/88), Plenipotentiary (Geneva Switzerland) mobile services (concentrating on distress and safety 1993 — services) in 1983, and mobile services (MOB-87) 1994 Plenipotentiary (Japan) 30 (see table 1-2). These conferences were convened 1995 High Frequency Broadcasting WARC (proposed) in large part to address specific issues that the 1979 1996 — general WARC could not resolve. WARC planners 1997 — believed that a narrower focus on specific issues 1998 Plenipotentiary (location undetermined) would enable the ITU members to reach decisions SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1991. more easily and quickly than a broad, general WARC could allow, thus streamlining the ITU process. for Region 2 at the 1983 RARC, for example, was Regional Administrative Radio Conferences adopted by the 1985 specialized WARC on the Use (RARCs), which bring together the ITU member of the Geostationary-Satellite Orbit and the Planning countries from a specific geographical region (see of Space Services Utilizing It (ORB-85). figure 1-2), sometimes address allocation issues, but are usually confined to specific issues that have The 1992 World Administrative Radio particular regional importance or require regional Conference coordination, such as television and AM/FM radio 31 Background services. Importantly, these conferences may not revise the Radio Regulations, but may only propose At its 1989 Plenipotentiary Conference in Nice, changes to be considered and confirmed at the next France, the ITU decided to hold a World Adminis- competent WARC. A broadcasting plan developed trative Radio Conference for Dealing with Fre-

z91f a metier disa~=s with a speciilc action or tie action will interfe~ with domestic telecommunications operations, an adfOitdS@atiOn can take a “reservation” in the Final Acts stating that the country will not necessarily abide by the new regulation. A reservation permits a nation to ratify the treaty while maintaining some degree of autonomy and flexibility for its domestic policies. wh W, 4 WAR& (in 6 smsions) took place in tie 1980S, along with 9 Regional Administrative Radio Conferences (in 12 SeSSimS). 31~e Im ~ divid~ tie world &t. ~ re#om. R@on 1 Consisfi of fic~ E~pe, ad tie U.S.S.R, Region 2 encompasses tie AIne~CaS; including Camda, Greenland, United States, Central and souti America, and the Caribbean. Region 3 includesAsia, Australi~ and Oceania. See figure 1-2. Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 11

—— – ‘~– - ‘- ‘- /

‘4’ 27 /-L7 ● 12 WARC-92 : Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

quency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectrum technologies and services and saw the conference as (WARC-92). In 1990 the ITU Administrative Coun- an opportunity to get radio frequencies it needed. cil prepared an official agenda of the topics to be Lobbying by industry and the FCC’s Industry addressed.32 (See app. B for the full text of the Advisory Committee (see ch. 4), finally convinced WARC-92 agenda.) the government to pursue additional agenda items. At the 1990 ITU Administrative Council meeting, In large part, WARC-92 was called to address the United States succeeded in having a limited issues unresolved at past conferences. In the 12 number of new issues included on the agenda, such years since WARC-79, many specialized radio as low-Earth orbiting satellites (LEOS) and a conferences took place that addressed specific areas terrestrial complement to satellite sound broadcast- of the spectrum and specific services, such as high ing (see below) .34 frequency broadcasting and space services (see above). While these conferences often accomplished Although the agenda appears to be freed, and the a great deal, they could not reach agreement on all ITU Convention states that discussion must be issues. Consequently, many of the items on the limited to those items on the agenda, this may not WARC-92 agenda are based on recommendations always be the case. Imprecise definitions and and resolutions from previous conferences, and, as overlapping services encourage some governments, a result, the conference will address several old including the United States, to make proposals issues, including high-frequency broadcasting in the regarding items that are not explicitly part of the band 3-30 MHz, anew allocation to the broadcasting- official agenda.35 While these proposals are made in satellite service for HDTV, preferably on a world- response to spectrum needs identified by both wide basis, somewhere in the band 12.7-23 GHz, government and industry, some analysts are con- and allocations to Mobile services, including Mobile cerned that such tactics can undermine U.S. credi- Satellite Services in the band 500-3000 MHz. bility abroad, and may threaten overall U.S. effectiveness at conferences. In addition to the old items on the agenda, several new issues have been added. Prior to (and at) the 1989 Plenipotentiary Conference that scheduled the The Context for WARC-92 WARC, there was resistance in the United States to abroad reallocation conference. It was felt by many, In 1982, OTA published a report entitled Radio- especially government interests, that the United frequency Use and Management: Impacts from the States had more to lose than gain at such a World Administrative Radio Conference of 1979.36 conference. 33 The United States favored a more Ten years later many of the same issues of spectrum limited conference that would deal with space use and management remain unresolved, and many services and/or mobile services. Once the initial of the same forces continue to put pressure on agenda was released, however, interest in the domestic and international spectrum policy proc- conference grew through 1989 and 1990, especially esses. The issues and trends outlined below form the in the private sector, which had been developing new context within which WARC-92 will operate.

szfioWs~s forco~mences may originatewi~ind.ivid~ metiers of the ITU. More often, a Plenipotentiary Conference, oraprevious Administmtive Conference may adopt Resolutions or Recommendations that a conference be held within a certain time perio~ to address one or more speeiflc subjects. The agenda for radio conferences is set by the ITU Administrative Council with input and agreement from member administrations, and is based on items requested by a Plenipotentiary Conference, including recommendations and resolutions from previous WMCS (see ch. 3). 33Dep~ent of Defense ~d aviation inte~sts spcific~ly were afraid that a general redhCi3tiOII COnfaence wo~d me awaY some of ‘ieh frequencies. The FCC did not want a broad conference because they had neither the time nor the staff resources to do the preparation work and because initially there was little support among industry.

34M~l, the follo~g item props~ by the u~t~ Smtes Wem put Onthe agen~ (~thoughnotnecessfily in the exact fo~r~uestti): HDTVbelow 12.7 GHz, LEOS, terrestrial sound broadcasting between 500-3(K)0 MHz, RDSS upgrade in Regions 1 and 3, primary MSS at 20/30 GHz, and a new space service in 27.3-30 GHz. 35~e w~c-92 agen~ for exmple, o~y sp=~l~y ad&esses J-,EOS s~iws be/oW 1 GHz. ~ its f~WARC-92 propos~s (See app. D), however, the United States has embedded LEOS above 1 GHz in a proposat to allocate spechum to the Mobile Satellite Service in the 1613.8-1626.5-MHz and 1850-1990-MHz bands. Government oftlcials and LEOS proponents maintain that this is Iegitimateunder existing service definitions (LEOS will provide mobile satellite services) and the W~C-92 agenda. Others believe that this violates the spirit of (and a strict reading ofl the agenda, which speciiles that only LEOS services in bands below 1 GHz are to be considered. 360p. cit., footuote 25. Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 13

Technology (ch. 2)—Technology trends drive the WARC process. The pace of technological change is immeasurably faster than it was only 12 years ago, Telecommunications systems and serv- and rapid developments in technology have put ices, including radiocommunications, are increasing pressure on the ITU and the WARC increasingly global in scope, and tele- process. The role of technology in today’s crowded communications is increasingly seen as spectrum is twofold and often contradictory-it is an important piece of the broader con- both problem and solution. New technologies and text of economics, trade, and develop- services and the expanding use of old technologies ment. and services are squeezing available spectrum allocations. On the other hand, advances in technology can free up spectrum and allow it to be used more cations is increasingly seen as an important piece of efficiently. Innovations such as digital compression, the broader context of economics, trade, and devel- spread spectrum, and trunking can also increase opment. Competitive pressures have forced many availability of radio frequencies. governments to liberalize or privatize their telecom- International Environment (ch. 3)—But radio- munication industries. communications is not just a technology issue. The arena in which international spectrum allocation and Recognizing the importance and scope of these planning takes place is also changing rapidly. changes, the ITU established the High Level Com- Today, new players have become prominent as mittee to examine ways to improve the structure and others have faded, and firm alliances have given way processes of the ITU in order to more effectively to rapidly shifting factions. The 1980s witnessed the respond to the challenges of advancing technology rise of Japan as a major economic power and the and members’ development needs. In order for the industrialization of countries such as Brazil and United States to respond to these changes, the Korea. The influence of the Soviet Union has Federal Government, with extensive input from declined dramatically as the Eastern bloc has dis- industry, will have to develop new ways of thinking solved and the U.S.S.R. itself is beset with internal and negotiating in order to be most effective in this new climate of change. The United States must become more adroit in setting and negotiating The role of technology in today’s crowded international spectrum policy. spectrum is twofold and often contradictory—it is both problem and solu- Domestic Radiocommunication Policy Process tion. (chs. 4 and 5)—The domestic process for allocating and managing spectrum is complicated. Responsi- bility is divided between the FCC and NTIA, with input from the private sector. International radio- turmoil. East-West and North-South confrontations communication policymaking, including WARC-92 have been replaced by regional divisions. Moving preparations, is also fragmented. In addition to the into the 1990s, the world is seeing the emergence of FCC and NTIA, the Department of State becomes a unified Europe and a realignment of the Eastern involved as the official representative of the United European nations. Accompanying these changes, the States abroad. Some consider this diversity to be a historic tension between the developing and devel- strength, but coordination and reconciliation of oped countries that characterized the 1970s and early various views can be difficult, and may make the 1980s has lessened. There is now a different tone to process of preparing for international conferences international telecommunications policymaking that time-consumin g and inefficient. In addition, linking is more flexible and conciliatory. the goals of WARC-92 into the overall goals of U.S. In addition to these political forces, economic international spectum policy was not possible be- pressures are also reshaping the world environment cause no overarching framework exists to guide U.S. for radiocommunications. Telecommunications sys- spectrum policy. Accountability for matching tems and services, including radiocommunications, WARC proposals to long-term, strategic spectrum are increasingly global in scope, and telecommuni- goals is thus almost nonexistent. 14 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

hensive meeting. While recent conferences have addressed more limited issues, WARC-92 will touch The activities of the ITU, including on a wide range of new (and old) radiocommunica- WARCs, offer the United States an tion services. The decisions reached at WARC-92 important opportunity to advance its will determine which technologies and services get views on technical standards and regula- spectrum and how much. tions. The results of WARC-92 will also fundamentally affect how new services will be introduced interna- Why Is WARC-92 Important? tionally, and on what time schedule.37 Allocations from WARC-92 will also have substantial impacts Effective U.S. participation in the activities of the on future domestic developments and policies, ITU and the WARC process is important at several because changes in the international Table of levels. Without international standards and proce- Allocations will likely be translated to the U.S. dures for sharing the spectrum, global radio commu- National Table of Frequency Allocations.38 For nication and services would be impossible. Al- example, the FCC now has before it several proceed- though international interference problems are not as ings dealing with new services such as Broadcasting- much of a problem for the United States as other Satellite Service-Sound (BSS-Sound) and PCS that countries, the United States must nevertheless coor- could be substantially affected by WARC deci- dinate services that are worldwide, such as safety sions.39 How closely the FCC and NTIA will follow services for aeronautical and maritime services. U.S. the decisions adopted at the WARC will vary by participation in the ITU is also crucial to our item, adhering closely to some and ignoring specif- international stature both politically and technically. ics of others. Ensuring American participation in the Were the United States to pull out of or fail to ratify full range of new international communications ITU documents, such as the Final Acts of the systems will require a clear linkage of domestic WARCs, on a regular basis, a poor precedent would spectrum policy to the international environment. be set that could jeopardize U.S. participation and negotiations in other international bodies. Finally, Having U.S. proposals adopted at WARC-92 is the ITU offers the United States an important particularly important domestically for two reasons. opportunity to advance its views on technical First, because the timeframe for implementing standards and regulations, promoting global stand- WARC allocations and regulations is often long, ards that allow U.S. firms to take advantage of sometimes 10 or 15 years, decisions made at economies of scale in manufacturing and the provi- WARC-92 will influence international and national sion of services. Such input is critical in maintaining radiocommunication policy until 2010 or beyond. the technological and policy leadership of the United Such decisions will also have important impacts on States in international radiocommunications. investments in radiocommunication systems, including hardware and the development of services. WARC-92, in particular, is important to the Decisions that do not support U.S. positions could United States for several reasons. The new services have along-term negative impact on U.S. radiocom- of an increasingly information-oriented and mobile munication development and economic competi- society will rely heavily on radio spectrum re- tiveness. Second, in the past, the irregular timing of sources, perhaps even more so than in the past. But WARCs has put a premium on getting new technolo- because the most desirable parts of the spectrum are gies and services approved and allocated as quickly almost completely allocated and many bands are as possible. Because a schedule of future confere- heavily used, finding room for new services is nces has not been set, if new services do not receive difficult. WARC-92 is the first attempt to address the any or inadequate frequencies at WARC-92, the next requirements of the new technologies at one compre- opportunity to address them is uncertain-this may

371f efisfig users have to be moved, the ITU will agree on a timetable for existing users to vacate the band for new servicesto bem operation. 38Adoptionof the ~temtion~ Table of AllWatiom domesti~y is not automatic. The FCC typic~y initiates a ~cmak.ingpro~we aftCI’ a WARC is concluded to determine how to implement changes agreed to internationally in the U.S. National Table of Frequency Allocations. 3~e FCC ~ re.e=~ Notims of ~~ (NoIs) ~to perso~ Commtications Servias, en Docket No. 90-314, released June 28, 1990, and Digital Audio Broadcasting, Gen Docket No. 90-357, adopted Aug. 1, 1990. Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 15

be the last chance to get an allocation for some services for many years. This problem is exacerbated If new services are to be accommodated, by the long lead times required for reallocation and they will have to share spectrum with reaccommodation of existing service-even after existing users, or the existing users will frequencies have been allocated to a service, the ITU have to move. often grants existing users up to 10 or 15 years to change frequencies. However, recognizing the important and rapid changes taking place in technology and the international community, the High Level Major Issues Committee of the ITU has recommended that the schedule of conferences be regularized-a confer- The primary focus of WARC-92 will be allocating ence would take place every 2 years. Such a change radio frequencies to new and old services.41 These would lessen the uncertainty of when issues will be issues are complex and often interrelated. In some addressed (see ch. 3 for further discussion of the cases, several services compete for the same band of proposed changes in the ITU), and would signifi- frequencies. The problems are not as easy as simply cantly affect the timing and preparation for future finding frequencies for new services, or matching a WARCs. The United States has actively participated service with the most suitable frequencies. There is in the High Level Committee and must continue to almost no unused spectrum below 3 GHz, so if new be responsive to these possible changes. services are to be accommodated, they will have to share spectrum with existing users, or the existing users will have to move.42 Reallocation decisions WARC-92 thus represents both a risk and an have technical, political, and economic conse- opportunity for U.S. interests. Part of enabling U.S. quences. Often the decisions of where to put new companies to compete effectively depends on har- services and move old ones are based just as much monizing international tele- and radiocommunica- on economic and political pressures as on purely tions policies with trade policies to ensure that each technical requirements. Existing users with political reinforces the goals of the other. WARC-92 repre- clout may be difficult to move. Users that make sents an important opportunity to coordinate and extensive use of the band and have billions of dollars align frequencies to open up world (instead of invested in equipment may also be difficult to move, domestic or regional) markets in many new services. practically and financially. The question of who Global coordination creates larger markets and pays for such reallocation is often contentious, and promises lower prices, portability of services, in- while the cost is not explicitly a WARC issue, it is creasing interconnection, and greater economic effi- an important consideration in the development of ciency. If U.S. views are well articulated, supported, each government’s WARC proposals. and presented, and the international community Many problems make WARC preparations and accepts them, benefits will flow to U.S. interests. On negotiations difficult on both international and the other hand, lack of spectrum policy planning domestic levels. First, some of the technologies and risks U.S. competiveness. If the U.S. fails to present services under consideration are still evolving. Final well thought out and coherent proposals to the requirements for spectrum and specific standards are international community, it risks being left out or not yet in place, and the industries themselves are left behind. If other countries with less crowded often not mature-many companies are still vying airwaves and more forward-thinking policies permit for a piece of the action. This has the effect of new services first, their economies will be the frost making coordination and compromise even more to benefit from new communications services.40 difficult-considering many different views from

40~k hwyn and Peter Coy, “Airwave Wars,” Business Week, No. 3170, July 23, 1990, p. 49.

AIO~er ~aers t. ~ ~&as~ by tie co~erence include: ~irements @ ~ps.at-~ ~Ve Cetild radio personnel on bored, development of recommendations andresolutionsformeteorological aids, and consideration of the problems of the meteorological and Barth exploration satellite seMces in the 401+03-MHz band. See app. B for the full W=C-92 agenda. A~mme -s, sm~~=n~o comW~ s~i= can~ ~lc~t Orpmcticdy impossible. Sharing between high-powered radar systems and some satellite services, e.g., is very difficult. 16 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

many different companies. Second, other countries have developed systems and approaches to radiocommunications that are different from the United In preparations for WARC-92, the most States. Developing countries, for example, often use difficult allocation problems, domesti- the high frequency (HF) bands for domestic point-to- cally and internationally, involve the use point communication. Developed countries, how- of the L-band. ever, have largely replaced HF point-to-point links with satellite or fiber-optic telecommunications systems. They now use these bands much more heavily for international broadcasting.43 These dif- Below is a summary of the allocation issues to be ferences will make international agreement difficult. addressed at WARC-92, including proposed U.S. positions (see app. D for a complete summary of In preparations for WARC-92, the most difficult final U.S. WARC proposals),47 the views of foreign allocation problems, domestically and internation- administrations (where possible), and a discussion ally, involve the use of the L-band (roughly 1.4-1.6 of the potentially most controversial issues to be GHz). Private companies, including those develop- discussed (see app. B for the full text of the agenda). ing Broadcasting-Satellite Services-Sound (BSS- The views of foreign countries outlined below are Sound) and Mobile Satellite Services (MSS) would preliminary and may change before final positions like to use portions of this band because of its are decided later this year. They should be under- 44 favorable transmission characteristics. The De- stood as only a rough guide indicating how the partment of Defense, however, opposes a realloca- various WARC agenda issues are evolving. tion of the 1435-1525-MHz portion of the band for new BSS-Sound services because of existing uses.45 High Frequency Broadcasting-HF refers to The FCC, noting that the 1.5-GHz band is the band frequencies in the 3-30-MHz portion of the spec- most favored by some broadcasters and other trum. The band is densely packed—numerous serv- countries (notably CITEL) for BSS-Sound applica- ices and users occupy the HF spectrum, including tions, believes that important new global services amateur radio, government-sponsored international and markets may be foreclosed if the Defense broadcasting (Voice of America, British Broadcast- Department’s opposition prevents the United States ing Corporation, and Radio Moscow), private relig- from agreeing to worldwide allocations.% If a ious broadcasting, and international aviation and worldwide allocation is agreed to at WARC-92 that maritime communications. Developing countries conflicts with the final U.S. position, the United also use the HF bands for domestic point-to-point States could decide not to abide by the specific communications because of its low cost. decision. This could mean that BSS-Sound services developed in the United States would not use the WARC-92 will consider expanding the bands same frequencies as the rest of the world—the allocated exclusively to HF broadcasting. This issue systems would be incompatible. It would then be flows out of the work of the HF Broadcasting difficult to establish worldwide services, such as Conferences (HFBC) of 1984 and 1987.48 For international broadcasting, using this new technol- WARC-92, the United States proposes expanding ogy. the band by a total of 1325 kHz (in different blocks

Aq~e United Stites done accounts for 10 percent of worldwide HF spectrum use. See Final Report of “Info- Working Group 1“ to tie ~dusq Advisory Committee to the FCC, LAC Document 48, Apr. 30, 1991. 44MSS Providen, however, w~e not able to convince government polk-ers to m~e ~s a ~ U.S. PmPos~o A5~ong otheruse~, theseb~ds Me used by the &,p~ent of Defense ad my of its con~actors h thepfivate sector for the te,sthlg Of IleW 21h(Xiift. 46B=auSe much of the ~~ on the Feder~ Gove~ent’s u5e of sp~~ is c~ssified or not e~fly ob~~, the Fcc IIMy not have a good idea how much and how efllciently government spectrum in this area is used. This lack of adequate data makes it very difficult for the FCC to negotiate the issue. 47~ ~, tie United Stites ~11 tie ~ppro~tely 50 specfilc pmpos~s cove~g 14 diffe~nt radio services. All tiorn@ion on f~ U.S. pI’OpOsdS comes from U.S. Department of State, United States Proposals for the 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference for Dealing With Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectrum, publication 9903, July 1991. 4S~e 1985/1987 HF’BC W~C attempted to develop a method for planning broadcast frequency msig’nments on a worldwide basis. Bemuse ‘ie broadcasting needs identfled greatly exceeded the fkquencies available, a workable system was never developed. As a result the Conference recommended (Recommendation No. 511, HFBC-87) that more spectrum be allocated for HF broadcasting at a future W~C. This recommendation was included in the agenda for W~C-92. Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 17

of frequencies, see app. D)-much less than the amount recommended by the FCC’s Industry Advi- sory Committee, which suggested 2455 kHz of Planning and use of the HF bands for additional spectrum. The 1325 kHz, or any portion broadcasting has been contentious for approved, would be reallocated from the Fixed and many years. Mobile services, which could continue to use the bands until the end of a transfer period. mandated its use by the year 2015.51 The United Planning and use of the HF bands for broadcasting States proposes that SSB be used in all new HF has been contentious for many years.49 Two factors frequency bands adopted at WARC-92, and that the contribute to the problem: First, demand for HF effective date of implementation be moved up to broadcasting spectrum greatly outstrips supply. The 2007. A number of (especially developing) countries International Frequency Registration Board’s (an have opposed this conversion because of the large agency of the ITU) planning exercises conducted for number of existing receivers and the lack of eco- the High Frequency Broadcasting WARC of 1987 52 nomic incentives to build the new receivers. (HFBC-87) indicate that more than half of all HF broadcast requirements submitted by member coun- Broadcasting-Satellite Service-Sound—BSS- tries could not be adequately met, and between 25 Sound refers to the delivery of audio services and 35 percent of these requirements could not be 50 directly to stationary and portable receivers from accommodated at all. Second, as noted above, satellite transmitters (see figure 2-4).53 These serv- different countries use the HF bands for different ices, which often plan to use digital technology purposes. Many countries see the allocation of (digital audio broadcasting), promise to deliver radio additional broadcast spectrum as a threat to their services with compact disc quality sound to any type domestic (nonbroadcast) radiocommunications. of receiver (home, portable, mobile) in any environ- Preliminary negotiations indicate that this issue ment (urban, suburban, rural). Domestic service will be difficult for the 1992 conference (see box would be provided through satellites for wide area 3-A). Many developing countries may oppose any coverage and terrestrial transmitters for local serv- expansion of the broadcasting spectrum in an effort ices or to fill in areas where the satellite signal is to protect their existing domestic telecommunications weak (in tunnels, for example). International service services and investments in equipment. In Europe, would be provided primarily by satellite and would the countries that belong to the Conference of allow listeners to receive programming anywhere in European Postal and Telecommunications Adminis- the world. Planned systems will allow services to be trations (CEPT), which attempts to harmonize Euro- tailored to local, domestic or international listeners. pean telecommunications policies and is coordinat- In the United States, several companies have applied ing the development of European WARC proposals, to the FCC for authority to launch satellites and offer have not proposed specific bands. such services (see app. C).

An additional part of the HF controversy sur- BSS-Sound has been studied internationally, dat- rounds the use of single-sideband (SSB) transmis- ing back at least 25 years. The issue of BSS-Sound sion and receivers for all new HF services (see ch. 2). was raised at WARC-79, which recommended that SSB broadcasting requires less bandwidth to send it be considered at a future WARC (which was later information than most conventional radio broadcast- scheduled as the 1988 WARC on the Use of the ing systems, and hence would allow more broadcast- Geostationary-Satellite Orbit and the Planning of ers to use the spectrum. The ITU has already Space Services Utilizing It-ORB-88). ORB-88

d~or a MI discussion of tie tistow of HF spectrum allocation, see Savage, op. cit., footiote 28. %dustry Advisory Committee, “Final Report of Informal Work@ Group Number l,” report submitted to the FCC, Apr. 24, 1991. sl~termtio~ Tel~omm~cation Ufioq Resolution No. 517 of The World Administrative Radio Conference for the Phtig of the ~ B~ds Allocated Exclusively to the Broadcasting Service (Geneva, 1987). sz~~ac~em will not build the receivers until they can receive something, buttie Pmf? ammers will not broadcast in SSB until there are radios to receive the signal. Even if some manufacturers do produce these new receivers, they are likely to be very expensive until larger markets open up. ssB$&Somd system my ~so be coWlement~ by terres~ trammitters. Bo~ satellites ~d terresti transmitte~ me proposed to be USd eitk separately or in a mixed system to provide complete radio coverage. 18 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

was unable to reach agreement on possible allocations and service standards and recommended that the issue be reconsidered at a future WARC after Internationally, there is strong interest further technical studies by the ITU’s International in the concept of BSS-Sound, but sharp Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) (see ch. 3).54 differences exist as to which band(s) Accordingly, the Administrative Council included would be most appropriate for an alloca- BSS-Sound in the 500-3000-MHz range on the tion. WARC-92 agenda. Debate in the United States has been intense over which bands to allocate domestically and what the recent meeting of CITEL (see box 3-A) generally U.S. international position should be. This is the supported an allocation in the 1.5-GHz band, and a only WARC agenda item that could not be recon- minority of the CEPT countries would like to use the ciled between FCC and NTIA before final recom- 1.5-GHz band for BSS-Sound. However, many mendations were transmitted to the Department of foreign countries seem to concur with U.S. govern- State. In initial reports, the FCC and NTIA proposed ment opposition-including many CEPT coun- four options for BSS-Sound allocation for WARC- tries-who claim that there is no way to accommo- 55 92. BSS-Sound proponents favor the bands around date the service in the 1.5-GHz band because of 1.5 GHz (the so-called L-band), but U.S. Govern- tremendous demand by mobile services and existing ment interests, notably the Department of Defense fixed services. Other countries also seem to favor and its commercial contractors, are opposed because using the band for Mobile or Mobile Satellite of the existing use of the band for aircraft testing.56 Services. Debate on BSS-Sound at WARC-92 is The problem with all BSS-Sound options is that expected to be difficult because all proposed bands sharing with other services, such as the industrial, are used by existing services.58 scientific, and medical services, which includes Broadcasting-Satellite Service-High-Definition microwave ovens, in the 2400-MHz bands is ex- Television—HDTV was conceived more than 20 tremely difficult, and existing users are often unwill- 57 years ago, but only recently has the technology ing or unable to move. In its final Report, the FCC become advanced enough for commercial applica- recommended the reallocation of the 1.5- and tions.59 HDTV’s main characteristics are high reso- 2.3-GHz bands for BSS-Sound. NTIA proposed that lution (nearly twice that of conventional television) the 231O-239O-MHZ band could be used. The final and better color, a wider screen, and compact disc size and location of the bands is subject to continu- quality digital sound. While HDTV systems are ing negotiation. currently still in development, rapid advances in Internationally, there is strong interest in the technology are being made that could bring HDTV concept of BSS-Sound, but sharp differences exist as to consumer markets worldwide by the mid-1990s.60 to which band(s) would be most appropriate for an Satellite transmission of HDTV services is only one allocation. For example, there is little consensus of a number of ways to deliver such programming internationally on the use of the 1.5-GHz band. A (others include cable, fiber optics, and terrestrial

fl~ter~tio~Tel=om~cationUfio~ ResolutionNo. 5200f ~eWorldAws~tive~&o Conference ontieuseof the Geostationary-Satellite Orbit and the Planning of Space Services Utilizing 16 Second Session (Geneva, 1988). 5S728-788 ~; 1493-1525 ~, 23*2450 ~, 236@2410 M&C F~er~ comm~cations Commissio% ‘ ‘An hlquiry Re@ng to hparation for the International Telecommunication Union World Administrative Radio Conference for Dealing With Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectrum,” Supplemental Notice Of Inquiry, Gen Docket 89-554,6 FCC Rcd 1914, p. 2. 56some proponents of~~~ audio broad~sting, a digital transmission format that could be used to provide BSS-Sound services, ~ve proposed tit the terrestrial component of BSS-Sound would be more easily provided in existing radio broadcasting bands. They do not necessarily favor the 1.5-GHz band for this service. 57~o~er prows~ for @~ ~u&o broadc~ting t. she spec~ ~ me ~ tel~ision band W= reject~ &KXNML the FCC anticipates that the spectrum will be needed for the transmission of advanced television (ATV) signals.

58~eFCS no~s ~i~ supplmen~ Notice of @@ tit find@ a worldwide ~o~tion for BSS my be di.filcdt. It then raises the possibility thtit allocations may have to be made on a regional basis. 59For ~xmsion of me ~stofic~, tw~c~, and econofic ~plications of H’DTV, see U.S. Congress, OffIce of TwkoIogy Assessmen4 The Big Picture: HDTVand High-Resohdion Systems, OTA-BP-C~-64 (W%shingtonj DC: U.S. Government Printing OffIce, June 1990). f@Japan ~ady has a system in operation (MUSE). Ml. Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 19 broadcasting), but proponents see HDTV as a very lucrative market for satellite services vendors. Satel- lite delivery of HDTV, however, depends on the Several of the most important issues to availability of spectrum around the world, and many be considered at WARC-92 involve the believe a worldwide allocation for HDTV is needed expansion of Mobile and Mobile Satel- to further advance this service and reduce interna- lite Services. tional interference problems. A plan exists for satellite transmission of television signals directly to home receivers in the Mobile and Mobile Satellite Services 12-GHz band. However, this band was planned in 1-3 GHz primarily for direct broadcast of conventional televi- -Several of the most important issues to be sion signals. While it appears possible to transmit considered at WARC-92 involve the expansion of some enhanced and narrow-band HDTV signals in Mobile and Mobile Satellite Services. Recognizing these channels, the larger bandwidths commonly the need to allocate additional frequencies to the associated with full HDTV may not fit into the mobile services, ITU members decided at the 1987 current planned channel bandwidths.61 To accom- WARC for the Mobile Services (MOB-87) that a modate these wider channels and any future expan- future conference was necessary to address these sion in HDTV service, HDTV allocations were issues. 64 Consequently, the WARC-92 agenda in- considered at ORB-88, but were not agreed to. The cludes four topics related to mobile and mobile ITU Administrative Council included this item in satellite services: 1) increasing the allocations to the agenda of WARC-92 based on Resolution 521 of these services in general; 2) allocation or designa- ORB-88, which calls for consideration of a world- tion of frequencies for public correspondence with wide allocation for wide-band HDTV between 12.7 aircraft; 3) allocation or designation of frequencies and 23.0 GHz. for Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunications The United States proposes that the existing plan Service; and 4) possible allocations for LEOS. Each in the 11.7-12.7-GHz band can serve as the basis for service is discussed separately below. future HDTV services, but that additional allocations may also be necessary. The United States Mobile Services-Although the United States is considered 17.3 -17.7 GHz and 24.65-25.25 GHz for widely regarded as a leader in many areas of these additional frequencies, and eventually the FCC radiocommunications, the European countries have and NTIA recommended the 25-GHz band.62 The been aggressively developing and implementing IAC generally supported the FCC positions, but expressed doubt about the necessity of expanding many types of mobile communication services. In allocations, especially in the 17-GHz bands.63 CEPT part this is because the European nations recognized countries have proposed using the band 21.4-22.0 early on the importance of mobile communications GHz on a worldwide basis for HDTV. CITEL was in an advanced information society, but more unable to agree on common views regarding the importantly because the Europeans identified these necessity of additional allocations given the possi- systems as a critical element in the future economic bilities of future technical advances in compression development of a unified Europe and started work- technology. ing out a common plan and standards for developing

61~pi~y ~vmc~g digi~ video compression c~abil.ities Cotid conceivably allow even the widest bandwidth HDTV signals to fit into the efisfig channel bandwidth constraints. There is no consensus, however, as to howmuchcompression will be practical in the short te~ and some administrations remain skeptical that compression techniques will completely solve this problem. See, e.g, Organhtion of American States, Interamerican Telecommunications Conference, Perman ent Technical Committee III, ‘‘Report of the CITEL 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference Interim Working Group,” Document WARC-92/62 Rev. 2, May 10, 1991. Czsupplemental NOI, op. cit., footnote 55. 63~e basis of this position is the belief tit compression technologies ~1 be able to provide mm Semice wiw the existing ~OCiltiOIIS. The Industry Advisory Committee report also noted serious problems with sharing in the 17-GHz bands. Because of the lack of sharing problems in the 24.65-25.25 GHz-bands, these were endorsed by the Committee. See ‘ ‘Final Report of Informal Working Group-Number Three,” submitted to Industry Advisory Committee, Apr. 25, 1991. 64~termtio~ Telecomm~cation Ution, Resolution No. 208 of the World AdminisEative ~dio Conference for the Mobile Services (Genev~ 1987). 20 ● W&C-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

such services.65 The United States, by contrast, consensus on the specific location or use of the considers mobile services more narrowly as a matter additional bands. Many existing users, including of domestic spectrum management, not linked to public safety interests and the petroleum, railroad, development or trade, and has no comprehensive and utilities, have voiced strong opposition to the long-range plan for such services, preferring to use of bands below 2 GHz. There is special concern manage and plan only in response to specific that the interests of the aeronautical and maritime pressures. This results from a U.S. system that distress and safety services be protected, especially depends on the market to make decisions and that from potential interference with the proposed serv- has many competing interests-an adversarial sys- ices for public correspondence with aircraft (see tem that often resorts to litigation rather than below). The United States believes that such public negotiation. Achieving consensus and developing a safety concerns can be protected through footnotes unified approach is much more difficult and time- allowing such services priority access to frequen- consuming in the United States than in many foreign cies, but there is still strong aeronautical industry countries. opposition to this view. Mobile Satellite Services-MSS encompass all Discussions within CITEL established general types of services delivered by satellite including support for additional allocations, but specific agree- maritime (MMSS), aeronautical (AMSS), and land ments on the use of the bands were limited. The mobile (LMSS) communications. These services CEPT countries have identified MSS allocations as can be provided by either geosynchronous orbit the most important issue of WARC-92, and may satellites or LEOS. Because of the characteristics of propose up to 100 MHz of additional spectrum in the radio wave propagation, the most suitable frequen- L-band as well as additional allocations above 2.5 cies for these mobile services are below 3 GHz, and GHz.68 CEPT also supports the concept of a generic the most heavily used frequencies are in the L-band allocation for MSS, but only for newly allocated (1.5- 1.6 GHz). With the increasing demand for MSS bands. in all parts of the world, these frequencies are becoming rapidly congested.66 In addition to the above allocations, the FCC Some of the most contentious and important proposed to allocate 1850-1990 MHz to MSS for the issues of the WARC, both domestically and interna- use of LEOS.69 In the final U.S. proposals, this tionally, involve the MSS. The United States has recommendation was modified to remove explicit proposed a generic MSS in the 1.5-1.6-GHz bands references to LEOS and was proposed under MSS. that would combine maritime, aeronautical, and land This change reflects a potential problem for the mobile services.67 The United States has also United States in its MSS negotiations at WARC-92. proposed allocating frequencies in the 2.1- and The WARC-92 agenda specifically addresses LEOS 2.4-GHz bands totaling 80 MHz and the 1850- 1990- systems that would operate in frequencies below 1 MHz band to MSS. The Industry Advisory Commit- GHz. During the course of the FCC preparations tee Ad-Hoc Group advising the FCC on MSS process (after the Second Notice of Inquiry was matters for WARC-92 agreed on the need for released), however, Motorola and Ellipsat proposed additional MSS spectrum, but could not reach LEOS systems that would operate in frequencies

GSS~ce the Pfivate s~tor plays a s@er role in public telecommunications systems development in Europe compared to the Ufited States, it maY be easier for the European nations to develop regional plans. For example, Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM-formerly Groupe Special Mobile) is a digital cellular standard that has been proposed to serve all Europe, replacing existing incompatible national (analog) systems. Its implementation is proceeding, although more slowly than some policymakers had anticipated. ~’rhe ~termtion~ M. con~tative Committee (CCIR) has studied future requirements for all MSS and has concluded that existing Mo=tions will not be sufilcient to meet estimated growth in these semices. CCIR studies estimate that a total bandwidth of between 177.6 and 328.2 MHz will be required by 2010. See Organization of American States, Inter-American Telecommunications Conference, “Report of ‘he CITEL 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference Interim Working Group,” WARC-92/62 Rev. 2, unpublished document, May 10, 1991. Tflese figures are roughly equivalent to the IAC’S estimates. See Supplemental NOI, op. cit., footnote 55. c7At tie 1987 Mobfle WARC, the United States did not succeed in having this view accepted. As a resti~ the United StateS took a reservation on this allocation and created a shared allocation for LMSS, MMSS, and AMSS. ~coments of E&rhard George, CEPT observer, to CfTEL Interim Working Group meeting, Washington DC, May 10, 1991. @Federal Communications Commission, “AnInquiry Relating to Preparation for the International Telecommunication Union World Administrative Radio Conference for Dealing Witb Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectrum,’ Report, Gen Docket No. 89-554,6 FCC Rcd 3900 (1991). Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 21 above 1 GHz.70 The FCC has supported these proposals, but support for the system outside the United States appears limited. At the International Spectrum allocated to Future Public Radio Consultative Committee WARC-92 Confer- Land Mobile Telecommunication Sys- ence Preparatory Meeting, for example, Motorola’s tems (FPLMTS) may provide radio fre- Iridium proposal was extensively discussed, but quencies that could be used by future LEOS systems in this band were not fully endorsed personal communications services (PCS). because of concerns about the ability of such systems to share spectrum with geosynchronous satellite systems.71 Because LEO systems will be providing MSS, the United States has indicated in its this allocation (somewhere in the 1700-2300 MHz final proposals that spectrum allocated to the MSS bands) that future PCS may be located.73 Develop- could be used for LEOS operations. ment activities are underway around the world examining voice and data applications for both This proposal is controversial on several grounds. personal and mobile (vehicular) uses. Studies are First, domestic MSS providers, notably the Ameri- also underway examining the use of FPLMTS as an can Mobile Satellite Corporation, have argued that alternative to wire connections to provide access to the FCC has taken no domestic action yet to public telephone networks (see ch. 2). Based on this establish the need or public interest standards for widespread interest and the work of MOB-87,74 the these proposed LEOS systems. They contend that Administrative Council added FPLMTS to the bringing these proposals directly to the WARC WARC-92 agenda. preparations process and the WARC itself, circumvents the proper approval process. Second, because Allocation of additional spectrum for FPLMTS is the concept of LEOS above 1 GHz is not explicitly not the critical issue. Many countries, including the part of the WARC agenda, some foreign govern- United States, believe that the existing allocations ments have argued that this WARC cannot consider for mobile services in the 1-3-GHz band are it. They believe that a consideration of LEOS adequate. The main issue of FPLMTS centers systems above 1 GHz violates the spirit of the around the designation of a common core/band of WARC-92 agenda. The U.S. strategy has some worldwide frequencies that would allow interna- 75 opponents questioning why the government is ex- tional roaming of PCS. The CCIR has recom- pending so much energy and risking its credibility mended 60 MHz for this purpose. The members of on a proposal that has seemingly little backing CITEL generally support the concept of FPLMTS internationally .72 and the need for a core band of spectrum for international roaming. The CEPT countries have Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunication indicated that they would like 200 MHz of total Systems-Future Public Land Mobile Telecommu- spectrum designated to FPLMTS, possibly in the nication Systems (FPLMTS) is another of the new 19OO-21OO-MHZ bands. The FCC, however, pro- services to be considered at WARC-92. It is within posed no additional allocations for FPLMTS, and

7osPc~1c~1y, the binds appli~ for were 16101626.5 MHZ. Ellipsat also proposed to use frequencies just below 2.5 GHz. AS of J~Y IW1, seve~ other companies have applied at the Commission to build similar systems (see app. C). Tl~termtio~ Tel~omm~cation UniOQ titemtio~ R@o Consultative Committee, CCIR REPORT: Technical and Operational Buses for the World Administrative Radio Conference 1992 (W~C-92), March 1991, pp. 8-5,8-13,8-14. 72’1’’his co~ct reflWts the hger issue of how the world *1 a~ommodate LEOS in the intelylatio~ Radio Re@tions and in phcuk fr~llency bands. Fundamentally, the question is: what is LJ30S? Is it a separate service, or is LEOS technology merely another method for providing an existing service? Radio frequency allocations are generally made only to radio services, not technologies. Yet LEOS, which is technically just a radiocommunication technology, is being treated on the WARC-92 agenda as if it were a service. This ambiguous situation is the basis for the present controversy. TsotherpossiblepcS Wocatiom areinthe 8m900-M&bandnear the cellular allocation. Many experimental licenses have beengrantedandapplied for in this band (see app. C). Td~termtio~ TelWomm~cation Ufioq R=o-en&tion No. 205 of tie World A-~~tive Radio conference for the Mobile Servic= (Geneva, 1987). TsT& wo~dnot 1essaWoWtiom t. the seni~~any way. fither, it wo~dcarve outaband of sp~~ that would becomrmmto FPLMTS systems around the world. This would provide a common signaling channel worldwide that would allow users’ pcxsonal equipment to access semices no matter where the user is located. 22 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

believes that existing allocations have sufficient flexibility to allow any reallocation to be accomplished domestically.76 The Commission also be- Low-Earth orbiting satellite (LEOS) lieves that the 60-MHz requirement identified for services have received much attention in international roaming by the CCIR is excessive and the United States, and several applica- unnecessary. Generally, this view is supported by tions for LEOS systems are pending at the Industry Advisory Committee. At one point in the FCC. the development of proposals, the United States agreed that a common worldwide allocation would be desirable to allow mobile roaming of PCS, but types of LEOS systems could be used for domestic proposed 10 MHz as sufficient.77 In the final U.S. service, larger networks of LEO satellites could also proposals, however, this idea was dropped-the provide global coverage. For this reason, the United United States now believes that the designation of a States persuaded the ITU Administrative Council to frequency band for FPLMTS is premature. put LEOS (below 1 GHz) on the agenda for WARC-92. LEOS above 1 GHz were not included Low-Earth Orbiting Satellites-LE0S systems on the WARC-92 agenda because no systems using are another method of providing MSS. Individual 78 those frequencies had yet been proposed. LEO satellites are smaller and much easier and cheaper to design, construct and launch than conven- The United States considered several possible tional geosynchronous satellites, and proponents bands for reallocation to LEOS below 1 GHz.79 Final envision networks of these small satellites circling U.S. proposals are for 137-138 MHz (downlink), the globe. LEOS services have received much 148-149.9 MHz (uplink), and 400.15-401 MHz attention in the United States, and several applica- (downlink). While there is relatively little interest in tions for LEOS systems are pending at the FCC (see LEOS in other countries, many are concerned about app. C). Two types of LEO systems have been possible interference between LEOS and existing proposed. LEOS operating in frequencies below 1 users in the proposed bands. CITEL was not able to GHz will provide only data applications, including agree on a common LEOS proposal pending the position determination services for cars, trucks, completion of sharing studies in progress. The CEPT ships and aircraft. In addition to these services, countries, as of May 1991, had no LEO satellite systems operating in frequencies above 1 GHz plan proposals. to provide voice services as well. Motorola’s Iridium system, for example, which would use a network of During the course of WARC-92 preparations, the 77 LEOS to provide data and voice services around FCC also received applications for LEOS in bands the world. Although LEO satellites are relatively above 1 GHz.80 Although not explicitly included in less expensive than geosynchronous satellites, the the WARC-92 agenda, in its final proposals, the networks required to provide wide area coverage United States proposes that the band 1613.8 -1626.5 could be very expensive because of the large MHz be allocated to the MSS on a secondary basis numbers of satellites required and the technical to provide transmission from the satellite to receiv- complexity of linking them all together. Iridium is ers on Earth (the same frequencies are already expected to cost more than $3 billion. While both allocated for transmission from Earth to satellites).

