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Home , Chivalric romance, Literary genre

Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English Language and

Daniela Kleinová

The Uses of the in Medieval and Modern

Bachelor‘s Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: prof. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A.

2012

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

…………………………………………….. Author‘s signature

Acknowledgement I would like to express my thanks to my supervisor prof. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A., for her helpful guidance and valuable advice provided to me during my work on this thesis.

Table of Contents

1 Introduction ______2

2 Development of the Fable as a Literary , Its Specific Features and Its Didactic

Roles ______4

3 Chaucer’s Period ______12

3.1 ______13

3.2 The Nun’s Priest’s Tale ______14

4 Orwell’s Period ______18

4.1 Animal Farm ______18

5 Comparison of The Nun’s Priest’s Tale and the Animal Farm ______27

6 Conclusion ______34

Works Cited ______36

Czech Résumé ______40

English Résumé ______41

Appendices ______42

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1 Introduction

The thesis focuses on the uses of the fable in texts by two different authors from two different periods of : George Orwell‘s Animal Farm and Geoffrey

Chaucer‘s The Nun’s Priest’s Tale from The Canterbury Tales. The thesis compares and contrasts the ways the authors work with the genre of the fable while illustrating the conditions of specific societies in their stories. Chaucer in his pieces of art works with numerous , including the fable. Similarly, although Orwell‘s Animal Farm is not a typical demonstration of the fable as its main idea criticizes political events, both stories concentrate on negative features and values of people and their misbehaviour is depicted by the performance of animals.

For this purpose, in the second chapter, I would like to explore the fable as a , its historical background and its development from the first appearance until the last century by means of the two texts in particular. Regarding the significance of I concentrate on the work of Aesop and other well-known fabulists and outline the most important aspects of their works which might have been a possible influence on Chaucer and Orwell.

In the third and the fourth chapter I concentrate on The Nun’s Priest’s Tale and the Animal Farm in detail. The main focus of the chapters is to analyse the features of the fable and examine the authors‘ strategies and motives for using the animal characters. The thesis intends to observe the way animals are portrayed in the two texts as they the most important roles as characters there. Each of the authors uses different animals to express certain qualities of the people, but some of them are similar to each other. Accordingly, I emphasize some of the features of the fables shared with the fables by Aesop.

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The works, their characters and the outcome of the authors‘ specific uses of the fable are compared and contrasted in the fifth chapter. I focus primarily on their usage of animal and human characters, settings, usage of language and of course the historical backgrounds of the periods in which they were written.

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2 Development of the Fable as a Literary Genre, Its

Specific Features and Its Didactic Roles

The reasons why fables (from the Latin fabula, ―a telling‖) have always been very popular among readers are numerous. First of all, they have a lot in common with tales. The is usually very simple and characters are very similar to those in fairy tales or folktales. One of the common features is that inanimate things and animals think and converse like rational beings, although it is not always a necessary feature in a . The most distinctive aspect of fables is that they always lead to an interpretation of a lesson. Baldick in The concise Oxford dictionary of literary terms describes the fable as ―a brief tale in or that conveys a moral lesson, usually by giving human speech and manners to animals and inanimate things (Baldick,

80). It aims to imprint the minds of people with good values and virtuous qualities by telling a simple, funny story that is easy to remember.

The moral might be placed either at the end of a fable or rarely at the beginning.

In modern fables it is usually inserted into the story making it more difficult for readers to detect. Bussey argues that the significance of fables lies in their ability to influence people‘s minds and their behaviour: ―Fables are, in fact, admirably calculated to make lasting impressions on the minds of all persons; but especially those which are unformed and uncultivated ; and to convey to them moral instruction‖ (Bussey, 6).

The presence of animals is crucial in fables and there are some typical situations which are more or less present in each of them. Some of the species occur more often than others, representing the certain qualities that work almost as stereotypes. For example a fox is portrayed in numerous fables where it usually plays a role of a negative or rather cunning , and its main qualities are artifice and revenge. In 4

the confrontation of two animal characters, whilst one of them is very little (a mouse), slow (a turtle) or ―weak‖, it very often happens that this one comes out of story as a , while the strong and big animal is given a moral lesson.

The fable is written in an antithesis structure, which means that there are two opposed characters and their direct speech or a dialogue. It contains typical features which distinguish it from other, similar genres, e.g. exemplum, which is a ―short tale used as an example to illustrate a moral point, usually in a sermon or other didactic work‖ (Baldick, 76). In the it is quite difficult to distinguish between those two, even though it is generally believed that the fable is intended for a wider readership. Other similar genres are the and . According to

Encyclopaedia Britannica 9, although a parable resembles a fable in its Middle Eastern origin and the essential qualities of brevity and definiteness, it differs in the exclusion of anthropomorphic animals or inanimate creatures and in the inherent plausibility of the story itself Similarly, the fable is allegorical in a broadest sense, but it differs from allegory in that the moral lesson it teaches is given at the end of the tale rather than being intermingled with the story (133).

According to Mocná, the narrator of a fable is impersonal, although in the case of modern fables written in humorous and ironic style he might introduce arbitrary gestures. She further points out, that the fable might be serious or comic – satirical or humorous. By means of its function, we distinguish a didactic fable, a political fable and a poetic fable. A didactic fable intends to teach a moral lesson, a political fable is usually satiric and its aim is to affect a society and a poetical fable‘s intention is to amuse (Mocná, 33).

The fable is one of the oldest genres of oral literature. The Western tradition of the fable begins with Aesop and most people associate the fable exceedingly with him. 5

Aesop, who was an Ethiopian slave, is credited with a number of fables. However, his existence is not certain although his name is well-known all over the world and Aesop’s

Fables have been translated into many languages. According to Bussey, the best classical authorities described Aesop to have flourished in the time of Solon and

Pisistratus, about the middle of the sixth century (Bussey, 11). After the first appearance of the fable many authors started to write similar tales, borrowing certain themes from

Aesop. One of the first Aesop‘s successors was a Roman fabulist, Phaedrus. He produced a collection of fables, adapting many Aesopian themes and features. His work later influenced tales of many succeeding fabulists:

Not until Phaedrus were the Aesop stories meant to be read consecutively as

literature. His treatment of them greatly influenced the way in which they were

used by later , notably by the 17th-century French and fabulist Jean

de La Fontaine (123).

