The Bisbee Deportation in Words and Images

James McBride

adjoining claim, the Atlanta. Dr. Douglas and ong before dawn, July 12, 1917, the quiet Phelps Dodge (hereinafter PO) would become che L of the night was broken by the ringing of dominant factor in shaping the future and character telephones in scores of houses scattered along the of Bisbee. 3 In 1885, the two companies merged, be­ canyons and gulches of the city clinging to the south­ coming the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining ern edge of the Mule Mountains that was Bisbee. Company. Within minutes men were moving through the still Extremely isolated, separated from other commu­ dark city streets to pre-arranged meeting points. At nities by distance and rugged terrain, with primitive 6:25 a.m. the presses of the Bisbee Daily Review be­ transportation facilities, like most mining communi­ gan running, its banner headline warning of a mo­ ties during irs early development Bisbee lacked most mentous action. As che sun slowly crept up over of the social amenities. In addition, the need for mas­ Gold Hill, illuminating the slowly stirring commu­ sive capital investment, and che changing role of the nity, newsboys raced through che streets excitedly worker in the industrial revolution, led most corpora­ shouting che news: "ALL WOMEN AND CHIL­ tions to virtually create feudal baronies. DREN KEEP OFF STREETS TODAY". Bisbee From the beginning, Dr. Douglas set the moral had arrived at its day of decision. Although a long and ethical tone for the district and community. He time in coming, the town's progress to this point was persuaded owners with mines adjacent to the Atlanta as su re and inexorable as the geological processes that and Copper Queen to agree co using perpendicular had created the reason for the community's exis­ lines for ore development rather than the law of the tence. ' apex, thereby preventing the costly legal battles so When that geological process created the rich car­ common to other western mining districts. He was bonate copper deposits of southeastern Arizona its equally progressive in creating a community of high future was pre-ordained. Like many of the mines in moral standards. Arizona, knowledge of mineral deposits in the Mule The company also paid its workers' good wages. Mountains came from an army patrol in the area. In A libra•y was established, schools were improved, a 1877 John Dunn, a soldier at Fort Huachuca, saw first-rate hospital was built for the workers, and lead in an area east of the fort. He grub-staked church activities were supported. To provide for so­ George Warren and four of his friends. T hey found cial activities, elaborate YMCA and YWCA facilities little lead, bur did discover rich copper deposits and were built. Explaining this support system Douglas established the Warren Mining District and named stared, "Once the machinery of trade and commerce their mine The Copper Queen.2 Investors were has been adjusted co an eight-hour day and half­ quickly attracted to the district. Their $20,000.00 holiday retrenchment, we believe the greater leisure purchase soon paid off when they hit 20 per cent ore. enjoyed by the working classes will be an almost un­ Needing advice on a smelting problem, they invited mixed good provided always that with the curtail­ Dr. James Douglas to the district and he, very im­ ment of the hours of labor there will be provided pressed with its potential, persuaded Phelps Dodge means for education. "4 By the first decade of the Mercantile Company of New York City to buy an twentieth century the only issue .in Bisbee was 64 1999 Mining Hist0/)1 journnl