7cFedeml Commticatiom Commission, “Anh@ry RelaQ to Preparation for the Intermtional Telecommunication Union World ~“ “strative Radio Conference for Dealing With Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spec~” Second Notice Of Znquiry, Gem Docket 89-554,5 FCC Rcd 6046 (1990); Supplemental NOZ, op. cit., footnote 55. 77Apple Computa, Motorola, and Comsat w SUppOfl at least a 1O-MHZ designation to wow ~temat-io~ voi~ and data P~so~ comm~~tiom. However, the proposal is not included in the final U.S. proposals. TgMotorola and Ellipsat filed their applications well after the agenda had been fwd. T~ebmds propos~ ~ tie FCC Notice of ~q~ prWe55 include: 137-138 and 148-149.9 MHz; 420-421 MHz and 930-931 *. rn additiom tie Industry Advisory Committee proposed 173.4-174 MHz and 400.15-401 MHz. Second NO1, op. cit., footnote 76; Supplemental NOI, op. cit., footnote 55. wMotorola and E~psat were he MM appliat5. me hidium system would use the band 1610- 1626.5 MHz for both uP~ @~-to-sateflite) and downlink (satellite-to-Earth) transmissions, while Ellipsat would use 1610- 1626.5 as its uplink with its dowrdink transmissions at 2483.5-2500 MHz. Recently, more applications for such service have been fded (see app. C). For a discussion of the Iridium and Ellipsat applications and FCC proposals, see Supplemental NOI, op. cit., footnote 55. Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 23

This spectrum would be used in the United States for CITEL members support the U.S. proposal, but a LEOS services, and responds to Iridium’s proposal common view has not been agreed to. The CEPT to use this block of spectrum for both uplink and countries also do not want any additional allocations downlink transmissions. The United States also for APC in the 900-MHz band, citing extensive proposes that spectrum be allocated to MSS services existing services, but will likely propose an alloca- in 1850-1990 MHz on a shared primary basis to tion of 10 MHz of additional spectrum in the 1.7-or provide for future flexibility and expansion of MSS 1.8-GHz bands. (specifically LEOS, although the proposals do not explicitly state this). As noted above, these propos- Radiodetermination-Satellite Service in 1.6-2.5 als have generated controversy on several levels. GHz-Radiodetermination-Satellite Service (RDSS) uses satellites to provide geographic location infor- Other Allocation Issues—Several other alloca- mation to cars, trucks, aircraft, and ships at sea (see tion issues, while not receiving as much public ch. 2). Several RDSS systems are operating in the attention as those above, pose equally great negotiat- United States and more are being developed. Some ing challenges for the United States, both domesti- of these services may be offered by the proposed cally and internationally. LEOS systems in combination with other data and messaging applications (see app. C). Public Correspondence With Aircraft-Aeronau- tical public correspondence (APC) refers to radio- RDSS was put on the WARC-92 agenda accord- communication services that allow airline passen- ing to Resolution No. 708 of the 1987 WARC for the gers to place telephone calls while in flight. The Mobile Services, which allocated spectrum for the demand for public communication with aircraft is service, but also called for more study of the use of relatively recent, having been addressed for the first RDSS and sharing between RDSS and terrestrial time on a global basis at the 1987 Mobile WARC services in various bands. Consequently, WARC-92 (MOB-87). That WARC allocated frequencies in the will address the issues of RDSS with the intention of 1.5-1.6-GHz band for experimental terrestrial APC. harmonizing regulations for its use worldwide. In Subsequent studies by the CCIR indicated the this regard, the United States will propose that benefits of a worldwide allocation for this service, RDSS be upgraded to primary status in Regions 1 and following Recommendation 408 (MOB-87), the and 3 (to bring it in line with its status in Region 2).82 issue was included in the WARC-92 agenda. Fixed Satellite Service in 14.5 -14.8 GHz—The Although not particularly controversial, it appears 14.5-14.8-GHz band is allocated to the Fixed unlikely that a worldwide allocation for terrestrial Satellite Service (FSS) internationally.83 The item APC will be accepted. In many countries, the was put on the WARC agenda to correct an frequencies allocated at MOB-87 are already heavily imbalance in the number of frequencies available for used for other services and may cause serious sending signals to (uplink) and from (downlink) interference to radionavigation and radiodetermina- satellites. Outside the United States, the band is tion satellite services also operating in the bands. allocated to transmit video programming in support Because of this, many countries in Regions 2 and 3, of the Broadcasting-Satellite Service. In the United including the United States, have authorized or States, however, the band is allocated exclusively begun operating terrestrial APC systems in the for government use. Due to extensive government 800-960-MHz band (a band not specifically allo- use of the band, the United States opposes interna- cated to worldwide aeronautical mobile service) .81 tional use of the band for commercial purposes, and Consequently, the United States will not propose opposed the inclusion of this item on the WARC any additional spectrum to terrestrial APC, but will agenda. U.S. representatives, however, did not propose that bands currently used in the United prevail, and the item was included. U.S. industry has States be designated for worldwide use. Most shown some support for changing the allocations

gl~ the United Stites, the system is fUIIy operatiod and serves hundreds of aircraft. The United States uses the bands 849-851 ~ ~d 894-896 MHz for this system. 82~e Ufited Sbtes ~so proposes t. add MSS ~ a cop- ~location in these bands. Mss ad mss services me techniay compatible, and, hl fac~ complement each other. They are expected to be provided by the same satellite system in many cases. 83Gener~ly, F~ed Sateflite Semim is defined ~ communi~tion be~een my NO fried (s~tio~) Eti stations using a Satellite. h may applications, a satellite beams programming or information from one central point (the hub) to any number of stationary satellite receive dishes. 24 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

internationally, but the U.S. government remains opposed to any changes in the band, and will take that position into the WARC. Even if a reallocation The issues to be addressed by WARC-92 passes, the United States will likely take a reserva- have been well known for many years, tion on this use, denying its use in the United but the actual preparation time for the States.84 conference has been relatively short. Space Operations and Research at 2 GHz— Nevertheless, the development of pro- These services provide communications, data gath- posals was accomplished on time. ering, and command and control functions for space activities.85 In the United States, for example, they support the space shuttle and the Hubble telescope. degree of private sector involvement. It takes a long In recent years, use of these services and frequencies time to make sure everyone has a fair chance to have has intensified, making international coordination their views heard, and then to try to work out a difficult. As a result, the 1988 space services WARC compromise. Nevertheless, the development of pro- recommended that a future conference address the 86 posals was accomplished on time. issue. The United States proposes to upgrade these services to primary status. The United States began preparing for the confer- Space Services Above 20 GHz—In addition to ence in late 1989. The FCC began its proceeding existing space services, WARC-92 will also con- (Gen Docket 89-554) into WARC positions and sider possible allocations for new space services that established the Industry Advisory Committee to would use frequencies above 20 GHz. Among the provide private sector input to the formation of U.S. proposals for new services and allocations are: Commission proposals. NTIA established Ad Hoc the creation of a General-Satellite Service near 20/30 206 of the Interdepartment Radio Advisory Commit- GHz that would be used to provide both fixed and tee to provide government agency input for formula- mobile services; an allocation for intersatellite links tion of executive branch positions. Additional, at 21.7-22 GHz; a primary allocation for Earth mostly technical, work was done in U.S. national exploration satellites near 61 and 157 GHz; and a CCIR study groups. Although NTIA and the FCC primary allocation for new space research services at developed ‘their own proposals, in reality, the 37-38 and 39.5 -40.5 GHz (for a complete summary development of executive branch and FCC propos- of the U.S. proposals for new space services, see app. als was very closely coordinated. This ongoing coordination streamlines the proposal development process and ensures that final WARC positions are U.S. Preparations and WARC Proceedings developed as quickly as possible. Although the issues to be addressed by WARC-92 However, the WARC-92 proposals from FCC and have been well known for many years, the actual NTIA were not exact duplicates-one issue re- preparation time for the conference has been rela- mained unresolved. In the U.S. final proposals, tively short. In the past, preparation time for WARCs which were submitted to the ITU in late July 1991, has been between 3 and 5 years. The final agenda for FCC and executive branch views had not been WARC-92, however, was not adopted until mid- reconciled on the recommended allocations for 1990, leaving approximately only 1 year for propos- BSS-Sound. In cases such as this, when coordination als to be drafted and sent to the ITU and only 18 has failed, the FCC and NTIA will continue negotia- months before the WARC itself. This is a special tions, or the Department of State will try to negotiate problem for the United States because of the large a solution or establish a mechanism to resolve the number of constituencies involved and the extensive dispute. If the proponents still cannot agree, a

~~e govements of &.mny, IMy, Spa@ and France indicated at the 1990 ITU Administrative Council thit M5 Mocation co~d not be implemented in their countries. gs~e ac~ frequencies Wocated for these services are 2025-2110 MHz ~d 2200-2290 MHz. 86~termtio@ Tel~mm~mtion unio~ Recommen~tion 716 of tie WMC on tie Use of tie G~s~tio~-Sateflite C)rbit ~d the Pl- g of Space Services Utilizing Iq Second Session (Geneva, 1988). Chapter 1-Introduction and Summary ● 25 mechanism’ may have to be created to work out a solution. 87 One alternative is to bring the matter before the (staff of) the National Security Council, The process of finalizing the WARC-92 which is empowered by the President to resolve delegation has proceeded very slowly, disputes of this type, although this is considered a leading many to believe that the United last resort.88 The final U.S. proposal for BSS-Sound States will not have time to adequately will be submitted to the ITU in the form of a prepare its negotiation strategies for the supplemental proposal before WARC-92 convenes. WARC. Late in the summer of 1991, the Department of State, in consultation with NTIA and FCC, assem- bled the formal U.S. delegation that will attend the the likelihood of foreign acceptance or room for conference. Approximately 50 people serve on the negotiation. Finally, the delegation will work out a delegation including representatives from FCC, detailed negotiating strategy that includes presenta- NTIA, Department of State, other Federal Govern- tion of specific proposals and the ordering of ment agencies, and the private sector.89 The core of fall-back positions.90 the nongovernment representatives is drawn from the FCC’s Industry Advisory Committee (see ch. 4). Starting sometime in August 1991, and lasting Delegations are balanced as much as possible to until the end of the year, the chief spokespersons ensure the participation of various industry sectors (usually consisting of representatives from the as well as minority participation. The Department of Department of State, NTIA, FCC, and the private State also appointed a Head of Delegation and four sector) of the delegation began bilateral and multi- vice-chairs to assist him, one each from FCC, NTIA, lateral talks with the key foreign governments and Department of State, and the private sector. The international organizations involved in WARC-92. process of finalizing the WARC-92 delegation Until proposals for the WARC were finalized, talks proceeded very slowly, leading many to believe that were mostly informal, giving both sides the opportu- the U.S. will not have time to adequately prepare its nity to exchange ideas, stake out initial positions, negotiation strategies for the WARC. As of mid- and get background for future negotiation strategies. September, the delegation still had not been offi- Once national proposals have been agreed to, cially announced, although members had been however, talks become more consequential as U.S. notified and had begun to meet. The Head of representatives try to determine how firm each Delegation, Jan Baran, was announced in late nation’s positions are, what backup strategies and August. positions the United States could develop, and how many votes the United States can count on at the Once the delegation was formed, WARC prepara- conference. Negotiation becomes concentrated on tions intensified. Leadership roles within the U.S. selling positions as opposed to flexibly discussing delegation were established, and three committees them. This part of the preparations process gives (Allocation, Regulation, and Technical) were cre- U.S. representatives the opportunity to make con- ated to guide final U.S. preparations. The delegation nections with key countries, especially those in will develop negotiating strategies and fallback Africa and Asia, which may be unfamiliar with U.S. positions based on U.S. needs, but also tempered by positions, and enables them to try to build support

87me telaom~catiom Senior btmagency Group (SIG), which could have provided the basis for resolving the dispute was disbanded in the early years of the Bush administration. SSAIthou@ it is r= for Cotiicts to get this far, National Security Council staff have resolved disputes in the past. During 1979 WARC preparations, Voice of America and the Department of Defense clashed over HF bands for broadcasting. Following several months of delay, the Voice of America request for additional HF frequencies was included in the final proposals. sqAt~e 1979 generalw”c, the United States sent 67 delegates of whom 48 (72 percent) were government representatives. ~epercentage of Private sector delegates is expected to be higher for WARC-92 because of the wide range of topics to be addressed. 901”he United States has consistently been criticized by industry, foreign observers, and even from within the government for the way it develops and executes conference strategy. Part of the problem is inherent in the public nature of the U.S. process. Negotiating strategies and fallback positions are meaningless if they are made public. The result has been that some fallback positions remain concealed by government representatives, evenfiom other delegates, until the last minute. This makes the United States appear to be unyielding and bullyish, especially in the fmt few weeks of conferences, and can leave the United States with little room to maneuver at the conference itself. Contributing to the problem is that U.S. delegations are formed late in the preparations process. There is often too little time to develop sophisticated negotiating strategies.

297-945 0-91 - 2 QL:3 26 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy for U.S. proposals. These efforts also allow the establishing personal relationships, enhancing aware- United States to explain in detail the technologies ness and understanding of the technologies, and and services being proposed, and are critical in prenegotiating issues to achieve the best possible laying the groundwork for the conference— outcomes. 91

91B~~u~~ ~ny d~v~l~ping ~o~~e~ do not ~ve the extensive expdse in radiocom.m~cations the united States hZtS, they Me Still MtCh@ Up on changes and developments ffom the many W~Cs held in the 1980s. And because their telecmmmmication infrastructures are less developed than tbat of the United States, they often do not need (or want) or cannot afford the latest expensive equipment. These factors create a bias to leave things as they are, and hence the United States must demonstrate the utility of these new technologies and semices. Chapter 2 Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution

As the velocity of change in telecommunications technology increases, so too does the political significance of international telecommunication regulation.l

Introduction transmitters, combined with new frequency reuse techniques and small portable phones, created the In the last decade, the pace of technology develop- now-booming market for cellular telephony. In ment in radiocommunications has dramatically quick- addition, existing services are also demanding more ened. Many new radio-based technologies and spectrum. The demand for high frequency broad- services have been developed and implemented, and casting spectrum, for example, consistently exceeds yet more systems and services are waiting for the amount allocated for such services. On the other spectrum allocations in order to begin delivering hand, new technologies can help ease spectrum innovative services. These new technologies and congestion by enabling more efficient use of the services put increasing pressure on both domestic spectrum, and by squeezing more users into existing and international spectrum management structures bands. Digital compression and mixing techniques, and practices, making the process of allocating and for example, allow more information (charnels) to assigning radio frequencies more complicated at all be transmitted. levels. Pekka Tarjanne, Secretary General of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), re- 3 cently commented, Spectrum Basics This entire subject has become increasingly complex because of the dramatically increased use of Radio Waves digital transmission, signal processing, and dynamic spectrum management techniques that both blur the Radio waves are the basic unit of wireless com- distinctions between the old notions of radio serv- munication. 4 By varying the characteristics of a ices, and afford remarkable new opportunities for a radio wave—frequency, amplitude, or phase-these 2 more intensive use of the spectrum. waves can be made to communicate information of These technology pressures are one of the most many types, including audio, video, and data (see significant forces driving the 1992 World Adminis- box 2-A). Radio waves that carry information are called radio signals, and the process of encoding trative Radio Conference (WARC-92) and the changes intelligence onto a radio wave so that it can be envisioned for the ITU. transmitted over the air is called modulation.5 In the The relationship of technology/services and spec- process of modulation, the information or message trum requirements, and the impact of new technolo- to be transmitted-a human voice, recorded music, gies and services on spectrum management is or a television signal-is impressed onto (modu- actually twofold. On one hand, new technologies lates) a‘ ‘carrier’ radio wave that is then transmitted make innovative services possible, increasing the over the air. When a radio signal is received, the demand for radio frequencies and contributing to information is converted back into its original form spectrum congestion and ‘crowding. For example, (demodulated) by a receiver and output as sound, the advent of relatively low-power, limited-range images, or data.

IJ~es G. Savage, The politics of International Telecommunications Regulation (Boulder, CO: WestView press, 1989), P. 11. 2Pekka Tarjanne, “An Unusual Even~” Telecommunications Journal, vol. 58, No. HI, March 1991, p. 123. sMu~h of tie ~ate~~ ~ ~s section comes from Ricw Go~d, ‘ ‘Alloation of me R~o Fr~uency Spectrum,” contractor repOrt preptlKd fOr tie Office of Technology Assessment Aug. 10, 1990. dAl~ou@ tie tem $ ‘r~io> $ is ~o~t como~y ~sociat~ wi~ comme~i~ radio bro~c~fig services (AM and FM radio), the term dSO prOperly encompasses the entire range of wireless communications technologies and services, including television microwave, radar, shortwave radio, mobile, and satellite communications. 5TW0 of tie most f~lim mod~ation tec~ques me ~pli~de mod~ation (AM) and fr~uency modulation (FM). –27– 28 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Box 2-A—Basic Definitions of Radiocommunication Terms

Radio communication depends on a number of basic Figure 2-A-l—Basic Radio Wave characteristics and processes. Amplitude: A measure of the value of a radio wave, measured in volts (see figure 2-A-l). ‘w, Analog: In analog radiocommunication, the message or information to be transmitted is impressed onto Amplitude o (modulates) a radio carrier wave, causing some (volts) property of the carrier-the amplitude, frequency, or phase-to vary in proportion to the information I Period ‘ being sent. Amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) are two common formats Each cycle of a pure radio wave is identical for analog transmission. In order to send analog to every other cycle. signals, such as voice and video, over digital transmission media, such as fiber optics or digital SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, based on Harry Mileaf radio, they must first be converted into a digital (cd.), Electronics One, revised 2d ed. (Rochelle Park, NJ: format. See modulation, digital. Hayden Book Co., 1976) p. 1-10. Bandwidth: The process of modulating (see below) a radio wave to transmit information produces a radio Figure 2-A-2-Side-Band Frequencies signal, but also generates additional frequencies and Bandwidth called ‘sidebands” on either side of the carrier (see figure 2-A-2). The total width of frequencies, including the sidebands, occupied by a radio signal Bandwidth is its bandwidth. In practical terms, however, the H------l bandwidth of a signal refers to the amount of spec- Carrier Amplitude Lower Upper trum needed to transmit a signal without excessive side band loss or distortion. It is measured in hertz. In figure side band 2-A-2, the bandwidth of the signal is 4 kHz. The bandwidth of a radio signal is determined by the amount of information in the signal being sent. 98 99 100 101 102 More complex signals contain more information, Frequency (k Hz) and hence require wider bandwidths. An AM radio broadcasting signal, for example, takes 10 kHz, while an FM stereo signal requires 200 kHz, and a NOTE: This figure represents a 100-kHz earner wave modulated by 1- and 2-kHz frequencies. color television signal takes up 6 MHz. The SOURCE: Harry Mileaf (cd.), Electronics One, revised 2d ed. (Rochelle bandwidth required by a television channel is 600 Park, NJ: Hayden Book Co., 1976), p. 1-31. times greater than that of an AM radio channel.

Radio waves are distinguished from each other by have shorter wavelengths. Commercial AM radio their frequency or their wavelength (see box 2-A). signals, for example, consist of very long waves Frequency represents the number of cycles a radio (approximately 100 to 300 meters), that may com- wave completes in 1 second, and is the most plete a million cycles per second (1 megahertz common description of a radiocommunication sig- (MHz)). Microwave signals, on the other hand, are nal. The international unit of frequency measure- very short (as little as 0.3 centimeters) and may ment is the hertz (Hz), which represents 1 cycle per complete hundreds of billions of cycles per second second. 6 Radio signals can also be identified by their (100 gigahertz (GHz)). The relative nature of radio wavelength. Signals with long wavelengths have wavelengths is the origin of terms such as “short lower frequencies, while those at higher frequencies wave, ’ which was given to radio frequencies around

6M~tipIes of ~eh~ ~e indicated by prefmes (see box 2-A): “kilo” for one thouswd, “mega” for one million, and ‘giga” for one billion. Thus, a million hertz-a million cycles per second—is expressed as one megahertz (abbreviated “MHz”). Chapter 2-Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution ● 29

Carrier: A radio wave that is used to transmit Figure 2-A-3-Techniques for Modulating information. Information to be sent is impressed an Analog Carrier To Send information in a onto the carrier, which then carries the signal to its Digital Format destination. At the receiver the carrier is filtered out, allowing the original message to be recovered. 00110100010 Digital: Digital transmission formats can be used to I transmit images and voice as well as data. For Amplitude-shiftkeying continuously varying signals such as voice or images, an analog/digital converter changes the analog signal into discrete numbers (represented in binary form by O’s and l’s). These binary digits, or bits, can then be sent as a series of “on’’ /’’off’ pulses or can be modulated onto a carrier wave by 00110100010 varying the phase, frequency, or amplitude according to whether the signal is a “l” or a “O.” Data Frequency-shift keying is sent in a similar fashion although it does not have to be converted into digital form first. (See figure 2-A-3,) Frequency: The number of cycles a radio wave

completes in 1 second (see figure 2-A-4). Fre- SOURCE: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, The Big quency is measured in hertz (1 cycle per second Picture: HDTV & High-Resolution Systems, OTA-BP-CIT- equals 1 hertz). Radio frequencies are described as 64 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, June multiples of hertz: kHz, kilohertz: thousand cycles 1990), figure 3-3, p. 41. per second; MHz, megahertz: million cycles per second; GHz, gigahertz: billion cycles per second. Figure 2-A-4-Frequency of a Continuous Wave The frequency of a radio wave is the inverse/re- ciprocal of its period. For example, if a wave had a One second period of 0.1 seconds, its frequency would be 10 hertz. I I

Time

Frequency ■ 3 cycles per second

SOURCE: Harry Mileaf (cd.), Electronics One, revised 2d ed. (Rochelle Park, NJ: Hayden Book Co., 1976), p. 1-10. (continued on next page)

2.8 MHz in the 1920s because the wavelengths in portions of the spectrum (see figure 2-l). One that frequency range were shorter than the wave- method denotes relative position in the spectrum: lengths that had previously been used. very low frequency (VLF), high frequency (HF), very high frequency (VHF), superhigh frequency The radio spectrum is divided into “bands” that (SHF), etc. Another method derives from usage correspond to various groups of radio frequencies. developed in World War II to keep secret the actual These bands are identified by their frequencies or frequencies employed by radar and other electronic wavelengths (as above), or by descriptive terms that devices: L-band, S-band, and K-band.7 The ITU have been adopted over time. Several types of classifies frequencies according to band numbers— descriptive names have been attached to various Band 1, Band 2, etc. Frequency bands are also

7~ew le~erd=iWtiom ~notpmcisemasms of fiquency~came tie band limits we defined di.ffemnflyby different se~ents of the ekctronics and telecommunications industries. 30 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Box 2-A—Basic Definitions of Radiocommunication Terms-Continued Modulation: The process of encoding information Figure 2-A-5--Amplitude and Frequency onto a radio wave by varying one of its basic Modulation Characteristics-am plitude, frequency, or phase- in relation to an input signal such as speech, data, music, or television The input signal, which contains the information to be transmitted, is called the modulating or baseband signal. The radio wave that carries the information is called the carrier wave. The radio wave that results from the combination of these two waves is called a modulated Amplitude-mOdulatedwave carrier. Two of the most common types of modulation are amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) (see figure 2-A-5). Period: The length of time it takes a radio wave to complete one full cycle (see figure 2-A-l). The inverse of the period is a radio wave’s frequency. Frequency-modulated wave Phase: A measure of the shift in position of a radio wave in relation to time (see figure 2-A-6). Phase is SOURCE: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, The Big often measured in degrees. Future: HDTV & High-Resolution Systems, OTA-BP-CIT- 64 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, June Spectrum: Each radio signal is actually made up of a 1990), figure 3-1, p. 41. number of different radio waves at different frequencies. The spectrum of a radio signal refers to Figure 2-A-6-Phase of a Continuous Wave the range of frequencies it contains. In figure 2-A-2, the spectrum of the signal extends from 98 to 102 Difference between kHz. The width of the spectrum is called the Phases . same points on bandwidth of the signal More broadly, the radio different waves frequency spectrum consists of all the radio frequencies that are used for radio communications. l—l Wavelength: The distance between successive peaks I of a continuous radio wave. A’ SOURCES: Harry Mileaf (ed.), Electronics One, revised 2d ed. (RochellePark, NJ: Hayden Book Co.,Inc., 1976); U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment, The Big Picture: HDTV & High-Resolution Systems, OTA-BP- CIT-64 (Washington, DC: Us. Government Printing Office, 1990); William Stallings, Data and Computer Communications (New York, NY: MacMillan Publish- ing CO., 1985). SOURCE: Harry Mileaf (cd.), Electronics One, revised 2d ed. (Rochelle Park, NJ: Hayden Book Co., 1976), p. 1-10.

known by the services which use them-the AM of water in the air (clouds, snow, sleet), but radio radio broadcast band, for example, occupies the signals at higher frequencies will be attenuated more range (band) of frequencies 535-1605 kHz. than those at lower frequencies. For instance, the attenuation of a radio signal passing through a rain Transmission Characteristics storm will be 10 times as great if the frequency of the signal is doubled from 5 GHz to 10 GHz. This makes Several factors affect the transmission of radio radiocommunication, especially over long distances, signals, and at different frequencies, some factors extremely difficult in the upper (above 10 GHz) will affect radiocommunication more than others. frequencies. Attenuation refers to the weakening of a radio signal as it passes through the atmosphere. All radio signals Radio waves are also bent and/or reflected as they are attenuated as they pass through rain or any kind pass through the atmosphere. Because of changes in Chapter 2-Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution ● 31

Figure 2-l—Frequency Band Designations

UHF VLF LF MF HF VHF SHF EHF

L s c x KU K k

I I I I I I I 3 kHz 30 kHz 300 kHz 3000 kHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3000 MHz 30 GHz 300 GHz (3 MHz) (3 GHz)

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1991, based on Richard G. Gould, “Allocation of the Radio Frequency Spectrum,” OTA contractor report, Aug. 10, 1990. ‘- the density of the atmosphere with height, radio signals can be used for long-distance communica- signals bend as they pass from one atmospheric layer tion by reflecting the signal off the ionosphere. to the next. This bending is called refraction (see Above the MUF, the signal travels straight through figure 2-2). In addition to refraction, if atmospheric the atmosphere and into space. conditions are right, radio waves are also reflected At higher frequencies, above the MUF, radio by the ionosphere, the top layer of the Earth’s signals travel in almost straight lines from the atmosphere. Ionospheric reflection enables some transmitter to receiver, a transmission characteristic radio signals to travel thousands of miles, and 9 referred to as “line-of-sight.” Line-of-sight condi- accounts for the long-distance communication that tions affect radiocommunication above the MUF, is possible in the frequency range between about but especially affect frequencies above 1 GHz. The 3 and 30 MHz (the HF band-see below). distance a line-of-sight signal can travel is usually limited to the horizon or a little beyond. However, Although refraction and reflection are conceptu- because the Earth is curved, the transmission dis- ally distinct, and refraction can occur without tance will also be limited depending on the height of reflection, it is possible to think of reflection as an the transmitting antenna-the higher the antenna, extreme case of refraction in the ionosphere.8 The the farther the signal can travel. For example, if the amount of refraction, or bending, experienced by a transmitting antenna is mounted on top of a moun- radio signal is related to its frequency. Lower tain or a tall tower, the line-of-sight distance will be frequencies bend (are refracted) easily and are greater. Satellites, in simple terms, extend line-of- readily reflected back to Earth. Higher frequency sight to the maximum distance (see figure 2-3). signals experience less refraction than those at lower Line-of-sight transmission requires that there be no frequencies, and at progressively higher frequencies, obstacles between the transmitter and receiver— there will be less and less bending. At a certain anything standing between the transmitter and frequency, atmospheric conditions will be such that receiver, e.g., a building or mountain will block the there is so little refraction that the signal will not be signal. reflected back to Earth. The point at which this occurs is called the maximum usable frequency Atmospheric conditions have substantial impacts (MUF), and is generally in the range of 10-15 MHz, on line-of-sight radiocommunications. Differences although it can be as high as 30 or 40 MHz or as low in atmospheric temperature or the amount of water as 6 MHz, depending on time of day, season, and vapor in the air, for example, can cause radio signals atmospheric conditions. Below the MUF, radio to travel far beyond the “normal” line-of-sight

8AII HIdiO waves me bent as ~ey paSS from a r@on of the atmosphere having a certain number of free electrons to a region witi a differmt n- of electrons. During the day, energy from the Sun splits the molecules of the gasses far above the surface of the Earth (in the troposphere and the ionosphere), producing many free electrons and creating layers of ionized particles. A radio wave from Earth entering one of these layers will be refracted, and if there are enough fme electrons, the bending will be so great that the signal will be reflected back to Earth ?It is important to note that refraction does not cease to affect radio waves above the MUF. Even at frequencies in the VHF and UHF bands, radio waves bend slightly as they move through the atmosphere. .32 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Figure 2-2—Radio Wave Transmission Ionosphere

— Refraction

k —— ——— —— —— — — __ H --——— ---q /’R/- - -

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1991. distance. This condition is called ducting or super- Very Low, Low, and Medium Frequencies: refraction. At such times, signals travel for many 3 to 3000 kHz miles beyond the horizon as though the Earth were flat. This condition is much more common over In this portion of the spectrum, encompassing the large bodies of water than over land. Atmospheric bands denoted as VLF, low frequency (LF), and conditions can also bend the signal away from the Earth, shortening the practical transmission dis- medium frequency (MF), radio signals are transmit- tance. The occurrence of these rare conditions ted in the form of “groundwaves’ that travel along complicates radio system design and spectrum the surface of the Earth, following its curvature. management. For line-of-sight systems, too large a Groundwaves lose much of their energy to the Earth radius cannot be assumed for the service area as they travel along its surface, and high power is because of the possibility that “subrefraction” or required for long-distance communication through- “negative’ refraction may keep the signal from out this portion of the spectrum. Groundwaves travel reaching the periphery of the service area. On the farther over water than over land. other hand, the same frequency cannot be used again many miles beyond the horizon because of the At the lower end of this region, transmissions are possibility that superrefraction may carry an inter- fering signal far beyond its accustomed limits. One used for low data rate communications with subma- of the basic functions of international spectrum rines and for navigation. The maritime mobile management is to prevent or reduce such interfer- service, for example, has allocations in this band for ence. communication with ships at sea. Conventional AM radio broadcasting stations also operate in a part of Characteristics of Radio Frequency Bands this band, at MF, typically between 540 and 1605 kHz. Attenuation during daylight hours limits the The physical properties of radio waves, combined range of these AM stations, but at night, when with the various transmission characteristics dis- attenuation is lower, AM radio signals can travel cussed above, determine how far and where radio very long distances, sometimes even hundreds of signals can travel, and make different radio frequen- miles. To prevent interference at these times to cies better suited to certain kinds of communications distant radio stations using the same frequency, services. The following is a brief description of the various radio bands, some of their uses, and the some stations may be required to reduce the power factors affecting transmission of radio signals in of transmissions in the direction of those distant them. stations. Chapter 2-Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution ● 33

Figure 2-3-Terrestrial and Satellite Transmission Ranges

NAltitude = 22,300 miles

/ ■ 500 feet

/ M \ \ ~- /2a-!j

60 miles

11,200 miles

NOTE: This figure is not drawn to scale. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1991, based on Richard G. Gould, “Allocation of the Radio Frequency Spectrum,” OTA contractor report, Aug. 10, 1990.

High Frequencies: 3 to 30 MHz casters, and for international aviation and maritime communications. Overseas telephone links using HF In this frequency range, denoted as HF, propaga- radio have, for the most part, been replaced by tion of a ‘‘skywave” supplements the groundwave satellites, and Inmarsat satellites have taken over a (see figure 2-2). While the groundwave dies out at major portion of the maritime communications about 100 miles, the skywave can be bent back to previously provided by HF systems. Likewise, Earth from layers of ionized particles in the atmos- future aeronautical mobile-satellite service (AMSS) phere (the ionosphere). When the signal returns to systems may also supplement or replace the HF Earth, it may be reflected again, back toward the channels now used by airplanes when they are out of ionized layers to be returned to Earth a second time. range of the VHF stations they communicate with The signal can make several ‘bounces’ as it travels when over or near land. around the Earth. It is this reflection that makes long-distance communication possible. However, there are occasional-and largely unpredictable— While little use is made of HF radio systems for disturbances of the ionosphere, including sunspots, domestic communications in industrialized coun- that interfere with HF communications. Overall, the tries like the United States, developing countries still reliability of HF communications is low, and the find HF cost-effective for some of their domestic quality is often poor. radiocommunication needs. This has led to a conflict over allocating the HF band internationally: the The HF ‘shortwave’ bands are used primarily by developed world wants to use the band for interna- amateur radio operators, governmental agencies for tional broadcasting and long-distance mobile com- international broadcasting (Voice of America, Radio munication, while the developing countries want to Moscow), citizens’ band radio users, religious broad- retain it for their domestic point-to-point systems. 34 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Very High, Ultrahigh, and Superhigh transmission characteristics, the 1-3 GHz band is Frequencies: 30 MHz to 30 GHz especially sought after for mobile communications, including personal communication services (PCS), The groundwave, which permits communication and for new broadcasting technologies such as beyond the horizon at lower frequencies (VLF, LF, digital audio broadcasting (DAB). MF), dies out after a short distance in this frequency range. Moreover, the skywave--which is reflected Above 10 GHz from the ionospheric layers at lower frequencies— At 10 GHz and above, radio transmissions be- tends to pass through the atmosphere at these higher come increasingly difficult. Greater attenuation of frequencies. Communication in this band is thus the radio signal takes place because of rain, snow, limited to little more than line-of-sight distances. fog, clouds, and other forms of water in the signal’s For short transmitting antennas, the maximum path. Nevertheless, crowding in the bands below 10 distance a radio signal can travel may be no more GHz is forcing development of the region above 10 than 25 miles, but this distance can be increased by GHz. One desirable feature of the frequencies above raising the height of the antenna. 10 GHz, beside the fact that they are relatively This limitation can also bean advantage: the same unused, is the extremely wide bandwidths that are frequencies can be reused by stations beyond the available. The 3-30 MHz, HF band, for example, is normal transmission range. Unfortunately, the dis- 27 MHz wide. That is enough bandwidth for about tances that these line-of-sight signals can sometimes 9,000 voice charnels (at 3 kHz each). However, the travel can be quite large, especially if the path is over frequency range 3-30 GHz is 27,000 MHz wide. water. At times, atmospheric conditions may estab- That bandwidth could accommodate about 9 million lish a‘ ‘duct” over a large body of water (see above). voice channels. As it travels down the length of the duct a signal will be reflected back and forth between the water and the Technologies and Services top of the duct, which can be hundreds of feet above Create Congestion the Earth’s surface. These trapped signals can travel hundreds of miles. To minimize interference from a The radio frequency spectrum has been more or ducted signal, stations on the same frequency must less crowded almost since its first use for communi- be spaced far apart. This requirement limits the cation—technology (and the regulations and proce- frequency reuse that can be achieved. dures to support it) must continually advance to enable the supply of spectrum to meet demand. This part of the spectrum is used by many Today, however, as the number of users and important communication and entertainment serv- applications booms and more of the usable commun- ices, including television broadcast signals, FM ication spectrum is filled, congestion has once radio, and land mobile communications. These again become a serious problem. Virtually all of the frequencies are also used by the radiolocation radio frequencies below 3 GHz are allocated and in service for long-range radars (1350 MHz to about use, and innovative technologies such as PCS, DAB, 2900 MHz), aircraft landing radar (around 9000 and air-to-ground communications systems must MHz), and for point-to-point radio relay systems compete with existing services and technologies for (various bands between 2000 and 8000 MHz). In a crucial slice of the spectrum pie. Spectrum recent years, communication satellites have made managers are faced with a classic battle of old versus increasing use of frequencies in this band.10 new—trying to accommodate existing technologies while simultaneously promoting innovation and The portion of this band between approximately technological advancement. 1 and 10 GHz is particularly valuable. It is bounded by increasing cosmic and other background noise at In the early days of radiocommunication, there its lower end, and by precipitation attenuation at its were fewer services compared to today, and rela- upper end, but in between, communications can be tively few users. Nevertheless, the spectrum was still carried out very well. Today, because of its favorable congested. The range of frequencies that could be

losatellites operating in the C-band, e.g., use frequencies around 4 and 6 GHz, and are heavily used for transmitting television pros amming to cable television operators. Ku-band satellites, which generally operate at frequencies around 12 and 14GHz, are increasingly being used for private communication networks and the delivery of entertainrnent programming. Chapter 2-Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution ● 35

used was limited by available technology, and nomic considerations. At the international level, the equipment capabilities-transmitter power, antenna process of reallocation takes place at the WARCs, gain, receiver sensitivity-and, most important, by and WARC-92 is faced with resolving the compet- the cost of the equipment itself.ll The government ing demands of existing service providers who want and commercial broadcasting concerns quickly to protect their spectrum or even expand it, and a filled the airwaves. As technology advanced, the variety of new services that are demanding access to range of frequencies that could be used for commu- spectrum. This is the technological context facing nication expanded, but the number of users and the United States as it approaches WARC-92. This applications grew as well. And as increasing num- section will examine some of the old and new bers of users began taking advantage of new technologies vying for spectrum both domestically services, the amount of unused spectrum shrank. and internationally.

Over the past two decades, many new radiocom- Broadcasting munication technologies have been developed, leading to the introduction and rapid dissemination of The demand for AM, FM, and TV broadcasting many innovative radio-based services. Satellites stations has been increasing, particularly in major became a staple of long-distance communication in market areas. Prospective operators of these stations the 1970s and 1980s; in the 1980s first citizens’ band see a need for more specialization in pro- radios and then cellular telephones put two-way gramming (narrowcasting) and for improved signal radios in many of America’s cars, trucks, and boats; quality (e.g., high definition television (HDTV) for and today, baby monitors, cordless phones, and television stations and digital modulation for com- garage-door openers are in many of America’s pact disc quality radio broadcasting). HF broad- homes. All of these technologies, and the services casters such as the Voice of America and many and industries they generated, depend on radio religious groups also are making increasing use of frequencies for their operation. The use of almost all radio broadcasting to reach audiences overseas (see these wireless systems and services will continue to ch. 1). increase as people come to depend on them more and HDTV, which promises picture and sound quality more. The use of mobile radio communications far superior to today’s television, has been in systems, for example, has exploded in the last development for many years, but only recently have decade, and today there are over 10 million two-way definitive steps been taken to promote its wide- radios being used by industry, transportation, and spread adoption around the world.12 Originally, an public safety (police and fire) organizations. This allocation was made for ITU Region 2 (the Ameri- dramatic growth in the use of existing radiocommu- cas) in the 12.2-12.7 GHz band to the broadcasting- nication technologies, exacerbated by the rapid satellite service (BSS) that would allow satellites to development of new radio-based technologies, has deliver conventional television programming di- led to increasing crowding and congestion in many 13 rectly to home receivers. Since a plan was devel- of the most valuable frequency bands. oped for this service in 1983, however, HDTV has Reallocating spectrum is difficult because the developed rapidly, and HDTV proponents are now spectrum is finite-almost any allocation that is seeking to use the BSS allocations for this new kind made to a new service (or for the expansion of an of television, preferably in the same frequency band existing service) will have to be taken away from an all over the world (see ch. 1). Experimental or existing service. The process is never easy— quasi-operational HDTV service is currently being reallocation of spectrum is based on social and planned or implemented in Japan, the United King- political factors as well as on technical and eco- dom, France, and Germany.

1 l~en transmitters cost thousands of dollars, radio was used primarily for those commercial and governmental applications tit co~d Justify the expense. Now, however, cellular mobile telephones are available for under $100, and remote garage-door openers, wireless microphones, and cordless telephones are within the budgets of millions of individuals and families. Izsee U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment The Big Picture: HDTV & High-Resolution Systems, OTA-Bp-CIT-64 (wm~gto~ DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 1990). 13The sateflite transmission of programming directly to homes is also known as direct broadcast satellite service, or DBS. There are no DBS systems operating in the United States, although several are planned (see app. C). Only a few DBS systems are operating in other countries. 36 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Another technology that is being aggressively Figure 2-4--Broadcasting-Satellite Service- developed is BSS-Sound.14 BSS-Sound, while not Sound yet in operation, will use satellites (supplemented in some cases by terrestrial transmitters) to deliver high-quality audio services directly to home and car P,:)’s ,,,,,!’ \I ! radio receivers throughout the country (see figure ,,!, / , : , ,/,, , , : ,! 2-4). Such services will not be compatible with , / / existing analog radio receivers, and will require / / /, consumers to buy new radios. Some operators plan / , , ; // ,/, , ; to offer BSS-Sound services in conjunction with // ,1,, , / , /,r, other mobile services such as paging and location , (1 / /, services, and several companies have filed applica- / (f , ,, tions at the Federal Communications Commission / / ,,,, (FCC) to provide such service. However, as of early July 1991, only one experimental application had m’” ~ ~ ~ - been granted (see app. C). The primary hurdle to a-m @ @n@ ,’ !’ introduction of such services both domestically and f~y internationally is a lack of agreement on the radio o e t’ o! m

frequencies to be used (see ch. 1). !l~ m

Mobile Services . Mobile communications is one of the fastest — — growing segments of telecommunications services. In the past 10 years, there has been a phenomenal SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1991. growth of personalized radio services for general- purpose communications: cellular mobile telephone, Cellular specialized business mobile telephone services, local and nationwide paging, and the newest per- Since its inauguration in 1983, cellular telephone service has grown at an explosive rate (see figure sonal telephone services just on the horizon, PCS. 2-5), and is predicted to serve over 20 million Estimated yearly growth rates for mobile services subscribers by the year 2000.17 Today, cellular are as high as 25 percent and up to 80 percent for service is available in all major urban areas of the cellular services worldwide, and demand shows 15 country, and rural cellular licensing is in progress. In little signs of slacking. Nearly 15 percent of the recent years, many cellular systems, especially in telephone lines installed in this decade are expected urban areas, have become increasingly congested— l6 to be wireless. Mobile services delivered by calls often cannot be completed because the system satellite, including data transfer, voice services and is overcapacity. The cellular industry has developed position determination for individuals, cars, trucks, a number of innovative solutions to address this ships, and aircraft, are also experiencing rapid problem. Cell sizes have shrunk, allowing frequen- growth. WARC-92 will address increasing the cies to be reused more often and more users to be allocations for both Mobile and Mobile Satellite served. Recently, the industry has begun moving Services. toward the next generation of cellular systems using

ld~e termdigi~ audio broadcas@(D~) is often used in the United States inplace of BSS-Sound, reflecting Continuingu.s. cOnCernfOrterreStIitd broadcasting systems and operatom. 15pe~T@nne, op. cit., f~~ote 2, p. 123. One conference brochure touts a 530-pereent expansion of mobile commurdcations markets (cellulrU, personal communication networks, cordless, mobile radio, and paging) by the year 2000. IGPekka Thrjame, “Simpler Radio Regulations?” editoriaf in Telecommunications Journal, vol. 58, No, II, February 1991, p. 65. 17Johu Keller, “Ce~~w Phones Dial Digital for Grow@” Wall Street Journal, May 5, 1990, p. B1. Chapter 2-Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution ● 37

Figure 2-5-Growth in Cellular Phone Service, 1984-91

Total subscribers (cumulative) Annual service revenues

Millions 5 $ billions

8 ~ 7- 4 6-

5- 3 4- 3- 2

0 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 a 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 aThe 1991 subscriber figure is an estimate. SOURCES: U.S. Department of Commerce. International Trade Administration. 1991 U.S. Industria/lOutlook (Washington,. . . DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1991); and U.S. Department of Commerce, unpublished data, 1991.

digital technology. Digital compression technology, oped. The use of small, lightweight and (eventually) which can pack more phone calls into a given inexpensive handsets is one common factor of all portion of spectrum, promises to increase cellular these systems. system capacity from 6 to 20 times (see below). Such advances will take time to implement, however, and PCS takes many different forms. The most basic some urban cellular systems may remain congested type of PCS service is often called Telepoint. for many years. Telepoint allows users with portable phones to make calls (but not receive them) as long as they are close In addition to traditional cellular voice applica- enough (within approximately 100 yards) to the tions, new data services are being developed. GTE Telepoint receiver that is connected to the public Mobilnet, for example, is planning a field trial of a telephone network. Most advanced are the full- cellular packet data system (using existing cellular featured two-way voice and data services commonly equipment) that could give rise to new services and known as Personal Communications Networks (PCN) expand the market potential for cellular networks .18 (see box 2-B). PCNs will operate similarly to The system could be used for credit card verifica- cellular telephone systems, but will use many more, tion, remote monitoring of vending machines, and much smaller cells (called microcells) that allow connecting field service personnel to customer’s more people to use the system and enable smaller, records stored in a remote computer. more portable phones. These types of networks, Personal Communications Services which are being developed by telephone companies, cable television companies, and small telecommuni- PCS is emerging as an umbrella term encompass- cations companies, allow users to place and receive ing a wide range of personal communications phone calls or even exchange data with remote systems and applications now being developed.19 computers—all with radio technology that frees Basically, PCS is wireless phone service that lets them from a wire connection. Eventually, users may users communicate wherever they are-walking also be able to send and receive video signals. outside; in a car, ship, or plane; or even at work. PCS systems are usually considered terrestrially based, Many companies have begun PCS trials around but satellite-delivered systems are also being devel- the country, but none are operational yet (see app.

18cCG~Mob~et ~ouces a Field Tri~ of a Cell~~packet.Da~ Nehvorlq” Telcom Highlights Znfernutionul, VO1. 13, No- 3, JMI. 16, 1991, p. s. 19~e Fe- 1991 iSSue of ZEEE co~nication~ Magazine is devoted to persorlal ~mm~catio~ ad Conti dCleS 011 tCdlIIOIO~, regulatory, and service issues. IEEE Cmnmunicafi.ons Magazine, vol. 29, No. 2, February 1991. 38 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Box 2-B—Future Phone? The PCN Is a Wireless To Watch Pity the mail handlers at the Federal Communications Commission. When the agency asked for ideas last year on how to promote and regulate new wireless phone services, more than 3,000 pages of comments poured in from everywhere from Silicon Valley to Sweden. The intense interest reflected the huge potential of new wireless technologies, especially one called the personal communications network (PCN). Impulse Telecommunications Corp., a Dallas-based market researcher, estimates that by the year 2000, PCNs will bring in $2.78 billion annually-about what cellular phone systems bring in today. Even though PCNs are at the experimental stage, proponents say they could eventually render the wired local phone monopolies passe. At minimum, they’ll be one of many forces acting to loosen the grip of local phone companies on their customers. But before they take on the establishment, the upstart PCN systems must overcome technical, financial, and regulatory hurdles. As envisioned by their proponents, PCNs would have light, inexpensive handsets that would communicate via low-power antennas. Subscribers would be able to make and receive calls while traveling, as they can with cellular phone systems, but at a lower price. Eventually, so many people would use PCNs that most calls would never have to travel over the wires of the local phone company. Cable Assist. That’s a costly vision. To carry as much traffic as their business plans call for, PCN startups may need to erect a dozen antennas to cover the same area that a cellular system now serves with one. That means an enormous up-front investment. Indeed, companies experimenting with PCNs are already seeking ways to hold down expenses-perhaps by piggybacking on cable TV networks or creating networks only in certain areas, such as within large office buildings. Finding a market niche for PCNs will be a challenge, too. Cellular is already well entrenched. And a cordless phone service known as CT-2 does some of what PCNs promise, but at a substantially lower cost. Already used in England, CT-2 lets customers make-but not receive-calls while in the vicinity of special transmitters. And regulation is yet another hurdle. The FCC hasn’t decided how-or whether-to make room on the precious airwaves for a service that overlaps existing ones. To ease its way with the commission, New York-based Millicom Inc. is testing a PCN setup in Houston and Orlando that works on part of the spectrum already used by microwave communications. Even PCN entrepreneurs concede that they have a long struggle ahead. “It’s not a shoo-in, and we’re going to have to learn things about it,” says Millicom CEO J. Shelby Bryan. Still, even if they don’t match the cellular-phone revolution, PCNs are likely to be one more factor in the demise of the local phone monopolies. SOURCE: Reprinted from the Mar. 25, 1991 issue of Business Week by special permission. @ 1991 by McGraw-Hill, Inc.