Aesopian pattern is significant for its conclusive sentence at the end of the story which is in fact the moral of the fable. It is called epimythium (the term used by Burns in ―Aesop‘s Fables‖). For example, the epimythium of the fable “The Lion and the

Mouse” – where the significantly stronger lion finally needs help from a little mouse is often given as: ―Even the weak and small may be of help to those much mightier than themselves‖ (Aesop). Burns states that less frequently, the Aesopian tradition features a promythium, which is a brief statement preceding the story. Both expressions intend to

―provide a link between a reader and the of the story‖. Burns further points out that:

The Aesopian fables are frequently identified by a series of letters and numbers

which are meant to define the collection source as fables may vary in language

or form depending on the preferences of their adaptor or compiler. For instance, 6

the well-known story of ―The Fox and the Grapes‖ is sometimes referred to as

―P 15,‖ which marks it as part of Ben Edwin Perry‘s definitive modern fable

collection, Aesopica: A Series of Texts Relating to Aesop or Ascribed to Him or

Closely Associated with the Literary Tradition which Bears His Name. (1952).

Other well-known collections that utilize this methodology are volumes

assembled by Babrius, Jean de la Fontaine, and Phaedrus (Burns).

Although many scholars deny Aesop‘s existence and no writings by him have survived, Aesop‘s fables have been told and re-told, then written and re-written countless times and have also been widely adapted for the stage and the screen.

Among the classical authors who developed the Aesopian model were also the

Roman poet Horace, the Greek biographer Plutarch, and the Greek satirist Lucian. The fable flourished notably in the , and the most significant fabulists along with were , Martin Luther and Hans Sachs. The medieval fable gave rise to the beast , which is a ―usually longer tale written in pseudo-epic style‖ (Baldick, 23).

The oral tradition of the fable can be found in Asian cultures as well. However, for instance in China it was not so natural for religious people to accept animals to behave like human beings in the tales. Only later have Buddhists accepted the idea:

In China the full development of fable was hindered by traditions of thought that

prohibited the Chinese from accepting any notion of animals behaving and

thinking as human beings. Between the 4th and 6th century, however, Chinese

Buddhists adapted fables from Buddhist India as a way to further the

understanding of religious doctrines. Their compilation is known as Po-yü ching

(Encyclopaedia Britannica 4, 644).

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The animal characters in Japanese fables were usually ―small but intelligent animals getting the better of large and stupid ones‖ (644). The Aesopian traditional fables were introduced by Jesuit missionaries who came to Japan in the 16th century and ―their influence has persisted into modern times‖ (644).

The fables have been very often used as tools to educate in classes. The moral which they give is something that pupils easily remember and may experience in their future lives. Lynn points out the following:

True, they have been schoolboy fodder for a long time. From at least Roman

times through the nineteenth century they were considered an appropriate part of

the education of young males. Both Phaedrus' first century text and La

Fontaine's Fables were memorized, recited, and paraphrased as part of the

school curriculum (Lynn).

Probably the second most significant fabulist after Aesop is the French poet,

Jean de La Fontaine, who followed the Aesopian pattern in the seventeenth century. He worked with the classic themes from the Aesopian tradition and created Fables, which is a collection of 237 tales. What is specific about Fontaine‘s Fables is that the humours function of the fable is more notable than the intention to emphasize the moral of the story.

La Fontaine contrived miniature and in which he portrays the

image of the social hierarchy of his day… Fables also occasionally reflect

contemporary political issues and intellectual preoccupations, but his chief and

most comprehensive remains that of traditional fable, that means the

fundamental, everyday moral experience of mankind throughout the ages

(Macropaedia Britannica 7, 65).

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La Fontaine‘s unique style of writing can be seen when comparing the Aesopian fable The Hare and the Tortoise with the same story re-written in verses by La

Fontaine. The tale tells a story of a hare who considers himself to be the fastest animal and agrees to run a race with a tortoise. He ridicules her and decides to take a nap midway through the course. The slow-moving tortoise finally wins the race and the hare is taught a lesson in both versions. The first extract is from the Aesopian fable and the second one is LaFontainian:

So a course was fixed and a start was made. The Hare darted

almost out of sight at once, but soon stopped and, to show his

contempt for the Tortoise, lay down to have a nap (Aesop).

She starts; she moils on, modestly and lowly,

And with a prudent wisdom hastens slowly;

But he, meanwhile, the victory despises,

Thinks lightly of such prizes,

Believes it for his honour

To take late start and gain on her.

So, feeding, sitting at his ease,

He meditates of what you please… (La Fontaine).

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By comparing these two short extracts from both fables, we can assume that La

Fontaine enriches the simple story using expressive of the events. In my opinion, La Fontaine‘s version of the story is very playful therefore his usage of is much more efficient. His fables are very readable and this might have made the genre of the fable more attractive.

Among the most significant fabulists in Slavic literature is La Fontaine‘s romantic successor, Ivan Andreyevich Krylov. He also borrowed some of the themes whether from Aesop or La Fontaine. However, what I find entrancing about adopted stories is that although the basic messages of them are identical, the animal behaviour, setting and events of the plot of each author are still matchless. Krylov produced several of fables and ―his salty, down-to-earth emphasized common sense, hard work, and love of justice and made him one of the first Russian writers to reach a broad (Macropaedia Britannica 7, 16). The English author of the fables at that time was John Gay, who also produced a collection of fables influenced by the classical fabulists. According to Mocná, one of the most outstanding representatives of the

Enlightenment era, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, developed an integrated theory of the fable called On the Use of Animals in Fables. She points out that in to La

Fontaine, Lessing preferred didactic function of the fable, writing very short, uncomplicated stories which main purpose was to emphasise the moral (Mocná, 34).