whether a union had a right to orgamze, and tion increased each year. By 1910, Arizona was pro­ whether the company discriminated against union ducing more copper than any place in the United members. States and Bisbee was the largest producer in Ari­ In 1903 the Western Federation of Miners zona.7 Employment was up but skill requirements (hereinafter WFM) began efforts co organize the were changing. The era of the underground miner miners in Bisbee. ]. T. Lewis, WFM District #1 was ending, the hardrock miner was being replaced Board member visited Bisbee in September and De­ by a steam shovel and open pit mining. The mucker cember but reported that "united opposition" from was replacing the skilled miner. the Copper Queen Mining Company the workers In 1910, there were 18,094 wage earners em­ refused co have any thing co do with the union. The ployed in mining, nearly 25 percent of the adult male Mining and Engineering journal of March 31, 1904, population of Arizona. In copper mining nine com­ wrote of organizers visiting the camp "repeatedly" panies employed over 500 wage earning employees, but ended the article by stating "the last one (who nearly two-thirds of all wage earners in the state's was not identified) was given co understand forcibly copper industry.x This was fertile ground for organ­ that unionism was not wanted." Another attempt co ized labor union recruiters. The WFM, active in Ari­ introduce a WFM organizer in 1906 also met with zona since 1896 and in Bisbee since 1907, was not failure. The WFM returned in 1907 and managed co the only mine labor organization vying for members. establish Local #1 06. A six month strike failed co In 1905 the Industrial Workers of the World (I.W. gain its objectives, but the union remained and W. or Wobblies) was organized in Chicago. At its slowly gained members. Phelps Dodge's position re­ beginning the largest department of the rww was mained consistent, no recognition of union mem­ bers.5 This condition existed for the next ten years. During the same period, as a result of declining rich­ ness of ore and improving technology, che nature of the work force was changing. Originally a Cousin Jack camp, by the turn of the cenruty Bisbee's population was a rich mixture of Cornish, Irish, Welsh, Austrian, Slovaks, Monrene­ grins, Croatians, and Mexicans. Chinese were al­ lowed in town but had co be outside the city limits by nightfall. Mexicans were allowed within the city limits and employed by the mining companies but were not allowed underground. By 1910 Bisbee was segregated by race, class, and ethnicity.6 Tincown had the largest number of Mexicans. However, Mexicans and a few African Americans lived on Chihuahua Hill, with a small number of Mexicans on Wood Hill. The Cornish and Welsh occupied Laundry Hill. School Hill was Anglo, mostly Irish. South Bis­ bee had a mixture of Italian and Welsh. Brewery G ulch provided accommodations for a mixture of nationalities, usually not the best element, while Quality Hill was home to company officials and the upper class. This mixture furnished a wide range of positions, attitudes and a hotbed of emotions when World War I began in 1914. Poster showing the various means used by the Wobblies to The twentieth cenruty also brought increased de­ promote their cause and gain membership. Courtesy of mand for copper. Bisbee and Arizona copper produc- Vincent Murray. The Bisbee Deportation in Words and lmffges 65

the WFM, but within two years there was a split 4) no physical examination within the organization and the two unions, with 5) no blasting during working shift.u different ideologies and fighting for survival in the: same camps, became bitter enemies. Mining corpora­ The companies' immediate reply was: tions, although hating the communists views of the: JWW, quicldy seized the opportunity to play one Regardless of any question of merit in the de­ against the other.~ mands, this company will never negotiate with World War I had a dramatic impact on the de­ an organization founded on principles inimi­ mand for copper. Prices went from 13 cents per cal to good government in times of peace, and pound in 1914 to 18 per pound in 1915. 10 Arizona treasonable in times of war. " 14 copper production soared, with much of the in­ creased production coming from Bisbee. As the num­ 0 n June 26, 19 17, the union voted to mike. ber of workers increased unions stepped up their or­ Cochise County Sheriff Harry Wheeler immedi­ ganizing activities, as well as a demand for a share of ately contacted Fort Huachuca for assistance from the increased income. the U.S. Army. Wheeler, the last captain of the Ari­ Following a protracted strike in Clifton-Morenci zona Rangers, and a strongly patriotic person who in 1915-16 the companies began a concerted, multi­ believed anyone who acted against the war effort was pronged, organized attack on mine labor unions. In a rraitor, realized the seriousness of the situation. He 1914, Phelps Dodge purchased several of the state's also knew that if any major conflict erupted, Bisbee's leading newspapers, which immediately mounted an small police force of five men was inadequate. 15 aggressive propaganda campaign against organized T he Army did not agree with the gravity of the labor. The next year, led by John C. Greenway of the situation and stated: "everything peaceable and that Calumet and Arizona Company and Walter Douglas troops were neither needed nor warranted under ex­ of P.D., mine owners created an Arizona chapter of isting conditions. " 16 the American Mining Congress whose primary pur­ Like most U.S. citizens, the people of Bisbee were pose was to lobby the state legislature for favorable quiddy caught up in the patriotic fervor of World legislation. The third part of the company strategy War I. Britain's plight aroused strong feelings in the was the use of detective agencies and spies to infil­ large Cornish and Welsh population of the camp. trate local unions, especially the IWW. 11 Bisbee's strong Serbian/Croatian element also had The IWW, extremely vocal in its opposition to taken an active interest in the war in Europe long U.S. participation in World War I, had also stepped before U.S. involvement. Adding to their unrest was up its activities. Important among its tactics was a a long standing fea r of the masses and the political policy of "boring from within," infiltrating well­ struggle across the Mexico-U.S border just a few established WFM locals, gaining control and using miles to the south. Mexico was in a state of turmoil the local to achieve Wobbly goals. This tactic was with the revolutionaries in the north posing a serious very effective in Bisbee and by July 1917 they had so threat to the U.S., especially the states of New Mex­ much control of the union that International Union ico and Arizona. of Mine, M ill, and Smelter Workers, (IUMMSW). This fear of Mexico's revolution spilling over the President Moyer revoked the local charter in Bisbee. 12 border became dramatically possible with the release Things began to move to a confrontation in Bis­ of the news of the Zimmerman Telegram in March bee when at a June meeting of 400 to 500 miners of 1917. Although at least one historian stated that the IUMMSW local #160 drew up the following de­ Zimmerman Telegram had no or little effect west of mands: the M ississippi River, knowledge of its contents does seem to have generated concern in Bisbee, According 1) six hour day to Arizona historian Marshall Trimble, "That really 2) $6.00 day underground, $5.50 for surface did inflame passions in Arizona. All of a sudden the worker war became very real." 17 3) abolition of rustling card That seems to have been a decisive factor in 66 1999 Mining HistOf)' ]oumal