C). Great Britain has experimented extensively with tives and sales personnel. In recent years, pagers the more limited second-generation cordless tele- have also gained popularity with illegal-drug dealers, phone (CT2) and Telepoint systems. WARC-92 will who use them to keep in contact with their buyers. address the issue of finding spectrum dedicated to PCS as part of discussions on Future Public Land Paging systems primarily use terrestrial radio Mobile Telecommunication Systems (see ch. 1). signals to reach local subscribers, but several companies have developed national terrestrially Paging based paging systems and still others plan to use The use of radio paging has also increased satellites to deliver national paging. Paging compa- markedly in the last decade. From 6.5 million nies would like to offer their services in foreign customers in 1987, paging services are expected to countries (’‘international roaming’ ‘), but equipment be used by 15 million customers by 1995.20 Like incompatibility is a limiting factor. Many different many telecommunications applications, paging started frequencies are used in other countries, and none of out as a local service (for repair people, technicians, the larger developed countries use the same frequen- doctors), but now serves customers from all seg- cies for their national paging service as those used in ments of the business community, including execu- the United States. This means that a U.S. traveler

~.S. Department of Commerce, National Telecommunications and Information Administration, “Telecom 2000: Chartm“ g the Course for a New Century,” NTIA Special Publication 88-21 (Washingto~ DC: U.S. Government Printing OffIce, October 1988), p. 286. Chapter 2-Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution ● 39

cannot be served by his or her pager in a foreign generic Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) that would country. New frequencies are being sought to permit provide voice and data services in addition to paging anywhere in the world using the same paging RDSS.23 Several companies, including those devel- unit. oping low-Earth orbiting satellite (LEOS) systems, plan to offer RDSS services bundled with more Specialized Mobile Radio advanced messaging services (see app. C).24 Specialized Mobile Radio (SMR) services were created by the FCC in 1974 to provide land mobile Aeronautical Services communications on a commercial basis to busi- Another relatively new mobile radiocommunica- 21 nesses, government agencies, and individuals. tion service is air-to-ground telephone service for SMRs operate in two bands (around 800 and 900 airline passengers. The FCC has expanded the MHz), and provide dispatch services and service number of service providers in the nascent field of similar to cellular telephony .22 Construction compa- phone service from airplanes (none transmits to nies with many trucks at different job sites or airplanes yet). Currently, six providers are licensed limosine services are typical SMR users. Since the to provide service from airplanes, up from only one first service began operation in 1977, SMR service a year ago.25 Data services for airplanes are also has grown to over 7,000 SMR systems serving over being developed and implemented. COMSAT and 1 million users. The annual growth rate for 800-MHz ARINC, for example, have begun offering satellite- SMRs has been about 15 percent, but the growth rate based low-speed data services to airlines with of the newly introduced 900-MHz SMRs between eventual services expected to include voice, elec- 1988 and 1990 was over 240 percent. The FCC tronic messaging, fax, and computer file transmis- expects the growth rate for SMR services to remain sions. in double digits for some years. Mobile Satellite Service Radiodetermination-Satellite Service The increase in terrestrial mobile communication The Radiodetermination-Satellite Service (RDSS) services is mirrored in space. Several developments uses satellites to provide location information (pri- have recently widened the provision of MSS. A marily for vehicles, ships at sea and airplanes) and portion of the spectrum previously set aside for the transmission of brief data messages. RDSS aeronautical mobile-satellite service (AMSS) was systems, using new allocations around 1600 MHz recently reallocated by the ITU to land mobile- for uplinks to the satellite, and around 2500 MHz for satellite service (LMSS). In the United States, the downlinks, are expected to be widely used by the FCC approved a domestic mobile-satellite system transportation industry, among others, for locating which is scheduled for operation in the mid- 1990s.26 vehicles and also will serve vital safety and rescue Proponents of mobile-satellite services are already functions by helping to locate lost hikers, boats, and requesting that more spectrum be allocated for such downed airplanes. Currently, the future of dedicated systems, and WARC-92 will address how and where RDSS systems is in doubt with the recent bank- to provide more spectrum for future expansion of ruptcy filling of Geostar Corp., a leading proponent MSS (see ch. 1). of RDSS. Some claim that RDSS will not survive as a service by itself, and that RDSS spectrum and In the United States, interest is also growing in services should be considered as part of a more LEOS systems (see ch. 1). In contrast to the more

zlFor a d~scfiption of SMRS, the~ histov, and their regulations, see Doron Fertig, “Specialized Mobile Radio,” back~owd PaPer, Fede~ Communications Commission, Private Radio Bureau, Land Mobile and Microwave Division, Policy and Plarming Branch March 1991. 22SMRS me generally smaller, less complex, and less costly to construct and maintain than cell~w sYstems. 23~c~w, ~r~Q~comm Ventme, “ Telecommunications Reports, vol. 57, No. 24, June 17, 1991, p. 28. ~Q~~mm, ~c+ ~~dy Opaates an extemive (16,~ terminals) two-way messaging service, and Orbital COmm~~tiom COT. and S~Ys, ~c. plan to use LEOS to provide similar services (see below). Daniel Marcus, “Messaging Market Evolves, “ Space News, vol. 2, No. 24, July 8-14, 1991. 25The s~ we: ~one, kc., the ffist company t. receive an expefien~ license ~m the FCC; Clairtel Communications Group; Mobile Telecommunications Technologies Corp.; American Skycell Corp.; Jet Tel; and the In-Flight Phone Corp. 26The fi~e of this system, t. be opemted by the Am~canMob& satellite co~ofli~ (AMSC), was in doubt after a COIUI s~ck down key pOl_dOm of the FCC’s ruling requiring a consortium approach. The FCC subsequently has issued a tentative decision reaffinning AMSC’S status as the U.S. MSS licensee. AMSC is proceeding with its plans. 40 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy common ‘conventional” satellites, which circle the consumers think that the devices they have bought Earth in a geosynchronous orbit 22,300 miles above should perform their advertised function throughout the equator, LEOS systems will use a network of their useful lifetime. smaller, lighter, and cheaper satellites to maintain constant contact with users on the ground.27 Nine Point-to-Point Microwave companies have applied with the FCC to offer LEOS Radio Relay Systems services, basically divided into two groups-those general growth in telephone usage, data planning to operate at frequencies below 1 GHz and The communications, and information services and in those planning to operate above 1 GHz (see app. C). the distribution of video materials such as TV The frost LEOS systems proposed to the FCC plan to programming and teleconferencing has brought use frequencies below 1 GHz to deliver data about a commensurate increase in the need for services. Of this original group, none has been long-distance, wideband, point-to-point systems for granted an operational license, but Orbcomm and VITA have received experimental licenses.28 The transmitting this information. Even though some of other group of applications, including Motorola’s this demand has been absorbed by communications Iridium system, propose systems that would use satellites and by the use of coaxial and fiber-optic frequencies in the L-band (1.5- 1.6 GHz). They plan cable systems, the number, extent, and capacity of terrestrial microwave systems have been growing. to offer both voice and data services. None of these As the lower bands have become congested, particu- applications has yet been acted on. larly in and around major metropolitan areas, higher Part 15 Devices frequencies have been employed around 11 GHz, and 18-23 GHz. Some systems in the higher bands Part 15 of the FCC Rules regulate radio-operated are designed for relatively short distances, with close devices that, in theory, use such low power that they spacing of the relay stations. These relays are small will not cause interference to other services and and self-contained, and can be mounted on existing systems in the same band, and therefore do not need telephone poles. to be licensed. However, the number and variety of these devices has increased sharply in recent years, Radio in the Local Loop bringing about interference between the devices A larger trend that may have an impact on the themselves, and between them and other services. demand for radiocommunication services is the Part 15 devices include: cordless telephones, wire- opening of portions of the public telephone network less or cordless microphones (for stage performers, s to competition. 29 Bypass of the public network ‘ and for baby monitors), garage-door openers, con- increasing as large companies build their own trol and security alarm devices (for fire, and intru- networks or subscribe to private fiber networks and sion detection), automatic vehicle identification satellite teleports. Cable companies have begun to systems (e.g., at toll plazas), auditory assistance examine how their existing wire networks can carry devices (headsets used by hearing impaired patrons telephone calls as well as video entertainment. in theaters), and devices that permit the simulta- Radio technologies, including microwave, cellular, neous viewing of a VCR on several TV sets and eventually microcell/PCN and satellite commu- throughout a house. nications systems are increasingly seen as viable Part 15 devices operate under the restrictions that alternatives to the traditional wireline network— they must not cause interference to other users, nor either replacing it completely or serving as an claim protection from interference. However, the alternative way to connect to the public telephone consumers who buy these devices are often unaware network. These technologies provide potential com- of their tenuous regulatory status. Not unreasonably, petitors to the phone companies a way to build a

zT~le tie individ~ sate~tes USeCI inLEOS systems may be inexpensive compared to traditional geosynchronous satellites, this does nOtme~ tit the LEOS systems are any less expensive. Since they require many more (anywhere from 24 to 77 in current plans) satellites to cover the Ear@ initial system costs still remain high. Motorola’s Iridiw e.g., is expected to cost well over $2 billion. mhhw Jenks, “Fl~ of LOW lhrth orbit Filings Fbod the FCC,” Washington Technology, vol. 6, No. 6, June 131991. ~or a recent discussion of the technologies and politics of bypms and comWtit.ion in the Iocal loop, see Gary Slutsker, “Divestiture Revisited,” Forbes, Mar. 18, 1991, pp. 118-124; Peter Coy and Mark le~ “The Baby Bells Learn a Nasty New Word: Competitio~” Business Week, Mar. 25, 1991, pp. 96-101. Chapter 2-Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution ● 41 competing network and service without the major Satellite Services34 expense and time (and without having to acquire rights of way) for laying cable. Another fast growing telecommunication service vitally dependent on spectrum is the rapidly growing Many companies are now experimenting with field of satellite communications. Satellite commu- wireless alternatives to the ‘‘last mile’ or local loop nication systems are used for a variety of purposes connection of the phone companies, including the including delivering entertainment programming, phone companies themselves. Several cable compa- transmitting long-distance telephone calls, and facil- nies are investigating using their existing cable itating data transmission. For example, private users networks to supply PCN services (see app. C). There as well as government agencies are making increas- are several examples of how wireless local telephone ing use of private satellite networks based on very service can be provided.30 Cellular/PCS systems small aperture terminals (VSATs). The decrease in could supplement the existing wire network, but size, cost, and ease of installation has made satellite some advocates believe that with enough subscrib- receivers attractive to users with minimal communi- ers these systems could actually become a second cations requirements. Customer premises Earth sta- phone system separate from the wire system. The tions are frequently located on the roof of a company second way in which radio technologies are coming headquarters or a warehouse. These stations are into the local loop are through a new generation of most commonly used for data communications, but digital radio services designed to bring local tele- can easily accommodate voice and video applica- phone service to rural areas not economically served tions as well. by wire technologies. The primary advantage of Networks of these satellite terminals allow busi- such systems is their ability to bring ‘plain old’ and nesses to communicate directly with hundreds or eventually advanced voice and data services to rural thousands of individual locations. Currently, an customers without the heavy expense of laying estimated 20,000 VSATs are operating in the United (copper or fiber optic) cable.31 Such systems are States, and estimates project use to increase several- currently serving more than 15,000 customers, with fold by 2000.35 Chevron, for example, has begun estimates that up to 900,000 more remote subscrib- 32 building a private network connecting approxi- ers could be served. mately 4,000 service stations and corporate sites, primarily for interactive data, but also with some For the same reasons radio technology is attrac- video services. 36 The FCC typically grants blanket tive to rural applications in the United States, it also licenses to hundreds or even thousands of VSATs at being deployed in developing countries and in a time.37 countries with underdeveloped telecommunication infrastructures, such as Eastern Europe. The German Two of the most rapidly increasing uses of Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, for satellites are for videoconferencing and education. example, is considering radio technologies such as Interactive videoconferencing has increased dramat- CT2 and PCN in order to improve telecommunica- ically in recent years as standards have been tions services in former East German states.33 established and technology has improved the quality

~ora more detailed description of how radio technologies are being used to deliver local telephone service in rural are~, see U.S. Congress, OffIce of Technology Assessment Rural America at the Crossroads: Network”ngfor the Future, OTA-TCT-471 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing office, April 1991), pp. 71-74. sl~e avwage cost of p~vi~ accas to rural customers can run as high as $10,000, while the average cost of digital radio is $3,000. hid., P. 73. Wbid. 33LQcal ~eless access will be test~ later this year with CT2 in order to get subscribers connected to the public network as quickly and cheaply as possible. In the future, PCN may either fimction as an alternative to the public network or as a supplement to it, as cellular. “Wireless Technology for Eastern GermanY,” Telecommunications, International Editio~ vol. 25, No. 4, April 1991, pp. 15-16. 34~e ~mi=s desc~~d ~ ~ s=tion represent ~~y one s~ ~fion of all the satellite-b~~ syst~s. other services, such x mobile satelfite, are described elsewhere in this chapter depending on what type of service they deliver. SS’’VSAT NOTES,” Telcom Highlights International, vol. 13, No. 13, m. 27, 1991, P. 14. 36< ~Hu@es M* Hybfid VSAT Network for ~e~on cow-> “ Telcom Highlights International, vol. 13, No. 1, Jan. 2, 1991, p. 16. qTScien~cAflm@ e.g., ~= ~mt~aliwme for 2,500 VSATs, while G~ spacenetw~g~t~ a ti~nsefor 101. “Actions of Mer@ at the FCC,” Telcom Highlights International, vol. 12, No. 50, Dec. 12, 1990, p. 15. 42 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

of the transmission while simultaneously lowering A radio receiver/transmitter is mounted in an unob- the cost. During the recent war in the Persian Gulf, trusive location on vehicles. If a vehicle so equipped for example, videoconferencing increased dramati- is stolen, the owner calls the police and a coded cally as U.S. businesses restricted travel abroad. The transmission is broadcast which turns on the trans- educational use of satellites, distance education, has mitter in that vehicle. Radio direction finders can also increased dramatically in the last 5 years.38 In then be used to home in on the stolen vehicle. most education uses, satellites are used to transmit a Implementation of this new service required the live, one-way video image of the teacher to subscrib- reallocation of only one 25-kHz wide radio channel, ing schools around the country. Students at the but even that small “loss” of spectrum was strenu- schools can respond to the teacher in real-time ously opposed by many government agencies hav- through the use of telephones (“800” numbers) or ing large and growing mobile radio requirements. In computers. Such systems have proven to be a highly addition to the original Ire-jack system, many other effective way to bring educational resources to companies have entered the vehicle location and isolated students. tracking market, including Teletrac, which plans to expand its services to 100 metropolitan areas in the During the 1980s, C-band satellites, operating in next several years.39 the 6/4-GHz bands, were the most commonly used satellites for commercial, education, and entertainment applications. However, the anticipated growth Interactive Video Data Service in smaller Earth stations has led to launching of many higher-power, Ku-band satellites for U.S. Interactive Video Data Service (IVDS) uses radio domestic service. The next frontier for satellite signals to allow television viewers with special services is at 20 and 30 GHz, the Ka-band. This shift home transmitters to interact with all forms of up in frequency is occurring not because the higher commercial, educational, and entertainment pro- frequency bands are attractive technically (in fact, gramming delivered by broadcast, cable, or direct they are extremely sensitive to rain attenuation), but broadcast satellite technologies.40 Users are able to because lower frequency bands are at or near shop or bank from home, respond to polls, and capacity. Italy and Japan have launched experimen- receive information through their television sets. tal Ka-band satellites, and the National Aeronautics The system has been tested and is currently the and Space Administration’s (NASA) Advanced subject of an FCC Notice of Proposed Rulemak- Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), ex- ing.41 pected to be launched in 1993, will operate in this band. Norris Satellite has filed an application for a commercial Ka-band system. Wireless Business Telephone Other Specialized Services Wireless business telephone systems are being developed which provide the same features and Many other specialized radio services are being capabilities of existing (wire-based) business tele- developed, some of which are already operating: phone systems. These systems utilize digital radio signaling and intelligent transmission management Stolen Vehicle Recovery Systems techniques to eliminate many of the quality, noise Stolen Vehicle Recovery Systems (SVRS) are and fading problems of cordless and cellular tele- proliferating. Ire-jack, a service intended to aid in phones. At the same time, they provide complete the radiolocation of stolen vehicles, is one example. coverage anywhere within a building.42

38For ~ complete di~cwsion of dis~ce lemfig, see U.S. Congress, O&Ice of Tec~ology Assessment Linking$~r harning: A New cour.se~ir Education, OTA-SET-430 (Washingto~ DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, November 1989). sg’’Tele@ac Launches Fleet Locator Service, ’ Telcom Highlights International, vol. 13, No. 3, Jan. 16, 19!91. p. 16. 40~cFCC ~oposes ~tmactivc Video Data Senim ~ the 218.218.5 -Ban d,” TeZcom Highlights International, vol. 13, No- 3> Jan. IG* 1991* P. 18; “FCC Proposes Spectrum Allocation for New TV-Based ‘Interactive Video Data Service,’ “ Telecommunications Reports, vol. 57, No. 2, Jan. 14, 1991, p. 10,

dlGen Docket No. 91-2, Notice of proposed Ru/e Making “Amendment of Parts (),1,2 and 95 Of the Commission Rties to fiovide for ~teractive Video Data Services,” 6 FCC Rcd 1368 (1991). 42 S~New WTtieless B~s~ess Telephone M&et To Reach $2.1 Bilfioq” Telcom Highlights Inter~tional, VO1. 13, No. 6, Feb. 6, 1991, p. 5. Chapter 2-Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution ● 43

Wireless Data Applications Most of the technological solutions to spectrum crowding focus on opening up more of the spectrum- One of the “hottest” new wireless services expanding the range of usable (higher) frequencies involves the use of radiocommunications for data and making spectrum use more efficient. Improved transmission. Many types of wireless data systems efficiency generally means that more users can share are being developed using infrared signals, spread the same spectrum bands and that different services spectrum (see below) signals below 1 GHz, and 47 43 can coexist using the same frequencies. Certain microwave signals. Wireless data applications technological solutions that have increased the include both wireless local area networks (LANs) efficiency of spectrum were developed specifically such as those marketed and proposed by Motorola to solve a congestion or interference problem. and Apple, and wide-area data services such as Ardis Others, however, were developed to create new (Motorola/IBM), Coverageplus (Motorola), Mobi- radiocommunication services, but did so in a way tex (Ericsson), and VISA’s proposed radio-based that made more efficient use of spectrum than the authorization system for credit cards.44 Ram Mobile conventional systems they replaced or supple- Data has begun operating a digital mobile data mented. This section will describe some of the service in several cities in the SMR band.45 NEC has technological solutions that may help ease spectrum also introduced a wireless portable computer that crowding.48 combines the functions of a standard personal computer with cellular communications capabili- Use of Higher Frequencies ties.& As the lower frequency bands have become Technology Solutions increasingly crowded, engineers have begun to develop technologies that would use higher, less to Spectrum Crowding 49 crowded frequencies. The use of higher frequen- Many solutions have been proposed to alleviate cies does not mean that more efficient use is now spectrum congestion. Some of these are technologi- being made of the spectrum-it is simply an escape cal, some economic, some legislative, and some to less crowded territory. As was the case in administrative. The earliest technological advance- extending terrestrial frontiers, taming the wilderness ments involved the development of inexpensive and is difficult and expensive. In addition to the cost of widely available microprocessors, which allow radio developing new devices that will operate at the signals to be easily manipulated. Recently, advances higher frequencies, transmission problems typically in digital technology have reduced required channel worsen at higher frequencies. Some of those prob- bandwidths, increased charnel capacities, and made lems, such as increased attenuation due to rain, it easier to combine and configure radiocommunica- appear to be surmountable only by brute force-by tions systems to make them more efficient. increasing transmitter power. In satellite systems,

4sFor tier discussion of wireless LANs, see Christopher HalliMII, “Cableless LANs: The Network of the Future?” Telecommunications, International Edition, vol. 25, No. 6, June 1991. ‘$$~aBrods@, “w~elessDataNetworks and the Mobile Workforce, “Telecommunications, North AmericanEditiou vol. 24, No. 12, December 1990; “VISA, Digital Radio Networks Have Pact To Roll Out ‘Radio Wave Authorization Services,’ “ Telecommunications Reports, vol. 57, No. 7, Feb. 18, 1991, p. 36. MC ~~ Mobile Data Rofls tit Di@~ packet-switched Mobile Data Service in 10 Mmkets,’ Telecommunications Reports, vol. 57, No. 7, Feb. 18, 1991, p. 34. “ ‘Japan’s NEC Corp. Unveils Its Wireless Notebook PC,’ Wall Street Journal, Mar. 28, 1991, p. B1. avEfficiencY is not easily defined. while efficiency is often tout~ as a goal in and of itself, it is r~ly pmsued for its ow sake, Rather, it iS mOre properly conceived of as a means to ~ end—a way to extend or expand the use or availability of a resource, in this case spectrum. The ultimate goal of efilciency in this view of spectrum use, therefore, is not~st being efficient, but permitting as many users and services to share the spectrum as possible. Other definitions of efficiency emphasize the social use of the resourc~is one television charmel or 600 AM radio stations or 1,500 telephone calls most eftlcient? Ifall use the same amount of spectrum, some type of social utility or market value approach may be used to define which is more efficient. 48For a discussion of the rmge of solutiom t. spm~ ~ow~g, see U.S. r)ep~ent of Commerce, Natio~ Telecomm~~tion and hfOIYIMltiOll Administratio~ U.S. Spectrum Management Policy: Agenda for the Future, NTIA Special Publication 91-23 (Washingto~ DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 1991), p. 13; and Richaxd Gould, op. cit., footnote 3. See also Margaret E. Kriz, ‘Supervising Scarcity,’ The National Journul, July 7, 1990, and George Gilder, “What Spectrum Shortage?” Forbes, May 27, 1991, for a broader discussion of the issues involved in domestic spectrum allocation and management.

@For a recent &scWsion of the Upwind expamion of usable mdio frequencies, see ~~d L. Andrews, “seeking ‘r’o USe More Of the RadiO Spec@um,” New York Times, Sept. 11, 1991, p. D7. 44 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy power must be increased at both the original government to use trunked systems since agencies transmission (uplink) site on Earth and on the generally do not like to share systems with each satellite itself. Increased satellite power greatly other. increases costs. Reuse of Frequencies in Mobile Cellular Radio Systems Trunked Mobile Systems Mobile cellular radio is an example of a technol- In conventional (nontrunked) mobile radio sys- ogy that was developed to provide a new service, but tems, one or more users are assigned to the same that also makes more efficient use of spectrum than charnel. If that channel is busy, the user must wait previously existing mobile systems. In cellular until the channel is free. This process is unnecessar- systems, a mobile user is switched automatically ily time-consuming to the user, and delays the from one base station to another as the vehicle handling of messages. Not infrequently, the same moves from one part of a city to another, or travels channel is assigned to different companies, some of from city to city. This “cellular’ feature, designed which may even be competitors in the same field to provide geographic continuity of service, results (e.g., taxi companies, pizza delivery services, ce- in a significant reuse of frequencies, and the amount ment suppliers). Such disparate users have no of frequency reuse can be increased as traffic in the business incentive to accommodate the needs of system increases. others seeking use of the charnel. Moreover, all the information being sent on the charnel can be heard In order to visualize how a cellular system by all its users, including potential competitors. maximizes frequency reuse, imagine a large metro- Trunking can increase the amount of traffic that can politan area covered, at frost, by one base station with be handled by specialized mobile telephone systems power high enough to cover the whole area. In that while protecting the privacy of the user. situation, the frequencies are used only once throughout that area. As the traffic volume within the service Trunked systems use many communication chan- area grows, the one base station can no longer nels to serve a much larger number of users. A user accommodate all users and is replaced by several, seeking access to the system initiates a request for a lower-power stations. While the same frequencies communications charnel by lifting a microphone or cannot be used by adjacent transmitters (i.e., by handset (or pressing a button). The system automati- transmitters in adjoining cells), they can be reused cally searches for an open pair of frequencies (one two cells away. Within a geographic area encom- each for incoming and outgoing signals) and assigns passing many cells, the same frequencies might be it to the user. When the connection is ready both used three or four times. Shrinking cell sizes and stations are signaled, and both the mobile unit and lower transmitter powers, however, are not a perma- the base station are automatically tuned to the nent solution. Growth will continue, and there are selected frequencies. Busy signals are sent if no limits on how small a cell can be and how low power channels are available, or if the base station is can go while still maintaining adequate quality. otherwise occupied. Requests for a specific base Eventually, new methods must be found to accom- station can be stacked up and handled in order of modate steadily increasing numbers of users. receipt. In trunked systems, users do not ‘inadver- tently hear any other conversations. Scrambling or Digital Compression channel-hopping schemes can be built in to the The trend toward digital processing and transmiss- system controller to increase the level of privacy. ion in all forms of radiocommunication has signifi- Establishment of trunked systems has been some- cant potential to increase channel capacity and what easier for nongovernment users than for service quality and options. Ironically, converting government agencies. The majority of SMR sys- and transmitting analog signals in a digital transmiss- tems, for example, are trunked systems. A group of ion format requires larger bandwidths than trans- companies, or an individual entrepreneur, can estab- mitting the analog signals in their original form. The lish a trunked system for common use based on its benefits of digital radiocommunications come in its economic appeal: namely, better communications at ability to compress and combine signals. Digital lower cost than in separate, individual channel compression works by removing redundant or un- systems. However, it has been difficult for the necessary information from the signal. In audio Chapter 2-Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution ● 45 transmission, for example, sound frequencies that cordless systems. CDMA, on the other hand, maybe the human ear cannot hear are often removed. This more spectrum efficient than TDMA, but will allows less information to be sent, requires less require new, and potentially expensive, transmission bandwidth, and allows more channels (conversa- and receiving equipment. Many companies, how- tions, broadcasts) to be transmitted. ever, are testing CDMA and some have announced plans to build CDMA systems. Applications using digital compression techniques are spreading rapidly in many radiocommu- Improved Transmission Techniques nication services. In cellular telephony, for example, digital signal processing (DSP) promises improved Satellite Antennas quality and capacity eight times as great as existing Advanced satellite antennas permit the use of analog cellular systems.50 COMSAT has developed smaller, less expensive Earth stations by making technology that digitizes, compresses, and combines more efficient use of available satellite power. Such up to three separate TV signals for transmission on antennas direct the signal toward, and concentrate it a single satellite transponder.51 Other technology is in, areas where the intended users are located. under development that will combine up to 16 video Systems with such antennas, called spot beams, also signals on a single charnel. make more efficient use of spectrum than those with large, circular beams which waste satellite power by Combined with compression, digital transmission transmitting beyond the limits of the desired service techniques also allow radio signals to be sent more area. The reduction of signal levels outside the efficiently. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) service area permits the same frequencies to be and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) are reused by other systems serving nearby areas, in the digital coding schemes that allow more charnels to same way that cellular technology operates. Motor- be packed into any given bandwidth than analog 52 ola’s Iridium and NASA’s ACTS satellite systems technology could ever allow. TDMA divides each both plan to use spot beam techniques. conversation or data stream into discrete chunks and sends them at specified times coordinated with a Spread Spectrum receiver that then reassembles the chunks of data Spread spectrum is a modulation technique first into the whole conversation. CDMA techniques developed to hide military communications amid assign each transmission a unique identification natural noise. More recently, spread spectrum has code that allows the receiver to pick out the desired been used to permit low-level signals to share signal from among many simultaneous signals. All spectrum with other services. As the name implies, signals share the same range of frequencies. CDMA the original modulating signal is spread over a wide is used in many spread spectrum applications (see range of frequencies (bandwidth) for transmission. below). The primary application of such techniques The spreading over the wider band of frequencies is is in mobile communications such as cellular and done according to a pattern that is also known by the PCS, where their impressive capacities promise to receiver. The receiver reconstructs the incoming alleviate at least some of the near-term capacity signal using the same pattern as the one used for shortages now being experienced in cellular systems spreading it. Interference from conventional signals, around the country. TDMA, for example, is expected or other spread spectrum signals using a different to increase current capacity by 3 to 5 times, while spreading pattern, appear as noise to spread spec- CDMA proponents claim that CDMA will boost trum signals, and can be faltered out. capacity 10 “to 20 times.53 Which technique will dominate is unclear. TDMA appears to be further There are several types of spread spectrum developed than CDMA, and has already been systems. One type, known as direct-sequence spread endorsed by the Cellular Telecommunications In- spectrum, divides a radio signal’s energy over a wide dustry Association for use in second generation range of frequencies so that a little part of the signal

50Steve Cox and Bob Ffie, “DSP my S@l Relief for Urban cell~m Congestion” Telephony, VO1. 220, No. 9, MM. 4, 1991, p. 18. S1’’Compression News From CoMSAT,” Satellite Communications, VO1. 15, No. 1, Jan- 1991, p. 9. 52For a discussion of ~~ ~d ~~, s= Dodd L. sc~lling, ~~ond L. pic~ol@, and ~~nce B. M.ilste@ “Spread Spectrum Goes Commercial,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 27, No. 8, August 1990. sqc~les MZI.SOq “Motorol& PacTel To Test CDMA,” Telephony, vol. 220, No. 17, Apr. 29, 1991. 46 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy appears on each frequency in the band. Frequency- Single Sideband Transmission hopping spread spectrum techniques spread a signal In single sideband transmission (SSB), only one out over many frequencies by hopping from fre- set of the sidebands (see figure 2-A-2) that makeup quency to frequency in a sequence synchronized 56 a radio signal is transmitted. This is possible with the receiver. One frequency is not dedicated to because all of the intelligence in a radio signal (e.g., one user, and all frequencies can be used more music, video, speech) is contained and duplicated in efficiently. Satellite CD Radio, for example, has both upper and lower sidebands. Eliminating one of proposed a digital frequency-hopping scheme for its the sidebands has no effect on the information being BSS-Sound system that hops frequencies every sent, and receivers can still reconstruct an accurate 2,000th of a second and is thus better able to resist signal. the fading of a particular frequency, resulting in improved quality .54 There are several advantages in SSB transmission, most importantly, the fact that SSB reduces by Frequency modulation or FM, is a crude form of half the bandwidth required to send a signal, thereby spread spectrum. Terrestrial radio relay systems and allowing more signals to be sent or to reduce the satellite transponders compensate for their limited interference between signals. Another advantage of transmitter power by using FM, which spreads the SSB is its reduced susceptibility to noise and other signal over a much wider bandwidth. Thus, band- forms of interference since there are fewer frequen- width can be ‘‘traded’ for some of the power that cies for noise to invade. The disadvantage of SSB is would otherwise be required to send a usable signal that it requires more sophisticated (and hence, more from space to Earth. The price for this reduced power expensive) transmitters and receivers. Today’s HF requirement is much less efficient use of spectrum. broadcast receivers will not work with SSB trans- A TV signal that can be broadcast from a local missions, and replacement will be necessary .57 One station using only 6 MHz requires some 36 MHz of the U.S. positions for WARC-92 involves the when carried by satellite. expanded use of reduced carrier SSB transmission Because of spread spectrum’s ability to coexist or for HF broadcasting. overlay other types of radiocommunications signals, Alternatives and Competitors to Radio Systems it is being aggressively developed as a way for many users to share spectrum. But while the spread The remarkable advances in radio technology spectrum technique permits many low power signals have been paralleled by equally remarkable ad- to share a band, each of the spread spectrum signals vances in wire-based systems and devices.58 In many adds to the background noise level of the other cases, these technologies can provide an alternative signals in the band—including any other spread to radio-based systems, thus relieving some of the spectrum signals, lowering the signal-to-noise ratio pressure on crowded spectrum resources. The use of of them all. As more signals are added, the noise will fiber optics for long-distance telephone service is eventually become too great for good communica- one example. The majority of long-distance tele- tions. New adaptations of spread spectrum tech- phone calls used to be carried by microwave radio niques, including advanced forms of CDMA may links and satellites. However, with the development help solve some of these problems.55 of fiber-optic transmission technologies in the 1980s,

~satellite communications, Op. cit., footnote 51, pp. 9-10. sss~c~onous CD~, e.g., is be~g developd for use in future personal communications systas. Jack Taylor, CY~ Perso~ comm~catio~ Mar. 14, 1991.

56For a discussion of sidebmds ad s~gle sideband ~ms~ssiom see Harry ~eaf (cd.), Electronics One (RWhelle Park, NJ: Hayden B~k CO., 1976). 57cWen@, fill.c~m double-sidebad is used ~ the HF broadcast~g b~ds. This is a major barrier, especidy for developing countries, where the cost of radio receiver replacement becomes an issue. Broadcasters do not want SSB until listeners have receivers, but no one will manufacture or buy receivers until there is something to listen to. To address this probleu the United States submitted a proposal to the Inter-American Telecommunications Conference (CITEL) Interim Working Group for the WARC, ‘‘encouraging the manufacture, in developing CITEL countries, of inexpensive, HF-broadcast receivers compatible with the three classes of emission potentially involved in the conversion of HF broadcasting from the full-carrier double-sideband (DSB) presently in use, to reduced-carrier single-sideband (SSB).” Input document W=C-92/19 for CITEL PTC III 1992 WARC Interim Working Group. 58Whe-based is used here t. refer t. my of the so-~led fieline medi% ~clu~g: twisted copp~ we p~s, COa.xial cable, digiti T-1 lines, or fiber optics. Chapter 2-Radiocommunication Technologies and Services: Problem and Solution ● 47 many long-distance telephone providers began to finance such a changeover is also difficult. In the build extensive fiber-optic networks to take advan- case of long-distance providers, adequate market tage of the huge capacity and high quality of optical incentives existed to make the switch. Unfortu- transmission. Today, most domestic long-distance nately, that may not be the case for all alternatives telephone service is routed over fiber-optic lines, and incentives may have to be put in place to leaving satellites and microwave to carry data and encourage users to move. Long-term U.S. telecom- video services.59 munications policy should examine the consequences of this shift in communication resources in Another alternative to radio transmission, primar- order to maximize the efficient use of the spectrum. ily for the delivery of video programming to the Consistent with these themes, the National Tele- home, is cable television. Broadband cables for communications and Information Administration cable television now pass 85 percent of homes in the (NTIA) makes the following recommendations: United States, and cable penetration is above 60 percent. Most cable service is now transmitted over NTIA and the FCC should develop policies on the coaxial cables, but in new installations the trend is use of non-radio technologies as part of a coordi- to use fiber optics. Such systems could supplant nated program to foster spectrum efficiency, when some radio-based systems to bring communications consistent with other public policies. NTIA and the to homes and businesses at freed, and more or less FCC should also develop additional regulatory or permanent, locations. Such a shift would release economic incentives for the use of alternative technologies in congested areas.61 spectrum to those services, such as broadcasting to mobile and portable receivers and the mobile services in general, that have no practical alternatives to radiocommunication. Summary Recent developments in radiocommunications In the long run, the division of communications technology have put increasing pressure on spec- services and resources between wired and radio trum management structures and processes, but also services may need to be revisited. Many analysts offer opportunities for using spectrum resources believe that communication services now using more efficiently-allowing more users to have radio spectrum could be easily (and in some cases 60 access to them. Structures, procedures, and philoso- better) supplied through wire media. Radiocom- phies that were adequate for dealing with technology munication systems would be used for applications developments in the past maybe inadequate to meet or services not possible or practical with wired future planning and allocation needs. The rapid pace systems, such as mobile applications. If applications of technological development requires nations to were switched from radiocommunication to wire adopt a flexible approach to wireless communica- delivery, a large amount of spectrum could poten- tion and spectrum management. Hardened approaches tially be freed for other (mobile) uses. protected by entrenched interests, both within the Barriers to such a fundamental reordering of the government and the private sector, international and communications infrastructure in this country are domestic, must give way to structures and processes formidable. Entrenched users will fight to keep their that encourage innovation and flexibly combine the spectrum resources. The question of who would interests of all users.

s~owever, as illushatedby~ny of tie distance learningprojects being built around the country, fiberoptic is alSO being extemivelyusedfor ptivate videoconferencing applications. See OTA, Linh”ng for Learning, op. cit., footnote 38. @see tie discussion ~d comments in NT’IA, U.S. Spectrum Management Policy, OP. cit., footnote 48, p. 156. CINT’IA, u.S. spec~rn Management Policy, op. cit., footnote 48, p. 157. Chapter 3 The International Context for Spectrum Policy

Telecommunication has acquired strategic importance. With globalization and increasing information intensity of economic activity, the importance of telecommunication now transcends the established organizations. responsible for providing basic services. It now reaches all fields of economic and social . endeavor. l Introduction ogy and members’ development needs. This is the environment within which the United States must Since the 1979 World Administrative Radio negotiate new international radio allocations at Conference (WARC), the world economic and WARC-92—a world in which the actors are more political scene has changed dramatically. The 1980s numerous, their views more diverse, and relations witnessed the rise of Japan as a major economic more complex. This chapter examines the present power and the industrialization of countries such as structure of the ITU, discusses the proposed changes Brazil and Korea. The influence of the Soviet Union in the ITU, and identifies some of the larger trends has declined dramatically as the Eastern bloc has that are altering the world’s telecommunications dissolved and the U.S.S.R. itself is beset with policy order. internal turmoil. Moving into the 1990s, the world is seeing the emergence of a unified Europe and a International Spectrum realignment of the Eastern European nations. Ac- companying these changes, the historic tension Administration: The ITU between the developing and developed countries Description that characterized the 1970s and early 1980s has lessened. There is now a more flexible and concilia- The International Telecommunication Union was tory tone to international telecommunications poli- formed in 1932 through the merger of the Interna- cymaking. tional Telegraph Union and the members of the International Radiotelegraph Convention. It is the The larger shifts in economic and political power principal international organization responsible for in the world have altered the context within which allocating and regulating the use of the radio international telecommunication issues are addressed. frequency spectrum on an international basis. The Rapidly advancing technology is linking more ITU provides a forum for the development of global systems in networks that are increasingly regional standards and procedures aimed at assuring compat- and global. Competitive pressures have forced many ibility of telecommunications facilities and services. governments to liberalize or privatize their telecom- It also acts to reduce interference between nations munication industries. In the past, the main telecom- and among services in order to maintain harmony in munication (radiocommunication) actors were well- the international use of the radio frequency spectrum known, and alliances were stable. Today, new and the provision of wireless communications serv- players have become prominent as others have ices. The ITU sets equipment and systems operating faded, and firm alliances have given way to rapidly standards, coordinates and disseminates information shifting factions. East-West and North-South con- required for the planning and operation of telecom- frontations have been replaced by regional divisions. munication services, and promotes the development Recognizing these changes, the International Tele- 2 of global telecommunication systems and services. communication Union (ITU) established a High Level Committee to examine ways to improve the Since 1947, the ITU has been a United Nation’s structure and processes of the ITU to more effec- specialized agency, and is governed according to an tively respond to the challenges of changing technol- International Convention, which is periodically

IInternatio~Tele~~uni~tion UniO~ ‘The Changing Teleconununication Environment,’ Report of the Advisory Group on Telecommunication Policy, February 1989, p. 33. ?For a discussion of the history, structure and functions of the ITU, see George A. Codding, Jr. and Anthony M. Rutkowski, The Internationcd Telecommunication Union in a Changing World (D- MA: Arteeh House, Inc., 1982); and James G. Savage, The Politics of International Telecommunications Regulation (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989). 49- 50 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

reviewed and revised at Plenipotentiary Confer- been pushed aside by the increasingly vexing ences. 3 The ITU currently has 164 member coun- economic problems facing many countries.6 Unfor- tries, and operates according to a one-nation, one- tunately, there is no way to judge how long-lasting vote process.4 this trend may be. It maybe that the world is only in a transition period that will eventually give way to Although the mission of the ITU is primarily some of the old politicking (albeit in different forms technical, because of the voting process and the fact from different countries), as new alliances solidify. that the ITU is the principal international forum for For the near future, it is possible that the shifting allocating the world’s radiocommunication resources, nature of radiocommunication alliances could con- the activities of the Union are also strongly affected tribute to more cooperation as actors search out new by economic and political concerns. In some cases, partners. This break in overt hostilities presents the clashes in the ITU are based on different philoso- United States with a unique window of opportunity phies of public policy as much as on technical to establish new relationships, develop new policy considerations. For example, one of the consistent partnerships, and make significant gains at WARC- battles fought in the ITU over the past decade centers 92. on the necessity and desirability of planning the radio frequency bands. This issue has traditionally Structure of ITU Spectrum Activities divided the developing and developed countries. Developing countries favor a priori planning to The ITU pursues its mission of allocating, regulat- ensure that, as they develop more advanced radio- ing, and managing the spectrum resource through a communication technologies and services, spectrum number of different bodies (see figure 3-l). The structure for spectrum activities within the ITU resources will be available. This can mean that bands 7 of frequencies are reserved for future use and consists of five different parts: development. Developed countries, however, favor Plenipotentiary Conference a continuation of the ITU’s traditional system of “first-come, first-served,” which allows them to The Plenipotentiary Conference is the supreme develop and use frequencies as needed. Developed governing body of the ITU, and has ultimate control countries believe that planning leads to inefficient over the direction and work of the Union. This power use of frequencies as some lie unused. Developing derives from the plenipotentiary’s position as the countries maintain that planning is necessary in only ITU body able to review and revise the order to guarantee them access to spectrum they may International Telecommunication Convention, the need in the future. document that established the ITU and sets out its basic functions and regulations. The Plenipotentiary Over the past 20 years the Plenipotentiary and Conferences, which are held on a somewhat irregu- Administrative Radio Conferences of the ITU have lar basis, bring together high-level representatives of been characterized as increasingly “politicized.”5 member governments to elect the major officers of In the last several years, however, this trend seems the ITU (including the Administrative Council),8 to have been interrupted. As a result of new establish the future schedule of WARCs, and recom- economic realities and shifting geopolitical alli- mend items to be included on WARC agendas (as ances, the overt politics and polemics of past ITU recommended by previous WARCs). The last Pleni- meetings have subsided—political concerns have potentiary (Nice, France) was held in 1989. Future

sc~nges in ~e~temtio~ Convention are approved in the form of a treaty among ITU members. The last such revision Of the Convention occmed at the 1989 Plenipotentiary Conference in Nice, France. The Nice Plenipotentiary proposed to divide the Convention into two separate pieces. The fmt part, called the Constitution would contain the organizational setup, functions, and mandates of the ITU, and would not be subject to change at each Plenipotentiary unless enough members agreed. The second pm still called the Conventio~ would define the operational principles the ITU would follow in pursuing the mandates defined in the Constitution. This document could be changed by a majority vote at the Plenipotentiary. The decisions of the Nice Plenipotentiary have not yet entered into force, and the governing document of the ITW is still the Nairobi Conve~tion from 1982. @ecenfly reduced from l(jfj due to the consolidation of the Yemens and the reunitlcation of East md WeSt Germany. 5FOr a discu55ion of WS pefi~ of tie ~d tie impfi~tions of “politicizatio~” see Savage, op. cit., footnote 2, pp. 52-55. 61t my ~so be tit me ~~y tw~c~ name and l~ted s~pe of recent conferen~s ~ ,s~ed more visible politic~ concerns ad rhetoric. Y’r’he ~te~ iII tis section is based on Codding and Rutkowski and Savage, Op. Cit., fOOtnOte 2. 8The S=re~-Genm~, Depu~ secre~.~ner~, five IFRB members, and the Directors of tie CcrR and CCI’I’T (and soon the Director of the Bureau for Telecommunications Development-BDT). Figure 3-l-Current Structure of the International Telecommunication Union

Plenipotentiary Conference ,

Administrative Council

I World World Administrative Telecommunication Radio Conference Conference

I I 1 1 I I I I 1 I I l. ——————A———L—— — — —— ? + — — — — — —1 I r I I 1 1 1 1 International CCITT CCIR General Frequency Plenary Plenary Secretariat Registration Assembly Assembly r Board (IFRB)

1 Q ? I————lr ————lr ———l T Secretariat Study Groups Laboratory Secretariat I H H I .- ‘tudyiroups ~ F

KEY: CClTT=lnternational Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee; CCIR-lnternational Radio Consultative Committee SOURCE: Richard G. Gould, “Allocation of the Radio Frequency Spectrum,” OTA contractor report, Aug. 10, 1990, p. 40. 52 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy plenipotentiaries are scheduled for December 1992 International Frequency Registration Board (a special plenipotentiary to consider the changes proposed by the High Level Committee, see below) The International Frequency Registration Board in Geneva and 1994 in Japan. Because of the (IFRB) is a five-member board responsible for enormous importance of the Plenipotentiary Confer- recording, registering, publishing, and assessing the ences to the functioning of the ITU, they are legality of every radio frequency used in the generally the most political and polemical of the spectrum. The IFRB also advises individual coun- ITU’s bodies. tries on technical matters and does larger technical studies recommended by the WARCs. Since the Administrative Council 1979 WARC, the work of the IFRB has shifted in The Administrative Council of the ITU consists of focus from high frequency issues to a broader range 42 members and serves as the governing body of the of topics, including satellite communications, where ITU between Plenipotentiary Conferences? It meets the Board has conducted planning exercises for the annually to implement the decisions of the plenipo- geostationary orbit. tentiaries, oversee the ITU’s annual budget, complete other tasks as directed by the Plenipotentiary The influx of developing countries in the ITU over Conferences, and set the agendas for future WARCs the past 20 years has had a substantial impact on the in consultation with the members of the ITU. In this IFRB. Developing countries have come to rely on role, the Administrative Council has substantial the Board for technical advice and for development influence on the nature of the topics the ITU will assistance in planning their domestic telecommuni- consider through the WARC process. The United cation systems. This shift in the IFRB’s role reflects States has been a member of the Council since its the larger shift of the ITU into more development- inception. related activities. The developing countries have come to see the IFRB as an important ally in the ITU World Administrative Radio Conferences to counter the technical dominance the developed These conferences bring together radiocommuni- countries enjoy in the CCR. cations engineers and policy experts from ITU member nations who prepare for years to make Almost since its inception, the IFRB has been proposals on radio technologies and services that criticized, primarily by the developed countries, for will guide world development of radiocommunica- being political, too closed, and too interpretive in its tions. The WARCs are the primary instrument of the activities. Many criticisms center on the (actions of) ITU through which changes to the International board members themselves, more than on their Table of Allocations are made and by which the mandated role. There is concern about the quality of Radio Regulations are revised (see ch. 1).10 WARCs the members elected to this technical board-some provide an opportunity to make broad changes in the are viewed as highly expert, but some are not. In ways the spectrum is used. Thus, a WARC really addition, board members have become increasingly represents the beginning of the actual work of the uncooperative with each other over time, sometimes ITU-frequency allocations are made to different replacing cooperative decisionmaking with (politi- radio services, and regulations are set to encourage cal) squabbling. Some representatives of the devel- the most efficient and interference-free use of the oped countries believe that the IFRB has outlived its spectrum. The more technical of these activities, usefulness. Developing countries, while still com- including frequency planning, establishing technical mitted to the IFRB, have recently become disillu- standards and regulations for use, and developing sioned by the loss of some key advocates who were assignment and coordination procedures, are contin- voted off the Board. These concerns on the part of ued after the WARC in the ongoing work of the both developed and developing countries have led to International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) recommendations for a substantial reworking of the (see below). Board’s role and structure (see below).

