Life: the Science of Biology

Lecture Notebook to accompany

Sinauer Associates, Inc. MacMillan

Copyright © 2014 Sinauer Associates, Inc. Cover photograph © Alex Mustard/naturepl.com. This document may not be modified or distributed (either electronically or on paper) without the permission of the publisher, with the following exception: Individual users may enter their own notes into this document and may print it for their own personal use. The History of 0025 Life on Earth

TablE25.1 Earth’s Geological History Eon Era Period Onset Major Physical Changes on Earth Quaternary (Q) 2.6 mya Cold/dry climate; repeated glaciations Cenozoic Tertiary (T) 65.5 mya Continents near current positions; climate cools Cretaceous (K) 145.5 mya Laurasian continents attached to one another; Gondwana begins to drift apart; meteorite strikes near current Yucatán Peninsula at end of period Jurassic (J) 201.6 mya Two large continents form: Laurasia (north) and Gondwana (south); climate Mesozoic warm

Triassic (Tr) 251.0 mya Pangaea begins to drift apart; hot/humid climate

Permian (P) 299 mya Extensive lowland swamps; O2 levels 50% higher than present; by end of period continents aggregate to form Pangaea, and O levels drop rapidly Phanerozoic Phanerozoic 2 Carboniferous (C) 359 mya Climate cools; marked latitudinal climate gradients (~0.5 billion years long) Paleozoic Devonian (D) 416 mya Continents collide at end of period; giant meteorite probably strikes Earth Silurian (S) 444 mya Sea levels rise; two large land masses emerge; hot/humid climate Ordovician (O) 488 mya Massive glaciation; sea level drops 50 meters

Cambrian (C) 542 mya Atmospheric O2 levels approach current levels 2.5 bya Atmospheric O levels increase from negligible to about 18%; “snowball Proterozoic 2 Earth” from about 750 to 580 mya Collectively called the 3.8 bya Earth accumulates more atmosphere (still almost no O ); meteorite impacts Archean 2 Precambrian (~4 billion greatly reduced years long) 4.5–4.6 bya Formation of Earth; cooling of Earth’s surface; atmosphere contains almost Hadean no free O2; oceans form; Earth under almost continuous bombardment from meteorites Note: mya, million years ago; bya, billion years ago.

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TablE25.1 Earth’s Geological History Eon Era Period Onset Major Events in the History of Life Quaternary (Q) 2.6 mya Humans evolve; many large mammals become extinct Cenozoic Tertiary (T) 65.5 mya Diversification of birds, mammals, flowering plants, and insects Cretaceous (K) 145.5 mya Dinosaurs continue to diversify; mass extinction at end of period (~76% of species lost) Jurassic (J) 201.6 mya Diverse dinosaurs; radiation of ray-finned fishes; first fossils of Mesozoic flowering plants Triassic (Tr) 251.0 mya Early dinosaurs; first mammals; marine invertebrates diversify;

mass extinction at end of period (~65% of species lost) Permian (P) 299 mya Reptiles diversify; giant amphibians and flying insects present; mass extinction at end of period (~96% of species lost) Carboniferous (C) 359 mya Extensive fern/horsetail/giant club moss forests; first reptiles; Phanerozoic Phanerozoic insects diversify

(~0.5 billion years long) Devonian (D) 416 mya Jawed fishes diversify; first insects and amphibians; mass Paleozoic extinction at end of period (~75% of marine species lost) Silurian (S) 444 mya Jawless fishes diversify; first ray-finned fishes; plants and animals colonize land Ordovician (O) 488 mya Mass extinction at end of period (~75% of species lost) Cambrian (C) 542 mya Rapid diversification of multicellular animals; diverse photosynthetic protists Proterozoic 2.5 bya Origin of photosynthesis, multicellular organisms, and eukaryotes Collectively called the Archean Precambrian (~4 billion 3.8 bya Origin of life; prokaryotes flourish years long) Hadean 4.5–4.6 bya Life not yet present Note: mya, million years ago; bya, billion years ago.

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Fractions show the proportion of radioisotope remaining in the sample at the end of each half-life.