During the nineteenth century there was a rise of literature for children. Among the most celebrated authors who wrote fables were Lewis Carroll, Kenneth Grahame,

Rudyard Kipling, Hilaire Belloc, Joel Chandler Harris, Beatrix Potter and Hans

Christian Andersen, Oscar Wilde, Antoine Saint-Exupéry, J.R.R. Tolkien and James

Thurber. The last five authors mentioned did not write primarily for children, and their stories share many features with the classical fable. 10

The most distinctive aspect of the fables written for children and those written for adults is the message they carry. They either criticize some conventional human demerits or they portray serious problems in specific society, including political issues.

Although the basic concept of animals behaving like humans remains unchanged the stories for adult readership are often more sophisticated and not so easy to perceive.

The fable as a literary genre has gone through several modifications from its first appearance to the modern times. First of all, the shaping of the genre has been influenced by the authors who worked with it. Many significant writers began their works under the influence of the classical fabulists as Aesop and Phaedrus. Their themes have been affecting fabulists from different countries, or even continents.

Although using primarily the classical Aesopian pattern, each of the fabulists has also enriched the particular fable with the individual style of writing. While some of the authors concentrate distinctly on the humorous function of the fable as it is a story that should be readable and enjoyable, others consider the moral to be the essential thus the most emphasised feature. By a close reading of the selected fables, a reader can not only identify the difference between the uses of the genre among the various authors, but also assume their peculiar motives and possible intentions to write the moral story.

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3 Chaucer’s Period

To precisely absorb the most important aspects of the uses of the fable in any author‘s work, certain knowledge of the period he belongs to is essential, mostly when it deals with social or political issues. Because I concentrate primarily on the work of

Geoffrey Chaucer in this chapter, I would like to provide a general overview of the medieval period which produced such a significant author of the fables.

In my opinion, the medieval society can be analysed from the point of view of three major aspects that influenced the people. The medieval society can be described as agricultural and very closely connected to nature, which was not very easy to predict.

The periods of common enjoyment of harvest were often replaced by periods of famine and life in general was precarious. Death was the most faithful friend of the people and its best helpers were plagues. ―...Black Death struck in 1348-9 killed a quarter or more of the population‖ (Brewer, 18).

Another aspect that affected the medieval society was Christianity. ―The country was divided into dioceses, with cathedrals as headquarters, under a bishop, and the dioceses were divided into parishes served by priests (30). The criticism of the Church in the fourteenth century was apparent, as there have always been cases when churchmen have not behaved as they should have. On the other hand, their position in the medieval society is irreplaceable. As Brewer points out: ―Although many bishops and priests failed to live up to the ideal, and there was much anti-clerical satire, the great developments in religious feeling and in education throughout the medieval period were largely their work‖ (30).

The third aspect is the importance of the King‘s court in the medieval society, which was ―the centre of the political, social and legal power of the kingdom‖ (26). The

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representatives of the court in literature were usually or lords, who had to have proper court manners and they were usually portrayed in the genre of courtly or chivalric . The most important virtue of a is his loyalty to his lord and the ability to offer his service to lady.

3.1 The Canterbury Tales

Geoffrey Chaucer, who has been often called ―the father of English literature‖, in his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, collects different genres of medieval literature such as a courtly or , a or a beast fable and embraces all of the important aspects of medieval society. The genres usually blend together and in my opinion, there are elements or fragments of each to be found in any of the tales.

The Prologue frames the tales and pays much attention to most of the Pilgrims represented by several medieval characters who are later developed and very often parodied in the particular tales. Chaucer introduces them to the readers from an omniscient third-person point of view, using his typical, tender humour, as if he was ahead of his time. For instance, his description of the knight in The Prologue is full of superlatives and it seems to be some kind of a satirized, stereotypical visualization of what the true knight, a hero, should look like:

...And in his bearing modest as a maid.

He never yet a boorish thing had said

In all his life to any, come what might;

He was a true, a perfect gentle-knight (Chaucer, 27).

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Although the tales are all written as single stories, the medieval characters such as knights or monks occur in more than one of the tales. Animals, on the other hand, very rarely play an important role in The Canterbury Tales. However, in The Nun’s

Priest’s Tale, animals think and speak as humans, showing typical human qualities and the tale concludes with a moral lesson.

3.2 The Nun’s Priest’s Tale

Chaucer‘s usage of the fable in this story is very specific and there are several features that distinguish him from the classical fabulists I mentioned in the first chapter.

Firstly, although there are no doubts that it is written in the genre of the beast fable, Chaucer‘s conception of the fable includes a number of elements which are typical of other medieval genres. For example, the relationship between the cock,

Chanticleer, and his favourite hen, Lady Pertelote, does in some way resemble the genre of a courtly romance. They behave as a married couple as they flatter each other, advice each other and also quarrel with each other. According to Jeawhan Kim, in Chaucer's

Tales, ―romances explore the notions of love and war, usually in a refined setting. They revolve around highly idealized behavior and courtship. Women basically beautiful and remote; men try to impress the women with their prowess and virtue; the course of true love never runs smooth‖ (220).

Another medieval genre, with which Chaucer experiments, is the dream vision genre, which is a ―kind of narrative (usually but not always in verse) in which the narrator falls asleep and dreams the events of the tale‖ (Baldick, 63). The importance of visions in the medieval period can be seen when Chanticleer tries to explain to Lady 14

Pertelote the great significance of the vision he had in his dream, setting a few examples and one even from ancient history:

Or take Andromache, great Hectors wife;

The day on which he was to lose his life

She dreamt about, the very night before,

And realized that if Hector went to war

He would be lost that very day in battle.

She warned him; he dismissed it all as prattle

And sallied forth to fight, being self-willed,

And there he met Achilles and was killed (Chaucer, 247).

Secondly, Chaucer narrates the story in a way that is not very common in fables.