~orty-three countries are technically part of the Council, but the merging of East and West Germany ended separate East German participation. l~e ITU ~so holds ~~uent World Adminis&ative Telecommunication Conferences (formerly World Administrative Telegraph-Telephone Conferences-WAITCs), which addms wire-based telecommunication technologies. The last such conference was held in 1988. Chapter 3-The International Context for Spectrum Policy ● 53

International Radio Consultative Committee involvement and important new roles for private companies in the ITU (see below). The CCIR, originally established in 1927, studies In addition to its general technical work, the CCIR technical questions related to radiocommunications also develops the technical bases for Administrative and recommends global standards of use for all types Radio Conferences. Before every WARC, the CCIR of radio systems and equipment.ll The CCIR is holds a joint meeting of all the study groups involved directed in its work by a Plenary Assembly that in preparations for the conference. The objective of meets approximately ever-y 4 years-the last being 12 this meeting, called a Joint Interim Working Party held in 1990. The substantive, technical work of (JIWP), is to prepare a technical report for the the CCIR is conducted in small study groups and guidance of the countries whose delegates will working parties, which meet often between the participate in the conference. The extensive prepara- Plenaries. There are currently 10 study groups tory mechanism for WARC-92 is shown in figure covering a wide range of topics. Most of the 3-2. Each study group concerned with WARC-92 participants in the CCIR study groups for the United issues first met in Interim Working Parties (IWPs) States are members of the private sector. They have and in JIWPs of several related study groups. In the extensive technical expertise the government March 1991 an overall JIWP was held bringing often has in only short supply. Government poli- together IWPs and JIWPs that met previously. The cymakers in the Federal Communications Commiss- product of this meeting was a voluminous report ion (FCC), the National Telecommunications and containing all the technical advice to the conference Information Administration (NTIA) and the Depart- concerning suitable frequencies for the services to ment of State closely follow the activities of the which allocations may be made, sharing and inter- CCIR and a limited number of government represen- ference criteria and other technical conclusions and tatives participate actively in CCIR meetings and recommendations relating to use of the orbit and deliberations. spectrum by those services.14 Participation in CCIR activities is open to all Because of the essentially technical nature of its members of the ITU and to nongovernment agencies work, the CCIR has generally been seen as less and companies that have been approved by their political than the WARCs or the Plenipotentiary respective governments. 13 Private sector participa- Conferences.15 However, CCIR proceedings and, tion depends on what business the company is especially, the JIWP before the WARCs have gained involved in. Recognized Private Operating Agencies in importance in recent years as governments have (RPOAs) are private-sector telecommunication serv- realized the importance of the technical underpin- ice providers such as AT&T and COMSAT. Scien- nings to the WARC. The JIWP meetings have tific or Industrial Organizations (SI0s), which evolved beyond merely technical meetings and are design or manufacture telecommunications equip- now widely regarded as “mini-WARCs,” that ment or study telecommunications issues, such as provide countries an important opportunity to ex- Rockwell and Hughes Aircraft, also participate quite change ideas, float trial proposals, and do some extensively in the substantive work of the CCIR. The initial discussion and negotiation in preparation for increasing numbers of telecommunications compa- the WARC itself. The result is that CCIR activities nies around the world may lead to increased and the work of the study groups has become

ll~e kte~tio~ Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCI’IT) studies technical issues relating tO wke-based Commtititions, including such topics as standardization computer communications, and fiber optics. 12@estiom for cm s~dy my ~so be proposed by me plenipoten~ or world Awstrative ~dio Conferences, the Administrative CO~Cd, the CcIT”I’, or the IFRB. 13P~icipation ~ most other activities of tie 1~ is restricted to member co~tries and their delegates o~y; private sector companies CiirltlOt be members of the ITU. Representatives of the private sector, however, may become members of CCIR and CCITT iftheyhave been appointed as anoftlcial delegate by their government. 14~termtio~ Tel~om~cation u~om CCIR REPOf/T: Technical and Operatio~l Basesf@r the WorldAd~”nis~ative Radio conference 1992 (W~C-92) (Geneva: March 1991). IsMost Pficipmts ~ the work of the CCR s~dy groups me tec~~ s~, not high-level government O&IC&. h the united ShteS, fOr eMmple, most CCIR participants come horn private industry, with only limited participation and direction by the Federal Government. This is in part a fimction of the shortage of technical staff in the government, and also due to industry recognition that the study groups provide a good way to introduce proposals for new technologies and refine technical ideas and systems. Figure 3-2—lnternational Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) Study Groups Preparing for WARC-92

Spectrum utilization I —— IWP 1/6 and monitoring

Space research and II —— IWP 2/’2 radioastronomy

Fixed services below - Ill about 30 MHz \ b .\ Fixed services Iv – IWP 4/1 using satellites – \– \

v Propagation in non- \ ionized media 4 \\ AI JI WP Plenipotentiary Plenary \ JIWP 10-3-6-8 WARC -92 Conference Assembly VI Ionospheric propagation High frequency Geneva, 1990 -1 I 1989 R 7 March 1991 // 3 Standard frequency and — Vll time-signal services 1 // 1: 1 I // Vlll Mobile services I WP 8/15 i + I

lx Fixed services -/’- ,~y//

“/ x Sound broadcasting ,:,-,~y/ service

Television – xl broadcasting service ‘:’-m

KEY: BSS-Sound=broadcasting satellite service-sound; HDTV=high-definition television; lWP=lnterim Working Party; JIWP=Joint Interim Working Party. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1991, based on Richard G. Gould, “Allocation of the Radio Frequency Spectrum,” OTAcontractor report, Aug. 10, 1990, p. 41,54. Chapter 3-The International Context for Spectrum Policy ● 55

increasingly “politicized,” especially at meetings posals. The industrialized countries, by contrast, such as the JIWP. begin preparing for WARCs years in advance. CCIR activities have become more important in Importance recent years due to the tremendous growth of telecommunications in general and the rapid devel- The work of the ITU in spectrum management and opment of new radio technologies. Because of this effective U.S. participation in it is important for growth, and increasing workloads, the work of the several reasons. Most broadly, the work of the ITU CCIR (and the International Telegraph and Tele- extends beyond radiocommunication services and phone Consultative Committee (CCITT)) has encompasses virtually all aspects of international slowed, prompting calls for reform (see below). telecommunications. The agreements reached at the The ITU’s High Level Committee has proposed ITU form the basis for most of the world’s use of changes in the structure and functioning of the ITU radio services and contributes to an industry vital to that would combine the functions of the CCIR’s economic, political and social interests. Plenary Sessions with the more general activities of Effective U.S. participation in the ITU is crucial the administrative conferences. Despite such criti- for several reasons. Without international standards cisms, however, the work of the CCIR is praised for and procedures for sharing the spectrum, global its businesslike approach and high quality. radio communication and services would be impos- The CCJR has been dominated by the developed sible. Although international interference problems countries for many years, due to their substantial are not as much of a problem for the United States expertise, personnel, and financial resources. Histor- as for other countries, the United States must ically, the developing countries have played a minor nevertheless coordinate services that are worldwide, role in the work of the CCIR study groups due to a such as safety services for aeronautical and maritime shortage of qualified personnel and a lack of funds services. for preparation activities and travel to the meetings. Leaving these matters to bilateral negotiations or Smaller countries face a number of unique problems regional associations is unlikely to produce satisfac- participating in the CCIR and the ITU in general. tory solutions given the large number of countries First, governments in smaller or developing coun- involved and the growing significance of global tries often change rapidly. Telecommunication telecommunication networks.l6 staffs are often changed just as quickly. This Participation in the ITU is also crucial to the prevents many countries from developing the base of international political and technical stature of the expertise and international contacts that would United States. Were the United States to pull out of enable them to participate effectively in interna- or fail to ratify ITU documents on a regular basis, a tional meetings. Second, developing country tele- poor precedent would be set that could jeopardize communications staffs are often small, consisting of U.S. participation and negotiations in other interna- between one and six people. In this country, there are tional bodies. Finally, the ITU offers the United hundreds of people in government and industry States an important opportunity to advance U.S. working on WARC preparations. At conferences, views on technical standards and regulations, pro- the problem becomes more severe, because one moting global standards that allow U.S. firms to take delegate cannot cover all the various meetings and advantage of economies of scale in manufacturing drafting/working groups his or her country has an and the provision of services. Such input is critical interest in. Finally, smaller countries often do not in maintainingg the technological and policy leader- have the funds to adequately prepare their delegates. ship of the United States in international radiocom- They do not have sufficient travel money to send munications. their delegates to all the meetings that would help them understand and prepare for the WARC. Lack of Activities Outside the ITU funds also prevents many countries from beginning their preparations until the last minute, when it is too In addition to the international spectrum activities late. It is reported that some delegates get to the conducted under the aegis of the ITU, nations also WARC before they even see other countries’ pro- engage in bilateral and multilateral discussions and

16c~~e q~g Teleco~~cation Ednmrmmt,” Op. cit., footnote 1, p. 11. 56 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

negotiations. Often these discussions involve neigh- standards and coordination activities. overall, there boring countries trying to resolve specific interfer- was a desire to make the workings of the ITU more ence problems. Bilateral discussions can also form businesslike, more regular, and less subject to the basis of more regional planning as in the case of political and emotional whims. The proposed changes the United States, Canada, and Mexico, which have in the ITU (if accepted) will substantially alter the agreements in many broadcasting areas. Multilateral way international spectrum policy is decided, and negotiation takes place under the auspices of re- will have important consequential impacts on how gional organizations such as the Conference of the United States pursues its international spectrum European Postal and Telecommunications (CEPT) policies. While many of the changes discussed administrations or the Inter-American Telecommuni- below will not directly affect the proceedings of cations Conference (CITEL), and in many interna- WARC-92, they will have important, if still uncer- tional organizations with specific concerns, such as tain, impacts on future radiocommunication confer- the International Civil Aviation Organization. Some ences. advocate a more ongoing and more formal process or mechanism that would allow the United States to High Level Committee (HLC) develop and coordinate U.S. positions with regard to these other organizations and countries.17 Background—Responding to the increasing complexity of the international telecommunications Changes in the ITU environment, the 1989 Plenipotentiary Conference (Nice) decided that: The more intensified globalization of telecommunication networks, including increasing complexity a High Level Committee (H.L.C.) should be of telecommunication technology and a growing established to recommend, on the basis of an diversity of actors in the telecommunication field, in-depth review of the structure and functioning of has created additional pressures. There are now more the Union, measures to enable the ITU to respond pressing demands on ITU for accelerated handling of effectively to the challenges of the changing tele- information and closer coordination of the activities communication environment.19 of members. With increasing network interdepend- Accordingly, the Administrative Council at an ence, more effective harmonization of actions is necessary to ensure optimal connectivity and opera- Extraordinary Session in November 1989 estab- bility of networks and services. These changes in the lished the HLC to examine current ITU structure and international telecommunication environment call conferences and recommend changes to improve the for an urgent review of the role and activities of ITU, functioning and efficiency of the organization and if it is to fulfill its historic mandate of facilitating its activities in light of rapid telecommunications global telecommunication development.18 changes. 20 Recognizing the pressing nature of these changes Membership in the HLC consisted of repre- and the importance of aggressively meeting new sentatives from 21 countries elected in 1989 by the challenges, and to keep up with the rapid pace of Administrative Council. Each elected country then radiocommunication technology development, the designated individual representatives. The U.S. ITU has embarked on a broad and vital revision of representative to the HLC was Ambassador Gerald its structure and processes. There was special Helman, Senior Advisor to the Under Secretary of concern that the work of the ITU was becoming State for Political Affairs, who was assisted by staff increasingly bogged down and ineffective, and that from the Department of State’s Bureaus of Interna- if changes were not made, ITU member countries tional Communications and Information Policy and could begin bypassing the ITU in international International Organization Affairs, FCC, and NTIA.

17Hans J. Weiss andRa~ondB. Crowefl, ‘Comments of Communication Satellite Corporatio~’ presentedbefore the National Telwommticatiom and Information Administration in the matter of a Comprehensive Policy Review of the Use and Management of the Radio Frequency Spec~ Washington DC, Feb. 27, 1990. 18~~’rhe ~~g Telecomm~cation Environment” Op. Cit., footnote 1, P. 2. 1~~ Repofi of the ~@ ~vel Committ= (HL.C.) to Review the s~c~e and F~ctioning of tie ~te~tio~ Telecommunication UniO~ “Tomorrow’ sITU: The Challenges of Change,’ Doeument 145-E (Geneva: International Telecommunication Union, April 1991), pp. 12-15. (Hereafter: HLC Final Report). ~Aws@ative comciI Resolution No. 990 defmti the tasks of the group and selected 21 member WUes to send r~reSentitiveS. Chapter 3-The International Context for Spectrum Policy ● 57

Box 3-A-Summary of Changes Proposed by the High Level Committee (HLC) 1. The world of telecommunications is undergoing rapid change in technology, in the creative and worldwide application of that technology, and in its immensely varied commercial applications. The information and telecommunications revolution+-almost a cliche in the hands of writers and analysts-is a daily practical reality in the work of the ITU. The ITU remains unique and irreplaceable as an intergovermental organization, both in its leading role in the global information economy and society and in the manner in which it addresses the needs of developing countries and engages the private sector in its work as part of the wider ITU family. 2. Our [HLC] Recommendations aim to help the ITU to meet the challenges of change and to continue to play its leading role in world telecommunications. Our principal recommendations areas follows. 3. The ITU should not seek to broaden or change its overall mandate, but should play a stronger and more catalytic role in stimulating and coordinating cooperation between the increasing number of bodies concerned with telecommunications. It should also recognize the growth of regional bodies and develop with them relationships which retain the ITU’s primary role but allow for necessary, complementary activities. 4. The supreme body should remain the Plenipotentiary Conference, meeting every four years. It should be supported by the Administrative Council, to be renamed ITU Council, playing a broader and more strategic role. 5. The substantive work of the ITU should be organized in three Sectors: Development, Standardization and Radioconmmunication. The Standardization Sector should include the current work of the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT) and some standardization work currently done by the International Radio Consultative Committee CCIR). The Radiocommunication Sector should include most of the current CCIR work and that of the International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB) and its specialized secretariat. The division of responsibilities between the Standardization and Radiocommunication Sectors will be kept under review and adjusted when necessary to meet changing needs and to ensure efficiency. The Development Sector should encompass the current work of the Telecommunications Development Bureau (BDT). The distinct functions originally envisaged for the Center for TelecommunicationsDevelopment should be integrated into the BDT 6. The current full-time five-member IFRB should be replaced by a part-time nine-member Radio Regulations Board. 7. For each Sector, the supreme body should be aWorld Conference, supported by Study/Working Groups. World Conferences should be held between Plenipotentiary Conferences, in a regular cycle, to promote more effective planning. 8. For each Sector, elected Directors should head Bureaus at ITU headquarters. They should also chair Advisory bodies which, according to the needs of the Sector, should review its strategies, priorities and activities and help ensure coordination of work and adaptation between conferences to changing needs and circumstances. (continued on next page)

The private sector also had input to the process box 3-A for a summary of proposed changes) .21 The through the CCIR and CCITT National Committees. HLC has recommended that the ITU be restructured into three equal sectors: Development, Standardiza- Changes—The changes recommended by the tion, and Radiocommunication (see figure 3-3). HLC could have a profound impact on the structure Each sector would be governed by its own confer- and functioning of the ITU, including the WARCs, ence and headed by an elected director. The techni- although the timing of such changes is uncertain. cal work of the sectors would be conducted in study And while the changes proposed by the HLC will groups. have no direct impact on WARC-92, the potential ramifications of the changes for future conferences The new Radiocommunication Sector would com- are significant, and add another element of change bine the work of the CCIR and the IFRB, which that U.S. spectrum policymakers must address (see would be changed to a part-time 9-member board.

21~e~CF~Rqofi ~~~~id~r~~ny is~~~ ~ec@&fll~e of tie ~. ~s s~tionwillconcentrate orllyon~ose &UlgeswithadireCt iInpaCt onradiocommnnications and the spectrum management process. For a complete discussion of the changes proposed by the HLC, see HLC Final Report, op. cit., footnote 19. 58 ● WARC.92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Box 3-A—Summary of Changes Proposed by the High Level Committee (HLC)-Continued 9. Each Sector should have its own budget, with all costs and revenues clearly identified, to ensure that all costs are assigned to the appropriate “end user” Sector. 10. The Secretary-General is the chief officer of the Union, with a key role in strategic planning, management and coordination. This role should be strengthened. He should be supported by a new Strategic Policy and Planning Unit, reporting to him but serving the needs of all Sectors. He is also encouraged to set up a Business Advisory Forum through which he can conduct a dialogue with business leaders. 11. At the same time, and supported by improved management systems, he should delegate responsibility to Directors for the management of their budgets and staff, within agreed parameters. The Coordination Committee should play a stronger collegial role in conducting and managing activities. 12. Specific improvements should be made in the internal management of ITUheadquarters, in the fields of finance, personnel and information systems. The primary aims are to: improve strategic planning and provide more effective financial, personnel and information management; promote, within this improved framework, delegation of responsibility, greater cooperation between staff and greater exercise of initiative; and, importantly, enable the staff more fully to realize their potential within a well managed organization. 13. Our [HCL] Recommendations seek to encourage greater participation by all those who have important interests in ITU activities. The ITU is an intergovernmental organization and Members are States represented by Administrations. But it exists to meet a wide range of interests: to facilitate provision of services to end users by operators, service providers and equipment manufacturers; and to assure effective use of theradio-frequency spectrum by all users. Non-Member participants also make a great contribution to its work Their even greater participation should be encouraged. 14. Our [HCL] Recommendations will increase some costs, but also lead to savings. With effective implementation, changes in the culture of the organization and the goodwill and support of the staff, we believe that the cumulative impact will have a positive effect on the finances of the ITU and will enhance performance. We have no doubt that the quality and dedication of all who work in the Union will ensure that the ITU does respond to the challenges of change. 15. Our [HLC] proposals for implementing our Recommendations are in Chapter VII. It is vital that the ITU not lose momentum in taking action on this report and in implementing its recommendations. Any delay will weaken the ITU’s capacity to respond to the rapidly changing telecommunication environment. SOURCE: Final Report of the High Level Committee (_H.L.C.) to Review the Structure and Functioning of the International Telecommunication Union “’Tomorrow’s ITU: The Challenges of Change,” Document 145-E (Geneva: International Telecommunication Union, April 1991).

The radio activities of the ITU would be directed by each of the new sectors. Meetings of World Radio- World Radiocommunication Conferences, which communication Conferences would take place every would combine the work of the CCIR Plenary 2 years. This regular schedule of world radio Assemblies and the WARCs. The Committee also conferences may have several effects. First, a regular recommended that the new conferences should schedule should make it easier for countries to plan include a coremittee open to nongovernmental for conferences in terms of budgets and personnel, bodies in order to increase the amount and quality of and gives the United States an opportunity to RPOA, SI0, and other interested organizations’ formalize and institutionalize WARC preparation participation. The current work of the CCIR study processes, both in the government and industry. groups would continue, but some work related to Private sector involvement in WARC preparation standards would be transferred to the Standardiza- activities could become more integrated and contin- tion Sector, and a Radiocommunication Study Group uous. Rather than the uncertain budget demands of Advisory Committee would be established to guide irregular WARCs, including salaries, temporary the work of the groups. staff, and wildly fluctuating travel demands, a regular cycle allows administrations (and the private In addition to structural changes, the HLC has sector) to get into a rhythm that promotes more recommended a regular schedule of Plenipotentiary efficient and rational planning for the WARCs. Conferences and administrative conferences for Personnel requirements could also be rationalized Figure 3-3—lnternational Telecommunication Union Structure: Changes Recommended by the High Level Committee

m Conference -

ITU Council

1 – – – – – – 17 – – – – I1 Conferences ElConferences ‘-~l-----@I Business Strategic Secretary Policy and Advisory General Committee Planning Unit

El- I 1 I

Radio Development Standardization Radiomrnrnunkation Sector Sector Regulations Sector Board

Study Study F,__.~1 nGroups nGroups SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1991. 60 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy because a regular schedule would allow managers to ring every 2 years, and planning for conferences apportion time and hire staff according to needs. going on almost continuously, it should be easier This should serve more broadly to regularize the and faster for each country and the ITU overall to domestic preparation process itself and presents an address rapidly changing technological issues. These opportunity for the United States to build a core changes could also make it easier to schedule issues group of international staff with continuing respon- to allow for longer, more thorough consideration and sibility for WARC preparations. Such changes could preparation time if needed—since the time to the potentially enhance the efficiency of the U.S. next conference would not be so long and would be preparation process and improve U.S. effectiveness known. This would have the effect of lessening the at international conferences. uncertainty associated with today’s conferences because unresolved issues could be more easily The HLC recommended a number of ways to scheduled for upcoming conferences. It is uncertain increase the formal and active participation of whether regular world radio conferences will be members of the private sector in the work of the ITU. broad, taking up a variety of topics every 2 years, or As countries have liberalized and privatized their more specialized, dealing with specific topics. It telecommunications industries, more new compa- seems likely, however, that future WARCs will deal nies have come into existence. They are playing an with a more limited set of issues, even if they are not increasingly important role in the ITU process, completely specialized. especially through the work of CCITT/CCIR study groups. The HLC recognized this greater role and The benefits of regular conferences do not come has recommended that the Administrative Council without costs, however, and will not solve all the begin a review of the participation of nonmember problems with ITU spectrum allocation and manage- representatives. It also recommended that intergov- ment procedures. The main disadvantage is that ernmental satellite organizations be given greater regular conferences will require additional finding status and access to ITU meetings and that a on the part of the private sector and government. Business Advisory Forum be created to advise the Instead of sporadic preparation, the preparation Secretary-General on private sector interests and process will become continuous, requiring the com- concerns. mitment of additional staff and funding resources. The increased resource requirements also represent Impacts—The impact of these changes on the a strong barrier to developing countries, who have functioning of the ITU and its work in spectrum limited personnel available for WARC activities and management has yet to be felt. The timeline on are already short on funds. Regularizing the confer- which these changes will take place if adopted is still ence schedule will probably not improve developing unclear, but changes are likely to be phased in over country participation in WARC activities. a period of years. Some alterations, such as those to the IFRB, will require the approval of a Plenipotenti- Overall, the changes proposed by the HLC may ary Conference, while others may require only prove to be far-reaching, but not dramatic. Many of Administrative Council or Secretary-General ap- the recommended changes reinforce and legitimize proval. Still other changes reflect and reinforce changes that were already underway or had previ- improvements that have been underway for several ously been proposed. The work of the CCIR study years, especially in the CCIR./CCIlT The final groups, for example, may not be affected much impacts of the proposed changes (which are passed beyond the streamlining already put into place. In and which are not) will depend on where the any case, changes in the structure and functioning of decisions are made, what changes are finally ap- the ITU will require changes in the ways in which proved, and how long it takes to implement them. the United States prepares for future conferences. Regular conferences may require the establishment The major effect of regular radio conferences is to of permanent offices to handle conference prepara- make the ITU WARC process more orderly and tory activities. The greater involvement of the predictable, yet flexible. The future schedule of private sector in the activities of the ITU should conferences is now uncertain. Hence, great impor- greatly benefit the United States with its already tance has been attached to WARC-92, since no one extensive industry involvement, but closer coordina- knows when the next opportunity to address current tion between government and industry may be issues will be. With future radio conferences occur- necessary to coherently promote U.S. radiocommu- Chapter 3-The International Context for Spectrum Policy ● 61 nication policies abroad. These shifts offer both ment, including procedures for coordinating and challenges and opportunities that must be planned recording assignments and preventing interference. for if the United States is to continue to be effective Task 3 encompasses operational and administrative in world radiocommunication policy. provisions. Since most of the work of the VGE is highly technical, the CCIR established Task Group Voluntary Group of Experts 1/1 to provide the VGE with expert support.23 The In addition to (complementary with) the work of United States has representatives on both the VGE the HLC, the ITU has also begun a study of the Radio and Task Group 1/1. Regulations that govern the use of the radio fre- Because VGE’s work began only recently, its quency spectrum internationally. This study is being possible impacts on the functioning of the ITU and conducted by a Voluntary Group of Experts (VGE) its effects on the spectrum allocation and manage- in an effort to simplify the Radio Regulations and ment process are unclear. The work of the VGE is improve use of the spectrum worldwide. The VGE closely tied to that of the HLC and is, in part, was established by the 1990 Administrative Council dependent on the implementation of proposed HLC based on the recommendation of the 1989 Plenipo- changes. If these changes are not approved or tentiary Conference (Resolution PL-B/3). Member- implemented, the work of the VGE may be under- ship is open to all member countries. At the first mined. meeting of the VGE, which took place in late January 1991, experts from 22 countries and four The fact that the work of the VGE is so technical international organizations participated. The VGE may have limited its appeal to high-level policy- plans to complete its work by mid-1993. A WARC makers in the United States. Little attention is being will then be needed to implement its recommendat- paid to the work of the VGE outside of those actually ions since they directly concern the Radio Regula- involved. It may also be that HLC activities have tions. overshadowed the work of the VGE (which was established after the HLC) and diverted the attention The VGE is pursuing several objectives. Simplifi- of top policymakers. Reportedly, there was initially cation of the international Radio Regulations is its little high-level thought or planning being given to primary goal. Over the years, as successive confer- the work of the VGE, and no concrete goals have yet ences have added to and modified the Radio been established for the U.S. representatives to the Regulations, complaints have been raised that the VGE to follow. A private sector task force under the regulations are too complex, very time-consuming, national CCIR’s Strategic Planning Committee pro- administratively burdensome, and not able to keep vides advice to the U.S. VGE representative on pace with the rapid changes in technology .22 There possible U.S. objectives in the VGE. are over 700 footnotes in the international Table of Allocations that make specific modifications to the CCIR allocations to accommodate specific country or Much of the impetus for change in the ITU service requirements. Many of these are now consid- originally came from the international consultative ered obsolete. By simplifying the Radio Regula- committees. Several years ago both the CCIR and tions, the VGE hopes to increase the flexibility of CCITT were having increasing difficulty keeping up spectrum use and management. This is a much with the rapid pace of technological change. Techni- broader and long-term task that will affect how cal issues must be quickly and effectively decided if spectrum is allocated at WARCs. the ITU is to maintain its leadership role in To accomplish its objectives, the VGE has international telecommunications, and ITU officials divided its work into three tasks: Task 1 considers feared that, if the ITU could not act quickly enough the allocation process, including definitions of radio in setting standards and rules of operation, member services, alternative approaches to spectrum alloca- countries and the private sector would resort to tion, and the use of footnotes in allocation tables. institutions outside the ITU, including the emerging Task 2 addresses the problems of frequency assign- regional standards organizations, to get things done.

~G.C. Brooks, “Possible Evolution of Ihe International Regulation of the Space Services, ” Telecommunications Journal, vol. 58, No. II, February 1991, p. 88. ~~e me~emfip of the VGE overlaps with lhsk Group 1/1 M well M wi~ tie HJ-C. 62 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

It was felt that this could hurt the development of Development global networks and services. With the rising numbers and political power of the developing countries, development—specifically tel- In an effort to speed up their processes and ecommunications facilities and systems develop- improve their responsiveness, first the CCITT and ment—has become an increasingly important con- then the CCIR adopted reforms to improve their cern of the ITU. Over the last decade, the ITU has work and streamline their processes. CCIR’s Reso- made telecommunication development and techni- lution 24, adopted in 1990, was designed to acceler- cal assistance to developing countries a more ate the approval of recommendations on radio integral part of its mission. In 1985, for example, the standards by streamlining the work of the study ITU established the Center for Telecommunications groups and adopting faster working procedures. Development, and in 1989 the Nice Plenipotentiary These changes have taken place independently of created a new Bureau for Telecommunications the HLC study and are being folded into the HLC Development. The trend continues in the HLC proposals. Many of them are already being imple- proposal to create a separate Development Sector mented. equal in status with the Standardization and Radio- communication Sectors. CCIR has convened a new Study Group 12 to The issue of development, and the potential examine ways to accommodate the growing demand broadening of the mandate and activities of the ITU for mobile services and spectrum. In the long-term, indicates a major shift in the purpose of the ITU and if the study group proves successful in its mission, could have a major impact on international telecom- the way is opened to consider whether a much munications policymaking. Although its direct im- broader array of spectrum management issues, pacts on spectrum policymaking are unclear (since normally dealt with at Administrative Radio Confer- the changes have not yet been implemented), two ences, might be handled by more dynamic Consulta- scenarios appear possible. First, the increasing tive Committee mechanisms.24 In the absence of concentration on development activities and the possible changes to ITU structure and procedures high status of the Development Sector may result in a shifting of resources away from radiocommunica- (discussed below), this shift to the CCIR groups 26 tion activities. Given the concurrent regularization could benefit the United States in that the CCIR of the WARC schedule, it will be important for the activities have long been dominated by United United States to monitor the situation very closely to States and developed country contributions. A ensure that the important activities of the WARCs strengthening and streamlining of the CCIR process/ and the (CCIR) study groups are not given short procedures could translate into a stronger U.S. shrift. Second, a focus on development may affect presence in the ITU generally, and represents an the work programs the study groups undertake- opportunity for the United States to both push moving them away from allocation, sharing, and technology advancements more rapidly and lay the standards work and toward more operational or groundwork for U.S. proposals at future WARCs. design issues.

Under the changes proposed by the HLC, the Major Trends Shaping International work of the CCIR would be subsumed under the Radiocommunication Sector and the CCIR as an Telecommunication Policymaking 25 separate body would be eliminated. The work of As the world moves toward a society and econ- the CCIR study groups, however, would continue omy based on information and knowledge, telecom- largely intact. Many of the administrative functions munications, including the new radio-based technol- of the CCIR would be merged with the WARCs into ogies, will assume an increasingly important role in World Radiocommunication Conferences. all aspects of life.

‘Pekka lhrjanne, “An Unusual Event,” Telecommunications Journal, vol. 58, No. III, March 1991, p. 123. XMost CCIR ~ctiom will con~ue ~der tie Radiocommunication Sector, but some activities dealing with radio and public network kterface standards will be transferred to the Standards Sector. Zscoments of COMSAT before NTIA, op. Cit., footnote 17. Chapter 3—The International Context for Spectrum Policy ● 63

Historically there has been a tendency to view many completely new services on the agenda for telecommunication as a service by itself. Considera- WARC-92 is evidence of the rapid pace of technol- tion of telecommunication as a facilitator of eco- ogy development, and the ITU’s efforts to respond. nomic development, as a source of global competitive advantage, as a provider of social and welfare These pressures put a premium on rapid and benefits, as a contribution to reducing regional flexible approaches to spectrum policy, and present disparities, and as a provider of information for the a challenge and an opportunity to make aggressive general elevation of the population, have not been changes to policy structures and processes. Poli- dominant considerations in the formulation of na- cymakers must respond rapidly and flexibly in order tional telecommunication policies. However, for the to take maximum advantage of technology ad- future, with information and knowledge becoming strategic resources, and telecommunication becom- vances. In the United States, NTIA recently coming the primary means determining their availability, pleted a comprehensive report on U.S. spectrum a policy framework for making telecommunication management policy, and the FCC has initiated a truly universal resource will need to emerge. With several proceedings on new services and is studying more people engaged in the service economy in the creation of a spectrum reserve for new technolo- post-industrial societies, including certain sections gies. Internationally, the ITU is in the midst of of developing countries, telecommunication matters efforts to streamline its processes and adapt its are becoming increasingly important for national, structure to better address emerging telecommunica- 27 economic and social policy in all countries. tions needs (see above). If conferences were sched- Broad changes in the economic, social, and uled every 2 years, technology developments would political landscape will shape the future of radio- be rapidly addressed and planning for future confer- communications policymaking.28 These changes ences could flexibily adapt to members’ concerns will substantially affect the arena for international and priorities in a more timely manner. For the radiocommunication policy, and present U.S. poli- United States to adequately respond to the acceler- cymakers with a number of important challenges ated development of new technology, adequate that must be forcefully and coherently addressed if resources must be part of a coherent plan that links the United States is to continue to play a leading role domestic and international spectrum policy goals. in international spectrum policymaking. The following sections summarize some of the most important trends shaping the international telecommunication Globalization environment. Telecommunication and radiocommunication sys- Pace of Technological Change tems are interconnecting on a larger and larger scale, giving rise to telecommunication networks and The pace of technology development in radio- services that are increasingly global in scope. New based services has accelerated dramatically in recent international satellite systems are being planned and years (see ch. 2). This acceleration, coupled with the connection of continents with fiber optic cables increasing congestion in many parts of the radio continues. Services are becoming increasingly inter- frequency spectrum, has put substantial pressure on nationalized as new information, computer, and both domestic and international radiocommunica- communication services merge and extend their tion policy processes. Spectrum managers are strug- reach to all countries of the world. At WARC-92, for gling to accommodate increasing demands for fre- example, the main issue in future public land mobile quencies for new services and the expansion of services (see ch. 1) is how and in what band to existing services, while at the same time ensuring establish a common core of frequencies that users minimal interference and enhanced efficiency. Cur- can access from any location on Earth. Major new rent structures and processes are increasingly unable services, such as Broadcasting-Satellite Service- to keep up with the rapid pace. The inclusion of Sound and personal communication services (PCS)

zT”~e ~m~g Teleco~@cations Environment, ” op. cit., foOtIlOte 1, p. 3. 2$~ its F~~ Repofi t. he 1~, tie W@ ~vel Committee identified six major trends affecting the internatioml teleCOmmticatiOn env~o~ent. They include: globalization, pace of technological change, information economy and society, rising importance of regional organizations, the development gap, and new players and alliances. See HLC Final Report, op. cit., footnote 19; these ideas are also reflected in Government of Canadq Department of Communications, Telecommunications Policy Branc~ Spectrum and Orbit Policy Directorate, ‘‘Towards a Spectrum Policy Framework for the Twenty-First Century, ’ Discussion Paper, September 1990. 64 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

are being developed not only for domestic use, but of compatible telecommunication policies and regu- with global markets in mind. lations is needed in respect of service offerings, tariff structures and other matters. . . there is no longer a As a result of the worldwide expansion of clear demarcation between many national and inter- technologies and services, telecommunications mar- national networks.31 kets and competition in those markets are becoming This trend makes the effective functioning of the increasingly global. ITU, as the primary international body for address- Telecommunication has become increasingly im- ing telecommunication matters, critical, and effec- portant to industry in most countries as a basis for tive U.S. participation in the process even more improving on organization’s internal efficiency in important. expanding global markets. For many firms in both manufacturing and service sectors, it also has Rising Importance of Regionalism become a tool to enhance competitiveness by providing instant communication and information At the same time that telecommunication systems exchange among the many different locations of and services are becoming increasingly global, translational corporations around the world, and regional networks, services, and organizations are between major fins, their suppliers, their custom- becoming more widespread. The ITU notes that: ers, and other intitites that together makeup a firm’s 29 Telecommunication systems are becoming trans- network of business relations. lational, and subregional in many areas of the world. Because of the large potential markets for interna- Pan-European, Andean, Central American, African, tional services such as satellite broadcasting and South Pacific Islands, Nordic systems, are all at mobile satellite services, the spectrum is increas- various stages of design and development. Physical networks are interconnected regionally; services are ingly being viewed as a strategic resource for the crossing borders; tariffs are being coordinated; future development of radio services and products 30 regional standards institutes and organizations are for the consumer. being established; and the planning of regional Tempering this trend is the reality that negotiating satellite systems continues. All geographical areas have one or more regional telecommunication bod- agreements on international standards and alloca- ies, with differing mandates and missions but tions is becoming increasingly difficult. As the collectively addressing operations, planning, financ- number of manufacturers and vendors increases and ing, training, and policy .32 users become more sophisticated, positions diverge. International consensus is often undermined by The rise of regional cooperation and coordination numerous exceptions to the Radio Regulations. At has been driven by several converging trends. the same time, for services that have clear worldwide Advances and proliferation of many new technolo- applications and effects, such as safety and distress gies have given regions a variety of ways to address services, opinion is still strong that worldwide telecommunications needs, and what technologies a allocations and protections are desirable. region chooses depends on what types of systems and services the countries want to develop and how. For U.S. spectrum policy, globalization means As users become more sophisticated, technical comprehensive planning and management of do- choices will further diversify, creating more regional mestic requirements in the context of policy changes and subregional networks. The creation and inter- taking place at the international level. connection of such networks requires regional ar- The expansion of telecommunication networks rangements for fostering harmony and cooperation and services has pushed many issues of national between telecommunication operating entities and policy to the international level. Global information for improving administrative and technical services and communication networks require much more across regions.33 Economic and political forces are than compatible technical standards. A higher degree also leading countries with common interests to join

zg”~e ~m~g ‘1’dtxornrnunication Enviromneng” op. cit., footnote 1, p. 11. mGovm~ent of Cana&, Discussion Paper, op. cit., footnote 28, P. 10. sl~~~e ~n~g Teleco~@cation Environrnen~” op. cit., foo~ote 1, pp. 11, 29. %id., p. 18. 331bid., p. 31. Chapter 3—The International Context for Spectrum Policy ● 65 forces as they seek to integrate efforts on many increasing demands.38 Policymakers at NTIA and policy fronts in order to expand their economies and the FCC, for example, are mounting strong efforts to better compete in world markets.34 invigorate the Inter-American Telecommunications Conference (CITEL), the regional telecommunica- These pressures have resulted in many different tions organization of the Western Hemisphere, to forms of regional cooperation and collaboration, bring increased coordination to Western Hemi- including the formation of free trade zones (United sphere policymaking and as a partial counter to the States, Canada, and possibly Mexico) and common strength of the CEPT voting bloc (see box 3-B). The markets (European Community (EC)). They have private sector, which sees CITEL as a potentially also led to the establishment or strengthening of effective forum for addressing regional telecom- different regional organizations such as the Pan munications issues and has recently begun to recog- African Telecommunication Union, Asia Pacific nize the potential of Latin American and Caribbean Telecommunity, and the Arab Telecommunication markets, has been actively involved in these efforts. Union. As a result, CITEL preparations for WARC-92 have The foremost example of the rise of regionalism been an important focus for both government and is the EC.35 In international telecommunications private sector interests (see box 3-C). negotiations, the countries of Europe have taken Increases in regional power and coordination will bold steps to coordinate their policies and the have significant impacts on the ways in which world presentation of positions. CEPT, established in telecommunications policy is decided—impacts that 1959, currently consists of31 European telecommu- could be either positive or negative. On the negative nications administrations. It synchronizes individual side, regionalism could increase and strengthen bloc national telecommunications positions into an inte- voting within the ITU-with negative impacts on grated regional telecommunications policy. In 1988 U.S. interests. U.S. negotiators, for example, have the European Telecommunications Standards Insti- noted increased difficulty at recent WARCs (and at tute was spun out of CEPT in order to harmonize and recent meetings of the CCITT) negotiating with strengthen the standards-setting process in Europe.36 individual European countries. There is concern that The power of the European countries in international tight European coordination and a corresponding forums such as the ITU has increased as their increase in bloc voting will lead to a strengthening political and economic ties have become closer, and of the European positions and a diminishing of U.S. could increase further with the proposed merger of interests and power. the EC countries and the countries comprising the European Free Trade Association.37 This merger The rise of regional organizations and voting would create a trade zone encompassing 19 coun- blocs could also lessen the importance of interna- tries and more than 350 million people, significantly tional bodies such as the ITU and the work of the larger than the U.S. market. CCITT and CCIR. Some analysts have expressed concern that participation and resources devoted to In addition to the new regional arrangements and new regional activities will detract from the re- organizations, existing regional bodies are also sources, time, and commitment devoted to the ITU, showing a resurgence. They are being modified and and more global concerns.39 For example, many substantially strengthened to adapt to the new world believe that regional standards organizations could environment. These organizations will require effec- be the driving force in world standards-setting tive organization and adequate resources to meet activities, superseding the ITU. Regional standards

~Comments of COMSAT before NTIA, op. Cit., footnote 17, p. 14. ssEWopMn Comm~~ currently has 12 members: Belgium, De nmar~ France, Germany, Great Brita@ Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain.

36 Si@lc-fly, appmfiately one.~ of be new membe~ joining the European Telecommunications Standards ~titute ~ tie first ~ of 1991 were wireless communication companies. Simila regionat standards-setting bodies also exist in North Amenca(T- 1) and Japan (the Telecommunication Technical Council-TTC). For a broader discussion of the issues of standards-setting, see forthcoming OIA study on International Standards. sTE~Ame~m ~clude: Aus~a, F~d, I~land, Li~htemte@Norway, Sweden, ~d Swi~rland. See pa~ck@ter, “Treaty Maps Out a Unified Europe,” The Washington Post, June 16, 1991, p. H1. 3gc~~e ~a~ Telecomm~cation Environment” Op. cit., footnote 1! P. ‘. 39see tie ~oments of COMSAT ~fom ~ ~ tie mafier of its comprehensive .spec&um review, op. cit., footnote 17. 66 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Box 3-B—Inter-American Telecommunications Conference-CITEL The Inter-American Telecommunications Confer- Figure 3-B-l—Organization of the Conference of ence (CITEL), established in 1963, is a Specialized Inter-American Telecommunications Within Conference of the Organization of American States the Organization of American States (OAS).1 CITEL’S primary mission is to promote the development and coordination of telecommunication General Assembly of the policies and systems in the Americas by conducting Organization of American studies of technologies, standards, and legal issues; States convening meetings to address these issues; and I maintaining contact with other regional telecommuni- I cation organizations and the ITU.. In the last several years, one of CITEL’s primary functions has been to Inter-American Economic serve as a regional forum for the development of and Social Council members’ positions for WARC-92. Thirty-four countries in South, Central, and North America and the 2 Caribbean are members. Conference of Inter-American CITEL is not a separate institution within the Telecommunications (C ITEL) OAS-it has no permanent staff, officers or a headquarters. Rather, CITEL is an ongoing series of conferences that meet periodically (the next confer- Permanent ence, CITEL-VI, is scheduled for the fall of 1991) to Secretariat establish priorities and direct the work of CITEL’s four b 1 permanent committees. The Permanent Executive r I Committee (COM/CITEL), which serves as the execu- Permanent Executive tive organ of the Conference, deals primarily with Committee (COM/CITEL) administrative matters. Three Permanent Technical Committees (PTC) are concerned with substantive technical issues (see figure 3-B-l). PTC-I addresses matters involving public telecommunications systems, PTC-II addresses broadcasting issues, and PTC-III is concerned with radiocommunication issues other than broadcasting. The work of COM/CITEL and the PTCs is supported and overseen by a Permanent Secretary, @@E a position that is, ironically, not permanent. KEY: PTC-Permanent technical committee Historically, CITEL has played a minor role in the SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Telecommunications region’s telecommunication activities, reflecting the and Information Administration, Frequency Management Advi- low priority traditionally given telecommunications by sory Council, United States Preparations for the 1991 lnter- 3 American Telecommunication Conference (CITEL) (Washing- the countries of the OAS. CITEL budgets have been ton, DC: Apr. 1, 1991), p. 6. underfunded (generally less than $100,000 per year), and the lack of domestic funds has substantially

l~e IWMETM in this ~tion is based on U.S. Department of Commerce, National Telecommunications md hformatiOIl ~“ “stratio% “United Ma&a Preparations for the 1991 Inter-Arneriean Telecommunications Conference (CITEL),” Report of the Frequency Management Advisory Subcommittee, April 1991. In addition to background information on CITEL, the report contains speeific recommendations on improving the effectiveness of CITEL and U.S. positions regarding CITEL activities. For more extensive discussion of the history and efforts to restructure CITEL, see Brian Seg~ “Report on the Importance of CITEL and Options for Restructuring,’ Report prepared for the Fourth Confcmmce of CITEL, March 1983; and John J. O’Nei.U, Jr., “Commentary on Report on the Importance of CITEL and Options for Restructuring,” unpublished document, March/April, 1984. %21’XT?L member states: Antigua and Barbud& Argentina, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, CostaRic4 Dornimica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Grena@ Guatemala, Guya~ Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, PanamtL Paraguay, Peru, St. Kitts and Nevis, Saint Luck Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and ‘Ibbago, United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela. 3fitofic~y, tie ~nefits of telWo~~catiom for ~nomic development~ve notb~n well unde~t~dor appreciated. co&qu@tly, it has been difllcult to convince OAS/CITEL members that telecommunications activities are important enougb to warrant signii%cant fimding. The current intereat in CITEL activities via-a-via W~C-92 indicate that these attitudes may be changing. SeeO’Neill, op. cit., footnote 1. Chapter 3-The International Context for Spectrum Policy 67

reduced the ability of member countries to participate in the work of ClTEL. As a result, CITEL does not have the status and importance necessary to achieve its stated goals, and is generally viewed as lacking substance and ineffective. This view has translated broadly into a lack of commitment from member states, and a consequent reluctance to provide additional funding. An additional problem identified by U.S. delegates to international conferences is that some Latin American delegations lack continuity. Changes in governments and telecommunications ministries bring new delegates to the conferences that have never attended before. This has made it very hard to develop lasting relationships with some governments. Consequently, until recently, CITEL has attracted little attention from U.S. policymakers and the private sector.4 Changes implemented in the past 5 years may make CITEL more effective. Driven by the changes in world politics and a newly competitive world telecommunications environment, CITEL is seeking to broaden its activities and is encouraging greater private sector participation. Mandates and agendas of the PTCs have been expanded to include more items of regional interest and of interest to the private sector. Steps have also been taken to improve work processes that would allow the PTCs to become more effective and responsive to the needs of ClTEL’s members. More such changes may result from the sixth quadrennial meeting of CITEL (VI-CITEL) to be held later in 1991. That meeting will examine the performance of CITEL, identify ways to improve its performance and give member states an opportunity to reassess their participation and support of CITEL. Efforts to make CITEL a more effective organization have gathered substantial momentum in the last year. There is a growing feeling among U.S. and foreign government representatives and the private sector that CITEL should play a more significant role in coordinating regional telecommunication activities. A new spirit of compromise has been noted by delegates from several countries, including the United States. Developing countries also view CITEL as a valuable source of technical support in developing their own WARC proposals. When no national position has been developed, many countries may use CITEL views as (the basis for) their own national positions. In the last several years, CITEL has received increased attention from some United States international spectrum policymakers and the private sector. They increasingly view it as an important, but underutilized, underfunded and underpowered resource for regional coordination and in the WARC preparation and negotiation process. For example, CITEL is playing an active role in WARC preparations for 1992 through an Interim Working Group of Permanent Technical Committee III (PTC-III), which is attempting to form common CITEL views which would then be carried into the WARC (see box 3-C). Several factors have contributed to the renewed interest of government policymakers. First, the growth and strengthening of regional voting blocks within the ITU, in particular the European countries, has led the United States to look for new alliances.5 Beginning in the late 1980s, the Europeans, through the Conference of European Postal and Telecommunications administrations (CEPT), began to formulate strong regional positions that were strictly adhered to at international conferences. This type of unity has made it increasingly difficult for the United States to promulgate its views in a forum such as the ITU with its one-nation, one-vote system. Consequently, to improve its position and in order to offset developing country blocs and the increasing power and solidity of the European countries, the United States is attempting to build regional support through the CITEL conferences and by advancing common CITEL views that will hopefully reflect United States interests. Implanting United States interests in the larger context of common CITEL views will provide added support for U.S. positions and may improve bargaining positions and chances of success at the WARC. U.S. Policymakers, however, must remain flexible in these negotiations in order to build support for a wide range of common views. Strong preliminary work at CITEL before WMC-92 should enhance the U.S. leadership role at the Conference. Developing countries also see CITEL as a reaction/counter to the increasing power of the European countries, and view it as a valuable

4For m~ple, only hdfthe member countries sent delegations to the most recent meetings of PTC-111 (OttaW% September 1990 ~d tie Interim Working Group preparing for W=C-92 (Mexico City, January 1991 and Washington DC, May 1991). ‘f’his may reflect a lack of commitment or merely a lack of Iravel funds. However, for CITEL meetings, this was a good turnout. f SW Hwpm comm~ty (EC) ~d ~ m not tX@Vd@. ~ WaS fOrmd k 1959 to s~~lc~y reprwent tie ~t~ests ‘ ‘e European post telegmp& and telephone administrations (PITs). It now represents the interests of 31 European telecommunications administrations. The EC is more broadly focused. Telecommunications policy in the EC has evolved, at least in pq in reaction to the narrow, traditional views of the PIT% and CE~, but recently, EC telecommunications policy has begun to reflect the broader goals of the EC itself-to promote unity and integration among European nations. CE!PT has come under attack in recent years for its closed systerq and has taken steps to reform, such as spinning off its standards activities. However, it still wields considerable influence in intermtional radiocommunications activities. (continuedon rmtpage) 68 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Box 3-B—Inter-American Telecommunications Conference-CITEL-Continued opportunity to prenegotiate some of the WARC issues. This type of interaction is seen as very valuable in allowing developing country governments to prepare more effectively for the WARC. Second, CITEL offers a way to coordinate telecommunication policy on a regional basis, apart from any international concerns. There is increasing recognition among the countries of CITEL that technologies are increasingly crossing national boundaries and that domestic policies alone will not guarantee development. In this sense, its aims mirror (and extend) the theme of regional cooperation evident in the Enterprise for the Americas initiative, the Canadian Free Trade Pact and the possible Mexican Free Trade Agreement. Traditionally, private sector participation in CITEL has been limited, perhaps because of ClTEL’s general ineffectiveness. The private sector is not allowed to participate directly in most activities, and industry interest in CITEL’s activities has been minimal.6 Efforts are now under way to increase industry participation in PTC-II and PTC-III There is some support in the U.S. private sector for strengthening ClTEL. Industry believes that a mom effective forum is needed to focus attention on the practical and technical issues facing telecommunications providers in the region, including standards. Telecommunication vendors and service providers have also begun to recognize the potential and the importance of Latin American telecommunications markets. A series of conferences such as CITEL provides an opportunity for United States companies to make contacts in potentially lucrative Latin American markets where they have historically been overshadowed by European competitors. The extensive participation by industry in the recent PTC-III WARC Interim Working Group meeting held in Washington, DC in May 1991 demonstrates the extensive interest that the private sector has in CITEL and its member states. Although there is much support for strengthening the role of CITEL in regional telecommunications activities and WARC preparations, some policymakers remain skeptical. It remains to be seen whether potential changes will occur, whether members’ commitment to CITEL can be sustained, and how successful CITEL’s activities in standards-setting and WARC preparations will be. Changes in attitude and the commitment of a small number of dedicated policymakers to make CITEL a more effective organization may not be enough. The future success of CITEL will depend on continued and high-level commitment by member governments, increased private sector participation and a proven record of success in accomplishing substantive work— including agreement on major spectrum issues. The primary challenge for CITEL is to attract the funding from the OAS necessary to improve its effectiveness. The results of government and private sector efforts to enhance the role of CITEL and the strength of common views that might emerge will not be seen until the WARC concludes. Even if the common views forged at CITEL do not endure, or regional cooperation falters, efforts to raise the level of CITEL will likely continue. Improving the level of ClTEL’s work is a long-term process-it is too soon to expect spectacular results.