Wheeler's decision to support the companies' efforts M. C. Sullivan to end the strike. When interviewed by a reporter John Payne after the deportation, he said what troubled him the A. S. Embree211 most was the likelihood The mining companies immediately rejected that the Mexicans in Bisbee and along the these demands. At a meeting of several hundred min­ border would take advantage of the disturbed ers at C ity Park that evening the organizers an­ conditions of the strike and start an uprising, nounced a strike for the next morning. The open destroying the mines and murdering American meeting union members met at the Union Hall on women and children . . . . What would you O.K. Street and appointed pickets for the next morn­ have said . . . if, knowing as I do how all ing.n Mexicans hate Americans, I had waited until The following day the Citizen's Protective League some American citizens-American women and placed a front page advertisement of their resolution children-had been mu rdered. 1 ~ "condemning" the action. The Bisbee Daily Review went further, calling the action "nothing short of As tensions mounted during June, the citizens of treason, incipient and terrible."12 Bisbee mobilized, both in support of the war effort It is not clear how effective the strike action was and to protect the home front against perceived because of conflicting numbers reported by the op­ threats. At the same time, Bisbee's newspapers daily posing sides. Copper Queen and Calumet and Ari­ carried headlines like "strikers helping Kaiser." Or­ zona officials said .76 percent and .675 percent re­ ganized at the direction of John C. Greenway, super­ spectively of their workers were on the job, while intendent of the Calumet and Arizona Mining Com­ IWW headquarters stated only 20 to 25 percent of pany, the Citizen's Protective League, composed of the workers were on the job. 13 businessmen and local citizens, soon had more than a From his office in Tombstone, Cochise County thousand members and was a major factor in Bisbee Sheriff Harry Wheeler said he would "perform his 1 affairs during the coming confrontation. , full duty" and protect constitutional rights of indi­ At the same time, the Miner's Union began a viduals and their public and private property. He also campaign for increased benefhs for mine workers. stated that any action to hinder copper production Following several days of discussion, a meeting at the would be a direct blow to the federal government and Miner's Union Hall on June 26, formulated the fol­ he would "deputize ... every able-bodied loyal lowing demands: American in Cochise county to assist me in preserv­ ing law and order," and if necessary "demand aid and First - T he Abolition of the physical examina- assistance form both state and federal govern­ tion, ments".24 Second- Two men to work all machines, The strike started peacefully. Although many men Third - Two men to work on all raises, refused to cross the picket line little violence occurred Fourth - T o discontinue all blasting during and conditions in Bisbee were actually much more shifts, orderly than normal. Wobbly leaders warned their Fifth -T he abolition of all bonus and contract men to avoid law braking activities and set up tight work, control of bootleggers and the use of whiskey. Sixth - To abolish all the sliding scale. All men At the same time, the Citizen's Protective League underground a minimum flat rate of $6.00 per shift. called for the support of all citizens in breaking this Top men $5.50 per shift. "uncalled for" action and "treason to the govern­ Seventh - No discrimination to be shown against ment" and urged all "loyal American Citizens of the members of any District, and all liberry loving and law, abiding in­ organtzatton. habitants" to "join in an earnest effort to stop the BEN WEBB, Chairman, strike" .25 W.H. Davis Wheeler initially refused Greenway's offer to ap- T/Je Bisbee Deportruiou in Wordi· r111d Images 67