In a classical fable there was usually no room for various digressions and the narrator told just a short, simple story that did not need any references. Chaucer, on the contrary, repeatedly digresses from the storyline and in a few lines tells a completely different, often historical story that in some way relates to the story of Chanticleer. His is flowing and in my opinion, while reading, the reader feels as if he was listening to the fable rather than reading it. After telling a few lines of the different story, he quickly returns to the main plot, sometimes even commenting on it:

My story is as true, I undertake,

As that of good Sir du Lake

Who held all women in such high esteem.

Let me return full circle to my theme (Chaucer, 249).

Thirdly, Chaucer makes several references throughout the story to God and the

Bible, and although one would suggest that Chaucer is principally influenced by

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Christianity, there is also the evidence of the narrator addressing other divine authorities:

―O Destiny that may not be evaded!‖, or ―O Venus, goddess of the joys of sex...‖

(Chaucer, 252).

Those features mentioned might be the results of Chaucer not being principally a fabulist, which means that the fable is enriched by the usage of other genres and influenced by several different motives. On the other hand, The Nun‘s Priest’s Tale does share some typical features of the classical fable. For instance, the animals chosen for the story are very similar to those acting in Aesopian fables. The fox is, as usual, depicted as an evil, cunning character which uses flattery in order to win favour or reward. The same theme was used by Aesop in his fable The Fox and the Crow, where the moral is the same - the warning against listening to flatterers. In this story the Crow has found a piece of cheese and sat on the branch to eat it. The Fox, wanting the cheese for himself, flatters the crow, saying how beautiful she is and how much he would like to hear her sing. Tricked by the flattery, the crow opens his beak to sing and the cheese drops to the ground where the fox eats it up (Aesop).

What is typical of the Aesopian fables is that the animal which is taught a lesson

(in this case the crow) does not have an opportunity to redeem itself and always comes out of the story as a loser. Although in The Nun’s Priest’s Tale Chanticleer is also punished for his impetuous behaviour, he is offered a chance to prove his awareness of flattery and finally manages to escape from the fox‘s grasp, saying that he will never believe her again:

―No,‖ said the cock, ―and curses on us both,

And first on me if I were such a dunce

As let you fool me oftener than once. 16

Never again, for all your flattering lies,

You‘ll coax a song to make me blink my eyes… (Chaucer, 254).

Chaucer does not leave the moral to be detected by readers, he openly warns against flattery not only at the end of the fable but also at the moment before

Chanticleer is a victim of the fox‘s trick:

Alas my lords! there‘s many a sycophant

And flatterer that fill your courts with cant

And give more pleasure with their zeal forsooth

Than he who speaks in soberness and .

Read what Ecclesiasticus records

Of flatterers. ―Ware treachery, my lords!‖ (Chaucer, 252).

What is interesting about the tale is that both of the main characters have made the same mistakes, they have succumbed to flattery and empty lies in the key moments and both of them, the cock and the fox as well, were taught a lesson.

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4 Orwell’s Period

George Orwell‘s came into being during the period when society was facing the difficult aftermath of the horrors of the Second World War. Orwell was one of the authors of modern English literature whose writings have been influencing opinions of people on the political events. Savage points out the following in a chapter of The Fatalism of George Orwell: To him as to many of his contemporaries it appeared that moral issues belonged to a discarded ‗bourgeois‘ period of the past; in modern times they had been ‗replaced‘ by political ones (Savage, 135).

His two novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are both a strong expression of his opposition to totalitarianism and awareness of social injustice.

Although the Soviet Union and Britain became allies during the Second World War, he considered it necessary to warn against the growing and spreading totalitarian ideology.

In Why I Write he declares:

Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written,

directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I

understand it. It seems to me nonsense, in a period like our own, to think that

one can avoid writing of such subjects (Orwell).

4.1 Animal Farm

Animal Farm has been written by Orwell ―as a political allegory specifically directed at events in the Soviet Union since the Russian Revolution of 1917 and particularly at the Soviet leader, Josef Stalin‖ (Orwell, vii). In his fable, Orwell

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criticizes in an allegorical way the leaders of the revolution who become corrupted by power, their greed, ignorance and indifference. The idea of the revolution in Russian history is almost identical with the one portrayed in the fable.

The farm, which is inhabited by different kinds of animals, is owned by a cruel and unjust human owner, Mr. Jones. He represents the Russian tsar, Nicholas II, who was as well as Mr. Jones in the Animal Farm overthrown and replaced by a provisional government in the first revolution of February 1917.

The animals in this fable are not very similar to those of the classical fable. That might be a reflection of their different purpose. Animal Farm is not a typical fable which ends with a moral and where one of the animal characters is given a lesson.

Orwell has written a political fable that warns entire nations against totalitarianism and shows what happens if it is not properly suppressed. The main characters are pigs, which are animals that rarely appear in fables. In the Animal Farm, they play the roles of the most intelligent of all the animals on the farm.

In the introduction Carter describes several characters of the fable which resemble the real historical leaders of the Russian Revolution. For example, the old boar

Major stands for Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. Both of them, the historical figure as well as the character of the fable, did much to establish communism in their societies although at the animal farm, the idea of communism is called ―Animalism‖ (Orwell, 8). Old Major dies soon after the beginning of the story and two other pigs, Napoleon and Snowball take charge of the farm. Their ideas to achieve common prosperity differ excessively and soon it is obvious from the story who is playing the role of Joseph Stalin. In my opinion, the reason why Orwell decided to portray the leaders of the Russian revolution as pigs is that the pigs are generally seen as selfish, dirty and sluggish animals, although quite intelligent. 19

Accordingly, each group of animals depicts different groups of people which can be found in every society. For example the sheep at the farm do not possess many intellectual skills and are very easily persuaded to follow Napoleon, because they are not capable of understanding all ideas that Snowball brings up: ―At the Meetings

Snowball often won over the majority by his brilliant speeches, but Napoleon was better at canvassing support for himself in between times. He was especially successful with the sheep‖ (Orwell, 28).