14C half-lives (thousands of years) 5.7 11.4 17.1 22.8 (A) 100

1/ 50 2

Remaining 1 /4 in sample (%) radioisotope 1 /8 1/ Radioisotope remaining 16 0 1 2 3 4 Number of half-lives (B) Decay Half-life Useful dating Radioisotope product (years) range (years) Carbon-14 (14C) Nitrogen-14 (14N) 5,700 100 – 60,000 Uranium-234 (234U) Thorium-230 (230Th) 80,000 10,000 – 500,000 Uranium-235 (235U) Lead-207 (207Pb) 704 million 200,000 – 4.5 billion Potassium-40 (40K) Argon-40 (40Ar) 1.3 billion 10 million – 4.5 billion

25.1 Radioactive Isotopes Allow Us to Date Ancient Rocks (Page 507)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 25.01 05-15-12

60 End-Permian extinction 50 Massive glaciation K/T boundry 40 (dinosaurs extinct)

20 Percent of families going extinct Percent

0 C O S D C P Tr J K T Q

Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic

500 400 300 200 100 Present Millions of years ago 25.2 Periodic Mass Extinctions Mark Many Geologic Boundaries (Page 508)

(A) Cooling mantle material forms crust.

Oceanic plate

Asthenosphere

Where an oceanic plate meets a continental plate, At spreading zones, convection Mantle the thinner oceanic plate currents bring mantle material to the is subducted under the surface, where it forms new thicker continental plate, lithospheric crust as it cools. LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava resulting in volcanic Sinauer Associates activity and mountain Continental Morales Studio building. plate Figure 25.02 05-15-12 (B)

25.3 Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift (Page 509)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 25.03 Date 05-01-09 Chapter 25 | The History of Life on Earth 6

High

Sea level * Asterisks indicate times of mass extinctions of marine organisms, most of which occurred * when sea levels dropped. * Low * Cambrian Ordovician Silurian Devonian Carboniferous Permian Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous Tertiary Quaternary Proterozoic Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic

500 400 300 200 100 Present Millions of years ago 25.4 Sea Levels Have Changed Repeatedly (Page 510)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 25.04 Date 05-15-12

25.5 Volcanic Eruptions Can Cool Global Temperatures (Page 511)

Iridium-rich layer at the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K/T) boundary

25.6 Evidence of a Meteorite Impact (Page 511)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 25.06 Date 04-22-09

25.7 Banded Iron Formations Indicate Early Photosynthesis (Page 512)

35 Giant flying insects O2 levels almost 50% higher than present. 30 First Invasion flowering First of land plants 25 chordates e (%) 20 First eukaryotes 15 First First photosynthetic multicellular Rapid drop of in atmospher 2 bacteria eukaryotes O levels at end O 2 O levels 25–40% 10 of the Permian 2 First lower than present. aerobic First bacteria 5 life

0 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 250 100 Millions of years ago esent Pr 25.8 Atmospheric Oxygen Concentrations Have Changed over Time (Page 512)

The layers are (A) formed as biofilms of cyanobacteria die and others take their place.

15 cm Principles of LIFE Sadava (B) Sinauer Associates Living cyanobacteria Morales Studio are found in the upper Figure 18.07 Date 06-24-10 parts of these stromatolites.

25.9 Stromatolites (Page 513) 30 cm

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Figure 25.08 Date 05-15-12 Chapter 25 | The History of Life on Earth 9 INVESTIGATINGLIFE 25.10 Atmospheric Oxygen Concentrations and Body Size in Insects

HYPOTHESIS In hyperoxic conditions, increased partial pressure of oxygen results in evolution of increased body size in flying insects. Method 1. Separate a population of fruit flies into multiple lineages. 2. Raise half the lineages in current atmospheric (control) conditions; raise the other lineages in hyperoxic (experimental) conditions. Continue all lineages for seven generations.

3. Raise the F8 individuals of all lineages under identical (current) atmospheric conditions. 4. Weigh 50 flies from each of the replicate lines and test for statistical differences in body weight.

Results The average body mass of F8 individuals of both sexes raised under hyperoxic conditions was significantly (P < 0.001) greater than that of individuals in the control lineages. 1.0 1.4 Current atmospheric conditions 0.9 1.3 Hyperoxic conditions 0.8 1.2

Body mass (mg) 0.7 1.1

0.6 1.0 Males Females

CONCLUSION Increased O2 concentrations led to evolution of larger body size in fruit flies, consistent with the trends seen among other flying insects in the fossil record. Go to BioPortal for discussion and relevant links for all INVESTIGATINGLIFE figures.