point men to help him, bm when convinced by districts, received the most attention. Strikes were in Greenway that rhe strike was not to help miners bur progress at a number of camps. Military troops and would "embarrass the country in irs efforts to prepare federal mediators were keeping peace in Globe. In for war," he accepted company help. Jerome conditions were very similar to those in Bis­ Two days later Sheriff Wheeler, following IWW bee and on July 10 cl1e dti:zens of Jerome organized, violation of their pledge ro keep pickets off company rounded up eighry-slx Wobblies, put them on a 31 properry, deputized rwo hundred citizens. That same train, and shipped them to California. ' day Mayor Jacob Erickson issued a proclamation On July 11 a joint meeting of the Loyalty League making any collection into bodies or groups "for un­ and The Citizen's Protective League was held at th.e lawful purpose, or any purpose, ro the annoyance or Copper Queen Dispensary. Sheriff Hany Wheeler disrur·bance of citizens or t:ravelers . . . shall be sever­ presided but a number of company managers and ally deemed guilty of having commirred a misde-­ ofllcials were in arrendance. The clistrict was divided meanor'' and would be fined or jailed, or both.l6 into ten areas. John C. Greenway suggested sending As the strike continued, cbe local newspapers the strikers co Columbus, New Mexico. Greenway published a steady barrage of news of German sup­ and G.H. Dowell gor the El Paso & Southwestern port for the Wobblies and large amounts of German Railroad (a subsidiary of Copper Queen Consoli­ money coming in to support their efforts. Reports of dated Mining Company) to provide cars. Sheriff German activity and influence in the easte1·n part of Wheeler was put in charge of a posse of 1,000 men. 31 the Un!ted Stares was front page news vircuaiJy every At 4:30 the next morning, July 12, the calls to dayfromJune6toJuly3rd, 1917.17 gather began going out. Men hurried rluough the Conditions did nor improve much during the dark streets and quiddy formed inro their designated early part of July. Employment gradually improved groups. When organized, members of the posse tied in the mines but it was marched by a commensurate white handkerchiefs around their arms, took conttol increase in Wobbly irritation and agitation. On July of the streets, closed che town, warned rhe women 2 the Bisbee Ore reported that Charles Moyer had and cl1Hdren to sray off the streets, and swept telegraphed Governor Thomas Campbell that the through the streets of Bisbee rounding up WobbHes. WFM did not support or condone the strike. On The Bisbee Daily Review published an extra with July 6 Moyer stating that TWW elements had infil­ banner headlines saying, "All women and children trated and taken control of the union, revoked its keep off streets today."31 The Telegraph company charter. Wi(hout a charter, the document which was ordered to refuse telephone service to anyone try­ authorized it to function as an JUMMSW local, ir ing to mal~e an out-of-town call. Led by Sheriff ceased to ex.ist. z~ During the same period each side Wheeler, the members of the posse quicldy began was daimjng success. The companies reported more rounding up men on the streets and in the restau­ miners crossing rhe picket lines. The Wobblies, on ran,ts of the still quiet community. WhiLe that phase the other hand, boasted of growing srrength. Despite of the roundup progressed, other sections of the the claims by both sides, it was clear that miners, posse began a systemic search of the boarding houses both union and non-union were leaving the camp. and residences. Because of the early hour mosr men New, unskilled workers were coming in. Tension was were either still in bed or just beginning to have definitely increasing between the two sides. During a brealdast. Men seized were asked one question, ''Are 4th of July parade and demonstration by the Loyalty you working?" If the response was no, they were ar­ League, tempers flared on both sides. .w Reports of rested. Those arrested were normally only given time abuse, threats, and mistreatment of non-striker's to grab a few articles of clothing.J3 families increased. Despite the lack of overt action a Briefed by Sheriff Wheeler' and Greenway that rhe growing feeling of unrest was apparent. way to avoid trouble was to be organized and in Bisbee was not the only mining camp in Arizona greater number than the individuals being arrested, with labor problems. The Wobbly activity there was the deputies met with little serious resistance. A pan of a wide-spread effort throughout the West. number of brief scuffles, often with the wives of Arizona, with a number of major copper producing workers, occurred but few serious injuries resulted. ln 68 1999 Mining Hist01y}ournal