They also often intervene into conversations among the animals with the learn phrases and by this interrupting, the animals lose a chance of discussion:

Frightened though they were, some of the animals might possibly have

protested, but at this moment the sheep set up their usual bleating of ―Four legs

good, two legs bad‖, which went on for several minutes and put an end to the

discussion (Orwell, 51).

Similarly, there were people who blindly followed Stalin although they did not properly understand his politics.

The character of Napoleon seizes control of the farm and his behaviour resembles that of Stalin in many aspects. Some animals respect and trust him, for example Boxer, who also represents people who blindly believe their dictator and overlook his cruelty. Orwell gives a true picture of Boxer in the sentence: ―His two slogans, ‗I will work harder‘ and ‗Napoleon is always right‘, seemed to him a sufficient answer to all problems‖ (Orwell, 36-37). He represents the working class of the society which blindly followed Stalinism. His faithfulness towards the pigs even inspires other animals to follow their orders. After Napoleon commands all the animals which conspired with Snowball to be slaughtered Boxer cannot believe what has happened trying to find the fault in the animals: 20

I do not understand it. I would not have believed that such things could happen

on our farm. It must be due to some fault in ourselves. The solution, as I see it, is

to work harder. From now onwards I shall get up a full hour earlier in the

mornings (Orwell, 50).

After that, he does not think about it anymore and follows through on his tasks.

When he is no longer needed on the farm, Napoleon decides to get rid of him in the most humiliating way. As usual, Squealer explains the situation as he is used to, making up false story about Boxer‘s last words: ―‗Forward comrades!‘ he whispered. ‗Forward in the name of the Rebellion. Long live Animal Farm! Long live Comrade Napoleon!

Napoleon is always right.‘ Those were his very last words, comrades‖ (Orwell, 71).

On the other hand, when someone disagrees with Napoleon‘s regime, he orders the executions of several of the animals which do not obey his orders. He has reared and trained a few butcherly dogs to intimidate all the animals which would make any effort to oppose. They symbolize the Soviet police, KGB, which during Stalin‘s regime arrested and executed many people who in some way wanted to question Stalin‘s decisions.

Snowball probably represents another communist leader in Russia‘s Revolution in 1917, Leon Trotsky. Napoleon is threatened by Snowball and wants to get rid of him to have control over the running of the farm by himself and that is why he is trying to set all the animals against him. According to Gardner, the expulsion of Snowball from the farm is the symbol of Trotsky‘s expulsion from Russia in 1929. She further points out that:

Like Trotsky, Snowball is turned into the arch-criminal and convenient bogy,

and in chapter 7, a grimly vivid miniature of the Soviet purges of the 1930s, a

number of animals, including four porkers, and some hens who have opposed 21

Napoleon's collectivization, are seized and executed after confessing they have

been in league with Snowball (Gardner).

According to historical sources, ―Trotsky remained the leader of an anti-Stalinist opposition abroad until his assassination by a Stalinist agent‖ (Encyclopaedia Britannica

11, 944).

After his expulsion, Snowball is accused of destroying a windmill which has been built by the animals. Some of the animals disagree with this judgment, but there is no use trying to discuss it with Napoleon or his sympathizers. Their most effective tool to suppress any sign of protests is terrorization:

Four young porkers in the front row uttered shrill squeals of disapproval, and all

four of them sprang to their feet and began speaking at once. But suddenly the

dogs sitting round Napoleon let out deep, menacing growls, and the pigs fell

silent and sat down again (Orwell, 33).

Some critics have suggested that the character of Squealer represents

Vyacheslav Molotov, ―statesman and diplomat who was foreign minister and the major spokesman for the Soviet Union at Allied conferences during and immediately after

World War II‖ (Encyclopaedia Britannica 8, 237). Similarly to Molotov‘s relationship towards Stalin, Squealer stands by Napoleon throughout the whole story and acts as his spokesman. His job is to persuade the animals that the only right leader in the farm is

Napoleon:

He was a brilliant talker, and when he was arguing some difficult point he had a

way of skipping from side to side and whisking his tail which was somehow

very persuasive. The others said of Squealer that he could turn black into white

(Orwell, 10).

22

He defends Napoleon‘s actions and policies in order to hush them up: ―...No one believes more firmly than Comrade Napoleon that all animals are equal. He would be only happy to let you make your decisions for yourselves. But sometimes you might make the wrong decisions, comrades, and then where should we be?‖ (Orwell, 33). He also cunningly tries to confuse them threatening about Jones‘ possible return repeating all the time ―Surely, comrades, you do not want Jones back?‖(33). He does not even hesitate to cast doubt upon their memory (56).

Not only do the animals of the Animal Farm illustrate the real historical figures, they are also given particular names. This is a specific use of the fable since in the majority of fables animals usually appear without names. Orwell has decided to name only some of the animals who play the roles of the most important individuals.

I have an impression that primarily Napoleon‘s name gives the animal character more concrete identity and personality. The reasons why Orwell has chosen the name

Napoleon for the pig which plays the part of Stalin are various. Napoleon Bonaparte was also a political and military leader who fought in the French Revolution. There are numerous debates whether or not he was also a dictator. The fact is that he proclaimed himself Emperor Napoleon I of France and consolidated power for himself. This attribute is very similar to Stalinism and in my opinion, Orwell wanted the society to realize that the abuse of power has occurred in every kind of autocracy by giving this name to his character.

Snowball‘s name evokes something pure and innocent, although he cannot be seen as an exclusively positive character. He also pushes ahead his sometimes too idealistic ideas which some of the animals are unable to comprehend. Moreover, he does nothing to prevent the pigs to behave as superior animals and that shows that he would not mind becoming an autonomous leader of the Animal farm. 23

Squealer‘s and Boxer‘s names speak for themselves. Boxer‘s distinguishing feature is strength, endurance and determination. He actually works himself to death, which sometimes happens to boxers who blindly believe in victory and fight although they have fatal injuries. Boxer also blindly believes in succession of Animalism, which finally costs him his life.