%%eonlywayforthe private sector toparticipateis throughmembersMponU.S. delegations toCITELmeetings.In 19S’7, CITELadopted a resolution encouraging mom direct private sector participation in the activities of IWC-I. This experiment has been generally considered a success, and there is increasing pressure to open up FTC-II and -Ill However, there is as yet no formal mechanism for direet ptivate sector participation in PI’C activities.

organizations could coordinate their efforts and prenegotiate some conference issues.40 Many re- institute procedures to avoid duplication of work gional associations are attempting to facilitate coor- within the CCIR and CCITT. Most substantive work dination and harmonization across regions as a would be done in regional bodies, and then merely stepping stone to global coordination and harmoni- confirmed at ITU conferences. On the other hand, zation through the ITU.41 These efforts could make regional organizations and conferences could serve the ITU more efficient in developing global stand- as important precursors to the international con- ards. ferences—a way to sample ideas, build support, and

%commentingonregionalism in the standards-setting proeess, COMSATnotes that:“the joint meeting of the T-l, ETSI, and TTC organizations. . . was animportantfmtmeeting to explore mutual cooperation among these regional bodies, and to discuss ways to enhance the effectiveness of the CCI’IT in its global standards role,” ibid., p. 15. 41t

Box 3-C-CITEL Preparations for WARC-92 At its August 1989 meeting, Permanent Technical Committee III (PTC-III) of the Inter-American Telecommunications Conference (CITEL) established an Interim Working Group (IWG) to work out common regional views CITEL member countries could then use in developing their own WARC proposals. This was the first time that formal common positions had been attempted by CITEL members. After the agenda for the WARC was finalized in June 1990, PTC-III devised a work schedule for the IWG, and countries agreed to develop papers on WARC agenda issues for consideration by the Group. The IWG met twice. At Mexico City in January 1991, 13 countries attended, and considered approximately 60 input papers and 40 technical documents. Before the formal meetings of the Group, a seminar on WARC-92 issues was held to provide in-depth information to the delegates. The results of the meeting were generally viewed positively by representatives from both foreign countries and the United States. The delegates agreed to common CITEL views on a number of WARC agenda items, and produced a first draft of a comprehensive report covering the most important WARC-92 issues. The IWG met for the second, and final, time in Washington, DC in May 1991. Representatives from 16 countries, three international organimations, and an observer from the Conference of European Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) attended. Approximately 90 new input papers were considered by the delegates and more than 20 papers were presented by members of the private sector at a technical symposium held during the week of the meetings. Foreshadowing future debates, a large number of the papers concerned Broadcasting-Satellite Service-Sound and Mobile Satellite Services, including low-Earth orbiting satellites. The first draft of the group’s report was substantially revised and contained common CITEL views on several items. Many of the most important issues, however, could not be agreed to, including specific allocations for high frequency radio broadcasting, Broadcasting-Satellite Service-Sound, high-definition television, some Mobile Satellite Services, and Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunication Systems. Delegates were generally pleased with the outcome of the meeting, although some voiced disappointment that more common views were not agreed upon. The report will now be sent to the chairman of PTC-III and all the CITEL governments for use in preparing their own proposals for WARC-92. SOURCE: Organization of American States, Interamerican Telecommunications Conference, Permanent Technical Committee III, “Report of the CITEL 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference Interim Working Group,” Document WARC-92/62 Rev. 2, May 10,1991.

Liberalization and Privatization communications services in many countries, are being restructured so that monopolistic privileges As the trend toward increasing global competition are replaced by a more competitive environment. intensifies, both developing and developed coun- Many countries have privatized (sold shares in), or tries are searching for ways to be competitive. will soon privatize, their government-owned PTTs— Traditional models of telecommunication operation, taking control out of the hands of government and regulation, and policy development are increasingly being challenged.42 replacing it with more private sector control. Since Britain privatized British Telecom in 1984, six There is a widespread concern with national countries have privatized their telecommunications telecommunication monopolies that they may be systems (Japan, New Zealand, Malaysia, Argentina, unable to provide the increasing diversity of communication services necessary to meet the expanding Mexico, Chile) and several more are about to do so variety of communication needs and demands . . . . (Hungary, Singapore, Uruguay, South Korea, possi- Many countries, both developed and developing, are bly Germany and Czechoslovakia). France has now in the process of redefining their national chosen an alternative to privatization, namely strong telecommunication policies and regulatory mecha- 43 state intervention to encourage the adoption of new nisms. technologies and services. In 1991 France separated Post, Telephone and Telegraphs (PTTs), the its telephone service (France Telecom) from the institutions that historically have controlled tele- Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (but did

%id., p. 8. 431bid., p. 11. 70 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

not privatize it) so that it could become more overstated. Even in countries that have been liberal- competitive internationally. ized or had their industries privatized, governments often still retain strong control over the industry. In addition, many countries have liberalized their These new companies and competitors do not have telecommunications markets and networks, allow- enough clout to significantly influence policy yet. In ing new equipment vendors and service providers to the future, however, as their power and prestige provide goods and services in addition to the builds, they may become more influential both traditional service provider (usually a PTT or 44 internally and internationally. They will add to the equivalent). Many countries, for example, are rapidly increasing and complex array of radiocom- trying to encourage the development of private munications players discussed below. networks of all sorts. Because of the advances in radiocommunications technologies, and the lack of Telecommunications and Economics a highly developed public communications infra- In international fora of all types, telecommunicat- structure, wireless communications is playing a very ion issues are increasingly being linked to economic important part in this expansion of services. policy. Radiocommunications in particular is in- The major effect of liberalization and privatiza- creasingly being recognized as an important force in tion on the activities of the ITU is to increase the its own right, as a major market and source of trade number of actors on the world stage and raise the dollars. Sales of telecommunication products and level of private sector participation in international services have increased dramatically over the last spectrum policy processes. Privatization of national decade. Shipments of radio communications equip- industries may also have the effect of making those ment are estimated at more than $55 billion annually industries increasingly responsive to world trends, and revenues from broadcasting and cellular serv- and more involved in international policymaking. ices are estimated to exceed $30 billion annually.45 Newly privatized companies have strong incentives As the globalization of society continues, the size to become actively involved in international poli- and importance of these markets will increase cymaking to protect their interests and ensure that dramatically. However, there are indications that the they can be competitive and efficient. This new preeminent position of the United States may be activism may make them important players in slipping in a global environment marked by increas- international spectrum issues. The ITU and CITEL, ing competition in telecommunications markets. for example, were once primarily intergovernment Between 1981 and 1987, the U.S. trade balance in organizations. In recent years, however, with the rise telecommunications equipment went from a $817- of liberalized companies, the increasingly global million surplus to a $2.6-billion deficit.46 scope of corporations and networks, and the plethora The trade implications of domestic and interna- of new communications vendors, the private sector tional telecommunications policy decisions, and the has been aggressively pursuing a more active role in fact that telecommunications underlies a substantial the international policy process, including radio- portion of U.S. trade are becoming apparent. World communications. Industry representatives want more markets for televisions, radios, and cellular phones of a say in international telecommunication poli- are all large and all depend on spectrum. Spectrum cymaking and would like to see forums such as the decisions made internationally will critically affect ITU and CITEL serve as a common meeting ground how these markets develop and to what extent the for addressing government and nongovernment U.S. can take advantage of them. Stakes are likely to interests. be even higher in the future as the world moves The ultimate extent and importance of these toward an information economy, as radiocommuni- trends is uncertain, and the implications for U.S. cations systems become increasingly global, and as policymaking are still unclear. Some believe that the trade opportunities open abroad in response to effects of liberalization and privatization may be liberalization and privatization.

~“~e ~~~g Telecommunication Environmen~” Op. cit., fOO@Xe 1, p. 50. 45u.s, D~@mentof Comerce, Natio~ Tele~o~~~tiom and ~o~ationAtis&ation, u.S. specfrumh4a~gement policy: Agen.dafor the Future, NTIA Special Publication 91-23 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 1991), p. 13. 46U.S. D~~ment of Comeme, Natio~ Teleco~~cations and ~o~ation Atistratio~ N’TZA Te/ecom 2~@-), ~ Special Publication 88-21 (Washingto@ DC: U.S. Governrnent Printing Office, October 1988), p. 41. Chapter 3—The International Context for Spectrum Policy ● 71

Telecommunications products and services are The result is that the United States is in danger of also increasingly recognized as a crucial component losing its market-based power and with it, some of in maintaining economic competitiveness. Telecom- the enormous influence this country has enjoyed in munication serves industry in most countries as a international radiocommunication policymaking. The basis for improving efficiency in global markets, and Europeans, for example, have shown an increasing as a tool to enhance competitiveness by allowing unwillingness to follow the U.S. lead in international instant communication among the many different spectrum policy. This is yet another reason why locations of worldwide corporations, and between WARC-92 is so important. The new technologies major firms, their suppliers, and their customers. and services to be considered at the WARC offer the United States an important opportunity to solid@ or The connection between radiocommuncations in even expand its leadership in many radiocommuni- particular and competition is evident in the push to cation areas. Without the new services made avail- establish high-definition television systems and able by the new radio-based technologies, the U.S. standards in both the United States and Europe in an position as market leader could slip further, siphon- attempt to head off Japanese hegemony in this ing off business and innovation to countries with potentially huge market for products and services. more flexible radiocommunication environments. Many countries have recognized the link between New Players and Alliances radiocommunications and development and have begun to establish priorities and formulated policies International geopolitics are substantially differ- in order to rapidly develop new radiocommunication ent today than only a few years ago. The interna- technologies. Great Britain, for example, has taken tional radiocommunication policy environment of the lead in PCS, by clearing frequencies in its 1992 is characterized by a much more diverse array television spectrum. Japan has tried to clear room for of participants, and new sets of allies. The forces of digital cellular. There has been a strong push to globalism, regionalism, and the new players created establish Standards for many new types of services by the forces of privatization have created a including PCS, digital cellular, and next-generation situation in which alliances have shifted and many mobile systems. Centralized administrations and new actors have come to the fore. policymaking (and a less diverse telecommunica- Part of the problem facing the United States as it tions industry) allow such decisions to be made tries to influence international spectrum policy is quickly, an important advantage in light of the rapid that different nations use telecommunications in pace of technology development. In the United different ways and have different communications States there is no national vision or plan, and no needs. Most nations do not use radiocommunica- consensus on priorities for communication technol- tions as extensively as the United States, and are not ogies and services. as advanced in their use of radiocommunications. It is easier for them to find room for and develop new Historically, the United States has wielded con- technologies. Also, many countries cannot afford the siderable influence in the international radiocommu- latest technologies. Even if they see the benefits, it nication policy arena because the United States has may be many years before such new technologies are been the world’s largest market for advanced tele- actually introduced. These are but some of the communications products and services. The United dynamics operating as the United States tries to States was able to make technical and economic negotiate internationally for spectrum so that it may decisions and force others to follow its lead. Today, improve domestic services. the situation is shifting. With the rise of a consolidated Europe and the increasing regionalism among The conflicting needs of many countries have other areas of the world, notably the Pacific Rim, the important implications for how countries develop United States soon will no longer be the largest positions for the WARC. Developed countries are telecommunications equipment and service market. making greater use of the spectrum resource as new In addition, the United States is a rapidly maturing technologies are developed and old services expand. market-many companies see larger growth oppor- Developing countries increasingly see telecommu- tunities in the developing countries, which have not nications in general, and radiocommunications in yet reached U.S. levels of technological sophistica- particular, as a vital component in their economic tion and saturation. and social development. Individual domestic con- 72 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

siderations are translated to the international level as Developing Countries-The United States has spectrum managers and policymakers see spectrum already begun to reach out to the developing allocation not only in the narrow technical terms of countries in the Western Hemisphere through the spectrum use, but also as part of the globalization of CITEL conferences, but government representatives economics, trade, and international services.47 W~C- also plan extensive trips to Africa and Asia to 92 is perceived as an important opportunity to open establish ties and build support in preparation for up new services not only domestically, but also WARC-92. The United States may find that it has internationally. more in common with the developing countries than originally believed because of the nature of the The wealth of new players and relationships technologies taking center stage at WARC-92. represents both a major challenge and an important Many of the technologies to be discussed are new opportunity for the United States as it seeks to technologies that represent breakthroughs in ways to expand its telecommunications manufacturing and provide inexpensive and reliable data, voice, and in services industries and move into new markets. some cases, video, services. These types of wireless These pressures put increased impetus on the United services, which do not depend on an extensive or States to be flexible and cooperative at WARC-92. developed infrastructure to work, may enable the developing countries to “leapfrog” generations of European Community and CEPT-As noted services, and obtain advanced services earlier than above, the European countries have formed strong previously thought possible. It also provides an regional telecommunication organizations, most no- opportunity for the developing countries to improve tably CEPT. The 31 CEPT countries48 have coordi- their telecommunications infrastructure and services nated their WARC proposals, and are expected to without building extensive (and expensive) terres- have common positions that will be strictly adhered trial wireline systems. to by member countries at the conference. Such The United States may have already found some developments are likely to substantially strengthen new allies, especially among the countries of Africa. the role of the European countries in WARC-92, and At the 1990 Administrative Council meeting, where will make the process of preparing U.S. negotiating the United States succeeded in adding many items it strategies more difficult. wanted to the WARC-92 agenda, the United States was largely supported by the Africans as well as The growing power of the European bloc will many developing countries. The EC countries, on force a major reconsideration of who U.S. allies the other hand, may have lost some support, possibly actually are for each issue. Many traditional Euro- due to the strength and inflexibility of their common pean allies have banded together in a voting bloc that positions. This state of affairs, however, may not has grown increasingly stronger over time. Atten- carry over to the WARC itself, thus making it even dees at past conferences report that it is becoming more important for the United States to strengthen increasingly difficult (and in many cases, impossi- these ties in the months before the conference. ble) to deal with individual countries in the “usual’ Several trips are planned by U.S. government manner. This loss of flexibility not only makes it representatives to Africa and Asia to accomplish this harder for the United States to negotiate for support goal. among individual countries, but also poses a serious threat in terms of the number of votes the EC and The increased emphasis on courting (and count- CEPT can now command. This is forcing the United ing) the developing countries, however, will not be States to look beyond its traditional allies and to easy and will come at increased cost. Specifically, forge new alliances with others. A strong, unified more money will be needed for travel for U.S. Europe has also led to strong interest in the United representatives to make the contacts, establish the States to enhance the power and effectiveness of relationships, and do the initial negotiating that CITEL as a possible counter to expanding European could help obtain positive outcomes at the 1992 power. conference. There are now more countries to talk to,

47~e incr=sing impo~~ce of spec~ in economic considerations is also seen at the regional level in the increased empkks put On the aCtivitim of regional bodies such as CITEL. ~With the expected addition of Albania later in 1991, there will be 32. Chapter 3-The International Context for Spectrum Policy ● 73

requiring travel farther a field than previously. Trips ences, and consider domestic spectrum policy in the are being consolidated, but only so much can be larger context of international radiocommunication accomplished on one trip. A lack of funds may mean issues. Domestic spectrum policy will have to that some important countries or issues do not get strategically link U.S. and international spectrum addressed. concerns.

Decline of the U.S.S.R. and the Realignment of Unless the United States responds quickly and Eastern Europe—Another substantial change from effectively to these forces, it may find itself unable past WARCs is the much reduced influence and to successfully negotiate the challenges these changes significance of the Soviet Union. The Soviets, long present. U.S. approaches to international spectrum a major player in international radiocommunication policymaking will have to flexibly adaptor domestic circles, have lost much of their power and prestige. structures and processes for addressing international This will be the first WARC without them as a major spectrum concerns may become outdated and less force. Two primary trends have contributed to this effective. The Federal Government, collaborating loss of influence. First, the internal turmoil in the with the private sector, must develop new strategies U.S.S.R. itself has made it difficult for the Soviets to for policymaking and negotiation to meet the prepare for WARC-92. They are expected to offer demands of this new climate of change. Government few changes in the allocations. Second, the disinte- spectrum policymakers recognize these challenges, gration of the Eastern bloc and the loss of Soviet but there is little consensus on what long-term control over its votes could radically change voting strategies and goals the United States should pursue. patterns, and will likely lead to a substantial loss of The fragmented nature of the U.S. policy process political (voting) power for the Soviet Union in the hinders the development of unified policy and one-nation, one-vote forum of the ITU. The disinte- makes timely reaction to change difficult. gration of the Eastern bloc has also added uncertainty in world telecommunications bodies regard- It remains to be seen how effective and successful ing what role the newly freed Eastern European the United States will be at WARC-92, but the nations will play in international radiocommunica- current state of flux in world affairs presents the tions policymaking. These nations are shifting their United States with a unique opportunity to influence alliances, particularly toward Western Europe, and the structures and procedures the world uses to set many of them may join CEPT, adding to its voting spectrum policy. In the longer term, for the United power. However, the effects of their participation in States to be most effective, the country must WARC-92 are still uncertain. continue to take an active role in ITU activities and in future WARCs. Responding to the many changes Summary and Implications taking place in the world will require flexibility and Changes in the world telecommunication envi- a commitment to well thought-out and carefully ronment pose significant challenges for U.S. domes- defined goals. Without such goals and a common tic and international spectrum policymaking and to vision on how the United States would like to see the the process of preparing for world radio conferences. ITU evolve, U.S. policy will continue to react to Changing alliances, new geopolitical and economic change rather than aggressively shaping it. Given realities, and the proposed changes in the structure rapid shifts in both technology and the international and functions of the International Telecommunica- environment, without clear agreed-upon goals there tion Union will require the United States to reevalu- is no way to ensure that the best interests of the ate the preparation process for international confer- United States will be met. Chapter 4 Domestic Preparations Process for WARC-92

Introduction State Department exercises primary authority as the President’s representative in foreign policy matters. The United States is influential in international spectrum circles through its leadership in radio WARC Preparation Activities technologies and services and its status as one of the largest telecommunications markets in the world. The process of preparing for WARCs involves Decisions made regarding spectrum allocations and four separate, but interdependent, subprocesses. The radio-based services in the United States have frost, and most open to the public, is the development substantial impact on world radiocommunication of proposals by the FCC that reflect the interests and policies and an important influence on spectrum needs of the private sector. Second, NTIA simulta- management in other countries. The process by neously coordinates and develops executive branch which domestic spectrum policies are set, and the proposals. This subprocess has been largely closed way the United States prepares for international to the public in the past since the work of the conferences, directly impacts international poli- agencies is generally not open to direct public access 3 cymaking. or input. The third subprocess involves the more informal coordination between the NTIA, FCC, and State Department in the development of final U.S. Unlike most countries, the United States has no proposals. Staff at the FCC and NTIA work closely central authority that is responsible for domestic or international spectrum policymaking and manage- and in parallel to ensure that their final recommendations to the State Department are as similar as ment. The Communications Act of 1934 divided possible in order to speed the determination of final spectrum management responsibility between the proposals. The State Department, while not as Federal Communications Commission (FCC), an 1 actively involved in the development of specific independent agency, and the President. In 1978, WARC positions as the FCC and NTIA, neverthe- Executive Order 12,046 transferred the President’s less plays an important role in ensuring that interna- authority to the Secretary of Commerce and created tional political considerations are adequately con- an Assistant Secretary for Communications and sidered in the final proposals.4 Fourth, after propos- Information, who is also the Administrator of the als have been set, the official U.S. delegation, which National Telecommunications and Information Ad- 2 is composed of both government and private sector ministration (NTIA). Today, domestic spectrum representatives, develops negotiating strategies and management and policymaking responsibility is backup positions—positions that support the final shared by the FCC and NTIA. NTIA manages all proposals. The State Department, along with the Federal Government use of the spectrum and also FCC and NTIA, manages and coordinates the serves as the President’s adviser on telecommunica- activities of the delegation. tions matters. The FCC regulates and manages all commercial and private sector use of the spectrum as Tension in the preparations process, among gov- well as State and local government use. In interna- ernment interests, private sector and industry inter- tional spectrum negotiations and conferences, the ests, and between the government and the private

147 us-co, ~Wtiom 151, 152, 305 (1989). %xecutive Order No. 12,046, reprinted in 1978 U.S. Code Congressional& Administrative News, 9685-9692. 3Following r=omendations out~~ ~ its recent report on spec~ management ~ has be~ opening some of its activities tO mOre public participation. While too late to affect the preparations process for WARC-92, these changes could substantially improve private sector input into future NTIA spectrum management activities, including preparations for futureW~Cs (see sections on NTIA below). U.S. Department of Commerce, National Telecommunications and Information Administration, U.S. Spectrum Management Policy: Agenda for the Future, NTIA Special Publication 91-23 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 1991), p. 13. ABecause the State Departments mo5tcon~m~~th~e representation of U.S. policy abroad, it isgenerdymore active ill the pIOpOSd development process when an issue (or even a whole conference) has spccitlc political overtones or when an issue appears particularly contentious internationally. This varies by issue: the more politically sensitive an issue is, the more the State Department is usually involved. The Department, for example, is usually very involved in preparations for Plenipotentiary Conferences, since they deal more with matters of governance and administration than with the more technical issues that characterize the work of the WARCS. –75– 76 ● WARC-92:Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

sector, is an inherent part of the system. Because of contractors have not released enough data on the use this tension, some of the most contentious issues of these frequencies to make a fully informed may not be resolved before final proposals are set. In decision. Executive branch representatives contend these rare cases, the parties involved continue that all necessary information has been made avail- negotiating, but if agreement cannot be reached, able. National security concerns and lack of data other alternatives are available. The State Depart- have played a role in this dispute. Negotiations ment (or one of the affected parties) can, as a last between the interested parties continue, and a fina1 resort, submit the matter to the National Security proposal on the matter will be submitted in a Council for resolution.5 Other alternatives may be supplemental proposal to the International Telecom- available, but are not well-defined. There is no munication Union (ITU) before WARC-92. This formal mechanism at a level high enough (in the case highlights the interaction of domestic and FCC, NTIA and State Department) to resolve such international spectrum policy and demonstrates the disputes. New procedures may have to be devised to need for well-defined procedures for resolving such expedite the decision process. However, at these disputes. The process must balance the national higher policy levels, political compromises often security concerns of the government with the private play a more important role in resolving disputes than sector’s need for more open access to information technical merit or the greater national interest. about radio frequency use and efficiency. In the WARC-92 preparation process there were Institutional Roles many areas of intense debate, especially between industry (and the FCC representing those interests) Federal Communications Commission and the Federal agencies, but only one issue remains unresolved. Throughout WARC-92 preparations, Structure government and industry interests clashed over the The FCC is functionally divided into bureaus and use of the 1435-1525-MHz band. At the beginning offices that manage the day-to-day activities of the of the preparations process, both Mobile Satellite Commission in radio and wireline communications Service (MSS) providers and the proponents of and develop more long-term plans and policies (see Broadcasting Satellite Service-Sound (BSS-Sound) figure 4-l). The majority of the FCC’s work sought to use this band, but the Department of involves regulation of the domestic telecommunicat- Defense (DOD), its aerospace contractors, and some ion industry, but the regulatory bureaus also have commercial aircraft manufacturers opposed reallo- staff that deal with international matters as well. The cation of the band to protect their use of these activities of the FCC are directed by five commis- frequencies for aircraft testing and other uses (see ch. sioners, who are appointed by the President, con- 1). MSS interests dropped their proposals early in fined by the Senate, and serve 5-year terms. The the process, but BSS-Sound advocates have main- 6 President also appoints the Chairman of the FCC, tained their need for the band. If not modified, who usually takes the lead in establishing overall DOD’s position on this issue will preclude the policies and direction for the Commission. The United States from using the band for new BSS- current Chairman of the FCC is Alfred C. Sikes. Sound applications, even if these frequencies are approved at WARC-92. In that case, BSS-Sound Although the FCC has long maintained a commit- applications in the United States would have to use ment to international activities, there has been no frequencies different from the rest of the world, and ongoing, formally recognized structure within the equipment and systems would be incompatible Commission for coordinating WARC preparations. internationally. Rather, conference preparation activities have been carried out in a variety of ways. For many past Negotiations have been difficult, private sector conferences, the Chief of the FCC’s Office of representatives, complain, because DOD and its Engineering and Technology (OET) directed Com-

s~ ~rqmationfor tie 1979 WARC, for emple, Voice of America (VOA) wanted additional spectrum for high fr~uency broadcmfig, a PmPosal which the Department of Defense opposed. VOA took ifi case to tie National Security Council, where its proposal was eventually accepted. %e FCC included such a need in its final recommendations to the Department of State, but did not identify the specific size or location of the band. See Federal Communications Commissio~ “An hquiry Relating to Preparation for the International Telecommunication Urdon World Administrative Radio Conference for Dealing With Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectrum,’ Gen Docket No. 89-554, Reporz, 6 FCC Rcd 3900 (1991). Chapter 4---Domestic Preparations Processor WARC-92 ● 77

Figure 4-l-Organization of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission

The Commissioners

Alfred C. Sikes, Chairman Officeof James H. Quello Inspector Sherrie P, Marshall General Andrew C. Barrett Ervin S, Duggan I

1 1 I 1 r 1 Office of Office of Office of Office of Review Board Administrative Legislative Affairs Plans and Policy Managing Director I II Law Judges

1 1 I 1 I I

1 1

Common Carrier Mass Media Private Radio a Bureau a Bureau Bureaua

Office of International ElCommunications aln ~ition t. the office of International Communi=tions, these bureaus and offices also have staff working on WARC issues. NOTE: This chart represents lines of policy and judicial authority. It should be noted that the Office of Managing Director has management and administrative authority over all other offices and bureaus with the exception of the Office of Inspector General. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment and Federal Communications Commission, 1991. mission efforts, drawing together the needed staff office was disbanded several years after the 1979 and coordinating the Notice of Inquiry (NOI) conference. There appeared to be a less obvious need process. Prior to the 1979 WARC, for example, the for a central focus for international activities, and Commission established a Conference Preparatory staff and responsibilities for international matters Group within the Office of the Chief Engineer (now were dispersed to various operating bureaus and OET) specifically to address WARC preparations. offices where they remain. This division has worked However, because of the specialized nature of the because many issues on the WARC agendas overlap conferences that were scheduled for the future, the with domestic concerns. Thus, staff are familiar with 78 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy the basic technological and spectrum issues that (1) Ensure the integration of Commission intern- WARCs address, and individual staff members have ational policy activities; (2) ensure that the Commis- built up a wealth of experience in international sion’s international policies are uniform and consist- conference preparation work. ent; (3) assume the principal representational role for Commission activities in international fora; and (4) After the 1979 WARC, international telecommu- serve as the focal point for international activities. nications advisors, appointed by the Chairman, The Director of International Communications will oversaw FCC conference preparations. Individual provide coordination among Bureaus with regard to bureaus also assumed responsibility for preparing development of international policy, representation for some of the conferences that dealt specifically of this policy and participation in international with their areas of expertise, often coordinating with conferences. Additionally, the Director will facilitate Commission guidance of Bureaus’s international activ- OET. Preparations for the Mobile Services WARC 7 ities. in 1987, for example, were concentrated in the Private Radio Bureau. It is important to note, however, that the new OIC: The FCC’s initial preparation for WARC-92 was “will not replace the existing bureaus in the coordinated by OET, primarily through its Spectrum execution of the various international responsibili- Engineering Division, and involved staff from many ties. ’ offices. Staff in the Private Radio Bureau worked on The Order gives OIC a broad mandate for WARC issues in 3-30-GHz range, although they are coordinating the FCC’s international telecommuni- not identified as “international’ staff. The Mass cation policy development, and OIC’s activities are Media Bureau has international staff that coordinate not confined to spectrum-related or WARC prepara- broadcast plans with Mexico and Canada as well as tion issues. However, the ironically constrained specialists in WARC broadcasting issues such as nature of this mandate has caused several problems BSS-Sound and high-definition television (HDTV). in the early life of the Office relating to its Staff in the Common Carrier Bureau are responsible international spectrum activities. First, although the for several of the issues in the 1-3-GHz band. The FCC received more than 300 resumes for seven Field Office Bureau has also been involved in professional positions, it was apparently difficult to WARC preparations. The Office of International attract staff who were experienced in international Communications (OIC) was established after prepa- spectrum matters. While the FCC has a wealth of rations had already begun, but was actively involved highly skilled personnel with extensive expertise in in the latter stages of the process. international radiocommunications, many observers Office of International Communications-h believe that senior FCC staffers with such back- January 1990 the Commission created OIC to ground were wary of moving to the new Office either coordinate the FCC’s international activities and because of the short life of the conference prepara- policy development, not only for spectrum matters, tion group in the early 1980s or because they but for all areas of international telecommunication prefered to remain in active policymaking roles policy. The decision appears to have been, in part, a rather than merely coordinating policy development. response to the upcoming WARC, but more gener- Also, concern that the bureaus would not be able to ally reflects the Chairman’s desire to establish a replace the experienced staff who moved to OIC focal point in the Commission for international may have slowed the staffing of the Office. For matters. It also signals recognition of the larger whatever reason, a senior international engineer was importance of international telecommunication is- not hired (from outside the FCC) until almost a year sues for the domestic policy process—the conse- after OIC was created. quences of liberalization, regionalism, and global networks on U.S. companies and domestic regula- Second, OIC has had difficulty establishing its tion. role and functions in regard to international spectrum matters, especially in its early months. On one According to the FCC Order that established OIC, hand, the emphasis in the Order establishing OIC on the functions of the Office are to: ‘‘coordination’ may unduly narrow the scope of

747 CFR 0.5 (1990). 81bid. Chapter 4-Domestic Preparations Processor WARC-92 ● 79

OIC’s activities in policy development, and hamper Finally, because OIC’s mandate encompasses all its efforts to effectively address the problems international communication issues, of which WARC identified in the Order. Many radiocommunication preparation is only one part, some analysts are policy observers feel the office does not have enough concerned that WARC-related activities may suffer power to set policy and lacks strong institutional if adequate staff or funds are not assigned to them. authority. It is important to reiterate, however, that The interests of the Director will determine how the stated function of OIC is not to decide policy, but effective and aggressive OIC is in developing and only to: coordinating spectrum policy. On the other hand, the increasing recognition of the importance of interna- provide coordination among Bureaus and Offices tional spectrum decisions for domestic telecommu- with regard to development and representation of nications policy and the potential regularization of international policy and participation in international the radiocommunication conference structure of the 9 conferences. ITU may give added impetus to OIC’s spectrum activities. This function leaves unclear exactly what kind of input OIC can have in the policy development Although the role of OIC in international spec- process, and what role the Office can or will play in trum activities is still evolving, some of its specific setting international radiocommunication policy. A functions are beginning to jell. OIC’s main role in more aggressive mandate may be needed to ensure international spectrum activities will be to represent the long-term effectiveness of the Office. Other the FCC in bilateral negotiations and at conferences. observers, however, complain that OIC has some- It will also act as a “traffic cop,” for the bureaus times gone beyond its mandate in presenting FCC involved in international activities, coordinating positions abroad and has claimed too much power their activities, and sifting through the positions of for itself in international negotiations. various constituencies. It will have to continue to work closely with OET to develop international spectrum policy, a functional arrangement that In the long run, it is unclear how strong a role OIC mirrors the division of responsibility between NTIA’s will be able to play within the FCC in establishing Offices of International Affairs and Spectrum Man- priorities for bureau activities in support of interna- agement (see below). Finally, OIC will serve as the tional conferences. The FCC maintains that OIC has principal liaison between the FCC, NTIA and State sufficient authority to carry out its mandates, and Department on international spectrum matters. Cur- that the Office’s ability to fulfill its functions is no rently, the director of OIC and the chief engineer are longer in question. The Commission, for example, meeting with their counterparts in NTIA and the points to OIC’s success in integrating the views of State Department to coordinate the upcoming bilat- the FCC on a number of matters, including specific eral negotiations the United States will conduct in WARC-92 issues and the planning of bilateral preparation for WARC-92. meetings with other countries on telecommunication matters. Without direct lines of authority, however, Because OIC is relatively new, and because the the ability of OIC to direct the bureaus’ work in Office and its staff are still settling in and staking out preparation for international conferences and effec- their own role in the U.S. international radiocommu- tively coordinate preparation activities is still uncer- nication policy process, the long-term future of OIC tain. The required level of cooperation and coordina- is far from clear. As a creation of Chairman Sikes, tion will depend on the interpersonal relationships and with little institutional memory or historical between the Director of OIC and the bureau chiefs. power, the Office could conceivably be disbanded Some analysts believe that OIC will not be able to to when he leaves the Commission. At this relatively pull together the various constituencies that charac- early stage in its life, OIC is very dependent on terize the bureaus. These constituencies can cause high-level support for effectiveness. An important conflict between bureaus on specific courses of determining factor in the long-term success of the action, and it is not clear that OIC yet has the power Office will be how effective the Director is in or ability to meld these opinions into coherent, carving out a specific role and responsibilities, both unfiled FCC positions. within the FCC and in relation to NTIA and the State

947 cm ().51 (1990). 80 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Department, and how effectively these responsibili- ing (BSS-Sound), Mobile Satellite Services (MSS), ties are carried out. Winning over skeptics outside low-Earth orbiting satellites (LEOS), and future the FCC will take time and effort as the Office public land mobile telecommunication systems continues to mature. Ensuring continuity in both (FPLMTS). In June 1991, the Commission released OIC’s staff and policies, and maintaining coopera- a Report that outlines final FCC recommendations to tive working relationships with NTIA, the State the State Department on the positions the United Department, and the private sector will be critical in States should take on each WARC agenda item.11 determining the long-term success of OIC. Combined with input from NTIA, these recommendations were used to establish the official U.S. WARC Preparation Activities proposals for WARC-92. The FCC’s role in the WARC preparation process In addition to the WARC inquiry, the Commis- is to represent the interests of the public and gather sion has several other proceedings or formal inquir- private sector views on the specific WARC items. ies underway that overlap with the issues addressed The Commission uses a number of mechanisms to 12 in the WARC inquiry. How the VariOUS proceed- collect this information. ings affect each other, and the degree that domestic Inquiry Process—The primary method the FCC decisions will conform to the international alloca- uses to gather information is its public inquiry tions made at WARC-92 is uncertain. Submitting process. Before making a decision, the FCC pub- proposals to the WARC does not commit the United lishes a Notice of Inquiry (NOI) in the Federal States to using a service authorized at the confer- Register that discusses the background of the ence, nor does it commit the United States to use the issue(s) addressed in the notice and poses questions same frequencies domestically. It will be possible about possible courses of action the Commission after the WARC is completed for the FCC to conduct might take. The public is invited to file comments any proceedings necessary to implement disputed with the Commission that will be considered in services. For example, it seems unlikely that the reaching a final decision, which takes the form of a Commission will propose rules allocating and gov- final Report. erning personal communication services before international agreements are reached at the WARC. For WARC-92, the Commission issued a series of 10 In the case of BSS-Sound and LEOS, several three NOIs. The first, released in December 1989, applications have been filed at the FCC to provide sought comments on the proposed agenda for the such services (see app. C), and the FCC has received upcoming WARC (the final WARC-92 agenda was comments regarding those applications. This should not adopted by the ITU A dministrative Council until give the Commission some (limited) sense about the June 1990) and proposals regarding frequency needs public interest implications for this service. How- for several services including high frequency broad- ever, because of the short time involved, WARC casting, mobile services, BSS-Sound, HDTV, and positions had to be established before a full Com- new space services. In September 1990, the Com- mission proceeding could be concluded. mission adopted a Second NOI in response to the specific agenda released by the ITU. The Second The result is that the FCC’s WARC inquiry NOI sought comments on the expanded agenda process has superseded Commission action on other items and reaction to specific proposals for U.S. matters. For example, the NOIs contained proposals positions that had been developed up to that point. for LEOS systems. However, the FCC has con- A Supplemental NOI was released in March 1991 ducted no formal proceedings to determine the further refining questions in the Second NOI, but public interest requirements, parameters, and stand- primarily concentrating on digital audio broadcast- ards for these services.13 Critics charge that the

IOFede~ co~ficatiom Co-ssion, ‘hlnquiry Relating to preparation for the IntermtionaJ Telecommunication Union World Administrative Radio Conference for Dealing With Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectrum,” Gen Docket No. 89-554, Notice of Inguiry, 4 FCC Rcd 8546 (1989); Second Notice of Inquiry, 5 FCC Rcd 6046 (1990); Supplemental Norice of Znquiry, 6 FCC Rcd 1914 (1991). ll~e~ort, op. cit., footnote 6“ 12~ong o~em, fiese include NotiCm of@@ for perso~ communication services and digi~ audio broadcasting and application prOCtXdingS for LEOS (above and below 1 GHz), HF broadcasting, MSS, HDTV, and PCS for data applications. ls~e FCC ~s, however, plac~ on public notice and received comments on applications for such SwiWS and petitiom for R~e_g tit ~ve been filed seeking Commission action on allocations and service rules for LEOS systems (below 1 GHz). Chapter 4-Domestic Preparations Processor WARC-92 ● 81

Commission skipped a step by bypassing the vital Industry Advisory Committee—In addition to the public interest part of the process. Instead of formal inquiry process, the FCC created an Industry deciding these issues in the proper domestic context Advisory Committee (IAC) in January 1990 to (a separate NOI), the FCC has forced interested provide direct private sector input to the Commis- parties to fight a battle of filings in the WARC sion on WARC matters. The IAC actually played a proceeding, unnecessarily cluttering the preparation dual role in the FCC’s WARC preparation process. process. Critics believe that the Commission has It was a commenter on the NOIs and it developed assumed for the purposes of the WARC that these some of the proposals later included in the FCC’s services are in the best interests of the country and final Report. Thirty-five representatives were named has gone about formulating positions to support to the IAC, representing all areas of the private them. They also contend that this amounts to the sector, including manufacturers, service providers, FCC prejudging the issue—granting unfair advan- and user groups. 14 The Committee was cochaired by tage to some service providers over others. FCC Commissioner Sherrie Marshall and Frank Urbany of BellSouth. The IAC’s task was to The FCC was caught in a problem of timing. consider the needs of the U.S. private sector for the There may not have been enough time for the WARC, discuss the recommendations proposed by Commission to complete a full inquiry into LEOS the FCC in its NOI proceeding, and propose possible systems and services. This concern is complicated WARC positions. The IAC submitted its final report by the fact that LEOS systems operating at frequen- to the FCC in April 1991; its charter expires in cies above 1 GHz were not even proposed until well November 1991. after the WARC inquiry had begun. There is also The IAC split its substantive work into three concern in the FCC that completing a domestic Informal Working Groups (IWGs), a technical proceeding would reduce the flexibility of U.S. committee and a regulatory committee (see figure proposals at the WARC. FCC actions on personal 4-2). IWG-1 dealt with WARC issues in the 3-30- communications services (PCS) and digital audio MHz band, primarily the HF broadcasting issues. broadcasting (DAB) may provide a model for how IWG-2 dealt with some of the most controversial such issues could be worked out in the future. In issues on the agenda, those in the 500-3000-MHz these cases, domestic proceedings were begun, but band (0.5-3 GHz), including LEOS, BSS-Sound, are not expected to be completed before the WARC Mobile Satellite Service, and FPLMTS. IWG-2 concludes. The results of WARC-92 will be used as created four Ad Hoc groups (A to D), to consider input to the domestic process before a final decision each of these issues separately. IWG-3 considered on these services is reached. items on the agenda in the frequency bands above 10 GHz, including HDTV. The technical and regulatory The FCC Commissioners vote on the final Report committees played little role in the IAC process that outlines the Commission’s recommendations to since most of their responsibilities were accom- the State Department on WARC-92 issues. While plished in the three IWGs. Participation in the the Commissioners’ staffs track the issues involved substantive work of the IWGs was open to the and the development of the proposals, it is not clear, public-not just members of the IAC-and was very given the wide range of important topics the broad. Commissioners must address, how closely individual Commissioners have been able to follow WARC The IAC played a crucial role in the development preparations or how knowledgeable they are about of the FCC’s proposals for final WARC positions. the technologies, services, and issues involved. Its work, however, is difficult to characterize. At first Some participants in the WARC preparations have glance, it appears that the IAC was supposed to expressed disappointment that the Commissioners develop unified industry positions and present them were not more actively involved in the preparations to the FCC. In this regard, the IAC was successful in process, given the broad scope and long-term some areas (HF broadcasting), but not in others importance of WARC-92 issues. (MSS allocations). Because the IAC failed to reach

14some ~&=mer~ ~ve noted tit tie MC is composed ptiy of tr~itio~ telecommunications companies, who are heavy users of fXkt@ services. Proponents of innovative services, they claim, were fewer in number. Given the number of new proposals advanced and defended in the IAC process, this claim is doubtful. 82 ● WARC.92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Figure 4-2—Organizational Structure of the Industry Advisory Committee

Co-chairs

Committee of the Whole

1 I I 1

IWG-5 El@mlE Regulatory

KEY: IWG=lnterim Working Group; HF=high frequency; UHF=ultrahigh frequency; SHF=superhigh frequency; LEOS=low-earth orbiting satellites; FPLMTS-future public land mobile telecommunication systems; BSS-Sound-broadcast satellite service-sound. SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment and Federal Communications Commission, 1991.

consensus on many issues, some observers have and technologies. Further, participation in the sub- expressed disappointment with final IAC outcomes. stantive work of the IWGs was a self-selecting The contentious nature of many of the issues made process. These factors led to a belief among many consensus a nearly impossible goal. observers that some of the participants involved were more interested in advancing their own paro- Some, however, argue that the IAC was never chial interests than in developing consensus or conceived to be a decisionmaking body and that working for the overall benefit of the United States. expecting common industry positions to be devel- These problems were complicated because there was oped for all issues is unrealistic-too many compet- no formal mechanism to finally resolve disputes. On ing, parochial interests were involved. Some observ- some issues, closure was not possible. Some have ers have even characterized the IAC process as little suggested that issues should be decided by voting. more than “make believe,”an exercise with little Once a vote is polled, all parties would have to abide hope of success. The reality of the situation lies by the decision of the group. A number of problems somewhere in between. The IAC was successful in complicate such an approach. Votes might be traded negotiating some unified positions, but the conflict- on various issues, thereby further politicizing the ing demands of different industries, the participation process. In addition, practical questions remain, of a large number of representatives, and the more such as what should constitute agreement, a major- complex nature of domestic radiocommunications ity, two-thirds, unanimous? made consensus impossible to achieve in other areas. The real value of the IAC is not gauged by the number of issues it settled or formal industry The most important factor limiting the IAC’s positions it developed, rather it is the process and ability to determine common industry positions was work of the IAC itself. The IAC contributed its operation as a consensus body with members who substantially to FCC deliberations on a number of were proponents and opponents of certain services levels. First, the IAC provided the private sector a Chapter 4-Domestic Preparations Processor WARC-92 ● 83

public forum to discuss and debate their ideas and attended many of the meetings, providing indirect proposals face-to-face. The IAC process stimulated input to NTIA from the private sector. discussion, prompted technical studies, narrowed The members of the IAC and the IWGs were issues, and refined industry requirements, giving generally happy with the FCC participation in their industry representatives a chance to resolve disa- activities and felt that the process was effective greements and present a united front to the FCC. within limits. Their opinions on the outcome of the This open public interaction and negotiation speeded IAC process, however, reflected the ambiguous the process, and raised the status of the IAC nature of the IAC noted above. Different observers proposals and recommendations. The IAC’s collec- had different expectations. These differing opinions, tive positions were more persuasive than individual in turn, reflect a lack of clarity as to what the IAC proposals would have been. The IAC process could realistically accomplish. In retrospect, it is reduced the chaos of dealing with individual propos- unclear what the IAC’s function was really supposed als by weeding out the least desirable-presenting to be. If the IAC is to develop or represent the FCC with a more cogent, limited selection of consolidated industry positions, it may have to be options than it would have gotten in the NOI process. constituted differently, or require a change in working and decisionmaking styles. In the future, Another important benefit of the IAC delibera- the FCC must clearly establish its expectations for tions was the wealth of technical material it pro- such private sector groups. duced. Early in the WARC preparations process, much of the regulatory and technical analysis came from industry in the form of technical requirements Implications for services and technical studies. These studies The WMC preparation process has become more relieved the Commission of the pressure of responding to every proposal and petition with its own difficult over the last decade. Several factors are affecting the FCC’s ability to execute its WARC role technical and regulatory analysis. In relation to effectively. First, the FCC and the WARC prepara- LEOS, for example, geostationary satellite service tion process have been significantly affected by the providers and the FCC were initially concerned that rapid pace of technology development. In the past, the new LEOS services operating in frequencies there were fewer technologies and services, private below 1 GHz would interfere with existing services. The Commission indicated that without a study sector interests were less divisive, and fewer government staffers were involved. Today, the FCC must showing the feasibility of sharing, new systems consider the views of a larger number of private might not be approved. Industry did the study and negotiations progressed. This background was ex- sector participants and reconcile increasingly diverse views with those of the Federal Government. tremely valuable to the FCC in reaching final decisions. 15 In relation to LEOS systems above 1 Second, FCC officials have little more access to GHz, concerns about the ability of the proposed government spectrum use data than the private systems to share the spectrum with other (geosta- sector. It is extremely difficult for both the Commis- tionary satellite) MSS providers have not been sion and the private sector to develop proposals for resolved. the WARC without adequate information. In the case of L-band proposals (see ch. 1), for example, the Finally, the meetings of the IAC and the IWGs Federal Government, through NTIA, has made the provided an invaluable opportunity for informal use of these bands almost non-negotiable. There is contacts between IAC/IWG participants and FCC no way for the FCC to independently determine staff. FCC representatives were usually present at exactly which frequencies are being used, how the meetings of the IAC and its working groups— much, or if they are being used efficiently.lG There allowing for an important informal exchange of is concern in the Commission and the private sector views and discussions between industry and FCC that the FCC does not have adequate information to representatives. Representatives from NTIA also make informed decisions in such cases.