Initially those who were rounded were marched ro and held in rhe pose office plaza in rhe cenrer of Bisbee. Those with the white cloths tied around rhe lefr a.rm are posse members. Courtesy of Bisbee Mining and Historical Museum, Sand­ quist Collection. #76.91.27y a report made to the Arizona State attorney general, other members of McRae's group retur~ed fire and Ruza Delja related how she was pushed aside and her killed Brew.35 husband beaten until he agreed to accompany the By mid-morning over one thousand men had deputies. Mrs. John Conner, operator of a boarding been rounded up. Initially held near the post office, house, told a similar story of being threatened with a as the n umber grew they were taken to the railroad rifle if she did not step aside. O ne of the most poign­ station and then marched three miles to Warren, ant accounts is that of young Matt Hanhila. Asleep where they were held in the ballpark Gradually the in the front room of his home, he was awakened by number increased until approximately 2,000 were armed deputies pounding on the front door. When inside the ballpark, filling the stands and spilling out his father opened the door to confront them, Matt on to the baseball field. During the day, those ar­ recalled his father looking at the gun he had above rested were given the opportunity to prove they were the door, considering the odds, and deciding not to not Wobblies and were working and should not be use the gun. Matt wished his father had grabbed the deported. Those who were successful were released. 36 gun and fought it out. Anna Payne, although she did Shortly before noon twenty-three El Paso and not use a gun, forced her way into the Warren ball­ Southwestern Railroad cattle and box cars rolled on park, berated and threatened a deputy, admonished the track beside the ballpark The deputies quicldy Dr. Bledsoe for his participation, and chastised Sher­ formed lines and began loading the men onto the iff Wheeler, then removed her two sons from the recently emptied cars, fifty men to a car. Even as they roundup.34 were loading, a few men were pulled out of line. Fi­ One case of deadly violence occurred when dep­ nally 1,186 men were on the cars. Guards took posi­ uty Orson P. McRae broke through the screen door tions on top of the train and it starred east for New onto the porch where James Brew was sleeping. Brew Mexico.37 grabbed his pistol and shot McRae, kjlling him. The Two brief stops were made so the engine could The Bisbee Deportation in Wo1ds rmd Images 69

A line of deportees being marched along rail cars out aof Bisbee coward Lowell. Courtesy of Jeremy Rowe.

Line of deponees being held under guard on the way out of Bisbee. Courtesy of j eremy Rowe. 70 1999 Mining Histo1y Jourmtl

Deportees being marched under guard from Lowell coward Warren. Courresy of Bisbee .-'\_ Mining and Historical Museum, Bendixon · ~·~~ Collection. #74.41.5A ...; 6 ~ ..; ~ ~ ; ,

.....

Deporrees marching berween Lowell and Bakersville. Courresy ofVincenr Murray.

A closer photograph of the dcporrees being marched under heavy guard between Lowell and Bakersville. Courtesy of Vincent Murray. The Bisbee Deportation in Words and Images 71

The line of deportees marching along rhe rail­ road track beside rhe ballpark in Warren. They were held in the ballpru·k until loaded onro the train for shipment to New Mexico. Courtesy of Vincent Murray.

View of Warren ru1d ballpru·k. The large build­ ing on the left is rhe C & A office. Courtesy of Vincent Murray.

General scene of the crowd in Warren when the deportees arrived from Bisbee. Courtesy of Vincent Murray. 72 1999 Mining HistOI)' joumal

Crowd oucsidc of Warren ballpark as deport­ ees were being moved inco the ballpark. Cour­ tesy ofVincenr Murray.

Warren ballpark. C & A office on the left. Deportees are being held in front of the bleachers while being questioned about their starus. Those who could prove they were nor Wobblies or agicarors were released. Courtesy ofVinccnr Murray.

By noon a recently unloaded cra.in of cattle cars was in posicion and Wobblies were being loaded onro the cars. By this rime a large crowd of spectators, including women and children, were watching the deporrarion. Courresy ofVincem Murray. The Bisbee Deportation in Words and Images 73

As rhe loading ofWobblies proceeded armed guards were placed on top of the cars. They would travel with the train, by this time called 'The Wobbly Special", when it lefr for New Mexico. Courresy of Vincent Murray.

The train depa.ning fot· New Mexico. Guards remained on top until it arrived at the its destination, Columbus, New Mexico. While mosr of rhe crowd watching irs departure were members of rhe posse ir also included a number of women and children and at least one baby. Courresy of Bisbee Mining and Hiswrical Museum, Brophy Collecrion. #74.115.28 74 1999 Mining Hist01y ]oumnl