Another important feature of this fable is also the fact that the characters who represent historical figures are not only animals, but also humans. They represent allegorical political relations with the past or future partners. For instance, Mr. Jones plays the role of the Tsarist autocracy which has been destroyed in the revolution by the

Soviet society – Animal Farm. The two other possible partners to trade with the animals are Mr. Pilkington of Foxwood and Mr. Frederick of Pinchfield, who ―disliked each other so much that it was difficult for them to come to any agreement, even in defense of their own interests‖ (Orwell, 23). According to Fitzpatrick, they represent the leaders of (Churchill) and (Hitler) and their descriptions quite faithfully characterize the countries‘ policies:

Mr. Pilkington is described as: ―an easy-going gentleman farmer who spent

much of his time in fishing or hunting according to the season,‖ and his farm is

―large, neglected, [and] old-fashioned.‖ Frederick, on the other hand, is ―a tough,

shrewd , perpetually involved in lawsuits and with a name for driving hard

bargains,‖ and his farm is ―smaller and better kept.‖ Pilkington is thus

representative of the Allies‘ lackadaisical attitude toward their neighbors, while

Frederick carries with him elements of German aggressiveness and bellicosity

(Fitzpatrick).

Firstly the animals agree on the statement ―Four legs good, two legs bad‖ and name it ―the essential principle of Animalism‖ (Orwell, 21). However, towards the end 24

of the fable, the commandment turns into ―Four legs good, two legs better‖ and

Napoleon gradually builds good relationships with the neighbouring farmers. The animals are especially scared of Mr Frederick because of his ill-treatment of the animals in his farm:

Moreover terrible stories were leaking out from Pinchfield about the cruelties

that Frederick practised upon his animals. He had flogged an old horse to death,

he starved his cows, he had killed a dog by throwing it into the furnace, he

amused himself in the evenings by making cocks fight with splinters of razor-

blade tied in their spurs (55).

As Fitzpatrick further points out, all these cruelties resemble the horrors of

Hitler‘s during the Holocaust (Fitzpatrick). However, the animals are obviously not able to realize that the same has already been happening to them: their comrades being killed, too long working hours and a lack of food. As Greenblatt concludes:

―Communism is no more or less evil than Fascism or Capitalism— they are all illusions which are inevitably used by the pigs as a means of satisfying their greed and their lust for power‖ (Greenblatt).

The human characters in the fable depict precisely what the animals wanted to free themselves of before the rebellion. The fact that they suffer the same or more as they suffered before the revolution correlates the reality of the Russian Revolution not bringing any freedom or better conditions to the society, only changing the leading figures. It follows that Napoleon and other pigs start to behave like humans including walking on two legs and carrying a whip (Orwell, 76). Napoleon‘s abuse of power and making decisions for his own good caused a vicious circle to emerge.

To conclude, Orwell‘s aim was to openly point out to the tendency of people to control by force not only animals, but also human beings who are too weak to oppose. 25

The negative human qualities such as inclination to violence are then transferred on the animals and the fact that later some species of animals control all the other strengthens the message.

It is necessary to realize that the use of the fable in Animal Farm is different from the previous works I have analyzed. It is primarily its allegory on political events and developments that gives it a totally different effect. In Appreciating Animal Farm in the new millennium Rodden states:

Animal Farm mirrors our human world, which is sometimes referred to as ―the

human circus‖ because the various types of human personality can be compared

to the character types of animals. Some humans are like pigs, others resemble

sheep, still others can be compared to dogs, and so forth. On this level, Orwell‘s

―fable‖ about human nature transcends both history and particular political

events (Rodden).

Similar as in the Russian Revolution, at the beginning, the idea of the revolution at Animal farm is not bad at all. Animals pull together in order to get rid of the cruel master and establish equality among all of them. However, as some of them start to command and control others, leaders come to power and the idealistic intent changes into corruption of the power. The animal characters divide into two groups – the class of oppressors and the class of those who are oppressed. Orwell‘s intention is to point out on the fact that equality has never been truly experienced neither at the Animal farm, nor in Stalin‘s Russia. Animals represent true historical characters and events.

Due to these reasons it can be assumed that Orwell and his Animal Farm actually challenges the idea that the fable is always fictional. His fable is based on which may happen anytime if people are not aware of the abuse of power. That is the most distinctive aspect he employs. 26

5 Comparison of the Nun’s Priest’s Tale and the Animal

Farm

The uses of the fable in the works by Chaucer and Orwell which I analyze in my thesis can be compared and contrasted from several points of view. The most distinctive aspects of The Nun’s Priest’s Tale and the Animal Farm lie in their usage of animal and human characters, settings, usage of language, expressions of a moral and of course the historical backgrounds of the periods in which they were written.

As far as characters are concerned, one of the common features of both of the fables is that the number of the characters considerably exceeds the usual number of characters in the classical fables. One of the reasons is that in both works the setting is a farm or a yard inhabited by different kinds of animals. In The Nun’s Priest’s Tale the plot develops mainly around the hens and the main characters – a cock Chanticleer and a fox. The rest of the animals are not very important for the plot itself and for the moral which it brings, they only outline the setting. Orwell, on the other hand, places each of the animals of the farm in a specific role. They either represent individual historical figures (Napoleon as Stalin) or groups of specific people in society (Boxer and Clover as the working class, sheep as blind followers of the regime).

Similarly, although both authors give names to their characters, each of them does so for a different purpose. While Orwell uses allegorical names which already suggest the basic qualities of the characters (Squealer, Boxer), Chaucer names only some of them in order to distinguish them from the other ones of the same species (e.g.

Pertelote), or simply because it fits into the verses:

Three hefty sows – no more – were all her showing,

Three cows as well; there was a sheep called Molly. 27

Sooty her hall, her kitchen melancholy… (Chaucer, 238).

After this verse, Molly appears in the fable no more.

Each author has a different approach to the usage of language in the fables.