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Life10e Sinauer Associates Figure 25.10 Date 05/14/12

25.11 Insect Fossils (Page 515)

First colonial First photosynthetic cyanobacteria eukaryotes First fossils of Formation First Origin of First multicellular of Earth oceans Origin photosynthesis First multicellular animals of life eukaryotes eukaryotes

BILLIONS OF Hadean Archean Proterozoic Phanerozoic YEARS AGO

4 3 2 1 0

Cambrian Ordovician Silurian Devonian Carboniferous Permian Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous Tertiary Quaternary MILLIONS OF Proterozoic YEARS AGO Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic

500 400 300 200 100 Present 25.12 A Sense of Life’s Time (Page 515)

(C)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 25.12 05-15-12 (B)

(A)

0.1 mm

Doushantuo Ediacaran Burgess Shale fossils fossils fossils

Proterozoic Cambrian

600 565 542 500 Millions of years ago 25.13 Diversification of Multicellular Organisms: The “Cambrian Explosion” (Page 516)

LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates Morales Studio Figure 25.13 05-15-12 Chapter 25 | The History of Life on Earth 11

First jawed fishes; First vascular plants many animal groups Rapid increase of multicellular Major radiation of and terrestrial radiate; forests appear organisms (Cambrian “explosion”) several marine groups arthropods evolve on land

Cambrian Ordovician Silurian Devonian MILLIONS OF Proterozoic YEARS AGO Paleozoic

500 400 75% of all animals go extinct as 75% of marine sea levels drop by 50 meters species go extinct

Cambrian Devonian

Ottoia sp.

Marrella splendens Eusthenopteron foordi

Archaeopteris

Anomalocaris canadensis (claw only)

LIFE The25.14 Science A ofBrief Biology History 10E ofSadava Multicellular Life on Earth (Pages 517, 518 and 519) Sinauer Associates Morales Studio © 2014 Sinauer Associates, Inc. Figure 25.14 page 1 05-15-12 Chapter 25 | The History of Life on Earth 12

Extensive swamp forests produce coal; Giant amphibians On land, conifers origin of amniotes; and flying insects; become dominant Dinosaurs, pterosaurs, First known great increase in ray-finned fishes plants; frogs and reptiles ray-finned fishes diversify; flowering terrestrial animal diversity abundant in fresh water begin to diversify first mammals appear plant fossils

Carboniferous Permian Triassic Jurassic

Paleozoic Mesozoic

300 200 Extinction of 96% of Earth’s species; oxygen levels drop rapidly

L A U R A S I A

N G O N D W G A A N E A A

Permian Triassic

Plateosaurus sp.

Phlebopteris smithii

Megatypus schucherti (wing)

Walchia piniformis (continued) LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates © 2014 Sinauer Associates, Inc. Morales Studio Figure 25.14 page 2 05-15-12 Chapter 25 | The History of Life on Earth 14

Flowering plants Many radiations of dominate on land; Grasslands Four major ice Flowering animal groups, on rapid radiation of spread as ages; evolution plants diversify both land and sea mammals climates cool of Homo

Cretaceous Tertiary Quaternary

Mesozoic Cenozoic

100 Present Mass extinction event, including loss of most dinosaurs

Cretaceous Tertiary

Hyracotherium leporinum

Sapindopsis belviderensis (leaves)

Chasmosaurus belli Plesiadapis fodinatus (jaw) LIFE The Science of Biology 10E Sadava Sinauer Associates(continued) Morales Studio Figure 25.14 page 3 05-15-12 © 2014 Sinauer Associates, Inc. Chapter 25 | The History of Life on Earth 16

25.15 Evidence of Insect Diversification (Page 520)

TablE25.2 Subdivisions of the Cenozoic Era Period Epoch Onset (mya) Quaternary Holocene (Recent) 0.01 (~10,000 years ago) Pleistocene 2.6 Tertiary Pliocene 5.3 Miocene 23 Oligocene 34 Eocene 55.8 Paleocene 65

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