take on water, during which the deportees were al­ had to prove they were not deportees. Some had legal lowed to get out of the cars and stretch their legs. Ar­ reasons for returning. Several had orders to reporr to riving at Columbus, New Mexico that evening the the medical center for induction physicals. Those ap­ local sheriff, on orders from New Mexico Governor prehended were taken before a judge, tried, and or­ W.E. Lindsey, arrested those in charge of the depor­ dered to leave townY tation and ordered the train to return to Arizona. When word of the deportation leaked out, Presi­ When the train reached Columbus, New Mexico, .its dent Woodrow Wilson, in an effort to determine original destination, the citizens there refused to al­ whether citizen's rights had been violated, quiddy low the deportees to be unloaded. The train back­ appointed an investigating (mediation) committee. tracked to Los Hermanas where the guards aban­ Composed of business and labor leaders, it also in­ 3 doned the cars. H cluded, as secretary, a young lawyer, Felix Frank­ Realizing the plight and desperate need of the furter. Following a series of hearings in a number of men, the U.S. government quickly moved to have cities and mining camps, the commission determined the army provide tents and food. there was no need for such drastic action. But it also said, "grievance not such a nature as to have justified The ethnic make-up of those deported was: a strike." 43 However, after six months' preparation, two fed­ 80 percent of those deported were immigrants eral prosecutors were able to get a federal indictment 33 percent of those being Mexican from the grand jury in Tucson and brought charges 28 percent Slovaks against twenty-one leading Bisbee citizens. Harry 12 percent Russian, and Finns, and Wheeler, John C. Greenway, James Douglas, and W. 27 percent a mix of other Europeans. In terms of H. Brophy were on active duty in France and were union affiliation the deportees were evenly divided: not charged. 33 percent of those deported were Wobblies, 33 per­ Saturday, May 15, 1918, indictments were issued cent were American Federation of Labor (AFL) in T ucson. Despite Wheeler being overseas, the case members and 33 percent were non union..W was officially identified as United States v. Wheeler et al. Included in the indictment were twenty-one other The Army census at Los Hermanas listed 199 na­ Bisbee residents and officials. The .indictment tive born Americans and 468 naturalized Americans charged them with "conspiracy to injure, oppress, among the deportees. The foreign-born deportees threaten and intimidate citizens in the exercise of the included 141 British, 179 Slavs, and 82 Serbians. right to peacefully reside in the state of Arizona. "44 The same census indicated the following union Wheeler cabled from France: memberships: IWW 426, AFL 381, and 361 with no affiliation. Also, of those deported, five hundred assuming all responsibility for deportation. owned property in Bisbee. Would do it again under same circumstances. Of the 571 deputies used in the deportation, No traitors or I.W.W. sympathizers over here, none had Mexican surnames. Bisbee's 1910 popula­ only American soldiers. My country needs me tion mix was 24 percent Mexican, and five percent here, but when I can be spared, if still alive Slavic. 40 you will find me ready to go home and stand Life in the camp, although austere, was not harsh. with my friends and fellow Americans to un­ A letter of one deportee said, "Never had it so good. dergo any tribulations the politicians, I.W.W. Government feeding me and the town taking care of sympathizers and other traitors can inflict. "45 my family."41 Not all felt the same way. Many de­ portees immediately began leaving the camp, many E. E. Ellinwood filed a demurrer that no federal of them wanting to return to families in Bisbee. laws had been violated and the case should be held in However, this effort was blocked by the guards a state court. In December, the federal court in San placed on the roads and rail lines leading into the Francisco ruled in his favor. The U.S. Justice De­ city. For months anyone attempting to enter Bisbee partment then appealed his ruling to the U.S. Su- The Bisbee Deportatiou in Words and hnages 75

preme Court and it, in November of 1920, with one date citizens in rhe exercise of the right to peaceably dissenting vote, upheld the lower court ruling. reside in the scare of Arizona." The plaintiffs pleaded, Civil suits were filed by 968 individuals against "Law of Necessity,'' which is the right of a commu­ Phelps Dodge, Phelps Dodge Mercantile, Calumet nity to defend itself against a perceived threacY and Arizona Copper Company, and El Paso and The trial lasted three months. The strong feelings Southwest Railroad. Of those bringing suit only ten of those involved was indicated by the number who, had Hispanic surnames. Phelps Dodge responded by under oath in rhe witness chair, claimed responsibil­ agreeing to pay $1,250 to married men with chil­ ity for organizing the deportation. Wheeler, on the dren, $ 1,000 to married men, and $500 to single stand, took full responsibility. M iles Merrill also men. Later, when the criminal suit was thrown out, claimed he was the author of rhe plan. the company backed off on paying.46 After three months the case went to the jury. On February 7, 1920, 210 Bisbee citizens were Wooton, after sixteen minutes of deliberation, was arraigned in the Tombstone courthouse on kidnap­ acquitted on the first ballot. No one was convicted.4x ping charges. Wheeler, now back in the U.S., was Although the deportation occurred almost a cen­ too popular to be the principal being charged. So the cury ago, the memory of the event srill generates prosecutor pressured Judge Samuel J. Pattee into strong feelings in Bisbee. One cannot spend much identifying Harry E. Wootton, a Phelps Dodge em­ rime there without encountering someone whose ployee, Loyalty League member, and deputy, as the family was involved, on one side or the other. Walk­ principal defendant. ing rhe streets of T ombscone Canyon or Brewery Those indicted were brought co trial, which was Gulch or standing in Warren ballpark, one has a held in the county seat in Tombstone. Charged with sense that 19 17 still lives in Bisbee. "conspiracy to injure, oppress, threaten, and inrimi-

