The Max Planck Institute for Human Develop- Since the 1980s and with the appointment of a ment, founded in 1963, is a multidisciplinary third generation of senior fellows and scientific research establishment dedicated to the study directors (Paul B. Baltes, 1980; Karl Ulrich of human development and education. Its Mayer, 1983; Jürgen Baumert, 1996; Gerd inquiries are broadly defined, encompassing Gigerenzer, 1997), research at the Institute has evolutionary, historical, social, and institutional concentrated more and more on questions of contexts of individual human development from basic research associated with the nature of infancy to old age. The disciplines of psychology, human development, education, and work in history, and education, which reflect the current a changing society. At the same time, lifespan directors’ backgrounds, are enriched by the developmental and life-course research were

work of colleagues from behavioral and added as a signature profile of the Institute’s 2011-2013Research Report developmental neuroscience, evolutionary research program. biology, economics, mathematics, computer science, sociology, and the humanities. Latest developments in the succession of generations were marked by the appointment The Institute is one of about 80 research facili- of Ulman Lindenberger as new director of the ties financed by the Max Planck Society for the Center for Lifespan Psychology (2004), adding Advancement of Science (Max-Planck-Gesell- an emphasis on neural correlates of human schaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften e.V.), behavior and cognitive plasticity, and by the the core support for which is provided by the appointment of Ute Frevert as director of the Federal Republic of Germany and its 16 states. newly established Center for the History of Emotions (2007), adding perspectives from The Institute was founded in 1963 by Hellmut cultural history to the Institute‘s research Becker, who was joined subsequently by agenda on human development. Friedrich Edding (1964), Dietrich Goldschmidt (1964), and Saul B. Robinsohn (1964) as the The appointment of Ralph Hertwig (2012) has first generation of scientific directors. In the further enriched the Institute’s research on first decade of its existence, the development human decision-making processes, with a of educational research and educational policy special focus on the social environment and was emphasized. changes across the lifespan.

The appointment of a second generation of directors (Wolfgang Edelstein, 1973, and Peter M. Roeder, 1973) added to this framework a commitment to basic research in human development and educational processes. Max Planck Institute for Human Development Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung Research Report 2 011 – 2 013

Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung Max Planck Institute for Human Development

Lentzeallee 94 · 14195 Berlin, Germany Fon: +49 30 82406-0 · Fax: +49 30 8249939 www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de

RR_2014_Cover_final_140310.indd 1 14.03.14 11:15 Research Report 2 011 – 2 013 Impressum © 2014 Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin Design: Based on the design of Grafisches Atelier Rudolf J. Schmitt, Berlin Realization: Christel Fraser, Marianne Hauser, Renate Hoffmann, Jürgen Rossbach, Erna Schiwietz, Nicole Siller, Kerstin Skork of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development Printed 2014 by DBM Druckhaus Berlin-Mitte GmbH, Germany © Cover Photo: K. Bartel/R. Brauner

Contents

Introduction 6 Editorial 8 Overview 9

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 15 Introductory Overview 19 Bounded Rationality 20 Ecological Rationality 23 Social Rationality 30 Theory Integration 39 Risk Literacy in Health 43 Decision Making in the Wild 56 Publications 2011–2013 64

Center for Adaptive Rationality 77 Introductory Overview 79 Research Area 1: Simple Heuristics in a Complex World 82 Research Area 2: Reckoning With Uncertainty: Search and Learning 97 Research Area 3: The Lifespan Development of Decision Making 104 Research Area 4: Empowering and Educating the Decision Maker 112 Publications 2011–2013 123

Center for the History of Emotions 129 Introductory Overview 131 Research Area: Education and Cultivation of Emotions 140 Research Area: Emotions and the Body 154 Research Area: Emotions and Power 169 Publications 2011–2013 185