Chaucer‘s fable is written in verses and the way he plays with language is often witty and kind. This feature appears in almost all of the fables of classical fabulists, where the plot is not very serious and what is the most important – it ends with a happy ending.

The imprudent animal is given a lesson.

In The Nun’s Priest’s Tale the plot generally contains positive descriptions.

There are fragments of love expressed by Chanticleer towards Pertelote and all his

―paramours‖, which create the humorous and gentle atmosphere of the fable:

This gentlecock was master in some measure

Of seven hens, all there to do his pleasure.

They were his sisters and his paramours,

Coloured like him in all particulars;

She with the loveliest dyes upon her throat

Was known as gracious Lady Pertelote (Chaucer, 239).

The fragments of love and friendship could be found in Orwell‘s fable too, but these themes are not widely developed. In the emotive scene when the van comes to take Boxer away, there is a depiction of the powerlessness of the animals. Although they are upset, most of them are not able to do anything to rescue him (Orwell, 70). The rescuing scene appears in The Nun’s Priest’s Tale too when the fox abducts Chanticleer.

All the animals from the yard begin to run and shriek in order to help him (Chaucer,

253).

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The animal characters of The Nun’s Priest’s Tale, especially Chanticleer and

Pertelote always discuss things in a very sophisticated and intelligent way. For example, when Chanticleer is trying to explain that dreams are valid evidence of what may actually happen, he uses several different stories to prove the statement. He seems to be a well-read person with a good general knowledge:

Look at Lord , king of Egypt! Look

At what befell his butler and his cook.

Did not their visions have a certain force?

But those who study history of course

Meet many dreams that set them wondering… (Chaucer, 246-247).

In the Animal Farm, most animals are not given such space for self-realization and their dialogues are short. The animals there are not able to read, most of them are unwise. They do not express emotions to such a degree as Chaucer‘s characters do. For instance, after Napoleon expels Snowball from the farm, Boxer is dissatisfied with it, but to protest is beyond his strength: ―He set his ears back, shook his forelock several times, and tried hard to marshal his thoughts; but in the end he could not think of anything to say‖ (Orwell, 33). Already at the beginning of the fable it is obvious that the pigs are considerably cleverer and more intelligent than the rest of the animals. While pigs are able to read, write or even climb a ladder (62), most of the animals on the farm are only capable of their animal abilities. The reason for this is the fact that very often larger groups of people turn a blind eye to injustice. They tend to follow the learnt way of life, unable to change it in any way.

As long as human characters are concerned, they appear in both fables, but they as well as the animals represent different purposes. Orwell uses human characters to depict political leaders of several nations (Mr. Pilkington – Churchill, Mr. Frederick – 29

Hitler, Mr. Jones – tsar Nicholas II). Chaucer, on the other hand, places human characters in Chanticleer‘s speech. The cock always refers to humans when including historical references to support his speeches. They also appear in his dreams. It is quite natural that a cock of his knowledge and intelligence would not dream about animals.

The animals in Orwell‘s fable do not get on with humans in general. Jones is their worst enemy because of his indifference and cruelty. The relationship of ―lower‖ animals towards Napoleon and other pigs is getting worse simultaneously as they are getting day by day more similar to humans: ―There was a deadly silence. Amazed, terrified, huddling together, the animals watched the long line of pigs march slowly round the yard. It was as though the world had turned upside-down‖ (Orwell, 76). Contrary to the

Animal Farm, in The Nun’s Priest’s Tale humans are rather friends than foes of the animals. In the scene where Chanticleer is taken away by the fox, they ―ran so hard they thought their hearts would burst‖ to rescue him (Chaucer, 253).

Another distinctive aspect is the narrative. Chaucer‘s narrator often enters the story in order either to predict what is going to happen before it really happens, or by judging the actions from his own point of view. He also enriches the story by adding historical events in almost every strophe. For instance, when Chanticleer is in the fox‘s capture, the narrator puts the blame for it mainly on Pertelote referring to a biblical story:

O women‘s counsel is so often cold!

A women‘s counsel brought us first to woe,

Made Adam out of Paradise to go

Where he had been so merry, so well at ease

However, immediately after that, he again cleverly adds:

What has been said of women; you‘ll find out. 30

These are the cock‘s words, and not mine I‘m giving;

I think no harm of any woman living... (Chaucer, 250).

As far as the are concerned, there is a considerable difference between the two fables. Chaucer‘s narrator follows the Aesopian pattern in some way, adding the moral to the end of the fable:

Lo, such it is not to be on your guard

Against the flatterer of the world, or yard,

And if you think my story is absurd,

A foolish trifle of a beast and bird,

A fable of a fox, a cock, a hen,

Take hold upon the moral, gentlemen (Chaucer, 255).

By these lines, Chaucer is obviously trying to be serious after being quite witty during the whole fable. He emphasizes the fact that the flatterers can be found in our yards

(homes) as well as in an outer world.

Orwell, on the other hand, does not warn anyone against anything not only at the end but nowhere in the story. He leaves the moral to be detected by readers themselves.

The historical background of the period when both authors wrote is also one of the features that influence the final shapes of the fables. From the first appearance until nowadays, fables have been written in order to teach people, demonstrating to them how one should behave so as not to be taught a bitter lesson. Although Chaucer‘s The Nun’s

Priest’s Tale could seem a bit less ―serious‖ about human follies than the Animal Farm, it is not good to take his intention to warn against flattery lightly. He has chosen the human vice which might not be one of the worst, but it has appeared in everyday life of all of the people in the different centuries.