Notes

1. Bisbee Daily Review, July 12, 1917. branch of the education of a mining engineer." 2. Dunning, Charles, Rock to RicbeJ: The Story of American 5. McBride, James, "Establishing a Foothold in rhe Paradise Mining . . Pmt. Presellt. and Fmure. as reflected in the color­ of Capitalism" journal ofArizona History, Volume 23, No. fit! History ofMining in Arizona. The Nations Greatest Bo­ 3, (Autumn, 1982), 299-316. nanzrt (Phoenix, Arizona: Southwest Publishing Company, 6. O'Neill, Colleen, "A Communiry Divided: A Social His­ Inc. , 1959), 70-72. Warren, in a drunken moment, bet his tory of the Bisbee Deponation," M.A. Thesis, New Mex­ share of the Copper Queen in a footrace against a horse. A ico State Universiry, Las Cruces, 1989, 69. race he losr. He sank deeper inro alcoholism and was re­ 7. Hyde, Charles K. Copper For America: The United States duced to peonage in Mexico. Rescued by friends he spent Copper Industry From Colonial Times to The 1990s. the remainder of his days in Bisbee, dying a pauper in (Tucson: Universiry of Arizona Press 1998), 81, 136. 1892. Although generally regarded as a failure, the cirizens 8. U.S. Depanmenr of Commerce. Bureau of the Census, of Bisbee regarded him highly enough to erect a striking T hirteenth Census of the United Stares, 1910, Volume XI, monument over his grave in rh e Bisbee Cemetery and it is Mines and Quarries, 1909. General Report and Analysis, generally accepted that he is the image of the miner on the 48. Great Seal of Arizona. 9. Dubofsky, Melvyn. We Shalt Be AU: A Histo1y ofthe JWW: 3. James Douglas Collection, Special Collections, Universiry The Indmtrial Workers of the World. (Chicago, Quadrangle ofArizona Library, University of Arizona, Tucson.. Books, 1969), 115-118. Jensen, Vernon. Heritage of Con­ 4. Ibid. James Douglas Collecrion, Bisbee Mining and Min­ flict: Labor Relatiom in the Nonftnous Metals Industry Up eral Museum, Bisbee, Arizona. Explaining his actions in his To 1930, (Ithaca, NY, Cornell Universiry Press, 1950), memoirs, Dr. Douglas said, "I started my industrial career 193. with a general education, a license to preach, a considerable 10. Navin, T homas R. Copper Mining and Jvlanngemenr, knowledge of medicine & surgery and an acquaimance (Tucson, Universiry of Arizona. Press, 1978), 400. from childhood with the crazy side ofhumaniry- not a bad 11. Byrkir, James. Forging d1e Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor 76 1999 Mining Hist01y journal