Center for Lifespan Psychology 195 Introductory Overview 199 Research Project 1: Neuromodulation of Lifespan Cognition (Concluding Report) 207 Research Project 2: Intra-Person Dynamics Across the Lifespan 211 Research Project 3: Cognitive and Neural Dynamics of Memory Across the Lifespan (ConMem) 217 Research Project 4: Mechanisms and Sequential Progression of Plasticity 223 Research Project 5: Sensorimotor–Cognitive Couplings Across the Lifespan 227 Research Project 6: The Berlin Aging Studies (BASE) 233 Research Project 7: Interactive Brains, Social Minds 239 Research Project 8: Brain Imaging Methods in Lifespan Psychology 245 Research Project 9: Formal Methods in Lifespan Psychology 248 Publications 2011–2013 254 Max Planck Research Group Affect Across the Lifespan 265 Introductory Overview 267 Research Emphasis 1: Age-Related Differences in Affect Dynamics 267 Research Emphasis 2: Age-­Related Differences in Affective ­Competencies 281 Publications 2011–2013 287

Max Planck Research Group Felt Communities? Emotions in European Music Performances 291 Introductory Overview 293 Publications 2011–2013 312

Max Planck Research Group Reading Education and Development (REaD) 315 Introductory Overview 317 childLex: A Corpus of German Read by Children 318 DeveL: The Developmental Lexicon Project 324 DevTrack: The Developmental Eye-Tracking Study 328 Investigating Reading Longitudinally: OPeRA and PLAiT 333 Publications 2012–2013 339

Emeriti Jürgen Baumert and Wolfgang Edelstein 341 Jürgen Baumert’s Research Program 343 Publications 2011–2013 349

International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks 355 International Max Planck Research School on the Life Course (LIFE) 357 International Max Planck Research School for Moral Economies of Modern Societies (Moral Economies) 362 International Max Planck Research School Adapting Behavior in a Fundamentally Uncertain World 365 MaxNetAging Research School 367 Max Planck Research Network on Cognition (Maxnet Cognition): Concluding Report 368

Max Planck Fellow Gert G. Wagner 371 Publications 2011–2013 375

Scientific Services 377 Library and Research Information Unit 379 Central IT Unit 381

Appendix 384 1. Honors and Awards 2011–2013 387 2. Research Colloquia 2011–2013 390 3. Conferences, Workshops, and Seminars 2011–2013 397 4. Political Delegations and Guests 2011–2013 400 5. Visiting Researchers 2011–2013 401 6. Other Professional Activities 2011–2013 403 7. Academic Degrees 2011–2013 408 8. Research and Professional Staff 2011–2013 410 9. Where Have Our Researchers Gone? New Positions 2011–2013 428 Introduction

Editorial

Half a century ago, our Institute came into existence. To celebrate its 50th anniversary, over 300 guests from Germany and abroad joined us at a scientific symposium held on 9 October 2013. This occasion gave us the opportunity to reflect on the Institute’s past, present, and fu- ture. In its 50 years of activities, the Institute has left its mark on scientific research worldwide and has also been influenced by developments elsewhere. Rather than riding on its prestige, the Institute has continually reinvented itself and actively risked entering new areas, as illustrated in this report.

Two new research centers and a new doctoral program have broadened our spectrum of research. Founded in July 2012 and led by Sascha Schroeder, the Max Planck Research Group “Reading Education and Development” (REaD) looks at the underlying structure and develop- ment of literacy acquisition in children and youth. The Center for Adaptive Rationality (ARC), headed by Institute Director Ralph Hertwig, began operations in October 2012. It investigates decision processes in a complex and uncertain world. Our doctoral programs have also seen a number of changes. In the autumn of 2013, the International Max Planck Research School for Moral Economies of Modern Societies (IMPRS Moral Economies) welcomed its first six doctoral students. The graduate school is a cooperation between the MPI for Human Development, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Technische Universität Berlin. In addi- tion, we were able to augment our research facilities with the acquisition of an MRI scanner and the expansion and renovation of our Movement Lab.