IsSome advocate making such studies amoxe integralpartof the IAC process from tie vewbeg inning. This could improve the efficiency of the process and allow more timely discussion and decisions. ~GNegotiators in tie executive ~~ch claim tit similar problems of access exist for (h@ on COmInerCid spw~ use. 84 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Third, the FCC lacks the personnel and financial to coordinate the National Table of Frequency resources to effectively and efficiently prepare for Allocations. 19 the 1992 (or a future) WARC. There are few staff In the international arena, Executive Order 12,046 members assigned exclusively to WARC prepara- defines the responsibilities of NTIA: tions. The technical staff working on WARC issues are spread throughout the agency, according to their The Secretary of Commerce shall develop and set individual specialties. This has two effects. First, forth, in coordination with the Secretary of State and staff have regular duties in addition to WARC other interested agencies, plans, policies and pro- preparations; they cannot devote their full time and grams which relate to international telecommunica- attention to WARC preparations. Second, staff have tions issues, conferences, and negotiations. The Secretary of Commerce shall coordinate economic, several constituencies to represent, including the technical, operational and related preparations for industry they regulate as well as the bureau they United States participation in international telecom- work for. Internal dissension among staff over munications conference and negotiations. The Sec- domestic policy and resources may preclude timely retary shall provide advice and assistance to the and effective policymaking in regard to the WARC. Secretary of State on international telecommunications policies to strengthen the position and serve the Finally, the FCC serves political constituencies best interests of the United States, in support of the and interests as do other government agencies, and Secretary of State’s responsibility for the conduct of political factors can play a major role in deciding foreign affairs.20 which proposals go forward and which do not. Decisions are not always based on solely technical NTIA plays a substantial role in the WARC merit or the public interest. The case of LEOS is an preparation process. As the agency responsible for example. There has been no domestic public interest managing the Federal Government’s use of the radio assessment of LEOS, nor is there evidence of broad frequency spectrum, NTIA oversees the preparation global support for such a system. LEOS systems of Federal Government WARC proposals and coor- (operating in the frequencies above 1 GHz) are not dinates executive branch policies with the FCC. even explicitly included in the WARC-92 agenda. NTIA’s work in the preparation process culminates Nevertheless, the United States will support LEOS with a final report similar to the FCC’s (in form and above 1 GHz through its proposal to allocate content) that is submitted to the State Department for spectrum to MSS applications, where there appears integration into the final U.S. WARC proposals. to be greater need and more widespread support for additional spectrum.17 Structure National Telecommunications and Prior to 1983, all international spectrum activities Information Administration were handled by NTIA’s Office of Spectrum Man- agement (OSM). In 1983 NTIA created the Office of Description International Affairs (OIA), which now has primary The NTIA is responsible for developing and responsibility for international telecommunication promoting executive branch telecommunications policy (see figure 4-3). At the same time, a Confer- policy. It is to: ence Preparatory Program (similar to the group established in the FCC) was established within OIA serve as the President’s principal adviser on specifically to coordinate international conference telecommunications policies, [and] provide for the preparations and WARC-related activities. The pro- coordination of the telecommunications activities of the Executive Branch.18 gram was abolished several years later as part of a general reorganization of NTIA. NTIA believed, as It is also the agency responsible for administering did the FCC with its group (see above), that such the Federal Government’s use of the radio frequency activities could be convened as needed. Today, one spectrum. In this role it works closely with the FCC person in OIA coordinates most of NTIA’s prepara-

ITSee ch. 1 for a more complete discussion of the controversy surrounding LEOS (above 1 Gfi) at WmC-92. lsEx~utive ordti NO. 12,04.6, op. cit., footnote 2, sections 2-401 and 245, P. %87. l~e Natio~ Table of Fr~uency AUo=tiom combines the U.S. Government Table of Allocations and the FCC Table of AlkXations. ~xecutive Order No. 12,046, op. cit., footnote 2, section 2404, p. 9687. Figure 4-3-Organization of the U.S. National Telecommunications and Information Administration

Administrator

Deputy Administrator

II JI I I I I

r I Office of Office of Policy Analysis International and Development Affairs

“ Develops and advocates international telecommunications ● Manages Federal use of spectrum to ensure efficiency and effectiveness policies o Makes approximately 80,000 frequency assignments “ Separate satellite systems annually o COMSAT instructional process Liberalization of foreign telecommunications regulation ● Reviews major planned systems to ensure spectrum availability “ Chairs the 23-agency interdepartment radio ● Coordinates U.S. preparation for, and participation in, advisory committee (IRAC), which plans for future use international conferences of Federal Government spectrum ● CCITT/CIR standards ● WARC ’92 HF broadcasting WARCS ● Provides technical expertise to support U.S. participation in international telecommunications spectrum conferences ● ASEAN conference

● WARC ’92 HF broadcasting WARCS ● Participates in bilateral telecommunications trade negotiations

● Provides technical/policy assistance to developing countries

KEY: CClTT=lnternational Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee; CCIR=lnternational Radio Consultative Committee; HF=high frequency; ASEAN=Association of Southeast Asian Nations. SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment and National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 1991. 86 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

tions for WARC-92, with help from individuals in into four subgroups: high frequency (3-30 MHz), 1-3 both OIA and OSM. OSM continues to supply GHz, above 20 GHz, and international regulatory extensive policy advice and technical assistance to affairs, each also chaired by NTIA staff from either OLA in WARC matters, and is responsible for the OSM or OIA. The work of these groups was closely day-to-day spectrum management activities of the coordinated with the official FCC liaison to facilitate Federal Government (see figure 4-3). OSM also the development of common positions and FCC leads NTIA’s participation in the activities of the staffers also acted as liaisons with the four substan- International Radio Consultative Coremittee (CCIR) tive subgroups. Ad Hoc 206 finished its work in May (see ch. 3). Other government agencies, including 1991. It is still in force, but inactive.

Voice of Americaj National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Federal Aviation Administra- The objective of Ad Hoc 206 was to develop U.S. tion, and the FCC, provide technical WARC support government proposals for WARC-92. The group through papers and technical studies. developed papers that were submitted to OIA, OSM, and IRAC; prepared position papers for In addition to the coordination and technical work meetings of the CCIR’s study groups (see ch. 3); and done by OIA and OSM, several other entities within provided input to the U.S. group preparing for the the Department of Commerce and NTIA have roles Inter-American Telecommunications Conference in the WARC-92 preparations process. (CITEL) Working Group meetings. Although IRAC/ Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee— Ad Hoc 206 is the titular focal point of executive The Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee branch WARC preparations, it is important to note (IRAC) predates NTIA, having been established in that the IRAC group itself does not develop propos- June 1922.21 The IRAC advises the Secretary of als. Individual members draft proposals that are then Commerce on spectrum matters and is the principal reviewed and reworked in Ad Hoc 206. IRAC/Ad forum through which Federal Government spectrum Hoc 206 served more as a controller, enabling the activities are coordinated and managed.22 Currently, various agencies to forward their positions for the IRAC has approximately 20 members from response by others. In addition, IRAC/Ad Hoc 206 Federal Government agencies and a liaison from the did not develop detailed proposals on all WARC-92 FCC. The organization of the IRAC includes three issues. It concentrated primarily on issues directly permanent subcommittees (Frequency Assignment, related to Federal Government activities, such as the Spectrum Planning, and Technical) and a number of space service proposals. In the case of proposals ad hoc committees that study specific spectrum involving commercial or private sector interests, issues. IRAC meetings are not open to the public for such as the mobile services, the FCC took the lead security reasons, although a public comment/ in drafting proposals that were then shared with presentation period has been added to the beginning NTIA/IRAC/Ad Hoc 206. This division of labor has of each meeting. prompted some critics in the private sector to complain that IRAC and Ad Hoc 206 functioned Ad Hoc 206-Within the IRAC, Ad Hoc Commit- mostly as reviewers or censors, passing or blocking tee 206 was established in mid-1989 to coordinate specific proposals, and that much of the substantive executive branch preparations for WARC-92, and work was actually done by staff of the FCC and was responsible for developing Federal Government members of industry. proposals for the WARC. Since it is a subcommittee of IRAC, membership in Ad Hoc 206 is limited to Frequency Management Advisory Council/Spec- government agencies (approximately 15 Federal trum Planning Advisory Committee—The Fre- agencies actively participated in the work of Ad Hoc quency Management Advisory Council (FMAC) 206), and because of the classified nature of many of was established in 1965 to provide private sector the issues addressed, the public was not allowed to advice to the executive branch agency responsible attend meetings. Ad Hoc 206 was chaired by NTIA’s for managing government use of the spectrum-first Office of International Affairs, and divided its work the Office of Telecommunications Policy within the

zlFor more info~tion on euly IR4C and spec~ allocatio~ see Stanley D. Metzger and Bernie R. Burrus, ‘ ‘Radio Frequency moeation in the Public Interest: Federal Government and Civilian Use,” Dzquesne University Luw Review, vol. 4, No. 1, 1965-66, pp. 1-96. 22For more info~tion on tie role of Wc, see NTIA, U.S. Spectrum Management pOliCy, op. cit., footnote 3. Chapter 4-Domestic Preparations Processor WARC-92 ● 87

White House, and beginning in 1978, NTIA. April tions for the Council to respond to were not 1991, the FMAC was rechartered as the Spectrum finalized. The FMAC was also not deeply involved Planning Advisory Committee. in past WARCs, although it was active in preparing for Plenipotentiary Conferences. The FMAC on The original FMAC was composed of 15 to 20 several occasions, however, indicated strongly the representatives from industry appointed by the need to establish delegations for WARCs sooner, Secretary of Commerce for 2-year terms. Member- and for the United States to reevaluate its policies ship included individuals with technical or adminis- regarding zero budget growth for the ITU. trative experience in spectrum matters—with a balance of views. The FMAC was directed to: Many felt that the FMAC could have been more review, as appropriate, recommendations of the effective in presenting its views and that the IRAC; review the progress of electromagnetic com- members of the FMAC, highly qualified and experi- patibility programs; and provide recommendations enced individuals, could reflect the views of industry for United States positions on spectrum matters with effectively if given the opportunity. Members gar- respect to International Telecommunication Union 23 nered prestige by serving on the FMAC and turnover conferences. was low. Many recommendations contained in the The Chair of the FMAC was the Associate Adminis- spectrum report involve “opening” the Fed- trator of OSM. eral process to more private sector involvement, and the FMAC was the focus for several of those Historically, the role of the FMAC was limited. recommendations. The report proposed, for exam- Without a statutory base of power outside the ple, to broaden the membership of the FMAC to informal backing of the Administrator of NTIA, the include government representatives, and to: aggressiveness of the FMAC in pursuing outside, private sector interests was diminished. Agendas for . . . expand its role to include a strategic planning FMAC activities were set by NTIA through the function. . . This advisory committee could address Chair, making the Chair extremely important in both specific, immediate problems and long-term guiding the Council and determining its aggressive- issues to assist NTIA and the FCC in developing ness. As a result, the FMAC was primarily a reactive rational, unified spectrum management plans and body, responding to the initiatives and requests of policies based on the best interests of the nation as a 24 NTIA. In large part, the activism of the FMAC whole. reflected and depended on the activism of NTIA as As a result of these recommendations, in April 1991, a whole. The current Administrator of NTIA, Janice the FMAC was rechartered as the Spectrum Plan- Obuchowski, emphasizes the role of the private ning Advisory Committee. While the basic functions sector, so the FMAC was perhaps the focus of of the FMAC were carried over to the new Commit- greater attention during her tenure than in the past. tee, its mandate was broadened to include a strategic Over its lifetime, subcommittees of the FMAC planning function and its membership was expanded examined specific issues (in response to NTIA to include government representatives.25 It will still interests), such as trunkming for government agencies function only in an advisory capacity. and CITEL (see below), but, by and large, the FMAC did little substantive work. The one area in which the FMAC Subcommittee—In addition to the activi- FMAC had substantial input was in NTIA’s study of ties related to WARC-92, NTIA also examined the U.S. spectrum management. Council members functions and effectiveness of CITEL (see box 3-B) worked closely with NTIA over the course of the in relation to regional and U.S. telecommunication study and provided advice on implementing the interests. A special subcommittee of the FMAC was recommendations in the report. The FMAC’s role in established in July 1990 to prepare draft proposals preparing for WARC-92 was limited, because posi- for the CITEL VI conference scheduled for Septem-

m~, U.S. Specmm Management Policy, op. cit., footnote 3, p. 27. ‘Ibid, p. 28. 25~e new Cotittee ~1 ~omi~t of 15 Pfivate sector ~presentatives and 4 Fed~~ Gov~nment participants, ~ch appointed for a l-year t-. The Committee is expected to meet at least twice a year or more, if necessiuy. 88 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

ber 1991.26 The subcommittee’s approximately 30 allowing the process to work effectively. This members were mostly from the private sector, but process works now, but staff turnover through job government representatives from the NTIA, FCC, changes or retirement and the lack of younger State Department, NASA, National Science Founda- experienced staff could devastate the process. Possi- tion, and U.S. Information Agency also participated. ble changes in the ITU and regularization of Members of the subcommittee regard the working conference schedules present an opportunity for partnership between government and private sector NTIA to reevaluate its conference preparatory struc- representatives leading to the development of U.S. ture and processes. proposals as a major accomplishment. The subcommittee examined the organization of CITEL, evalu- The process for coordinating the exchange of ated U.S. interests in the conferences, and discussed views between NTIA and FCC is structured but also the role CITEL could play in future regional and largely informal. The FCC’s liaison to the IRAC also international telecommunications policymaking.27 serves as the liaison to Ad Hoc 206, and other Upon presentation of its final report to NTIA, the members of the Commission staff work with the four work of the subcommittee was finished and it was subgroups. NTIA staff (usually the chairs of the abolished in April 1991. subgroups) attended meetings of the IAC and the IWGs to get informal private sector input and work The work of the subcommittee reflects the grow- with FCC staff in developing government positions. ing importance of Latin America and the Caribbean Much informal work took place between NTIA and in international telecommunications negotiations, the private sector Chair of the IAC. especially in the ITU. The changes suggested by the subcommittee are too late to affect planning for NTIA has been criticized in a number of areas for WARC-92, but there is increasing pressure in the its spectrum management practices and policy % government to improve the effectiveness of CITEL development. In contrast to the FCC inquiry in order to forge stronger common positions for the process and the role of the IAC, which are consid- Western Hemisphere at future world conferences. ered accessible and open to the public, the WARC Many in the United States see CITEL as a way to preparation process at NTIA, and more broadly counter the increasing power of the European among all government agencies, is widely seen as countries in international radiocommunications, and closed off from public participation. In its recent an improved CITEL could give the United States report, NTIA recommended several changes that another (stronger) forum for pursuing its agendas at could substantially improve the domestic spectrum future WARCs. Private sector interest in CITEL management process-changes that could alter the reflects the growing importance of the region as a ways in which WARC preparations are conducted. market for telecommunications equipment and serv- Some of these changes have already been implem- ices. Many members of the private sector as well as ented. To increase private sector participation in government policymakers from the United States its activities, for example, NTIA has begun opening and other countries of the region view CITEL as a IRAC meetings with a public comment/presentation valuable forum for discussing the region’s telecom- period. This may broaden the domestic policymak- munication needs and addressing common telecom- ing process-opening NTIA deliberations on inter- munication issues. national proceedings to greater public participation and improving industry input into the Federal Implications Government’s WARC preparation process. To the outsider, the conference preparatory struc- Several other improvements in the NTIA prepara- ture at NTIA seems mostly informal and ill-defined. tions process have been suggested. First, a full-time While preparation procedures do exist, the long permanent subcommittee of the IRAC responsible experience and collegiality of the staff is vital in for international radio conference preparations (sim-

~~t mee~g will Considm the organization tmd functioning Of the ~ conference structure and could recommend changes that would increase CITEL’S stature and effectiveness-making it more of a force in regional and international (W?ARC) telecommunications policy. zT~e subcornmitt=’s findings and recommenbtiom are deti~ in its fti report: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Tel=ommtications and Information Administratio% ‘United States Preparations for the 1991 Inter-AmericanTelecomtnunication Conference ICITEL], ” Washingto@ DC, April 1991. %lTIA itselfsummarized these criticisms in U.S. Spectrum Management Policy, op. cit., footnote 3. Chapter 4-Domestic Preparations Processor WARC-92 ● 89

ilar to Ad Hoc 206) could be created. Second, the Compared to the FCC and NTIA, the State Radio Conference Preparatory Program that existed Department’s role in the WARC preparation process early in the 1980s could be revived. Expansion and is limited, especially in the initial stages. It helps improvement of WARC activities will require addi- determine the broad directions and focal points of tional personnel and funds that may be difficult to overall U.S. policy and attends the meetings of the get. IRAC, but does not actively participate in the development of specific proposals, leaving that The arcane nature of international radiocommuni- work to the FCC and NTIA. The State Department cation policymaking, combined with the relatively monitors the preparations process and helps resolve low level occupied by NTIA in the Department of disputes, but its most important function early in the Commerce structure have made it difficult for NTIA preparations process is representing the United to pursue international spectrum issues as aggre- States, with technical support from the FCC and ssively as some would like. For the past several years, NTIA, at preliminary bilateral and multilateral for example, a battle (for staff and resources) has international negotiations. The State Department been fought within the Department of Commerce also coordinates U.S. WARC activities with the ITU between NTIA/OIA and the trade sections over and handles the procedural and administrative duties responsibility for international telecommunications related to the WARC, including correspondence trade. A failed attempt was made in 1989 to subsume with the ITU, meeting deadlines, and submitting all NTIA under another division within the Department official documents. of Commerce. Such a demotion would have made it even more difficult for NTIA to carry out its The State Department becomes more active in international activities. Raising the status of NTIA WARC preparations in the final stages of the —through clarification or amendment of Executive process. The Department is responsible for deter- Order 12,046-could remedy some of the problems mining the official U.S. WARC proposals to be of funding and prestige. In July 1991, H.R. 3031, the submitted to the ITU based on the recommendations NTIA Organization and Authorization Act, was of the FCC and NTIA. Usually, these recommenda- introduced. This legislation, if passed by the Con- tions are nearly identical, having been previously gress, would codify the authority of NTIA as coordinated by FCC and NTIA, but in some cases, outlined in Executive Order 12,046, and could add issues cannot be reconciled and are left unresolved. legitimacy to its policy role. In these cases, the Department has the authority to set final proposals (see below for the case of Department of State BSS-Sound in WARC-92 preparations) .30 The State Department also is responsible for designating the Description official U.S. delegation that will attend WARC-92 (based on lists submitted by FCC, NTIA, and the According to Executive Order 12,046, the role of State Department itself) and for appointing an the State Department in international telecommuni- official Head of Delegation, who is granted tempo- cations is to represent the United States at interna- rary Ambassador status for the WARC. tional meetings: The primary role of the State Department is to With respect to telecommunications, the Secre- promote U.S. interests and proposals abroad and to tary of State shall exercise primary authority for the ensure that they are presented as effectively as conduct of foreign policy, including the determina- possible. It represents U.S. interests in bilateral tion of United States positions and the conduct of meetings between the United States and other United States participation in negotiations with foreign governments and international bodies. In countries and in multilateral fora such as CITEL and exercising this responsibility the Secretary of State the WARC itself. Its main contributions come, shall coordinate with other agencies as appropriate, however, after final proposals have been set, and the and, in particular, shall give full consideration to the United States turns its attention to the preparation of Federal Communications Commission’s regulatory negotiating strategies and preliminary negotiations. and policy responsibility in this area.29 The Department will act as the lead agency coordinat-

2%3xecutive Order No. 12,046, op. cit., footnote 2, aection 5-201, p. me State Department doea no~ however, have the legal authority to overturn FCC and NTIA deterrninationa. 90 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

ing all negotiations in preparation for the WARC, Senior Advisor, CCIR and CCITT activities by a including the extensive travel and meetings sched- Deputy Director, and activities in CITEL and the uled for late 1991. At the WARC, the Head of the ITU’s Voluntary Group of Experts by other mem- U.S. delegation assisted by the State Department bers of the staff. CIP has a very flat organizational will coordinate the presentation of U.S. policy in all structure that operates more according to overlap- meetings. ping topics than to strict organizational boundaries. CITEL activities, for example, are directly involved In addition to its direct involvement in the in WARC preparations, and staff working in both ‘ preparations process, one of the more important areas must coordinate closely. This is accomplished roles the State Department plays is its coordination through some formal meetings but mostly infor- and oversight of the national CCIR and International mally through internal personal interaction.33 Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT) committees that function as advisory Telecommunications Advisory Committee—The bodies to the Department. It is through these State Department established a Telecommunica- committees that technical papers written by domes- tions Advisory Committee in 1987 to provide tic (often private sector) contributors are prepared, private sector input on telecommunications matters. reviewed, and submitted to the (international) CCIR Membership consists of high-ranking representa- study groups (see ch. 3). The work of the study tives from major telecommunications companies. groups, in turn, is crucial in the international The Committee has been following the proceedings preparation for WARCs, establishing the technical of the HLC, and was briefed by Ambassador Gerald bases for the conferences. Helman, the U.S. representative to the ITU’s High Level Committee, in April 1991. Input by the Structure Advisory Committee to the HLC process, however, has been virtually nonexistent (see below), and in Primary responsibility for international telecom- matters relating to WARC-92, the impact of the munication policy rests with the Bureau of Interna- Advisory Committee is unclear. Some industry tional Communications and Information Policy representatives believe the Advisory Committee to (CIP), in the Office of the Under Secretary of State be mostly show, having little real impact on State for Economic Affairs. CIP was originally estab- Department policy. lished by the Congress in 1982 as the Office of United States Coordinator of International Commu- Implications 31 nications. The purpose of this legislation was to The work of the State Department and CIP in the establish: WARC preparation process is very important, but . . . a central point within the State Department for the constrained nature of CIP’s role is the source of coordinating the increasingly important issues in- many complications in the development and presen- volving international telecommunications.32 tation of proposals, and has given rise to uncertain- ties concerning the Department’s (and CIP’s) effec- The office was upgraded to its present Bureau tiveness. CIP’s work is handicapped by several status in 1985, and is currently directed by Ambassa- factors. First, the technical nature of the WARCs dor Bradley P. Holmes. limits CIP’s contributions until late in the confer- Responsibility within CIP for ITU and WARC- ence preparation process. CIP does not have suffi- related activities is diffused throughout the Bureau. cient technical staff or resources to become deeply Specific activities are assigned to individual staff involved in the actual preparation of proposals. This members on the basis of experience and interest. may make it difficult for CIP to substantially affect WARC preparation and U.S. participation in the the course of preparations. Second, it is not clear ITU’s High Level Committee (HLC), for example, from the mandates of Executive Order 12,046 are being coordinated by Ambassador Holmes’ exactly what role the State Department should play

Slfiblic ~w 98.164, Nov. 22, 1983. Szu.s, Dep~entof State, ‘‘Bureauof Intermtional Communications and InformationPolicy,” Publication9860 (Washinton,DC: U.S. Government Printing OffIce, March 1991. 33~ere is some ~ue~tion how ~xten~ive this ~temction ac~y can be. ~ staff is located b several different locations ~thh the I13tih Shlte Department building. Chapter 4-Domestic Preparations Processor WARC-92 ● 91

in setting international radiocommunication policy, makers. These problems stem from the vague including the development of WARC proposals and division of international telecommunications au- strategies. Critics have accused the Department of thority laid out in Executive Order 12,046. Until not being aggressively or substantively involved in roles are more clearly defined and coordination the development of specific policies or issues. This mechanisms firmly in place, CIP’s activities will may result from several factors. Past Directors of continue to be buffeted by the forces of aggressive- CIP may not have interpreted Executive Order ness and passivity. 12,046 broadly, resulting in a lack of prominent involvement. It is also possible, because of the way Several specific criticisms have been made about responsibilities are divided, that NTIA and FCC the way CIP prepares for conferences. First, the have, in the past, shut out (CIP or deflected its Department has been criticized-primarily by in- attempts to become more involved earlier in the dustry leaders—for forming delegations and naming process, thus discouraging more active involvement. Heads of Delegations too late.34 Most critics would These factors have led critics to charge that CIP prefer that the delegation be formed at least 9 months contributes little leadership in radiocommunications before the WARC, to allow enough time for the matters, preferring to wait and see how issues are (private sector) delegates to understand the U.S. resolved rather than taking a leading policy role. government’s priorities and develop effective negotiating strategies and back-up positions. Even for On the other hand, CIP staff have been accused of those delegates that served on the IAC or who have overstepping their authority on occasion. Many of been involved in the preparations process from the CIP’s staff came from FCC and NTIA, are experi- beginning, there is a learning curve related to the enced in WARC activities, and are used to taking government’s plans for the WARC, and without more of an active role in the preparations process. sufffcient lead time, delegates may not understand Such activism, however, is often rebuffed by NTIA what the government is trying to accomplish or what and FCC staff, who prefer to work out the technical the negotiation strategies entail. This reduces the details themselves, turning issues over to CIP only effectiveness of the delegation. As of mid- when specific problems arise. This conflict can carry September 1991, the final list of delegates had not over to the conference itself, where NTIA and FCC been released, although members had been notified expect CIP staff to limit their activities to adminis- of their selection and had begun to meet. The Head trative matters and let NTIA and FCC technical of Delegation, Jan Baran, was not officially an- staffs handle the details of allocations and negotia- nounced until late August. tions in the working groups and committees. Another problem identified by analysts and past These “turf battles” give rise to tension in the participants is that the Head of Delegation changes preparations process between the FCC, NTIA, and from conference to conference.35 Some have com- the State Department. CIP staffers perceive them- plained that lack of continuity makes it difficult for selves to be an important part of the process, but the United States to establish long-term relation- there is belief among many FCC and NTIA staff that ships at high levels that could enhance U.S. presence CIP is little more than a rubber stamp for the work and effectiveness in international meetings.36 On the accomplished in NTIA and FCC. They believe that other hand, some observers play down the impor- when CIP staff understand their own role, and its tance of such continuity, noting that the participants limitations, the process works smoothly. If, how- in the delegations are relatively consistent over the 37 ever, CIP staff are perceived to overstep their years. Without long-lasting personal relationships bounds, the other agencies consider them trouble- and trust, negotiation becomes more difficult.

~For ~ discu~~ion of tie ism= involved ~ putting togemer a &Jegatio& see U.S. congr~s, ~IIX of Tecllnolo~ &sessment, Radiofle~ency use and Manugernent, OTA-CIT-163 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1982). sso~er com~es often maintain Heads of Delegation across many CO~erenCeS. 36some believe hat tie FCC~s ~lce of ~tematio~ comm~~tiom is attempfig to fdl ~ gap, H @e, MS cotid be perceived u undermining the State Department’s authority. More importantly, the problem indicates a leadership vacuum and the need for a focal point for U.S. spectrum dealings abroad. sv~o~~y, tie ~pid c~- of telecom~Wtiom offlci~s ~ ~ny of me ~fi ~eric~ co~tries k been identified by U.S. government officials as one of the key problems affecting the effectiveness of CITEL. ● 92 WARC.92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Finally, some believe that the Head of Delegation making it difficult to judge how well input was is more a political or honorary choice than a choice considered, and what goals the State Department based primarily on merit. Some Heads of Delegation was pursuing. Industry was not privy to the ambassa- have had little or no telecommunication experience. or’s instructions and had no part in determining However, past Heads have proven to be extremely final U.S. positions. Indifference or even outright competent. Troubles at conferences have more often hostility of some members of the private sector to been attributed to institutional failures or lack of changes in the ITU also may have contributed to effective preparation than to a lack of leadership at their lack of impact. the conference. These concerns apply also to the delegation as a whole. The selection process is often Private Sector and User Groups political. In addition to the government staff that Opportunities for Input have been working on the WARC issues, many members of industry wish to participate. The IAC FCC-IAC, Notices of Inquiry—Participation of will form the core of the private sector’s participa- the private sector in the preparation for WARC-92 tion, but there are too many people for too few spots. has been extensive, and comments from both gov- Filling out the delegation is a matter of achieving a ernment and private sector representatives reveal political balance so that all interests are represented. mostly satisfaction with the process and its outcomes. By almost all accounts the FCC takes careful Although not specifically related to WARC-92 consideration of the work and recommendations of preparations, the State Department has been criti- the IAC as well as the comments received in cized for its handling of U.S. participation in the response to the NOIs. FCC staff attendance at the activities of the HLC. While the Department was meetings of the working groups fostered effective seemingly open to comments from all interested cooperation and coordination between the Commiss- parties in and out of the government, the overall ion and the private sector. Nevertheless, several impact of this input is uncertain. In addition, changes have been suggested to improve the effec- although State Department staff and the Ambassador tiveness and efficiency of the IAC. Some have were available to brief interested parties, there is still suggested a switch from operating by competition a perception among some of those involved that the and negotiation to some form of formal voting. If the progress and results of the HLC proceedings were objective of the IAC is to develop specific industry held closely. The consultant report the ITU commis- proposals, voting may be a solution. But if the most sioned, for example, was not released until the final effective role of the IAC is to develop a wide range 38 report of the HLC was released. of proposals and negotiate compromises, voting may actually be harmful. Votes can be traded, voting does Ambassador Helman had staff support from CIP, not build the same support as negotiation, and FCC, and NTIA, but aside from the specific staffers rivalries could be deepened rather than resolved. assigned to him, few other government officials had Various industry sectors could try to “stack the direct input. The extent to which the staff from NTIA vote,’ and there are practical questions as to who and FCC affected the process is uncertain. Participa- would be allowed to vote-members of the working tion by the private sector in the HLC process was groups or only members of the IAC. Many private even more limited, and the impact private sector sector representatives regard voting as counterpro- comments had is also unclear. One problem was the ductive and there is some doubt that companies extremely short time the HLC had to do its job and would participate in such a forum, or support its the short periods of time the State Department had outcomes, when their positions could be summarily for sending out proposals and receiving comments. defeated. To oversee the progress of the HLC, both the national CCITT and CCIR committees set up task Although participation in the preparations process forces, but they simply could not respond quickly by industry was extensive, the number of individuals enough in many cases to provide comprehensive and companies involved was relatively small. There comments. Industry representative were illustrated is a great deal of overlap in the membership of because the process was not open to public scrutiny, various private sector groups engaged in WARC

sgSee~ex2 inFti Repofl of tie Hi@~vel Committee (H.L.C.) to Review the Structure and Functioning of tiektmmtio@Telmommtication Uniom “Tomorrow’s ITU: The Challenges of Change,” Document 145-E (Geneva: International Teleeommuoication Unio~ April 1991). Chapter 4-Domestic Preparations Processor WARC-92 ● 93

preparatory activities. The industry participants in Second, much of the deliberations and decision- the work of the IAC, for example, are roughly the making processes of NTIA remain closed to the same as those who helped prepare U.S. positions for public. IRAC meetings, which were previously the CITEL working group. Although there are no attended only by government representatives, have rules against entry, the extent of small company only recently been opened to allow some private participation was limited. The majority of IAC sector participation. The new Spectrum Planning participants represent traditional radiocommunica- Advisory Committee (SPAC, formerly the FMAC) tion companies and interests. Some other companies provides for private sector input to NTIA on with consultants or lawyers in Washington, DC are spectrum matters. However, the work of the group also informed about the process, but many smaller has been much more limited in scope and participa- companies may remain uninformed or only vaguely tion than, for example, the LAC. By and large, the aware of the importance of the WARC proceedings FMAC fell short of private sector needs and and how WARC outcomes may affect them. The aspirations. Its ability to be an effective voice for the Telecommunication Industries Association, among private sector was limited by its narrow mandate and others, tries to bridge this gap for smaller companies the nature of the body itself: competing interests and by representing those who cannot afford a private services can cancel each other out as services vie for prominence (broadcasting v. mobile). The new consultant. SPAC does, however, serve a useful and important function for its participants. It provides a‘ ‘window’ NTIA—Private sector/industry input to NTIA is into NTIA, allowing members of industry to get a less extensive than the FCC. Three factors constrain feel for the people making policy at NTIA, and the the private sector’ s role in executive branch proceed- ebb and flow of interests the agency is concerned ings. First, NTIA’s primary constituency (through with. NTIA has identified this type of informal the IRAC) is not industry, but the Federal Govern- sharing and cooperation as very important and has ment users of spectrum. As a result, NTIA seems recommended ways to increase such interchanges to hampered by conflicting functions and mandates. improve strategic planning efforts.40 While some of On the one hand, NTIA is the organ of administra- these recommendations, as noted, have already been tion telecommunications policy. This would imply acted on, it is still too soon to tell what longer term that policy decisions be made with input from all impacts they will have on opening NTIA’s processes relevant sectors of society, including industry, and and improving domestic spectrum management and that a broad range of policy considerations be WARC preparations. integrated, including trade. On the other hand, NTIA’s primary spectrum duties focus on represent- Third, participants in the WARC-92 preparations ing only government interests. As an advocate for process complain that the lack of private sector (or the government, NTIA currently does not take direct even FCC) access to data on government frequency account of the needs of the private sector in spectrum use makes it very difficult for industry representa- 39 policy decisions. It is also possible in spectrum and tives to develop proposals for the WARC. Without radiocommunication matters that government spec- access to relevant data, without knowing exactly trum interests, represented by specific Federal agen- what frequencies are being used and how, private cies, will prevail over the less-focused interests of sector representatives do not know what frequencies trade, for example. NTIA is aware of private sector are available and what technical considerations concerns, and has taken steps to improve private might affect their proposals. As a result, the develop- sector involvement in the policy development proc- ment of new technologies or uses for the spectrum ess, but current efforts to open the NTIA process are may be inhibited by. A more fundamental issue in too new to judge their effectiveness, and it remains providing access to data is first gathering the to be seen how well NTIA will be able to reconcile information. It is not clear that adequate data exists its dual responsibilities to government users and on government spectrum use. Data may be incom- private sector interests in the future. plete, outdated, or may not have even been collected.

3-note ofthisperceivedlackof private sector input NTIAhasproposed toestablishtwovic*cbairs of thelRAC, one of whom will “coordinate activities of the IRAC with the private sector.” NTIA, U.S. Spectrum Management Policy, op. cit., footnote 3, p. 22. -id, p. 28. ● 94 WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Providing access to data means little if that data is Conference Participation not reliable and complete. Private sector participation at conferences is somewhat limited, but extremely important. Repre- NTIA has proposed several remedies to improve sentatives from the private sector are allowed to government data and access to it, including: a participate as official members of the U.S. delega- unified database of spectrum use information com- tion to WARCs upon filing conflict of interest and bining the frequency lists of both FCC and NTIA, a financial disclosure statements. The State Depart- proposal to declassify some government frequency ment accredits all delegates. Principal spokesmen, data, and improved distribution of data either however, are usually government representatives through on-line computer access or compact disc-read- from the State Department, FCC, and NTIA. The only-memory (CD-ROM) .41 Other improvements private sector will be represented by a vice-chair and solutions to these problems have been identi- appointed by the head of delegation, to accompany fied, and some of them have already been imple- the vice-chairs from the FCC, State Department, and mented or are being planned. NTIA has a plan for NTIA. addressing these issues over the next 2 fiscal years. In the past there have been problems with However, because of resource constraints, it is members of industry representing the United States unclear how many of NTIA’s recommendations can abroad, but they appear to have been resolved.43 and ultimately will be implemented, and how Members of the private sector contribute mostly in effective they will be. Mechanisms must be put into the conference’s working groups and study groups, place to ensure industry access to both relevant data where their extensive technical experience and and policymakers if private sector participation in expertise is used most effectively. the WARC preparation process is to be effective, Industry participants from past conferences com- timely, and fair. plain that government leaders often isolate themselves from industry representatives during the State Department—The private sector had the course of the conference, and that the private sector least direct input into State Department preparations has little say in strategy setting. Government repre- for WARC-92. This is largely a function of the sentatives advance positions and pursue goals that limited role it plays in the formation of the propos- had not been previously discussed with all the als. Once the official U.S. delegation is formed, State delegates. This may be necessary at times to react to Department officers will become much more in- fast-moving developments, but it circumvents pri- volved with industry representatives in the forma- vate sector interests. Greater cooperation of govern- tion of negotiating strategies and as the lead U.S. ment and industry delegates from the inception of agency at the WARC itself. the delegation could alleviate some of these problems. Building trust among the members of the delegation is crucial if the United States is to be CCIR and CITEL Work—Some of the most effective in negotiating from a unified position. important input that industry had on the WARC-92 Forming delegations earlier and involving the pri- preparation process is through participation in the vate sector extensively in the preparation of negoti- work of the CCIR national study groups and through ating positions could help achieve this goal. the informal work of the CITEL working group (see box 3-C). Internationally, U.S. industry participates extensively in the work of the CCIR study groups. Improving Private Sector Participation The participation of the private sector in these As the role of the private sector in radiocommuni- groups is one of the most important ways in which cations becomes increasingly important, the United the United States can directly and indirectly influ- States must find ways to raise the level and ence the WARC process.42 effectiveness of private sector input into the U.S.

411bid, pp. 29-32. AzCh. 3 provides a more in+pth dismsion of the U.S. p~cipation in the work of the CCIR and its tiuenCe on the Wfic Pro~@W d3Forafifl dismssionof~e problems smow~gp~vate smtorp~cipation in inte~tio~ m~tings, and the effects on the 1979 W~C, See 0~ Radio frequency Use and Management, op. cit., footnote 34, pp. 60-62. Chapter 4-Domestic Preparations Processor WARC-92 ● 95 international spectrum policymaking process, while in international spectrum matters. Changes recom- at the same time protecting U.S. public policy mended by NTIA in its spectrum report are far- interests. 44Changes now underway show recogni- -reaching and could substantially improve the quan- tion of the importance of private sector input, and tity and quality of the private sector input to the should be followed through. At the FCC, OIC will executive branch. serve as a focal point for industry input on an ongoing basis. This should allow FCC international Changes on the international scene have propelled policy and industry perspectives to be more easily the private sector to center stage. Proposed changes coordinated and integrated on an ongoing basis. The in the structure of the ITU and current efforts to activities and problems of the WARC-92 IAC can serve as a learning tool for future FCC advisory increase the level of industry participation in the committees. With the completion of the IAC’s work, work of CITEL (see ch. 3) offer the private sector an industry has no coordinating body and no unified opportunity to increase its participation in the voice to represent its interests before the FCC or the ongoing radiocommunication policy process. Con- executive branch. Some analysts have called for tinued active involvement of the U.S. private sector industry to fund their own IAC to keep close ties and will be crucial to maintain the technological leader- oversee the work of individual companies in the ship the United States now enjoys in many radio- CCIR study groups on a continuing basis. This group communications sectors, and the opening of interna- could serve as liaison not only to the FCC, but also tional bodies to more private sector participation to the State Department and NTIA, and could be an could enhance U.S. effectiveness in international important link and focal point for industry activities radiocommunication negotiations and conferences.