Nfrmagement War. 1901-1921, (Tucson, University of Bisbee resident for 15 years, was made into a hero by the Arizona Press, 1982), 86-88, 104-106; Kluger, James. The loc:tl press. The papers eulogized him as "one of the best Clifton Morenci Strike. Labor Difficulty in Arizo1M. 1915- known and best liked." The Bisbee Ore described him as :t 1916, (Tucson, University of Arizona Press, 1970), passim. "respected, upright loyal citizen," who gave his life "for a 12. Jensen, HeritageofConflict; In 1916, rhe WFM, reflecting principle." His funeral was held in chc Post Office Plaza the changing role of irs workers in an evolving industry, and the body lay in state on the porch of the Phelps-Dodge changed irs name to lnrernarional Union of Mine, Mill, Mercantile Company's score building. Citizens were asked :md Smelcer Workers, hereinafter IUMMSW. to conrribme co a subscription for a memorial in honor of 13. Bisbee Daily Review, June 27, 1917, 1, 3. him. Although each person was only asked to donate from 14. Bisbee Ore, March 24, 1917, 2. 10 to 25 cems, by July 18 local papers were reporting chat 15. Cleland, Phelps Dodge, 180. the monument would be fully funded by Saturday. The 16. Ibid.; Byrlcic, Copper Co/ILir. 385; plan was to cast a bronze monument which would be 17. Letter, Lt. Col. James J. Hornbrook co War Department, placed in Pose Office Plaza as a "Fitting memorial to the Department of.Justice Files, Record Group 60. greatest day in the history of the camp." 18. Tuchman, Barbara. The Zimmerma11 Telegram, (New 36. Byrkit. Copper Collar, 205; Beeman, William. "History of York, Yilcing Press, 1958), 199-200; Phoenix Arizona, the Bisbee Deportations," 10-11, Ephemera File, Arizona Arizo11a Republic, March 2, 1997, A1,7. Historical Society, Tucson. 19. Bisbee0re,Apri17, 1917, l. 37. Dubofsky, W'i• Shall Be All, 386; Jensen, Heritage of Con­ 20. lbid.,April28, 1917,l;BisbeeOnJune28, 191 7,1. flict, 406; Warson, Frederick, "A Deportee Deposition" 21. Bisbee Ore, June 26, 1917, 1; Bisbee Doily Ret1iew, June 27, Bisbee Ariwna, August 30, 1970. Statement of Fredereick 1917, I. Warson regarding the "Deportation" of Bisbee Workmen 22. Bisbee0re,June27, 1917, I in 1917, no pagination in Hanson, "The Grear Bisbee De­ 23. Ibid.; Bisbee Daily Review, June 27, 1917, 4; Edirorial portation ofJuly 12, 1917." Sources conflict on how much "High treason". water and food was provided co each car, ranging from 24. Ibid. none co one barrel of wacer per car. Regardless of the 25. Ibid. amount, there is general agreement char it was nor suffi­ 26. Bisbee Daily Review, June 28, 1917, 1; Wayne Scare Uni­ cient for the number of men per car and rhe length of che versity, IWW Collection, Series V, Box J 17, folder 5, journey across the hoc, dry desert. 11878-11879. Detroit, Michigan. 38. Byrkit, Cooper Collar, 210-214; Jensen, Heritage of Con­ 27. BisbeeDnilyReview,June29, 1917, I;Junc30, 1917, I. flict, 406. 28. Bisbee Daily Revim, Passim. Surprisingly, despite rhe 39. Major Ben H . Dorey, Cavalry Intelligence Officer, Reporr steady reporring of German backing and monerary supporr to Army Intelligence Office New Mexico August 5, 1917, for the IWW effort the papers carried little mention of the Archives Division, Deparcmenr of Library, Archives' and Zimmerman Telegram at chis rime. Public Records, State of Arizona, Governor George W.P. 29. Bisbee Ore, July 2, 1917, I; Bisbee Dail)' Review, July 6, Hunt Private Papers, Box 8, Special Subjects, Bisbee Files 1917, 1. 191 7-1918. 30. Bisbee Ore, July 5, 1917, 1. A Wobbly who refused core­ 40. Ibid. move his hac when the American flag went by was attacked . 41. Archives Division Department of Library, Archives' and and beaten by parade participants who forced him co kiss Public Records, Srate of Arizona. RG 107, Maricopa the flag and chen ran him our of town. County SG8 Superior Court, Exhibits 1905- 1919. Box I, 31. Jensen, Heritage of Conflict, 440; Byrkit, Copper CoLlar, Folder 5, Letter, Jack Norman co George Maddox, Augusr 168-173. 7, 1917. 32. Bledsoe File, Bisbee Deportation, July 12, 1917, I. Arizona 42. Warson, Deportee Deposition in Hansen, "The Great Bis- Historical Society, Tucson, Arizona. bee Deportation,'' no pagination. 33. Bisbee Daily Review, July 12, 1917, 1. 43. President's Mediation Commission Report, 3-4. 34. I.W.W. Trial transcript, August 1918, Chicago, 12135 - 44. UnitedSwes v. \X'//;eeler, 254 U.S. 381,65 L.F. 270 12212 in Box 118, Folder l, Collections of Archives & 45. Byrkic, Copper Collar, 289. Urban Affairs, Wayne Scare University, Derroit, Michigan. 46. "The High Cost of Deporting", Survey, Vol. 42, No. 12, 35. Byrkit, Copper Co/ILir. 194. Bisbee Daily Review, July 13, June 21, 1919,457. 19 l 7, 2; July 15, I, Editorial, 4; July 17, I, 2. Bisbee Ore, 47. Stflte ofAri zontt v. H. E. Wooten, Case Number 2685. July 14, 1917, 1; July 16, I. McRae, 33 years old and a 48. Byrkit, Copper Collar, 292-293.