We are also keen on dialogue with the public. To this end, we again opened our doors on Berlin’s “Long Night of the Sciences” in 2012 and 2013. Interest in our work remained at a consistently high level, averaging 670 visitors per event. As evidenced by our Children’s Day 2012 and our involvement in selected children’s universities, we particularly strive to spark enthusiasm in children and young people for our research topics and thereby nurture future scientists. An- other important activity was the interactive display by the REaD Research Group, which went on board the MS Science—a ship converted into a floating exhibition by Wissenschaft im Dialog (Science in Dialogue) and the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research—and is cur- rently on view at the Deutsches Museum in Munich.

On a more somber note, Peter Martin Roeder passed away on 11 September 2011. Roeder was director at the Institute from 1973 to 1995. He was one of the first to take an empirical and sociohistorical approach to educational research and is one of Germany’s most influential educational researchers.

Detailed information on the structure, programs, and outcomes of the research centers’ activi- ties during the reporting period is provided on the following pages, supplemented by lists and figures in the appendix.

Berlin, February 2014 For the Board of Directors: Gerd Gigerenzer

8 | Introduction Overview

The MPI for Human Development, founded in 1963, is a multidisciplinary research institution dedicated to the study of human development and education. Its inquiries are broadly defined, encompassing evolutionary, historical, social, and institutional contexts of individual human development from infancy to old age. The disciplines of psychology, history, and education, which reflect the current directors’ backgrounds, are enriched by the work of colleagues from behavioral and developmental neuroscience, evolutionary biology, economics, mathematics, computer science, sociology, and the humanities.

The Institute is one of about 80 research better understand health statistics and works facilities financed by the Max Planck Society on implementing risk literacy in schools and for the Advancement of Science (Max-Planck- lobbying for transparent health information Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissen- (pp. 43–55). schaften e. V.), the core support for which is The Center for Adaptive Rationality (Direc- provided by the Federal Republic of Germany tor: Ralph Hertwig) was newly established in and its 16 states. The total permanent staff at October 2012. The Center investigates how the Institute is 108, including 31 researchers, people make boundedly rational decisions supplemented by a varying number of predoc- in complex and uncertain social and nonso- toral, postdoctoral, and affiliated researchers cial worlds. The current research focuses on and visiting fellows. (1) bounded rationality, that is, the simple heuristics that people recruit in order to navi- Research Centers gate a complex world; (2) information search In the 2011–2013 period, research at the and learning as key processes in reckoning Institute was organized primarily in four with uncertainty; (3) how decision-making research centers: strategies develop over the lifespan and The Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cog­ respond to the challenges of cognitive aging; nition (Director: Gerd Gigerenzer) investigates and (4) ways in which heuristics, mental human rationality, in particular decision mak- strategies, and environments can be designed ing and risk perception in an uncertain world. to empower citizens, patients, doctors, and Current research focuses on (1) adaptive and policy makers to make better decisions. In ecological rationality, that is, heuristic deci- each of these areas, a variety of methods are sion making by experts and laypeople in situ- employed, including behavioral experiments, ations under uncertainty as opposed to known computer simulations, mathematical analy- risks; (2) social intelligence in cooperation ses, and neuroscientific tools (pp. 77–127). and competition; and (3) risk understanding The Center for the History of Emotions and uncertainty management in everyday life, (Director: Ute Frevert), which opened in 2008, including applications in medicine, law, edu- examines emotions as a major feature of cation, and financial regulation. Each of these human development both in an ontogenetic research areas emphasizes the evolutionary and a phylogenetic sense. The research rests foundations of behavior and cognition, in par- on the assumption that emotions—feelings ticular their domain specificity and functional and their expressions—are shaped by culture adaptiveness (pp. 15–75). and learned in social contexts through social The Harding Center for Risk Literacy, as practices. Since these contexts and practices part of the Center for Adaptive Behavior and change in space and time, emotions are held Cognition, was founded by a 2.2 million euro to be historically variable. In order to detect donation from the London investment banker and explore this variability, the Center’s David Harding. Its key research topic is risk scope includes different societies within and literacy in a modern technological world, with outside Europe. Special attention is paid to a focus on health care. To date, the Center institutions that bear a strong impact on hu- has taught over 1,000 physicians how to man behavior and development, such as the