~*pl-ivate sedorp~cipatior.linu.s. international policy activities increases, questions arise as to what constitutes ~ “American” compmy. -Y companies that are headquartered in foreign countries have substantial manufacturing and service operations in this country. Should they be allowed to participate inU.S. W~C preparation activities? Whose interests would they represent? The United States may have to revisit policies def~foreign company participation in U.S. policy as contained in section 310 of the Communications Act. Chapter 5 Implications of WARC-92 for U.S. Radiocommunication Policymaking

Introduction WARC Preparations: The U.S. process of preparing for WARCs is An Exercise in Democracy based on a democratic approach that guarantees The domestic approach to WARC preparation— participation by a broad range of interests. This in both the government and the private sector—is process has been described as “loose,” “good and adversarial in nature, but ultimately results in some bad,’ and having ‘no rules.” Overall, the domestic form of negotiated consensus. Competing private preparations process for WARCs works relatively sector companies file comments with the Federal well in the current environment. However, the Communications Commission (FCC) in response to divided nature of the U.S. telecommunications Notices of Inquiry (NOIs), and proponents and policy process may not serve long-term U.S. spec- opponents of different systems, technologies, and trum interests nearly as well in the future, and may proposals debate their positions in the Industry threaten the effectiveness of the United States at Advisory Committee (IAC). Federal agencies vie for future WARCs. spectrum to support their mission-related activities through the Interdepartment Radio Advisory Com- Rapid advances in technology coupled with a mittee (IRAC), which advises the National Tele- more competitive international telecommunications communications and Information Administration environment will challenge the United States to (NTIA). In the negotiations between the FCC and adapt its conference preparation and negotiation NTIA, the interests of the private sector compete strategies in order to remain successful in interna- with the interests of the government. This competi- tional policymaking. Such changes have already tive process is not necessarily neat, but it conforms prompted the International Telecommunication Union to U.S. notions that every voice be heard, every (ITU) to take steps to improve its structure and opinion expressed. No single interest gains absolute processes in order to better meet the needs of its control, and a rough balance of power is achieved. members. These same forces are increasing pressure Diversity of interests is the strength of the U.S. on U.S. policymakers to integrate international process, and this freedom and variety should serve as radiocommunication policies with broader political the basis for any effort to improve the U.S. WARC and economic goals. A broader, more strategic preparations process. approach to international radiocommunication policymaking will require increased speed, flexibility, and However, while diversity is the strength of the decisiveness in domestic decisionmaking. WARC process, it can also be a major weakness. Deregula- preparations are a crucial element in the long-term tion in the telecommunications industry has ex- development of radiocommunication services and panded the number and variety of radiocommunica- policies, and should reflect the broader goals and tion interests in the United States. Companies and priorities of overall U.S. telecommunications policy. groups which normally compete (for spectrum It is not clear that this happened in the WARC-92 and/or customers) are forced to work together to preparations. Some of the difficulties with the negotiate and support common WARC proposals WARC preparations process reflect a more general that will serve broader national needs. Entrenched lack of vision or coordination of long-term strategic interests are often reluctant to compromise and international U.S. radiocommunications policy. Thus, consensus is sometimes impossible. As a result, the issues raised by WARC-92 preparations have negotiating the most contentious issues can be significant implications for the entire U.S. radio- time-consumin g and frustrating. These divisions are communication policy process.1 also reflected at conferences, where the timely and

IFor ~ more complete diSaSSion of he iSSueS, ~ptiom, and s&ate@es for improving domestic teleco~~cations poky coordinatio~ see U.S. Congress, (Mice of Technology Assessment Critical Connections: Conununicationfor the Future, O’L4-CIT-407 (Washingto% DC: U.S. Government Printing Gf15ce, January 1990). –97- 98. WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

effective execution of negotiating strategies maybe allow policymakers to better define goals and impeded when many individuals are involved repre- priorities and lead to a more effective process. Still senting a myriad of interests. others maintain that in order to bring the needed amount of discipline and direction to the preparation Government officials often criticize private sector process (as well as to the larger spectrum policymak- interests for resisting compromise and delaying the ing process) a single authority for domestic and development of proposals. Even when agreement is international spectrum policymaking should be cre- reached, it is not clear that compromises between ated. competing factions reflect sound decisions that best serve U.S. interests. They may represent little more overall, the government agencies involved (FCC, than a politically expedient solution—the least NTIA, State Department) have been either unable or common denominator of agreement-rather than a unwilling to take strong policy stands in the absence thoughtful part of a broader conference strategy or of clearly developed or stated objectives. Gover- well-defined policy goals. For the government nment policymakers appear to have been content to agencies that must sort and consider the various follow the lead of the private sector in many cases proposals and compromises, making the final deci- rather than take an active policy role themselves. sions is very difficult and time-consuming. This lack of aggressive leadership often conflicts with the need for incisive international decisionmak- Critics charge that the preparation process, espe- ing, and is due to several factors (discussed below). cially the development of private sector proposals, is New approaches are needed in the preparations made more difficult because of the lack of strong process-and during conferences—that accommo- government leadership. Industry representatives, date the need for decisive action with the need to and some government policymakers, complain that ensure effective public and private participation. when compromise and consensus cannot be reached, the government does not step in quickly enough to provide substantive policy direction and resolve Implications for International specific disputes. These criticisms have been made Radiocommunication Policy before. Glen O. Robinson, Chairman of the U.S. The difficulties uncovered in the WARC-92 WARC-79 delegation, in testimony said, “Of preparations process may have serious consequences course, it is necessary to have some locus of final for the development of broader U.S. international decision making; there must be someplace, wherein spectrum policy. These concerns derive from several Truman’s words, the ‘buck stops.’ “2 Many partici- basic problems with the U.S. radiocommunication pants involved in WARC-92 preparations have policy process. First, the system is fragmented. In voiced similar complaints-that the process got the absence of a single agency or focal point for bogged down in negotiation and compromise, and policy development, coordination mechanisms for that decisions were often not made until the last strategic long-range policy development in radio- minute. Some industry representatives, for example, communications are inadequate. Further, there is no would have liked more explicit FCC direction in the overarching vision or plan to guide U.S. spectrum IAC. Such direction would not necessarily have policy; that is, goals and priorities are not being stifled private sector views, but could have given cooperatively set by the Federal agencies responsi- more focus to the preparations process and the ble with sufficient input from the private sector. development of proposals. Finally, there has been a lack of commitment to The solutions suggested by members of the international spectrum issues at high levels of the private sector to these problems vary, but represent Federal Government that could encourage a more a range of increased government activism. Some aggressive and integrated policy development proc- suggest that the government could exert stronger ess. However, recent efforts, especially in the FCC direction within the existing division of responsibil- and NTIA, indicate heightened awareness of both ity. Others believe that a closer partnership between domestic and international spectrum issues. How government and nongovernment interests would long this attention will continue is uncertain and

2Glenn O. Robinson quoted in U.S. Congress, Ofilce of Technology Assessmen4 Radiofkequency Use and Management, OZ4-CIT-163 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1982), p. 45. Robinson goes onto argue that such power should rest with the State Department. Chapter 5-Implications of WARC-92for U.S. Radiocommunication Policymaking 99

may depend on the interests of the senior govern- Department), each have their own interests and ment policymakers involved. priorities. Adequate mechanisms do not exist at the policy level to bridge divided responsibilities, and System Is Fragmented forge common goals. The result is that despite the enormous importance of telecommunications to the division of responsibility for international The domestic economy and in international activities, spectrum issues between three Federal Government the United States has no central authority or focus agencies complicates both the WARC preparations for international telecommunication or radiocom- process and the development of overall international munication policy development. The inadequacies radiocommunication policy. In the WARC prepara- of such an arrangement have long been clear: tions process, which deals with fairly well-defined issues, the problems of divided responsibility have There is no high-level agency within the Govern- been worked out relatively well over time. Each of ment to resolve conflicts arising among governme- the agencies involved has long-established internal ntal interests, much less those arising between govern- procedures for WARC preparations, and mecha- mental and nongovernmental interests. Government policy and administrative development have not kept nisms exist that allow the coordination of proposals pace with technical and industrial development in between agencies to take place. These interagency communications. 4 coordination mechanisms, however, are generally less well-defined than the agencies’ internal proce- OTA echoed these comments in 1990: dures, and consist primarily of assigning liaisons to Although all agencies now have to be more other agencies-establishing a path through which cognizant of international developments, the frag- communication and coordination can take place- mented nature of the agencies means that no one and reviewing and responding to various draft agency is equipped to fully present a coherent and proposals.3 Beyond that, the substance of coordina- clear-cut U.S. communications policy perspective.5 tion is murky. No guidelines exist that describe what Finally, this divided policy process has long been interagency coordination will entail, and no explicit recognized as hampering the development of inter- rules each agencies’ responsibilities vis-`a outline national spectrum policy in the United States: vis the others. Furthermore, there is no mandate that relevant information be made available or even what The existing split in responsibility whereby the types of information should be shared. This situation regulation of private communications resides in the makes accountability very difficult to judge and Commission and Government communications (titu- creates an atmosphere that is best described as larly) in the President fosters a deplorable lack of accountability aggravated by ‘‘clubby.’ ‘ In this context, what makes these mecha- recourse to the cloak of security. The dichotomy precludes effective overall nisms work is the experience and personal relation- telecommunications planning. At present there is ships that individuals have developed over many solely the avenue of coordination and compromise, years of working together, both in and out of the a hopeless device when authoritative leadership is government. lacking.6 While these coordination mechanisms are rela- In terms of WARC preparations, this means that no tively effective vis-`a-vis the specific issues of individual or agency is accountable for ensuring that WARC-92, at the broader levels of strategic and the proposals advanced for the WARC support the long-term policy development, the fragmented na- broader goals of U.S. policy. Because of the ture of the system is much more problematic. The essentially reactive nature of WARC preparations, three Federal agencies that have jurisdiction over no conscious attempt was made to link WARC international spectrum matters (FCC, NTIA, State proposals to an already established, more long-term

3~ cWell-defmed7$ ~ ~ed here is a ~e~tive te~. To ~ose involved, the processes ~ V- weu-defm~, roving been h place ~d f~k tO bm for many years. However, to the outside observer, there are few explicit rules that govern the process and no formal guides that outline the substance of coordination- i.e., what information should be exchanged. A~~coti~sion T. ~vestigate Utibtion of R@O Fr~uencies Allocated to tie Gove~en4 “ Report to the Seriate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Report No. 1854, July 18, 1958, p. 3. SOTA, CtitiCaZ Connections, op. cit., footnote 1, p. 366. 6Additio~ views of ~wmd L. Bo~les in “~ocation of TV c~nnels,” Report of the Ad Hoc Advisory Committee on Allocations to the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, U.S. Senate, 85th Cong., 2d sess., Cornrnittee Printj Mar. 14, 1958, p. 12. 100 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy strategic policy. This is not a failure of the WARC There is a growing sense that the United States is process, however, because a long-term framework fast approaching a point at which its fragmented for making spectrum decisions or developing long- system may inhibit the development of coherent term radiocommunication policy does not exist in radiocommunication policy and ultimately reduce the United States. the effectiveness of the preparations process for international conferences such as the WARC. Multi- Instead, formal coordination mechanisms and the ple layers of decisionmakm“ g slow U.S. responsive- development of unified policy have been replaced by ness, confuse negotiation strategies, and provide interagency coordination and cooperation that is additional opportunities for domestic (and foreign) heavily dependent on the goodwill and personalities interests to play off the agencies against each other. of the individuals involved (see below). “Unfortu- The multitude of players and a democratic decision- nately, accomplishing such coordination is dfficult making process also confuses foreign officials and when faced with disputes among agencies, compet- delegates who do not understand the U.S. processor ing demands for high-level attention, time pressures, the pressures it responds to. and often inadequate resources. ’ Despite the problems with the fragmented U.S. system, however, many observers believe that a There have been several attempts in the past to rigidly centralized domestic spectrum management coordinate U.S. international telecommunication system would be worse. With policy authority policy development, including radiocommunica- concentrated in one agency or person (a telecommu- tions, but most have been short-lived. In the early nications “czar”), the development of policy could 1980s, for example, a group made up of senior staff be made more efficient, but could also reduce the from the NTIA, FCC, and State Department-the amount of private sector and industry input into the ‘‘troika’ —attempted to coordinate telecommunica- process. Critics of such a solution in both the private tions policy issues. The troika was not a formal, sector and government fear that this approach would institutionalized group, but it did hold regular make the preparations process more bureaucratic, meetings and address ongoing policy issues, includ- less open, and perhaps even more secretive than it is ing international matters. Although the regular now. meetings of the troika eventually faded, meetings between high-level staff continued on an ad hoc basis. The next major effort to coordinate interna- No Coordinated U.S. tiontal telecommunications policy came in 1984 Radiocommunication Policy when a Senior Interagency Group was formed to examine international telecommunications policy The United States process for formulating tele- issues. It was abolished approximately 5 years later. communication policy has long been criticized for Another attempt to establish a more formal process lacking focus, direction, and coordination.8 OTA has was made in late 1989, when Ambassador Bradley previously identified the lack of coordinated poli- Holmes, director of the State Department’s Bureau cymaking as a serious impediment for the United of International Communications and Information States in the near term: Policy (CIP), set up regular meetings with FCC The lack of a coherent and coordinated national chairman Alfred C. Sikes and NTIA Administrator process for making communication policy is likely Janice Obuchowski to discuss international issues to severely hinder efforts to develop and execute an that involve all three agencies. The meetings were appropriate strategy for dealing with the myriad of scheduled quarterly, and were to be supplemented communication policy issues that will emerge as the by informal contact among key aides. The impact of United States takes its place in an increasingly global these meetings on WARC preparations is unclear. information economy.g

W.S. Department of Commerce, National Telecommunications and Information Administration NTIA Telecom 2000, NTIA Special Publication 88-21 (Washingto~ DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, October 1988), p. 179. See also OTA, Cn”ticaZ Connections, op. cit., footnote 1. gFor a dis~ssion of such issues, see Henry Geller, The Federal Structurefor Telecommunications Policy (Washington ~: The Benton Foumlatio% 1989); OTA, Critical Connections, op. cit., footnote 1; OTA, Radioj?equency Use and Management, op. cit., footnote 2; and NTZ4 Telecom 2000, op. cit., footnote 7, ch. 9. 90m, Critical Connections, op. cit., footnote 1, P. 361. Chapter 5-Implications of WARC-92 for U.S. Radiocommunication Policymaking ● 101

Because this issue has not been adequately Philosophical opposition to government planning addressed in the past, many of the problems of does not necessarily preclude the setting of long- international radiocommunication policy develop- term priorities and goals and developing strategies to ment still exist today. Beyond responding to specific achieve those goals, including strategies for WARCs. WARC issues, broad goals are few and ill-defined. Between a rigid spectrum “plan” and a completely No single vision guided U.S. policy development in market-driven system, it may be possible to develop preparation for WARC-92, and there is no long-term a flexible framework that allows radio technology plan that incorporates and integrates domestic spec- and system development to respond in a timely way trum needs and policy with international spectrum to market forces, while at the same time marshaling policy. In its report to the ITU, the Advisory Group those forces in the context of a longer range, more on Telecommunication Policy notes: comprehensive framework for developing radiocommunication policy and services. A cooperative It is to be expected that in the future governments partnership with the private sector to establish some will need to incorporate telecommunication policy directly into a cross-sectoral, long-term socio- general direction to the process and define some economic strategy for new technologies, within a basic goals and priorities could satisfy private sector framework of economic and social growth. In some calls for more direction and aggressive government countries governments are already seriously study- involvement without putting government policymakers ing this issue.10 in the position of spectrum “planner.” Government policymakers generally agree that Finally, from an international perspective, the more long-term strategic planning is needed for proposed regularization of the ITU WARC schedule spectrum, but do not want to concretely ‘‘plan’ for affords the United States an opportunity to revisit the future spectrum use and development. In pointing issue of more formal spectrum planning. An ongoing out the difficulty of centralized planning, they series of conferences, conducted at regular intervals, maintain that it is virtually impossible to develop a may allow the United States to develop plans and plan that specifies what bands will be used for what coordinate resources in a more effective manner. purposes when future needs, technologies, and Efforts to develop strategic goals and objectives for applications are unknown. The present strategy of WARC preparations should be an integral part of the responding to evolving uses ensures that the system long-range planning process for spectrum use. Goals is flexible enough to adapt to new technologies and and priorities must be established, and resources services. Specific planning, they fear, would destroy allocated to ensure that government and industry this flexibility and force the United States to commit representatives working on ITU or WARC prepara- to applications and systems that might not be tions have the funds, time and staff necessary to efficient or needed in the long term. This view prepare U.S. positions in an effective and timely reflects long-held U.S. opposition in international manner. spectrum policymaking to a priori planning of the radio frequency spectrum. While there is merit in Personal Relationships Drive Preparations this position, especially given the diverse nature of the U.S. radiocommunications industry, it does not The WARC preparation process depends on the mean that the present market-driven system is power of individual personalities and the interper- meeting all needs in a timely fashion. Legislation sonal relationships among major players. While that has been proposed in the Congress to shift some formal mechanisms do exist through which coordi- frequencies from Federal Government use to com- nation takes place, individual experience and per- mercial and public use indicates, in fact, that the U.S. sonality are the most important determinants of market-driven system does have problems.ll effective coordination in the WARC process. The process works because the individuals involved It is important to note that coordinated and have a commitment to work cooperatively, not focused spectrum policy development does not because rigid procedures necessarily force them to. necessarily imply centralized spectrum planning. In short, the mechanisms for coordinating WARC

lo~terMtio~TelWomm~cation Ufiom “TheC&ngingTeIecommunicationE!nviro~en~” Reportof theAdvisory Group on Telecommunication Policy, February 1989, p. 3. 1lSW tie Emerging Telecommunications Technologies At of 1991 (H.R. 531, H.R. 147, ~d S. 218). 102 . WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy proposals work because the people involved make a tremendous opportunity to reform the international them work. spectrum policy process in this country. U.S. policymakers must capitalize on the current spirit of When participants “play by the rules,” the cooperation in order to ensure the long-term effec- process works smoothly, but when individuals will tiveness and responsiveness of U.S. international not compromise or cooperate, government officials spectrum policy. and private sector representatives complain that the process cannot work because people do not under- Despite the relative success of the WARC-92 stand what they are doing. It is not clear that if the preparations, however, the current dependence on current players were replaced, the system would individuals and personal relationships for guiding continue to work as well. Some analysts maintain the WARC process may ultimately undermine that changing the individuals involved would not long-term U.S. interests. First, the mechanisms for harm the process, that company and/or agency coordinating international policy may prove inade- perspectives and goals would still be adequately quate in the near future. The successor failure of the communicated and addressed. While this may be preparations process depends on people working true to some extent, the individual experience gained together, within the government and between the through many years of involvement in the process government and the private sector. Changes in will not be easily replaced. The individuals involved personnel as staff retires or transfers, and shifts in and the personal relationships they have forged are emphasis or philosophy may threaten future cooper- more important than the procedures they follow or ation; current collegial relations may vanish and the formal institutional arrangements that exist. battles over responsibilities and roles could recur.12 Especially troubling is the aging of current govern- In WARC-92 preparations, the individuals in- ment spectrum policymakers and radiocommunica- volved got along well, and cooperation among tion industry representatives. The cadre of spectrum agencies was good. Several factors contributed to policymakers in this country is small, and many of this cooperative atmosphere. First, the individuals the most experienced U.S. international radiocom- involved have, in many cases, been participating in munication experts will retire in the next 5 to 10 WARC preparations for many years. Relationships years. Few young people have entered the field, and and a basis for understanding each other have been fewer are being trained by the government agencies formed over a long period of time. Second, a great to replace these retiring staff.13 The lack of experi- deal of crosspollination occurs between the three enced younger staff could reduce U.S. effectiveness Federal telecommunication policy agencies and in international negotiations as inexperienced spec- between the government agencies and the private trum policymakers assume more important roles. sector. Many State Department staff, for example, This problem is especially critical because the came from the FCC. This fosters an understanding of international spectrum policy process is built on how the process works, what individuals’ roles personal involvement and individual memory rather require, and what pressures are put on their col- than on formal mechanisms and institutional mem- leagues. The private sector also benefits from ory. Without these individuals, the (little) continuity government experience. Many of the consultants and the direction in U.S. international spectrum and lawyers representing industry came from gov- policy could be lost.14 ernment and understand how the process works and what is important. These good relations-especially Second, in the absence of larger policy goals and among the heads of NTIA, FCC, and CIP-represent more involved high-level oversight, a danger exists

lzAt the high~= 1~~~~ of the ~m agencies, such battles have occurred in me past and persofi~ conflic~.g., at the 1989 ~iCe Plenipotentiary-have caused problems. ISNTIA r~oxs the seriousness of tbis problem in an appendix to its report: ‘‘The need for the tmining of personnel is more critical today than it was when the earlier NITA/OTP [~lce of Telecommunications Policy] training program started, because of the increased complexity of managing the spectrum and the aging of current agency stafTs, with few replacements entering this field.” U.S. Department of Commerce, National Telecommunications and Information Administration U.S. Specrrum Management Policy: Agenuh for the Fuzure, NTIA Special Publication 91-23 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Off@, February 1991), p. H-3. 14~e problem is less ~nous ~ he Pfivate ~tor, which is ~tter able to attract and keep q-led young sp(xm engineers and managers. Other countries also are aggressively bringing along young staff. Japan, for example, often sends large delegations to conferences, many of whom are young staffers whose pximary role is to observe and learn. Chapter Implications of WARC-92for U.S. Radiocommunication Policymaking ● 103 that instead of national policies or even agency/ beginning to think more strategically about the radio departmental policies, that individuals may project frequency spectrum as an important competitive 16 their own goals and values into the process. These resource. The FCC has also responded to the goals, although based on years of experience, may increased importance of spectrum issues through its nonetheless be very narrowly focused and take ongoing study on the creation of a spectrum reserve inadequate account of all perspectives. Stronger, for new technologies and services. more formalized arrangements to coordinate international policies may need to be imposed to ensure Resource Constraints that adequate and ongoing cooperation occurs in the long term.15 The lack of high-level support for ongoing international spectrum activities translates into shortages of funds and personnel. One of the critical Little High-Level Commitment problems with domestic and international spectrum The domestic process of preparing for WARCs decisionmaking is a serious shortage of qualified suffers from a lack of high-level attention and personnel to manage spectrum resources and de- 17 inspired policy guidance. Spectrum issues must be velop policy. Because of their small numbers, staff addressed at a high enough level in the government at both the FCC and NTIA are stretched thin. At the and industry to ensure that radiocommunication FCC, for example, when an international conference policy is clearly linked to policy goals guiding trade such as WARC-92 takes place, FCC staff must add and other economic, social, and political objectives. WARC issues to their existing duties. Not only does High-level coordination between FCC, NTIA, and this take time away from “official” duties, it also the State Department would provide leadership, gives inadequate time to the new, but equally direction, and coordination for WARC preparations important and more time-consuming, task Of prepar- and for the development of broader radiocommuni- ing for the conference. 18 Although the work is cation policies. But more fundamental change may getting done, more staff devoted to conference be needed. Some analysts, for example, maintain preparation and international activities in general that the United States suffers from the absence of a could help ease the agencies’ workloads, speed permanent Head of Delegation who could represent decisionmaking, and contribute to a higher quality of the United States at all major international radio- policymaking. communication conferences, build long-term rela- Inadequate funding for FCC, NTIA, and State tionships and alliances with other delegates, and Department international spectrum activities hurts who could provide continuity to U.S. delegations the U.S. preparations process in several ways. First, across WARCs. Officials at NTIA, FCC, and the lack of funds means that these agencies cannot start State Department do not have the necessary position preparing for international conferences early enough. to accomplish this objective. Some have suggested Preparation times are compressed, with the result that the United States should establish a position that a lot gets done at the last minute and some things similar to the U.S. trade representative to address may not get done at all. Second, many personnel international telecommunications matters. problems are the direct result of inadequate funding. Recent government initiatives indicate that spec- Without adequate funding, government agencies trum issues have become more important than in the cannot attract, train, and keep qualified young past, and U.S. agencies are beginning to tackle them spectrum engineers and managers. Third, lack of more aggressively. NTIA’s recent report on spec- travel funds curtails preconference activities that are trum management, for example, indicates that the crucial for building alliances with other countries Federal Government is beginning to take the issues and developing conference strategies. If the United of spectrum management more seriously, and is States is to be successful at future conferences,

lfiM~r~ f~rmal~ed~~~rdinati~n of d~mestic s~trumpoli-gwas ~commended fi ~, U.S. spec~m~amgemntpolicy, O 13, p. 51. l%id., p. 13. 17~e shortage is ~spci~ly ~mte among minorities and women. Few are invoIved h inkxnationd SpeC&UIIl pOliCyDMkillg. IsMore time-consuming in the sense that much of the preparation process entails engaging in bilateral and multilateral talks with foreign administrations. This usually means frequent travel, and often for extended periods of time. 104 WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

representatives from U.S. Government agencies ment have provided. Changes in domestic priorities must have adequate time and money to develop new and the international scene offer an opportunity for alliances and cultivate existing relationships. With- individual agencies to reassess their conference out such preconference work, the United States may preparation processes. Proposed changes in the ITU, seriously threaten its effectiveness when decisions especially, provide the United States with an oppor- are made at conferences. tunity to reevaluate how international telecommuni- Government Frequency Data Is Inadequate cations policy is made and how government agencies and industry prepare for international confer- The lack of coordinated policymaking is compli- ences. A regular conference schedule would help cated by the lack of adequate information from the regularize planning for future conferences and government agencies themselves regarding spec- would make the preparations process less subject to trum use, another problem that goes back decades. In the “fits and starts” of the past. The FCC has 1959 hearings on spectrum allocation, one witness already taken a step in this direction with the stated: establishment of Office of International Communic- . . . although all the non-Government [civilian] ations. More cooperation and continuous institu- users present information of use and justification for tionalized leadership would serve to smooth out the what they request in the spectrum, similar informa- bumps and plan U.S. preparations for the long term. tion is not submitted with respect to the [Federal] Government use of the spectrum which might indicate how the entire natural resource could best be The fundamental problem with domestic WARC utilized. The [Federal] Government users are not preparations is that roles and functions are not required to justify before Congress, public opinion, specifically defined. Processes are not always well or any impartial body, their use of frequencies . . . understood, and while a structure for coordination and there is certainly an inability on the part of between the NTIA, FCC, and State Department non-Government users to obtain the information exists, it is highly dependent on the abilities and regarding Government usage which is pertinent to 19 personal relationships of the individuals involved. In any resolution of the problems. order to rationalize the process and lessen its Today, the situation remains unchanged. Many in dependence on the individuals involved, many have the private sector complain that it is difficult for called for a clarification of the roles of the three them to apply for new services or propose new agencies regarding international activities and nego- positions for the U.S. internationally when they do tiations possibly by modifying Executive Order not have adequate information about government 12,046 and/or by restructuring the agencies them- 20 In preparing for a WARC, such spectrum use. selves in a more rational and complementary man- information is crucial for both the FCC and the ner. The objectives of such a restructuring would be private sector—inadequate information severely lim- to provide formal mechanisms for coordination of its their ability to develop effective proposals. policy, including specific recommendations for resolving conflicts, and promote increased high- Summary and Implications level interaction by the heads of the various agencies WARC-92 represents a significant opportunity in order to build a common vision to guide U.S. for the United States to capitalize on its technologi- policy overseas and to guide the actions of U.S. . cal leadership, influence world opinion, and guide delegations at international conferences. Some ana- negotiations on spectrum allocations. It also repre- lysts believe that merely clarifying roles is not sents a challenge for the United States to protect the enough, and have called for the creation of a single gains that U.S. innovation and research and develop- agency to oversee telecommunications policy and

19Harold E. Feflows, testimony at hearings before a Subcommittee of the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign commerce, on Allocation of Radio Spectrum Between Federal Government Users and Non-Federal Government Users, 86th Cong., 1st sess., June 8 and 9, 1959, p. 36. mone of~e s~onger ~emes tit apW~ed in OTA’S workshop on WARC-92 was the tid~~cy of data on government (~d commemi~) -~ use. Many of the participants, both government and private sector, recognized easy and timely access to such information as a prerequisite to better spectrum management overall. For a detailed discussion of the problems of access to government spectrum information and proposals for opening up the government process, see NTIA, U.S. Spectrum Management Policy, op. cit., footnote 13. The report makes many recommen&tions for improving access to information and statistics on government use of the spectrum. NT’IAhas already begun to implement many of theproposedchanges, and expects to begin others in the next several years. Chapter 5-Implications of WARC-92 for U.S. Radiocommunication Policymaking ● 105 development in this country. 21 Some industry partic- ideas. Instituting formal voting arrangement among ipants in the WARC-92 process have called for a private sector participants might produce decisions similar agency or office that would coordinate more quickly, but the process of attracting and international spectrum policy, including WARC brokering votes could make the outcome highly preparations. political. Improving existing coordination proce- Improving the WARC preparations process will dures seems most realistic in the present and short entail serious tradeoffs. Centralizing authority could term, but such incremental changes may have make the process more efficient, but could also limited effects. More serious study of such problems jeopardize the free exchange and representation of and options is needed.

zlmzA Tejecom 2000, op. cit., footnote 7, ch. 9; @her, Op. Cit., fOOtIIOte 8.

297-945 0 - 91 - 5 QL:3 Appendix A Acronyms and Glossary of Terms

Ad Hoc 206: A subcommittee of the IRAC that was dations on the technical standards for radiocommuni- established to coordinate Federal agencies’ prepara- cation. tions for WARC-92. CCITT: International Telegraph and Telephone Con- Allocation: The designation of a band of frequencies to sultative Committee. An organ of the ITU that studies a specific radio service or services. Allocations are and makes recommendations on the technical and made internationally at World Administrative Radio operational standards for international wireline com- Conferences and are incorporated into the international munications. CCITT also addresses international tariff Table of Frequency Allocations. International alloca- issues. tions are usually, but not always, incorporated into CDMA: Code division multiple access. CDMA is a domestic frequency tables. recently developed radiocommunication format that Analog: In analog radio communication, information is uses digital technology and spread spectrum transmis- transmitted by modulating a continuously varying sion to send information. Each radio signal is assigned electronic signal, such as a radio carrier wave. Voice its own unique code and is then spread over a range of and video messages originate in analog form since frequencies for transmission. At the receiving end the sound and light are wave like functions. In order to send receiver can reconstruct the original signal by follow- these analog signals over digital media, such as fiber ing the code. optics or digital radio, they must be converted into a CEPT: Conference of European Postal and Telecom- digital format. See digital, and modulation. munications Administrations. Established in 1959, APC: Aeronautical public correspondence. APC refers to CEPT consists of 31 European telecommunications radiocommunication services that allow airline pas- administrations. It acts to coordinate and reconcile sengers to place telephone calls while in flight. Also regional telecommunications policy. known as air-to-ground (ATG) communication. CIP: Bureau of International Communications and Infor- Assignment: The granting by a government of the right mation Policy. Bureau of the State Department that to use a specific frequency (or group of frequencies) to represents the United States in international telecom- a specific user or station. Each television station, for munications negotiations and conferences. example, is granted a small group of frequencies that CITEL: The Inter-American Telecommunications Con- correspond to a specific channel number. ference. A specialized conference of the Organization Bandwidth: The total range of frequencies required to of American States (OAS) that deals with both radio transmit a radio signal without undue distortion is its and wireline communications. CITEL is a permanent, bandwidth. It is measured in hertz. The bandwidth of ongoing series of conferences that has 35 members a radio signal is determined by the amount of from North and South America and the Caribbean. information in the signal being sent. More complex C-band: C-band is the designation for satellite commu- signals contain more information, and hence require nications that use 6 GHz uplinks and 4 GHz wider bandwidths. An AM radio signal, for example downlinks. These frequencies are also extensively takes 10 kHz, while an FM signal requires 200 kHz, used for terrestrial microwave communication. and a television signal takes up 6 MHz. The bandwidth CT2: Cordless telephone 2. Personal communications required by a television channel is 600 times greater system that allows users to make calls, but not receive than that of an AM radio channel. them. CT2 systems have been demonstrated in Europe, BSS: Broadcasting-Satellite Service. An ITU-designated but only one system has been demonstrated in the service that refers to the delivery of information or United States. programming from satellites directly to user receivers. DAB: Digital audio broadcasting. DAB refers to the Subsets of BSS include new systems planned to deliver transmission of audio broadcasts in digital form as high-definition television services (BSS-HDTV) and opposed to today’s (AM or FM) analog form. DAB audio services (BSS-Sound). promises compact disc quality sound over the air. Carrier: A radio wave that is used to communicate Many formats are being developed, and transmission information. Information to be transmitted is im- is possible via terrestrial transmitters, satellites, or pressed onto the carrier, which then carries the signal hybrid systems. to its destination. At the receiver the carrier is filtered DBS: Direct broadcast satellite. Medium- to high-power out from the radio signal to recover the original satellites that are designed to transmit programming information. See modulation. directly to small satellite receive dishes at users’ CCIR: International Radio Consultative Committee. An homes. No DBS systems are operating in the United organ of the ITU that studies and makes recommend- States, although several systems are planned. –107– 108 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Digital: In digital communication, the continuously 1987. A future conference on planning the HF bands varying signals of images and voice are converted to has been proposed for 1995. discrete numbers represented in binary form by O’s and HLC: High Level Committee. The HLC was established 1‘s. These binary digits, or bits, can then be sent as a by the Administrative Council of the ITU, in response series of ‘on’ ‘/’‘off pulses or can be modulated onto to instructions from the Nice Plenipotentiary, in a carrier wave by varying the phase, frequency, or November 1989 in order to review the structure and amplitude according to whether the signal is a 1 or a O. various functions of the ITU. The study included Downlink: In satellite communications, the signal that structure, organization, finance, staff, and coordina- travels from the satellite down to the receivers on tion. The group finished its work in June 1991. Earth. The direction the downlink signal travels is also IAC: Industry Advisory Committee. The FCC setup the called space-to Earth. See uplink. IAC to coordinate and focus private sector input for the FCC: Federal Communications Commission. An inde- WARC-92 preparation process. It consisted of 35 pendent Federal agency that regulates private and all representatives from the private sector and was co- non-Federal government use of the radio frequency chaired by FCC Commissioner Sherrie Marshall. It spectrum. The FCC is also responsible for regulating issued its final report in April 1991. most other forms of communication, including broad- IFRB: International Frequency Registration Board. The cast and cable television, and some telephone services. organ of the ITU responsible for maintaining the list of FMAC: Frequency Management Advisory Committee. A radio frequencies used worldwide. It also conducts committee within IRAC, composed of representatives technical and planning studies for the ITU. from the private sector, that advised IRAC on matters IRAC: Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee. of spectrum policy. The FMAC was recently rechar- Established in 1922 and now located in the Department tered as the Spectrum Planning Advisory Committee of Commerce, the IRAC consists of approximately 20 and will include government representation and a to 25 representatives from the various Federal Gov- broader mandate. ernment agencies involved in or using radio frequen- FPLMTS: Future public land mobile telecommunication cies. The IRAC advises NTIA on matters relating to systems. FPLMTS is the ITU designation for terrestrial Federal Government use of the radio frequency public mobile services, including PCS. spectrum. Frequency: The number of complete cycles a radio wave ITU: International Telecommunication Union. The ITU completes in 1 second. Frequency is measured in hertz is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsi- (1 cycle per second equals 1 hertz). Radio frequencies ble for international regulation of telecommunications are described as multiples of hertz: services of all kinds, including telegraph, telephone, kHz, kilohertz: thousand cycles per second; and radio. MHz, megahertz: million cycles per second; Ka-band: Ka-band is the designation for frequencies in GHz, gigahertz: billion cycles per second. the 30/20-GHz range that will be used for future generations of communications satellites. Groundwave: Groundwaves are characteristic of very low frequency radio waves that follow the curve of the Ku-band: Ku-band colloquially refers to frequencies in the 14/12-GHz bands that are used for satellite Earth as they travel. see also skywave. communications. GSM: Global System for Mobile communications, for- LEOS: Low-Earth orbiting satellite. LEO satellites are merly, Groupe Special Mobile. A digital mobile smaller and cheaper to design, build, and launch than communications standard that has been proposed to traditional geosynchronous satellites. Networks of provide next generation cellular/mobile services all these small satellites are being planned that will over Europe. provide data and voice services to portable receivers all HDTV: High-definition television. Refers to future over the world. generations of television that will have higher picture Modulation: The process of encoding information onto resolution, a wider aspect ratio, and digital quality a radio wave by varying one of its basic characteristics sound. —amplitude, frequency, or phase-in relation to an Hertz (Hz): Cycles per second. See frequency. input signal such as speech, music, or television. The HF: High frequency. Refers to radio frequencies in the input signal, which contains the information to be range 3-30 MHz. These frequencies are used by transmitted, is called the modulating or baseband international broadcasting services including Voice of signal. The radio wave that carries the information is America, religious broadcasters, and fixed services called the carrier wave. The radio wave that results such as the point-to-point communication systems from the combination of these two waves is called a used by developing countries. modulated carrier. Two of the most common types of HFBC: High Frequency Broadcasting Conference. Spe- modulation are amplitude modulation (AM) and fre- cialized world radio conferences were held in 1984 and quency modulation (FM). Appendix A-Acronyms and Glossary of Terms ● 109

MSS: Mobile Satellite Service. MSS is an ITU- RDSS: Radiodetermination-Satellite Service. RDSS is an designated service in which satellites are used to ITU-designated service in which satellites provide deliver communications services (voice or data usu- location information to ships, planes, vehicles, and ally, one- or two-way) to mobile users such as cars, even individuals such as hikers. trucks, boats, and planes. It is a generic term that Refraction: The bending a radio wave experiences as it encompasses several types of mobile services deliv- travels through the atmosphere. As frequency in- ered by satellite, including Maritime MSS (MMSS), creases, the amount of bending or refraction decreases. Aeronautical MSS (AMSS), and Land MSS (LMSS). RPOA: Recognized private operating agency. A category NTIA: National Telecommunications and Information for participation in CCIR activities. RPOAs are private Administration. The agency in the Department of telecommunication service providers such as AT&T Commerce that oversees all Federal Government use and COMSAT. of the radio frequency spectrum. NTIA also serves as Sideband: Sideband frequencies are generated as part of the President’s adviser on all telecommunication the modulation process. They consist of newly created matters. frequencies both above (upper sidebands) and below OIA: Office of International Affairs. The office in NTIA (lower sidebands) the carrier wave frequency. While responsible for international aspects of telecommuni- AM produces a set number of sideband frequencies, cations, including preparation and participation in FM produces a theoretically infinite number of side- international communications negotiations and con- bands. ferences. SI0: Scientific and industrial organizations. A specific OIC: Office of International Communications. Estab- category for participation in CCIR activities. SI0s are lished by the FCC in January 1990 to coordinate and designers or manufacturers of telecommunication serve as the focal point for international activities in the equipment. FCC. Skywave: Skywaves are characteristic of higher fre- OSM: Office of Spectrum Management. The office of quency radio waves that travel straight (as opposed to NTIA responsible for day-to-day management of groundwaves) and can be bounced off the atmosphere Federal Government spectrum use. Also provides in a process called reflection. This allows radio signals technical assistance to OIA in preparation for interna- to travel many miles and makes long-distance radio- tional negotiations and conferences. communication possible. PCN/PCS: Personal communication network/service. SMR: Specialized Mobile Radio. SMR is a radio service Although the terms are not yet clear, PCS seems to be created by the FCC to allow providers to offer mobile emerging as an umbrella term that refers to any of the radio services, such as dispatch and two-way voice many services (voice and data) designed to serve communications, to users on a private (as opposed to individuals wherever they are (walking, driving, fly- public cellular service) basis. ing). PCN generally refers to specific networks (in Spectrum: The spectrum of an individual radio signal is specific locations) that providers want to set up to the range of frequencies it contains. The width of the provide communication services. Alternatively, the spectrum is also called the bandwidth of the signal. PCN has been used to describe the evolution of the More broadly, the radio frequency spectrum consists current (wire-based) public telephone network into a of all the radio frequencies that are used for radio comprehensive network integrating wire-based and communications. PCS services. SSB: Single sideband. A method of transmitting radio Period: The length of time it takes a radio wave to signals in which only one sideband is transmitted and, complete one full cycle. The inverse of the period is a often, the carrier is transmitted at reduced power. See radio wave’s frequency. sideband. Phase: A measure of the shift in position of a radio wave Uplink: In satellite communications, the signal that in relation to time. Phase is measured in degrees. travels from an Earth transmitting station up to the PTC: Permanent Technical Committee. Three PTCs satellite. The direction the uplink signal travels is also provide technical support to ClTEL. PTC-I deals with known as Earth-to-space. See downlink. public (wireline) telecommunications systems, PTC-11 VGE: Voluntary Group of Experts. The VGE was addresses broadcasting issues, and PTC-III deals with established by the ITU Administrative Council in 1990 all other areas of radiocommunication. to examine ways to simplify the international Radio PTT: Post, telegraph, and telephone administration. PTTs Regulations. The first meeting of the VGE was held in are the government agencies that have been the sole January 1991. Representatives from 22 Administra- providers of telecommunication services in many tions participated and observers from 4 international foreign countries for years. Today, their power and organization also attended. monopolies are declining in the face of liberalization WARC: World Administrative Radio Conference. WARCs and privatization. are the primary forum for distributing the frequencies 110 . WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

of the spectrum to the various radiocommunication international treaty status and must be signed by services. They can address all radio services (a general member governments. The allocations decided on at a WARC) or only specific portions of the spectrum WARC usually are incorporated into domestic tables (specialized WARC). The Final Acts of a WARC have of allocations.

SOURCES: Harry Mileaf (cd.), Electronics One, revised 2d ed. (Rochelle Park, NJ: Hayden Book Company, Inc., 1976); U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment The Big Picture: HDTV & High-Resolution Systems, OTA-BP-CIT-64 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 1990); William Stallings, Data and Computer Communications (New York NY: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1985). Appendix B Agenda for the 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference

Document 7042E (CA45-136) 20 June 1990 Original: English

Resolution (approved at the fourth Plenary Meeting)l

R No. 995 WORLD ADMINISTRATIVE RADIO CONFERENCE FOR DEALING WITH FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS IN CERTAIN PARTS OF THE SPECTRUM (WARC-92)

The Administrative Council,

considering , inter alia

a) that Resolution No. PL-B/1 of the Plenipotentiary Conference, Nice, 1989, scheduled a World Administrative Radio Conference for Dealing with Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectrum (WARC-92) to be convened in Spain in the first quarter of 1992 for a period of four weeks and two days;

b) that in accordance with Resolution No. PL-B/1 of the Plenipotentiary Conference, Nice, 1989, the agenda of the WARC-92 shall take into account the Resolutions and Recommendations of WARC HFBC-87, WARC MOB-87 and WARC ORB-88 relating to frequency allocations;

c) that, pursuant to Resolution No. PL-B/1, the WARC-92 may in addition consider defining certain new space services and consider allocations to these services in frequency bands above 20 GHz;

d) that the Plenipotentiary Conference, Nice, 1989, having recognized that the Plan for the aeronautical mobile (OR) service, contained in Appendix 26 of the Radio Regulations requires appropriate adjustments, adopted Resolution No. PL-B/2;

e) that in accordance with Resolution No. PLEN/8 of the Plenipotentiary Conference, Nice, 2989, the WARC-92 should consider the provisions of Articles 55(rev.) and 56(rev.) of the Radio Regulations, as amended by WARC MOB-87.

considering further that the radio spectrum to be considered by this Conference is already allocated to certain radio services, and the requirements of these services must be taken into account.

welcoming the invitation of the Administration of Spain to the ITU to hold WARC-92 in that country.

resolves

1 Subject to approval being received from a majority of the Members concerned. –111– 112 . WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

1. that the World Administrative Radio Conference for Dealing with Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectrum (WARC-92) be convened in Spain from 3 February 1992 for a period of four weeks and two days;

2. the agenda for WARC shall be as follows:

on the basis of proposals by administrations and taking account of reports from the IFRB and the CCIR:

2.1 to consider definitions for certain new space applications and to review the relevant provisions of Article 1;

2.2 to review the provisions of Article 8, taking account of considering further above, with a view to:

2.2.1 the consideration of possible allocations of frequency bands above 20 GHz to the new space service applications;

2.2.2 the possible extension of the frequency spectrum allocated exclusively to HF broadcasting, as indicated in Recommendation No. 511 (HFBC-87);

2.2.3 the consideration of the allocation of frequency bands to the broadcasting-satellite service and the associated feeder links:

a) for the broadcasting-satellite service (sound) in the range 500-3000 MHz, as indicated in Resolution 520( Orb-88), including the accommodation of complementary terrestrial sound broadcasting uses within this allocation;

b) for the development in the approximate range 1 -3 GHz of a would-wide system of public correspondence with aircraft, as indicated in Recommendation No. 408( Mob-87), or designate for this use a band already allocated to the mobile service in the same range;

c) for the development of the international use of the mobile service for future public land mobile telecommunication systems, as indicated in Recommendation No. 205( Mob-87), or designate for this use a band already allocated to the mobile service;

d) consider possible allocations of up to 5 MHz of a frequency band below 1 GHz to low-orbit satellites on the basis of appropriate sharing criteria;

2.2.5 the consideration of the allocation of the frequency band 14.5 -14.8 GHz to the fixed- satellite service (Earth-to-space) with due protection of assignments appearing in Appendix 30A of the Radio Regulations, and to take account of services to which these frequency bands are currently allocated;

2 Communications with manned space vehicles may be defined as a new space application which may require the indication of the space service and the frequency bands that this service may use for this purpose. Appendix B-Agenda for the 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference ● 113

2.2.6 the examination of the frequency bands 2.025-2110 MHz and 2200-1 290 MHz for the space operations and space (research services, as indicated in Recommendation 716(Orb-88);

2.2.7 the consideration of footnotes relating to the radiodetermination-satellite service in the frequency range 1.6-25 GHz with the view to harmonizing them and allowing administrations to revise the status of their respective allocations to this service and to review the sharing criteria as indicated in Resolution No. 708( Mob-87);

2.2.8 the examination of the footnotes RR 635 and RR 797B;

2.3 to consider the provisions of Articles 55( Rev.) and 56( Rev.) of the Radio Regulations which concern the mandatory carriage on board ships of personnel equipment, as indicated in Resolution No. PLEN/83;

2.4 to consider minimum modifications to Article 12 of the Radio Regulations as a result of actions taken with regard to Appendix 26, as indicated in Resolution No. PL-B/24;

2.5 to consider appropriate action, in light of the decision of the Conference relating to definitions in accordance with Resolution No. PL/105;

2.6 to make such consequential changes and amendments in the Radio Regulations as may be necessitated by the decisions of the Conference;

2.7 to develop new Recommendations and Resolutions in relation to the agenda of the Conference including Meteorological aids service in frequency bands below 1000 MHz and present allocations to space services above 20 GHz which were not placed on this agenda;

2.8 to consider problems associated with the use of the frequency bands in the range 401 -403 MHz by the meteorological satellite and earth exploration satellite services with the view to recommend their consideration by the next competent administrative radio conference;

2.9 to consider, revise as necessary, and take other appropriate action upon the relevant Recommendations and Resolutions;

2.9.1 to safeguard the interests of services that may be affected by changes in the Table of frequency allocations by adopting appropriate sharing criteria when required and to adopt appropriate schedule for the entering into force of the decisions adopted by the Conference;

2.9.2 to review Resolution No. 703 in the light of the procedure adopted by the XVllth CCIR Plenary Assembly (Resolution PLEN/75) for the approval of Recommendations in the interval between Plenary Assemblies;

3 Plenipotentiary Conference, Nice, 1989.

4 Plenipotentiary Conference, Nice, 1989.

5 Plenipotentiary Conference, Nice, 1989. 114 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

2.10 to identify the financial implications of the decisions of the Conference, taking into account the Union’s budgetary provisions, and as necessary to submit a statement thereon to the Administrative Council in accordance with Article 80 of the International Telecommunication Convention and Resolution No. 48 of the Plenipotentiary Conference, Nairobi, 1982,

invites

1. the CCIR to prepare the technical and operational bases for the Conference and to submit to administrations and a report setting out the results of its work at least eight months prior to the opening of the Conference.

2. the IFRB to provide technical assistance for the preparation and organization of the Conference and to submit to all administrations a report on results with respect to the appropriate above agenda items at least ten months prior to the opening of the Conference.

instructs the Secretary-General

1. to make all the arrangements necessary for holding the Conference;

2. to communicate this Resolution to ICAO, IMO, WMO and to other concerned international organizations. Appendix C Applications for New Services

The following is a list of companies that have applied to the Federal Communications Commission for licenses (both operational and experimental) in four new services: Broadcasting-Satellite Service-Sound (BSS-Sound); direct broadcasting satellites (DBS); low-Earth orbiting satellites (LEOS); and personal communication networks (PCN). Broadcasting-Satellite Service-Sound

Company Band Status Comments Afrispace (WorldSpace) 1470-1530 MHz, 29.9- Experimental— Experimental license to broadcast direct radio 30.0 GHz granted services all over Africa and the Middle East. Operational— Trying to prove that direct, high-quality pending radio broadcasts will work over large regions. Plans to lease channels to governments and will donate capacity to the World Health Organization.* Radio-Satellite Corp. 1545-1559 MHz, 1646.5- Pending Applications to use American Mobile Satellite 1660.5 MHz Corp. satellites for digital audio broadcasting service. Satellite CD Radio 1470-1530 MHz Pending Two satellites and hundreds of terrestrial transmitters, which would broadcast up to 100 compact disc-quality radio program channels nationwide. Strother Communications 225-2700 MHz Pending No specific band was requested, just the allocation of 48 MHz in the range listed.

Direct Broadcast Satellite2

Company Band3 Status4 Comments Advanced Communications 12.2-12.7 GHz Granted Will provide entertainment programming, as well as two full-time transponders, cost free, to the Foundation for Educational Advancement Today. Continental Satellite Corp. 12.2-12.7 GHz Granted Plans to operate largely or exclusively on a common carrier basis. Direct Broadcast Satellite Corp. 12.2-12.7 GHz Granted No programming information available. Directsat Corp. 12.2-12.7 GHz Granted Plans to lease transponders to other providers Dominion Video Satellite, Inc. 12.2-12.7 GHz Granted Plans to focus on educational programming. Echostar Satellite Corp. 12.2-12.7 GHz Granted Will provide entertainment (pay-per-view movies, comedy, and children’s programming) plus religious programming. Hughes Communication 12.2-12.7 GHz Granted Plans to operate as a common carrier. Tempo Satellite, Inc. 12.2-12.7 GHz Pending5 Expected to be the DBS platform to which the K Prime Partner venture would migrate. United States Satellite 12.2-12.7 GHz Granted Plans to use 3 satellites to deliver 11 channels Broadcasting Co. of diversified entertainment programming nationwide. It is the highest powered DBS service yet proposed.