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However, Chaucer does not point out some specific case of flattery in his society. Although throughout the tale he refers to many historical events and figures, the moral which comes at the end does not criticise any particular person. The flatterers are taught a lesson and the fable ends well. It is a nice, simple story that of course teaches a lesson, but in a very gentle way. Orwell, on the other hand, does not warn of anything throughout the story, which at the first glance makes the fable look like an ordinary fairy story about animals. As a matter of fact, it criticises and mocks serious political problems in the societies of his time. Hollis emphasizes the fact that the Animal Farm, by contrast to the fables by Chaucer and La Fontaine does not end with a happy ending at all:

The animal fable, if it is to succeed at all, ought clearly to carry with it a gay and

light-hearted message. It must be full of and laughter. The form is too

far removed from reality to tolerate sustained bitterness. Both Chaucer and La

Fontaine discovered this in their times, and the trouble with Orwell was that the

lesson which he wished to teach was not ultimately a gay lesson. It was not the

lesson that mankind had its foibles and its follies but that all would be well in the

end. It was more nearly a lesson of despair - the lesson that anarchy was

intolerable, that mankind could not be ruled without entrusting power

somewhere or other and, to whomsoever power was entrusted, it was almost

certain to be abused (Hollis).

In any case, both fables have a lot to tell to a variety of readers. Although

Chaucer and Orwell were not the authors of children‘s literature, their stories are so extraordinary and their uses of animal characters so lively, that in my opinion they can be read by readers of all ages. For children, the fable is a nice alternative to fairytales, which also teach to distinguish between good and evil. In addition, the two fables show 32

what happens if animals are not careful about ―human follies‖ which some of them possess. I think that if children get used to reading stories which warn against greed, flattery, abuse of power etc, it will be more natural for them to recognise such qualities of people in the future.

The fable is one of the literary genres that will never become old-fashioned. It is of no consequence whether it has been written in ancient , medieval period or modern times. The human nature and demerits remain the same, no matter what century people live in. The outcome of comparing the fables The Nun’s Priest’s Tale and the

Animal Farm is that there will always be people whose conduct may harm not only an individual being, but entire nations as well. Both Chaucer‘s and Orwell‘s aim was to warn against it and I think that the message they have left will always be relevant.

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6 Conclusion

In this bachelor thesis, the uses of the fable in medieval and modern English literature are examined in detail from several points of view. The genre of the fable can be traced back to Ancient Greece and the first fables are distinctively associated with

Aesop. Throughout the centuries the classical fables have been rewritten by number of fabulists in many different ways. In this thesis I concentrate mainly on fables by

Geoffrey Chaucer and George Orwell, which share some features with classical fables and at the same time they are prominent in their specific uses.

Firstly I have explored the genre of the fable, its usual form and particular features. I have distinguished it from other, similar genres as allegory or exemplum, by explaining the Aesopian pattern and its influence on the future writers of the fables. The classical Aesopian fables have inspired many successful fabulists such as Jean de La

Fontaine, Ivan Andreyevich Krylov or John Gay.

The third and the fourth chapters are devoted to a detailed analysis of The Nun’s

Priest’s Tale and the Animal Farm. Chaucer‘s use of the fable is distinguished by three peculiar aspects. The first one is his usage of a mixture of genres. The Nun’s Priest’s

Tale is not only a medieval example of the beast fable, it is also enriched with fragments of the dream vision genre and the chivalric romance genre. The second important distinction is the way of the narration. The narrator often enters the story commenting on what is happening and making historical references. The last distinction relates to the moral of the fable, which is represented by a lesson given to both of the main characters

– not only to the cock but to the fox as well.

The Animal Farm is an even more specific kind of a fable than The Nun’s

Priest’s Tale. In the analysis of the animal characters I draw attention to the fact that not

34

only do the animals of the Animal Farm illustrate real historical figures, they are also given particular names. This is a specific use of the fable since in the majority of fables animals usually appear without names. Moreover the names also carry allegorical meanings by which the depictions of particular historical figures or groups of people are even more faithful.

By comparing Chaucer‘s and Orwell‘s fables with the classical Aesopian pattern

I have come to a conclusion that the Animal Farm does not share many common features with the classical fable. The reason is that Orwell‘s fable is very specific and although the moral it depicts is apparent, it is not a part of the text itself. It portrays a political allegory of the serious events in the history of the Russian Revolution and its consequences. The Nun’s Priest’s Tale, on the other hand, much more resembles the classical fables. In contrast to the Animal Farm, the animal characters do not represent any particular people of the society. Chaucer warns people against flattery openly as the moral is emphasised by the narrator at the end of the tale.

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39

Czech Résumé

Ve své bakalářské práci se zabývám zkoumáním bajky, žánru, jehož kořeny sahají do antického Řecka a většina lidí si jej spojuje hlavně s Ezopem. Zaměřuji se zejména na dvě specifická zpracování bajky, a to v dílech The Nun’s Priest’s Tale

(Povídka kněze jeptišek) od Geoffrey Chaucera a Animal Farm (Zvířecí farma) od

George Orwella. Obě tato díla jsou rozebírána z různých úhlů pohledu. V centru zájmu stojí především analýza zvířecích postav, rozdílné vyjádření ponaučení, které z bajek vyplývá, a motivy autorů k napsání těchto bajek. Závěrečná kapitola se snaží porovnat specifické rysy v použití bajky u obou autorů, a zhodnotit přínos obou bajek pro

čtenáře. Cílem této práce je poukázat na různé, individuální použití bajky od časů Ezopa až po moderní dobu na příkladě vybraných autorů.

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English Résumé

In my bachelor thesis The Uses of the Fable in Medieval and Modern English

Literature I explore the genre of the fable which goes back to Ancient Greece and is associated with Aesop by many people. I focus on two specific uses of the fable - in particular Geoffrey Chaucer‘s The Nun’s Priest’s Tale and George Orwell‘s the Animal

Farm. Both these works are analysed from different points of view. I concentrate principally on the analysis of animal characters, expression of a moral that the fables represent and the motives of the authors to write the fables. In the final chapter, a comparison of the distinctive features in the uses of the fable of both authors is made.

The goal of the thesis is to point out various individual uses of the genre of the fable from the Aesopian times until the modern period on the example of selected authors.

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Appendices

―The Lion and the Mouse‖

―The Nun‘s Priest‘s Tale‖ 42

―Animal Farm‖

43