Introduction | 9 Figure 1. Excellent working environment for the scientific research staff. © David Ausserhofer

family, school, law, religion, the economy, the The Max Planck Research Group “Felt Com­ military, and the state, as they have developed munities? Emotions in European Music Per­ since the (early) modern period (pp. 129–193). formance” (Head: Sven Oliver Müller) studies The Center for Lifespan Psychology (Direc- the historical development of the emotions tor: Ulman Lindenberger) has helped to triggered by music in the 19th and 20th establish lifespan psychology as a distinct centuries. Focusing on emotions as a public conceptual approach within developmental form of communication, the Research Group psychology. Work at the Center is guided aims to decipher the emotional structure of by three propositions: (1) to study lifespan communities (pp. 291–313). changes in behavior as interactions among The Max Planck Research Group “Reading maturation, learning, and senescence; (2) to Education and Development” (REaD) (Head: develop theories and methods that inte- Sascha Schroeder) began in July 2012 to in- grate empirical evidence across domains of vestigate the underlying structure of students’ functioning, timescales, as well as behav- reading skills and their development during ioral and neural levels of analysis; and (3) childhood and adolescence. Their research to identify mechanisms of development by will provide a more detailed description of the exploring age-graded differences in plasticity cognitive processes involved in reading and (pp. 195–263). analyze their conditions and consequences (pp. 315–339). Max Planck Research Groups The Max Planck Research Group “Affect­ Research Programs of the Directors Emeriti Across the Lifespan” (Head: Michaela With the support of the President of the Max Riediger) aims at contributing new insights on Planck Society, the Directors emeriti Jürgen age-related differences in affective experi- Baumert and Wolfgang ­Edelstein continue to ences and competencies, focusing primarily pursue their research programs at the MPI for on the age range from adolescence to old age Human Development. Jürgen Baumert’s work (pp. 265–288). focuses on the reform of the Berlin second-

10 | Introduction ary school system, the relationship between research workshops, and annual conferences students’ educational resources and their (p. 367). life course, the development of teachers’ The MPI for Human Development also par- professional competence, and the potential ticipates in the Berlin School of Mind and of bilingual alphabetization in multicultural Brain. The program offers a 2-year Master’s societies. Wolfgang Edelstein’s work focuses degree, a comprehensive 3-year doctoral pro- on sociomoral development, democracy gram, and postdoctoral research and career education, and democratic school reform. development opportunities. The focus is on With support from the Jacobs Foundation, a the interface between the humanities and Masters course focusing on these topics has behavioral sciences with the neurosciences. been developed at the Freie Universität Berlin The Max Planck Research Network on Cog­ (pp. 341–353). nition (Maxnet Cognition) focuses on the behavioral science, the behavioral neurosci- International Max Planck Research Schools ence, and the computer science of cognition. (IMPRS) & Networks The main goal of the Network is to foster An important collaborative effort involving research cooperation between institutes and three of the four Centers and two of the three across sections of the Max Planck Society Max Planck Research Groups at the Institute on a small number of particularly important as well as universities in Berlin, the United research topics in the field of cognition that States, and Switzerland is the International profit from an interdisciplinary approach Max Planck Research School on the Life (p. 368). Course (LIFE). The aim is advanced research training in the study of human behavior and Max Planck Fellowship institutional systems over evolutionary and In June 2008, Gert G. Wagner was appointed ontogenetic time (pp. 357–361). a Max Planck Fellow at the Institute. Gert The International Max Planck Research G. Wagner is professor at the Technische School Moral Economies of Modern Socie­ Universität Berlin and since 2011 Member of ties started in October 2013 and explores the Executive Board of the German Institute the “moral economies” by identifying values, for Economic Research (DIW Berlin). The Max emotions, and habits that inform and inspire Planck Society established the Fellow Program social formations which have emerged since to further strengthen research coopera- the 18th century in Europe, North America, tion between its institutes and neighboring and South Asia. Research and the curriculum universities and other research institutions. focus on the interlocking of new modes of The cooperation with Gert G. Wagner, one of feeling and the definition and justification of the leading researchers running the German new social values (pp. 362–364). Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP), allows The International Max Planck Research researchers at the Institute to link their ex- School Uncertainty integrates research in perimental work, such as cognitive interven- economics and psychology with a focus on tions, to longitudinal observations from the cognitive and social strategies in uncertain SOEP. In addition, innovative survey technolo- and changing situations that involve individu- gies, such as mobile-phone-based cognitive als and institutions. The program extends testing in real-life settings, can be explored to legal decision making and applications and validated. Ulman Lindenberger and Gert (pp. 365–366). G. Wagner are two out of five Co-Principal The Max Planck International Research Investigators of the Berlin Aging Study II Network on Aging (MaxNetAging)­ is a vir- (BASE-II) (pp. 371–375). tual institute for the advancement of research on the causes, patterns, processes, and con- Scientific Services sequences of aging. MaxNetAging consists of The Scientific Services of the MPI for Human a doctoral and postdoctoral stipend program Development support the individual Research (MaxNetAging Research School), fellowships, Centers, their researchers, and other ser-