IMary Lu Camevale, “FCC Gives License to WorldSpace for Radio Satellite,” Wall Street Journul, June 24, 1991, p. B1. 2~ fiofia ~ DBs ~d~dth~ ~d ~~ ~ ~ Cc~~&d DBs Field AW~tS ~~~kel Alloc~~ @ Fee,” ~h DBS Report, June 1990, pp. 1,7-8, %s rauge was preset as the band for DBS setices by &e FCC. t~ DBs applicati~ m for operational system. % FCC k holding capacity in reserve until a character qualificatim issue k IWOlved. –115– 116 . WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Low-Earth Orbiting Satellite6 Company Band Status Comments Constellation 1610- 1625.5 MHz Pending for both Aries system of 48 satellites would include Communications, Inc. (uplink), operational and position determination/reporting, two-way and 2483.5-2500 MHz experimental telephony, dispatch voice, facsimile, and (downlink) licenses data collection, distribution, and control services. Ellipsat 1610- 1626.5 MHZ Pending Ellipso unit will connect to a cellular phone- (uplink), and 2483.5- converting 800-MHz cellular to the 2.5/l.6- 2500 MHz (downlink) GHz Radiodetermination-Satellite Service (RDSS) bands. Leosat 148-149 MHz (uplink) and Pending Planning to provide communications for an 137-138 MHz intelligent vehicle highway system (IVHS). (downlink) Loral Cellular Systems Corp. 1610-1626.5 MHz, 2483.5- Pending The Globalstar system will use 24 satellites for 2500 MHz U.S. coverage (48 for global coverage) and will provide RDSS, voice and data communications using Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) spread spectrum. They have three alternative spectrum proposals, with feeder links in the C-band. Loral is jointly owned by Loral Aerospace and Qualcomm. Motorola, Inc. 1610- 1626.5 MHz7 Pending The Iridium system would use 77 satellites to provide mobile and portable phone service to any location on Earth. Planned startup in 1997. Orbital Communications 137-38 MHz and 148- Experimental— Requesting a 370-kHz band in the frost range Corp. 149.9 MHz granted (downlink) and a 478-kHz band in the Operational— second (uplink). The Orbcomm system pending would be used for low-cost, low-speed data transmissions. Starsys, Inc. 137-38 MHz and 148- Pending The Starnet system will use the same 149.9 MHz bandwidths as Orbcomm, providing data services. TRW, Inc. 29.5 -30.0 GHz 19.7 -20.2 Pending The 12-satellite Odyssey system (operating at GHz 1610-1625.5 MHz medium earth orbits) plans to provide voice, 2483.5-2500 MHz radiolocation, messaging, and data services using CDMA spread spectrum modulation. Volunteers in Technical 137-138 MHZz 148-149.9 Operational— VITA is a nonprofit organization that plans to Assistance, Inc. (VITA) MHz, 400.15-401 MHz pending offer data services, including file transfer. Experimental— The system would offer services in health, granted education, and technical assistance primarily for developing countries. Experimental system has been operating since 1990, and system is planned to be operational in 1993-94.

GM bandwidth information for LEO satellites is from Pe&ral Co mmun.ications Commissio~ “An Inquiry Relating to Preparation for the International Telecommunication Union World Administrative Radio Confenmce for Dealing With l%equ~y Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectruq” Gen Docket No. 89-554, SuppZementuZNotice ofInguiry, 6 FCC Rcd 1914 (1991); and “TRW, bm@ualcomm Venture . . .“ Telecommunications Reports, vol. 57, No. 24, June 17, 1991, pp. 28-30. T~&w J~s, ‘SFIW of ~w ~ a~t Fhgs Hood the FCC,” Washington Technology, VO1. 6, No. 6, J- 13, 1991, p. 9. Appendix C-Applications for New Services ● 117

Personal Communication Services

Company Band Status 9 Comments Adelphia Cable 902-928, 1850-1990, Pending Personal communication services (PCS) test by Communications 2400-2483.5 MHz, cable company using fiber optic in 12.7 -13.5 GHz Pittsburgh, Miami, Buffalo, and Tequesta, FL. Advanced Cordless 930.5 MHz (paging), Granted Using CT2 technology in New York City. Technologies 902-928, and 940-941 Second application (864-868 MHz) granted MHz. Also 864-868.1 for use in Monticello, NY. MHz Advanced Mobilecom 901-902,930-931, Granted Two simultaneous applications granted: one in Technologies, Inc. 940-941 MHz (902- Boston and one in Miami-Ft. Lauderdale. 928: Part 15 Spread spectrum device) Advanced Wireless 849-851,864-868, Pending Tests of CT2 and PCN systems, testing possible Communications, Inc. 894-896,901-902, sharing with air-to-ground in San Francisco 930-931,940-941, and Cincinnati. 1850-1990 MHz American Personal 901-902,930-931, Granted Partnership with the Washington Post to Communications, Inc. 940-941 MHz. provide service in and around Washington, DC. Also 1850-1990 MHz Granted A second application has been granted to test services in Washington, DC and Baltimore, MD. American Telezone 2400-2483.5 MHz Granted For use in eastern Texas, using Part 15 telepoint service. Application also granted for southern California. Ameritech Direct 1850-1990 MHz Granted Spread spectrum in Chicago. Communications, Inc. Associated PCN Corp. 1850-1990 MHz Granted For use in Los Angeles, using spread spectrum. Pending application for the same technology and frequency for New York, Chicago, and Washington, DC. Atlantic Cellular Co., L.P. 902-928,931-932, Pending PCN equipment test in Manchester, NH, 941-948, 1850-1990MHz Providence, RI, and Boston. A second application is pending for a PCS test in San Francisco and San Jose. AT&T 1850-1990 MHz Granted Research of different types of PCN equipment in Chester, NJ. AT&T 5.9-6.4 GHz Pending Systems would use existing microwave relay towers to trial PCN hardware and software in Boston, Atlanta, and Los Angeles. Barden Communications, 902-928, 1850-1990, Pending PCS test by cable company using fiberoptic in Inc. 2400-2483.5,5725- Detroit. 5850 MHz, 12.7 -13.5 GHz Bell Atlantic Mobile 902-928,1850-1990, Pending Development of PCS equipment for Pittsburgh, Systems, Inc. 2400-2483.5 MHz Philadelphia, Bedminister, NJ, and Washington, DC. BellSouth Enterprises, Inc. 866-869,902-928, Granted Two separate applications granted. First in 1850-1990 MHz Also Atlanta, second in Athens, GA. CT2 in 846.5-849 MHz Athens, using cellular frequencies.

SM ~omtion on PCS was provided h Federal CO mnnmictions Commission “PCS Expe xirnmtal Applications by Filed Date,” May 30, 1991, unpublished docuxmnt. 118 . WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Personal Communication Service8

Company Band Status 9 Comments — Bell South Services, Inc. 864-869,902-928, 1850- Granted Tests of wireless Access Business Systems in 1990 MHz Birmingham, AL and Atlanta. BNR, Inc. (Subsidiary of 864-868,902-928,930- Pending CT2 and PCN in Richardson, TX, Mountain Northern Telecom) 960, 1850-1990,2400- View, CA, and ResearchTriangle Park, NC. 2483.5, 5725 -5850 MHz Also have an application pending for a 1-day demo of equipment (nationwide) on same frequencies. Cable TV of East Providence, 902-928,1850-1990,2400- Pending Use of cable to tie cells together in East Inc. 2483.5, 5725 -5850 MHz Providence, RI. Cable USA, Inc. 866-868, 1850-1990 MHz Granted CT2 and PCN in Omaha, Kearney, Grand Island, and Hastings, NE. Cablevision 902-928,2400-2483S,W25- Granted PCN interfacing with existing cable system in 5850 MHz and 12.7- Cleveland, New York City, Chicago, and 13.5 GHz Boston. CASCO Cable Television, Inc. 902-928,1850-1990,2400- Pending Cable used to tie cells together in Brunswick, 2483.5,5725-5850 MHz ME. Cellular 21, Inc. 866-868 MHz and 940-941 Granted Two applications have been granted. The first MHz (866-868 MHz) was for a test of British equipment in Gillet, PA and Elmira-Ithaca, NY. The second (940-941 MHz) was for a 50-mile radius around the Empire State Building, with only one base station. Cellular General, Inc. 866-868 MHz Granted A test of British equipment in Deerfield, FL. Cellular Services, Inc. 901-902,930-931,940- Pending PCS test in Los Angeles. 941, 1850-1990 MHz Cencom Cable Associates, Inc. 1850-2120 MHz, 12.7- Pending Development of PCS equipment by cable 13.5 GHz company using fiber optic in Riverside, CA, Alhambra, CA, Olivette, MO, and Fultondale, AL. Cincinnati Bell Telephone Co. 864-868, 1850-1990 MHz Pending CT2 and PCN test in Cincinnati. Citizens Utilities Company of 902-928, 1850-1990 MHz Pending Development to replace local loop in Elk CA Grove, CA. COMCAST Corp. “ 902-928,1850-1990,2400- Pending Cable will be used to tie cells together in 2483.5 MHz and 12.7- Indianapolis, Baltimore, Philadelphia, West 13.5 GHz Palm Beach, and Los Angeles. Continental Cablevision of 1850-1990 MHz and 12.7- Granted Uses cable to tie cells together in Stockton, CA. California, Inc. 13.5 GHz Continental Cablevision of 1850-1990 MHz and 12.7- Granted Uses cable to tie cells together in Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Inc. 13.5 GHz MS. Continental Cablevision of 1850-1990 MHz and 12.7- Granted Uses cable to tie cells together in Boston. Massachusetts, Inc. 13.5 GHz Cox Enterprises, Inc. 902-928,2400-2483.5,5725- Granted For use in San Diego and New York City. 5850, and 1850-1990 MHz Cylink Corp. 902-928,2400-2483.5,5725- Pending Nationwide demo of Part 15 devices, 5850 MHz Dial Page, L.P. 866.1 -868.1 MHz Pending Test of foreign equipment in High Point, NC.

SM fiomtion on PCS was provided in Federal CO- cations Commission “PCS Expe rixwntal Applications by Filed Date,” May 30, 1991, unpublished docunxmt. 9~ applic~~ are for experimmtal systems. Appendix C-Applications for New Services ● 119

Personal Communication Service8

Company Band Status9 Comments Digital Spread Spectrum 902-928,2400-2483.5,5725- Granted PCN and Part 15 devices in San Jose and San Technologies, Inc. 5850, and 1850-1990 Francisco. MHz Easyphone, Inc. 864-866, and930-960 MHz Granted CT2 in San Francisco and Los Angeles. Ericsson Paging Systems, Inc. 940-952 MHz Granted A wireless PBX system, in building, for use in Washington, DC, and Anaheim, CA. General Instrument Corp. 864-868,902-928, 1850- Pending Development of PCS equipment in Hatboro, 1990,2400-2483.5 MHz PA. Graphic Scanning Corp. 1910-1920 MHz Granted Application granted for Detroit, White Plains, New York City, and Chicago. GTE Mobile 849-851, and 894-896 MHz Pending Test will cover the continental U.S. near Communications Airfone stations. Will use CT2 to test the potential use of air-to-ground frequencies for CT2 use. Hewlett Packard Co. 864-868 MHz Pending Test of foreign equipment at own office in Camel, IN. Intermedia Communications of 1850-1990 MHz Pending Development of PCS by cable company in Florida, Inc. Tampa and Orlando. LDH International, Inc. 901-902,902-928,930- Granted For Greenville, NC, Denver CO and Atlanta. 931,940-941,2400- 2483.5,5725-5850 MHz and27.5-21L14and28.5- 29.14 GHz Linkatel Communications, 1850-1990 MHz Pending PCN in San Diego, Palm Springs, Phoenix, and Inc. Las Vegas. LiTel Telecommunications 2400-2483.5,5725-5850MHZ Granted 2400-MHz band for communication between Corp. users and base station, 5700-MHz band used to tie base stations together. Both bands Part 15 Spread spectrum device. For use in Columbus, OH. LiTel Telecommunications 864-868,902-928,930- Pending PCS test in Cleveland and Cincinnati. Corp. 960, 1850-1990,2400- Local Area Telecommunications, Inc. X83.5, 5725-5850 MHz 1850-1990 MHz Pending PCN in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Matrix Personal 901-902,930-931, and 940- Granted For use in Chicago. Communications, Inc. 941 MHz McCaw Cellular 864.1 -868.1 MHz Granted For use in Orlando, Seattle, and West Palm Communications, Inc. Beach. CT2 service and equipment would be converted to cellular frequencies later. Media General Cable of 902-928,1850-1990,2400- Pending Development of PCS equipment by cable Fairfax County, Inc. 2483.5,5725-5850MHz company in Fairfax, VA. Micronet, Inc. 864-868 MHz Pending Test of foreign equipment in Lancaster, Jamison, and Philadelphia, PA, and Austin, Dallas, and Houston, Texas. Test of equipment within office in Duluth, GA. Also has a pending application for 862-864 MHz in various locations nationwide.

em info~tion on PCS was @&d in kkd C~CdCHIS ~ ‘ si~ “PCS Expe rimental Applications by Filed Date,” May 30, 1991, unpublished document. 9All ~lic&ons are for experimenhl systems. 120 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Personal Communication Service8

Company Band Status 9 Comments

Motorola, Inc. 1850-1990 MHz Granted For use in Chicago and Atlanta, using spread spectrum. Motorola also has an application pending in the 864-868 MHz band (test of PCS at factory in Chicago). MTEL PCN, Inc. 1850-1990 MHz Granted For use in Dallas-Ft. Worth area. Novatel Communications, Inc. 940-952 MHz Pending NYNEX Science& 1850-1990 MHz Granted For use in Boston, New York City, and White Technology Plains, NY. Omni-Point Data Co., Inc. 902-928,2400-2483.5, and Granted CT2 service covering continental United 5725-5850 MHz States. Pacific Telesis Group 614-806,824-849,869- Granted Use in San Francisco, Chicago, Dallas, New 894,849-851,894-896, York City, and Los Angeles. 901-902,930-931,940- 941,902-928, 1850- 1990,2110-2130,2160- 2180,2400-2483.5 MHz PCN America, Inc. 1850-1990 MHz Granted A test of a spread spectrum digital system in (Millicom) Houston and Orlando. PCS Network, Inc. 901-902,940-942 MHz Granted For use in Boston, Philadelphia, and New York City. Personal Communications 1850-1990 MHz Granted For New York City and Newark, using spread Network Services of New spectrum. York, Inc. Personal Communications 940-952 MHz Pending Wireless PBX in New York City. Network Services of New York Pertel, Inc. 902-928,2100-2483 .5,5735- Granted Used in Philadelphia, Cleveland, and 5850,1850-1990 MHz, Pittsburgh. Cable is used to tie cells and 12.7 -13.5 GHz together. Prime II Management, Inc. 902-928,941-948, 1270- Pending Development of PCS equipment by cable 1350,1850-1990,2400- company in Anchorage, Atlanta, Chicago, 2483.5,5725 -5850 MHz Las Vegas, and Houston. SCS Mobilecom, Inc. 1850-1990 MHz Pending Spread spectrum in Long Island, NY. Satcom, Inc. 866-868, 1850-1990 MHz Granted Testing in rural areas around Spokane, WA, Missoula, MT, and Billings, MT. Tele-Financing Corp., Inc. 1850-1990 MHz Pending PCN in Appleton, WI. Telepoint Personal 940-941 MHz Granted CT2 demonstration system in Atlantic City. Communications, Inc. Tel/Logic Inc. 1850-1990 MHz Pending CDMA spread spectrum, in Pittsburgh and Dallas-Ft. Worth. Time Warner Cable Group 902-928,1850-1990,2400- Granted In New York City, St. Petersburg, Cincinnati, 2483.5,5725-5850 MHz and Columbus, using cable to tie cells and 12.7-13.2, and 17.7- together. 19.7 GHz Timex Communications 864.15-868.05 MHz (902- Granted For use within the Timex Building in Corp. 28 MHz Part 15) Middlebury, CT

8M ~omtion on Pcs was provided in Fe&ral CO~ cations Comrnissioq “PCS Expe rirmntal Applications by Filed Date,” May 30, 1991, unpublished docwmrt 9~ appfic~om are for experimenkd systems. Appendix C-Applications for New Services . 121

Personal Communication Services8

Company Band Status 9 Comments Unicell Corp. 940-948 MHz Granted For use in Boston. United Artists Cable Corp. 866-868,901-928,930- Pending PCN in Denver, Baton Rouge, Westchester, 931,940-941, 1710- NY, Oakland, and Tulsa. 1850,1850-1990,1990- 2110,2110-2200,2200- 2290, 2400-2483.5 MHz USA Mobile Communication, 788-794, 800-806 MHz Granted For use in Indianapolis, Cincinnati, Louisville, Inc. II Toledo, Cleveland, and Columbus. Viacom International, Inc. , 900-901,902-928,930- Pending 931,940-941, 1850- 1990, 2400-2483.5, 5725- 5850 MHz and 12.7- 13.5 GHz

8M ~omtion on PCS was ptided in Fbkid c~cations Commissio~ “PCS Experirmn M Applications by Filed Date,” May 30, 1991, unpublished document. 9All appfic~om - f~ expe~ systems. Appendix D U.S. Proposals for WARC Malaga=Torremolinos, Spain, 1992

INTRODUCTION

I. General Remarks

The 1992 International Telecommunication Union World Administrative Radio Conference provides the opportunity to update the Radio Regulations to facilitate further advances in telecommunications. The United States, in preparing for the 1992 WARC, has been guided by certain principles in line with the purposes of the Union. These are:

a. To promote the implementation of a variety of new operational programs as rapidly as practicable so that all countries may realize the benefits and spectrum savings promised by modern telecommunication technologies;

b. To provide flexibility in the international regulations to ensure that the needs of all countries can be met;

c. To reduce regulatory, technical, and operational barriers so that technologies can rapidly be introduced and used to the benefit of all mankind; and

d. To provide up-to-date regulations that assure greater safety-of-life on land, on the sea, in the air, and in space.

During the last Plenipotentiary cycle (1982-1989), several radio conferences were held that addressed mobile, space, and broadcasting services. These conferences recognized that technology was advancing rapidly and recommended that future conferences address a number of topics in adapting to changing needs.

The Plenipotentiary Conference, Nice, 1989, responded by deciding to hold a conference in 1992, to once again examine and update the Radio Regulations. The agenda adopted by the ITU Administrative Council provides for consideration of a broad range of telecommunication topics. The reports from the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) and the International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB), together with proposals of ITU Members, will constitute the principal input documentation for the work of the conference. We are hopeful that a collaborative effort will enable the ITU Members to update the Radio Regulations to further advance the development and availability. of telecommunications services, economically, on a worldwide basis. -

This document sets forth the views of the United States regarding the needs of the changing telecommunications environment. Study of some of these matters is continuing and there may be some additional United States proposals at a later date.

II. Broadcasting Service at High Frequency

There is a need for additional high frequency (HF) spectrum for broadcasting. To meet that demand we propose an additional 1325 kHz for HF broadcasting above 5900 kHz in ITU Region 2, and an additional 1125 kHz in Regions 1 and 3. Except for the proposal at 18/19 MHz, these new allocations are contiguous to existing broadcasting bands. We also propose that reduced carrier single sideband (SSB) emission be implemented earlier in the existing broadcasting bands and in the new bands, that the fixed and mobile services have access to any new broadcasting allocations, and that a reaccommodation procedure be adopted which would assure protection of displaced existing HF assignments.

–122– Appendix U.S. Proposals for WARC Malaga-Torremolinos, Spain, 1992 . 123

New Allocations for Broadcasting.

We propose the following additional allocations for HF broadcasting:

5900-5950 kHz 13800-13900 kHz 7400-7525 kHz 15600-15700 kHz 9350-9500 kHz 17450-17550 kHz 11550- 11650 kHz 18900- 19300 kHz

Changes Consequential to Aligning Broadcasting Allocations at 7 MHz.

We also propose to shift broadcasting in Regions 1 and 3 from the current 7100-7300 kHz to the band 7200-7400 kHz. For Region 2, we propose to allocate 7200-7300 kHz to broadcasting in place of the current amateur allocation. To compensate for this loss of 100 kHz by the amateur service, we propose to allocate the band 6900-7000 kHz to amateur; this would be a consequential action. These actions result in an exclusive worldwide proposed allocation for the amateur service from 6900-7200 kHz, and for the broadcasting service from 7200-7525 kHz. The present unsuitable regional sharing situation would be resolved with this proposal.

The Use of SSB.

Our proposals require that any new frequency allocations for HF broadcasting be limited to reduced carrier SSB using characteristics as specified in Appendix 45 of the Radio Regulations. Additionally, in order to encourage the early use of reduced carrier SSB, we are proposing the advancement of the date when all broadcasting must be converted to SSB from 2015 to the year 2007. These proposals promote spectrum efficiency and enhance frequency utilization.

Reaccommodation.

The protection of existing radio services through a reaccommodation procedure is an essential part of any new allocation of spectrum to the broadcasting service. We have used Resolution Nos. 8 and 9 from the 1979 WARC as a basis for a procedure to ensure reaccommodation of displaced assignments. This procedure requires that the changeover from the old to the new assignment take place not later than 1 July 2007.

Access bv Non-Broadcasting Services in Broadcasting Allocations.

Technical studies and current operational practice demonstrate that in certain instances, time and geographical sharing amongst different HF radio services is feasible. Therefore, we propose permitting access to new broadcasting allocations by fixed and mobile services on a secondary basis. This proposal does not replace the requirement to accommodate the existing fixed and mobile assignments.

III. Low Earth Orbiting Satellites Below 1 GHz

Recent research and operational testing indicates that low earth orbit satellite systems can offer a number of radio services which can complement those provided by geostationary satellite operations. These newer technologies offer the potential to meet demands for data communication services using lightweight pocket-sized terminals. Low earth orbit systems offer the possibility of providing low-cost two-way data communications. A wide range of 124 . W&C-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

applications can be implemented to support economic development worldwide. To obtain efficiencies in the satellites and earth terminals, VHF bands are preferred. As these bands are used extensively, techniques have been developed to facilitate sharing with existing services.

The United States proposes allocations for the mobile-satellite service to be added to three bands for use by low earth orbit systems. The bands proposed are: 137-138 MHz (downlink), 148-149.9 MHz (uplink), and 400.15-401 MHz (downlink). In the 137-138 MHz band we propose an additional provision to protect the meteorological-satellite service.

IV. New Space Service Applications for Communications with Manned Space Vehicles Conducting Space Research Activities around 400 MHz

Extra-Vehicular Activity at 410-420 MHz.

Extra-vehicular activity (EVA) is work activities undertaken by astronauts outside the shelter of their base space vehicle, protected only by a life support space suit. A primary allocation in an appropriate radio service is needed to provide for communications between astronauts and base spacecraft, such as the Space Shuttle and Space Station Freedom, while they are performing activities, such as maintenance, outside the base vehicle.

Operating range for an EVA link would normally be confined to about 100 meters of the primary spacecraft, though reliable operation at up to 1 km is required to support contingency operations. The band selected must be between 270-575 MHz to comply with extremely limited power, on the order of 250 mW, and size restrictions of the astronaut’s life support suit. Limited EVA communication capabilities are currently provided below 300 MHz. However, with the future expansion of EVA activities, new systems require additional capacity up to 10 MHz bandwidth. Because of present spectrum usage, a frequency band below 400 MHz is not available. For these reasons, the United States proposes that this new space service application concerning manned space vehicles be satisfied with a primary space research (space-to-space) allocation at 410-420 MHz, restricted to these activities by a footnote. We also propose to protect fixed and mobile operations in this footnote.

Proximity Operations at 400.15-401 MHz.

There is a requirement to communicate with approaching space vehicles, for example, during docking maneuvers and for interrogation of co-orbiting unmanned experimental containers, at distances up to 37 km. This activity requires transmit power levels somewhat higher than those available from an astronaut’s suit. The United States proposes to allocate the frequency band 400.15-401 MHz to the space research service (space-to-space direction) for communications with manned space vehicles. The restriction to manned space vehicles in the proposed footnote to the allocations table is important, but further restriction as to distance would not be useful.

V. Mobile Services In The Approximate Range 1-3 GHz

Mobile Service Allocations and Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunications Systems

The demand for spectrum for the mobile services is growing. Considerable emphasis has been placed on accommodating future mobile service needs by providing suitable allocations in the 1700-2450 MHz band. These needs include personal communication Appendix D-U.S. Proposals for WARC Malaga-Torremolinos, Spain, 1992 ● 125

networks, cordless telephones and future public land mobile telecommunication systems (FPLMTS). As the table of frequency allocations contains a primary mobile allocation in Region 2 from 1700-2690 MHz, which could permit future implementation of mobile services, we see no need to make specific allocation proposals for Region 2.

Further, we note that the WARC will specifically consider possible designation of a band of frequencies for use by future public land mobile telecommunication systems (FPLMTS). This concept, which embraces a wide variety of personal communications applications, has been under intensive study by the CCIR. Proponents wish to set aside a band of frequencies for future use which they indicate would facilitate global roaming of personal stations. While we support the work of the CCIR on FPLMTS, we believe that the WARC must exercise caution before reserving spectrum, particularly because of the numerous demands in the 1-3 GHz frequency range. Furthermore, technical standards such as modulation parameters, protocols, and channelization schemes will be just as important as an allocated band in facilitating any requirements for global roaming. These standards and protocols may obviate the need for a common worldwide band for international roaming. We believe that it is premature to designate a frequency band until the CCIR has progressed further in its work.

Terrestrial Aeronautical Public Correspondence.

The United States and some other administrations have already implemented a terrestrial aeronautical public correspondence system in the 849-851 MHz and 894-896 MHz bands. Since this system has become fully operational and hundreds of aircraft are already equipped with systems operating in these bands, we believe that these band segments should be used for this purpose on a worldwide basis. Therefore, we propose to allocate 849-851 MHz (air-ground) and 894-896 MHz (ground-air) for this purpose.

VI. Mobile-Satellite Services at 1-3 GHz

The demand for additional spectrum for the mobile-satellite service is growing. The CCIR recognized this situation and estimated the spectrum requirements of these services. Our proposals exceed the minimum amount projected by CCIR.

Because of the demands being placed on the 1-3 GHz spectrum by a multitude of services, we believe it is extremely important to utilize the spectrum efficiently. The current service specific allocations in the 1.5/ 1.6 GHz bands are too restrictive to permit flexible usage to adapt to dynamic changes in communication needs. We recognize, however, that special provisions are necessary so that safety services will be protected from interference, and that these services will be ensured priority access over other communications in these bands.

The United States proposes to reallocate the land mobile-satellite and maritime mobile- satellite service bands at 1530-1544 MHz (space-to-Earth) and at 1626.5 -1645.5 MHz (Earth- to-space) to the mobile-satellite service. These proposals provide additional spectrum, permit flexibility based on operational demands, and provide priority access with real-time preemptive capability for maritime safety needs. We also propose to allocate the band 1525- 1530 MHz to the mobile-satellite service (space-to-earth) to balance the amount of spectrum allocated downlink with that already available in the corresponding 1.6 GHz uplink band.

In the bands 1545-1559 MHz (space-to-Earth) and 1646.5 -1660.5 MHz (Earth-to-space), the United States proposes to reallocate the aeronautical mobile-satellite (R) (AMS(R)S) and land mobile-satellite services to the mobile-satellite service. This proposal for a mobile- 126 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

satellite service also provides priority access with real-time preemptive capability for the aeronautical mobile-satellite service (R).

These allocation proposals will enhance flexibility for future usage. Existing operations in the bands will not be adversely affected, as we have been careful to preserve the integrity of distress and safety communications for the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) and AMS(R)S. We do so by continuing to provide sufficient capacity and priority access with real-time preemptive capability over all other communications in the bands proposed for reallocation from service specific use. This is accomplished by linking our proposals to specific footnotes, (ADD) RR’s 726C and 730B, addressing safety requirements in the maritime mobile-satellite service bands and the AMS(R)S bands. Along with these footnotes, we propose a consequential change in Article 61. These measures assure that the GMDSS and the AMS(R)S can fulfill their respective safety requirements.

The United States proposes new worldwide allocations of 40 MHz, in each direction, for the mobile-satellite service. The proposed allocations are 2110-2130 MHz and 2160-2180 MHz in the space-to-Earth direction, and 2390-2430 MHz in the Earth-to-space direction.

The United States proposes to add a co-equal primary allocation for the mobile- satellite service in the radiodetermination-satellite service (RDSS) bands at 1610 -1626.5 and 2483.5-2500 MHz. Footnotes are proposed to require that such use would be in accordance with appropriate CCIR Recommendations to ensure compatibility with the RDSS. The MSS and RDSS complement one another in these bands and in some cases may be provide by the same system. Therefore, in order to ensure equality of these services on a worldwide basis, we are proposing to upgrade the radiodetermination-satellite allocations in these bands in Region’s 1 and 3. We also propose a secondary allocation (space-to-Earth) for the mobile- satellite service from 1613.8 -1626.5 MHz to permit a possible bi-directional use of the band.

We also propose an allocation footnote to add the mobile-satellite service to the band 1850-1990 MHz. This addition is intended to complement the existing services. The added flexibility should permit greater sharing of the band and promote development of a variety of personal communications services.

We are examining the use of low earth orbit satellite systems in the mobile-satellite service at 1-3 GHz. Mobile-satellite service allocations can accommodate this requirement; some systems of this type contemplate use of common bands for both uplink and downlink. The CCIR has already begun studies on the sharing parameters for these systems and some information is provided in its report to the WARC.

VII. Broadcasting-Satellite Service at 500-3000 MHz

The United States is evaluating possible spectrum allocations for the broadcasting- satellite service (sound) in the spectral region between 500 and 3000 MHz. The radio listener markets that may be served by this allocation include both domestic and international radio program listeners of direct satellite broadcasts, as well as complementary local terrestrial broadcasts. The CCIR and other international organizations have performed recent additional studies. A United States proposal on particular bands for this service will be presented in a supplemental proposal. Appendix D-U.S. Proposals for WARC Malaga-Torremolinos, Spain, 1992 ● 127

VIII. Space Research and Space Operation Services at 2 GHz

WARC-ORB-88 in Recommendation 716 noted that the 2025-2110 MHz and 2200-2290 MHz bands are allocated to the space research and space operations services, subject to the provisions of Article 14 of the Radio Regulations. The WARC recognized that there is increasing use of these bands by the space research and space operation services, leading to increased coordination difficulties under the provisions of Article 14.

Major space programs of several administrations depend on use of the allocations at 2 GHz for reliable communication, data acquisition, and command and control. In the United States, these include the shuttle, Space Station Freedom, Hubble Space Telescope, and the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite Systems. For these reasons, the United States proposes that the space service allocations in these bands be upgraded to primary with consequential regulatory changes to apply existing power flux density (PFD) limits.

IX. Fixed-Satellite Service at 14.5 -14.8 GHz

The WARC agenda includes consideration of the allocation of the frequency band 14.5 -14.8 GHz to the fixed-satellite (Earth-to-space) service. Because of mobile and fixed uses, the United States cannot agree to fixed-satellite service operations in this band. In the United States, we cannot agree to any licensing of fixed-satellite operations, nor can we agree to protect such operations from interference from other users of the band. Accordingly, the United States proposes no change in the allocation at 14.5 -14.8 GHz and associated footnote 863.

X. High Definition Television Broadcasting-Satellite Service

The United States proposes a two-pronged approach to satisfying future needs for high definition television (HDTV) via satellite. We believe that the existing 12 GHz broadcasting- satellite service (BSS) allocations and associated plans can serve as the basis for meeting this demand. We recognize that this approach may require changes to the modification procedures for these plans. Such changes, however, should not be extensive and could be accomplished at some future conference. We further note that there could be difficulty in accommodating a few specific HDTV-BSS assignments within the 12 GHz BSS plans, so we also propose to allocate the 24.65-25.25 GHz band for use by the broadcasting-satellite service.

XI. Space Services Above 20 GHz

A. Inter-Satellite Service Requirements.

The WARC agenda permits consideration of allocations for new space service applications above 20 GHz, and we propose a number of allocations. We also propose a minor modification to the inter-satellite definition to provide for links between data relay satellites and other satellites that may not necessarily be Earth-orbiting.

1. Inter-Satellite Requirement at 22 GHz.

We propose to allocate the 21.7-22 GHz band to accommodate projected requirements such as cross-links between satellites of the mobile-satellite services. 128 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

2. Future Data Relay Satellite and Space Station (Proximity) Wideband Links.

The United States proposes a primary allocation in an appropriate service and associated sharing criteria for wideband space-to-space links. The wideband links would be between low orbiting user spacecraft, such as the United States space shuttle or space station Freedom, and geostationary data relay satellites (DRS), such as the U.S. Advanced TDRS. Forward DRS-to-user links are planned to operate in the inter-satellite service in the 22.55- 23.55 GHz band based on the availability of bandwidth and the feasibility of sharing. For similar reasons, return user-to-DRS links are proposed to operate in a new primary allocation in the 25.25-27.50 GHz band. In addition, wideband space-to-space links are required between the space station and a variety of co-orbiting space vehicles in close proximity to the space station. It would be preferable if these proximity links operate under the same service allocation as used for the DRS links.

B. Space Research Service Requirements.

1. Narrowband and Wideband Space Research Links for Future Planetary Mission and Other Applications.

The United States, in cooperation with other countries, plans to establish a lunar settlement early in the 21st century followed by manned exploration of Mars. These activities will require wideband communications. There are no frequency bands allocated in the Radio Regulations that could be used for wide bandwidth links between the Earth and the Moon and between the Earth and Mars. Use of the same band for both sets of links is desirable because it would permit use of common equipment. Smaller bandwidth transmissions can occur in the space research allocations near 2 and 8 GHz. In addition, other space research activities such as Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) by satellite will require wider operating bandwidths. The definition of deep space does not permit space research service allocations for deep space to be used to communicate with the Moon. For these reasons, the United States proposes that 37-38 GHz and 39.5 -40.5 GHz be allocated on a primary basis for space research to support communications associated with a lunar or Martian research base or colony. These bands should not be restricted to deep space.

2. Space Research (Deep Space) Allocations Near 32/34 GHz.

The trend toward international cooperative missions for deep space exploration creates the need for a worldwide primary allocation for space research (deep space) service with direction indicators. The nature and status of allocations to the space research service near 32 and 34 GHz are complex, not uniform and not worldwide. For three administrations, the space research allocations are restricted to deep space only. There is a serious potential for interference to national and international deep space missions because the current allocations allow uplinks and downlinks for space research conducted by Earth orbiters to use the same bands as deep space links. These links are not compatible because of the widely different transmission e.i.r.p. and received signal strengths. Therefore, the United States proposes an upgrade of the space research service (deep space) allocations at 32/34 GHz. The proposal is for a worldwide primary allocation to support increasing space activities in these bands.

C. Earth Exploration-Satellite (passive) near 61 GHz and 157 GHz.

The passive bands are being used increasingly by space sensors to obtain higher quality data and data in regions of the atmosphere that are not available by the use of other bands. Appendix D-U.S. Proposals for WARC Malaga-Torremolinos, Spain, 1992 ● 129

To avoid the potential of future interference to passive bands now in use or planned for use in the near term, allocation of passive bands above 60 GHz are proposed. Bands below 60 GHz are affected by Earth’s magnetic field when being used to measure mesospheric temperatures at heights between 45 and 75 km. The band at 157 GHz is needed to avoid interference from local oscillators in the same sensor measuring temperatures in the 50 to 60 GHz bands. Therefore, the United States proposes primary earth exploration-satellite (passive) allocations at 60.7 -60.8 GHz and 156-158 GHz.

D. Uplink Power Control Beacon near 27 GHz.

The United States notes that uplink power control systems will be required for fixed- satellite (FSS) systems operating near the 20/30 GHz range to achieve FSS uplink availability and performance standards. To accomplish this, the uplink earth station should monitor a narrow-band beacon transmission from the satellite. At present, the 27.5 -29.5 GHz band is allocated to the FSS for uplink use only. To accommodate a downlink beacon transmission in this band, the United States proposes to add a footnote to permit the use of downlink beacon operations within the 27.5 -29.5 GHz band in support of uplink power control.

E. General-Satellite Service near 20/30 GHz.

In a number of administrations throughout the world, including the United States, efforts are underway to develop and implement communications satellites integrating a wide variety of capabilities on a single space platform. These include fixed, mobile, and point- to-multipoint applications. Accordingly, the United States proposes a new service definition. The United States proposes the creation of a primary allocation to the general-satellite service at 19.7 -20.2 GHz and 29.5 -30.0 GHz, replacing current primary fixed-satellite and secondary mobile-satellite service allocations within these frequency bands.

F. Radiolocation-Satellite Service Near 25 GHz.

We propose to define a new space service - the radiolocation-satellite service - and to provide a primary allocation for this service in the band 24.55-24.65 GHz. The Radio Regulations currently define the radiodetermination-satellite service and a sub-category, the radionavigation-satellite service. However, the regulations do not now provide for a radiolocation sub-category of radiodetermination. This new definition and allocation will provide for satellite-based radiolocation services to a variety of users. The type of protection associated with a radionavigation service need not be applied.

XII. Aeronautical Mobile Off-Route (OR) Service Issues

In its report to WARC-92 concerning aeronautical mobile (OR) service, the IFRB noted that it is not possible to develop modifications to Article 12 without modifying Appendix 26. The IFRB suggests changes to Article 12, a draft revision to Appendix 26 (except for the allotment plan which is being developed) and draft resolutions to implement the changes. The United States considers that the IFRB has carried out the Plenipotentiary Conference action assigned to it and met administration requirements to retain flexible and maximum access to the exclusive aeronautical mobile (OR) service frequency bands.

While the United States generally concurs with the IFRB work mentioned above, a final determination will be made when the frequency allotment plan being developed by the IFRB is available. Concerning draft Resolution AER-1, the United States agrees with the implementation date for new assignments but proposes that the dates for operating on replacement 130 ● WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

frequencies and ceasing all double sideband emissions should be respectively, 1 March 1994 and 1 March 1996. Dates in draft Resolution AER-2 should be aligned accordingly. Consequential to adopting changes to Article 12 and Appendix 26, WARC-92 should suppress Recommendation 406 as no further action will be required.

XIII. Licensing of Radio Operators

The WARC Mob-87 revised Articles 55 and 56 of the international Radio Regulations to specify certificates for radio personnel operating in the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS). Unfortunately, the outcome of the 1987 Conference was at variance with the decisions at the 1988 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) concerning radiocommunications for the GMDSS. Many countries delivered protocol statements to the Final Acts of the WARC Mob-87 and the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference, Nice, 1989, which reserved their position on Articles 55 and 56.

As a result of study of Articles 55 and 56 and the SOLAS Convention, the United States seeks to realign the texts so as to make them consistent. The United States proposes to do so by deleting the mandatory First-Class Radio Electronic and Second-Class Radio Electronic Certificates from Article 55, while making consequential changes to Article 56. The United States proposals reaffirm the need to ensure adequate safety is provided aboard ship by qualified individuals.

XIV. Updating of Definitions (Resolution 11)

The WARC agenda requires the Conference to provide, under the terms of Resolution 11, that any changes to definitions appearing in the Radio Regulations and in Annex 2 to the Convention (Nairobi, 1982) “shall be submitted to the Administrative Council for onward transmission to the Plenipotentiary Conference...”. The United States proposes changes to some definitions appearing in Article 1; however, none of these proposals affect the definitions appearing in Annex 2 to the Convention.

XV. Sharing Between Space and Terrestrial Services (Resolution 703)

The WARC agenda requires the Conference to review Resolution 703 in light of the procedure adopted by the XVIIth CCIR Plenary Assembly. The United States proposes to amend Resolution 703 to bring it into conformance with the approval process adopted by the CCIR.

XVI. New Resolutions and Recommendations

Resolution and Recommendation Relating to Wind Profiler Radars.

The WARC-92 agenda invites development of recommendations and resolutions in relation to the agenda of the Conference including the meteorological aids service in frequency bands below 1000 MHz. The wind profiler is a radar operating as a meteorological aid to measure wind direction and speed. Experimental units operating near the 406 MHz region cause interference to the COSPAS-SARSAT system at 406-406.1 MHz. The United States proposes a Resolution to urge administrations to avoid making frequency assignments to wind profiler radars in the 402-406 MHz band, and suggests that this issue be treated at a future conference. Appendix D-U.S. Proposals for WARC Malaga-Torremolinos, Spain, 1992 . 131

Resolution Relating to Meteorological Satellites 401 -403 MHz.

The WARC agenda also permits inclusion of future consideration of meteorological satellites in the 401 -403 MHz band. We propose in a resolution that a future WARC address this issue.

SOURCE: Reproduced from U.S. Department of State, United States Proposals for the 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference for Dealing With Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectrum, Publication No. 9903 (Washington DC: July 1991). Index

Ad Hoc 206,24,86 Structure, 76-80 Administrative Council, 12,52 WARC preparations, 24-25,80-84 Advanced communications technology satellite (ACTS), 42,45 Fiber optics, 46-47 Aeronautical mobile-satellite service (AMSS), 20,33,39 FMAC Subcommittee, 87-88 Allocation, 4 FPLMTS (Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunication AM radio broadcasting, 30,32 Service), 21-22,38 APC (aeronautical public correspondence), 23,39 France Telecom, 69 Apple Computer, 43 Frequency Attenuation, 30-31 bands, 4-6,7,29-30,32-34 and radio waves, 28, 29 Frequency Management Advisory Council (FMAC), 86-87 Bandwidth, 28,34 Baran, Jan, 25,91 British Telecom, 69 Globalization, 63-64 Broadcasting, 35-36 Groundwave, 32 BSS-Sound (Broadcasting-Satellite Service-Sound), 12, 14,16, GTE Mobilnet, 37 17-18,36,76,80 Bureau of International Communications and Information Policy, see CIP Head of delegation, 25,89,91-92 Bypass, 40-41 Helman, Gerald, 56,90,92 Hertz (Hz), 28 HFBC-87, 10, 17 Cable television, 37,38,47 Highdefinition television (HDTV), 18-19,35 Carrier wave, 27,29 High frequencies (HF), 16,33-34 C-band, 42 broadcasting, 16-17 CCIR, see International Radio Consultative Committee High Level Committee (HLC), 13, 15,49,56-61 CCITT, see International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Holmes, Bradley, 90, 100 committee Hoover, Herbert, 6 CDMA (Code division multiple access), 45,46 Cellular telephone service, 36-37,44 CEPT (Conference of European Postal and Telecommunications Industry Advisory Committee (IAC), 17,24,25,81-83,90,97 Administrations), 17,65,67,72 Interactive video data service, 42 CIP (Bureau of International Communications and Information Inter-American Telecommunications Conference, 2,65,66-68, Policy), 90-92 69,70,86,87-88 CITEL, see Inter-American Telecommunications Conference and U.S. private sector, 94 Communications Act of 1934,75 Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee (IRAC), 86,88,97 Compression, 44-45 International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB), 17,52 COMSAT, 45 International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR), 18,22,24, Congress, 6-7 53-55,61-62,66,68,86, 90 CT2 (cordless telephone 2), 38,41 and U.S. private sector, 94 International Telecommunication Union (lTU) changes in, 56-62,69 Department of Defense, 16,76 Convention, 12,49-50 Department of State, 13,24,75-76,89-92 development activities, 62 and private sector 94 history, 49-50 Digital audio broadcasting (DAB), 34,36 importance, 14, 55-56 Ducting, 32,34 structure, 50-55 International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT), 55,66,68,90 Eastern bloc, 13,73 Emerging Telecommunications Technology Act of 1991,6-7, 101 Ka-band, 42 Ericsson, 43 Ku-band, 42 European Community (EC), 65,72 Executive Order 12046,75, 84,89,90-91 L-band, 16, 18, 83 Liberalization, 69-70 Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 9,24,75 Line-of-sight communication, 31 and private sector, 92-93 Ire-jack, 42 –133– 134 . WARC-92: Issues for U.S. International Spectrum Policy

Low-Earth orbiting satellites (LEOS), 12,20,22-23,39-40, Robinson, Glenn 0.,98 80-81,83,84 Satellite CD Radio, 46 Maximum usable frequency (MUF), 31 Satellite services, 41-42 Marshall, Sherrie, 81 Scientific and industrial organizations (SIOs), 53 MOB-87, 19 Shortwave, 28,33 Mobile Satellite Service (MSS), 16, 19-23,3940,76 Sikes, Alfred C., 76, 100 Mobile Services, 36-39 Single sideband transmission, 17,46 Modulation, 27,30 Skywave, 33 Motorola, 20,22,40,43,45 Space services and operations, 24 Specialized Mobile Radio (SMR), 39,44 spectrum, 4,6,30 NASA, 42 as public resource, 6 National Telecommunications and Information Administration management, 8-9, 13 NTIA), 9924,47,75,84-89,97 scarcity of, 7, 8, 34-35 and private sector, 93-94 solutions to congestion of, 43-47 Structure, 84-88 spectrum Planning Advisory Committee (SPAC), see WARC preparations, 24-25,84,86 Frequency Management Advisory Council NEC, 43 Spread spectrum, 45-46 Norris Satellite, 42 Study Group 12,62 Notices of Inquiry, 20,80-81,97 NTIA Organization and Authorization Act, 89 Tarjanne, Pekka, 27 TDMA (time division multiple access), 45 OAS, 66 Technological change, 2, 12-13,63 Obuchowski, Janice, 87, 100 Telecommunications Advisory Committee, 90 Office of Engineering and Technology (OET), 76-77 Telepoint, 37,38 Office of International Affairs (OIA), 84,86 Teletrac, 42 Office of International Communications (OIC), 78-80 Troika, 100 Office of Spectrum Management (OSM), 84,86 Truman, Harry S, 1 ORB-88, 10,17, 19 Trunking, 44 Orbcomm, 40

Urbany, Francis, 81 Paging, 38-39 U. S. S.R., 13,73 Part 15 devices, 40 Permanent technical committees (PTC), 66,68 Personal Communication Network (PCN), 38 VITA, 40 Personal Communication Services (PCS), 14,21,34,37-38, Voluntary Group of Experts (VGE), 61 40-41 VSAT (very small aperture terminal), 41 Plenipotentiary Conferences, 49,50 general, 49-52 1989 (Nice, France), 10, 12 WARC-92 Post, telegraph, and telephone adminis“ “ trations (PTTs), 69 agenda, 10, 12, 19, Private sector, 92-95 background, 10-12 Privatization, 69-70 context for, 12-14 implications for policy, 97-105 importance, 14-15 Radiodetermination-Satellite Service (RDSS), 23,39 issues, 15-24 Radio waves, 4,27-30 preparations, 24-26,75-76 Radio Regulations, 8,9,61 Wavelength, 28,30 Ram Mobile Data, 43 Wireless data, 43 Recognized private operating agency (RPOAs), 53 World Administrative Radio Conferences, 52 Reflection, 31 general, 9-10 Refraction, 31 specialized, 10 Regional Administrative Radio Conference (RARC), 10 1979, 1, 17,77-78 Regionalism, 64-68

u. s. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1991 297-945 QL:3