Introduction | 11 Figure 2. Numerous events promote the scientific exchange. © David Ausserhofer

vice units at the Institute. The Library and ments, and the lively discussion following Research Information Unit (Head: Ursula the presentations indicated that this format Flitner) ensures rapid access to printed and answers an actual need and opens new ways electronic resources and provides compre- of cross-disciplinary communication. This is hensive support for the efficient and indepen- to be continued. dent use and dissemination of information (pp. 379–380). The Central IT Unit (Head: Teaching Activities and Academic Degrees Wolfgang Assmann) supports scientific ap- The Institute has always considered its coop- plications with future-oriented information eration with universities as very important, technologies under continuous consideration especially in participating in teaching ac- of data security and data protection aspects. tivities. Scientific staff members—directors, The Institute‘s infrastructure services, such as research scientists, postdoctoral as well as network, computing, and storage, allows for predoctoral fellows—have held seminars and running different kinds of complex statistical lectures at German universities and abroad, analyses (pp. 381–382). for example, University of Basel, Charité Universitätsmedizin­ Berlin, Freie Universität Interdisciplinarity Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Interdisciplinarity is one of the main University of Bielefeld, University of Erfurt, strengths of the MPI for Human Develop- Justus Liebig University Giessen, University of ment. Different types of events promote Mannheim, Osnabrück University, University the scientific exchange. A new format is St. Petersburg FINEC, University of Vienna, particularly noteworthy. In May 2013, the etc. In addition, institute members were sup- first Interdisciplinary Colloquium took place ported in completing their academic degrees at the Institute. This newly established in cooperation with universities in Berlin format, initiated by the Center for the His- and elsewhere. Between 2011 and 2013, tory of Emotions and organized by a team 6 ­habilitations and 28 doctoral dissertations recruited from all Centers, is arranged as a were completed by research staff members prelunch seminar series: Researchers coming of the Institute. from various disciplines give short talks on All degrees are listed in the Appendix. The Ap- a set topic. The talks are commented on by pendix also provides lists of research collo- somebody from a different discipline. This quia, workshops, and conferences held at the guarantees that there is real interdisciplin- Institute. It also includes further information ary exchange and debate. The topic of the about visiting researchers and the scientific first colloquium was ­MEMORY. Talks, com- staff members.

12 | Introduction Governance of the Institute The Institute is governed by a Board of Directors that consists of the members of the Institute who are Fellows (Wissenschaftliche Mitglieder) of the Max Planck Society. The Board of Direc- tors elects one of the directors to serve as the Managing Director on a rotational basis, usually for a period of 2 years. In the present reporting period, the Board consisted of the following members:

Ute Frevert (Managing Director until 06/2011) Gerd Gigerenzer (Managing Director) Ralph Hertwig Ulman Lindenberger

The Board is augmented by one member of the Institute’s research staff (Margrit Pernau), the heads of the Max Planck Research Groups (Michaela Riediger, Sven Oliver Müller, and Sascha Schroeder), and the head of the Administration (Brigitte Merz). Several in-house committees, composed of representatives either elected by the entire research staff or appointed, advise the Board of Directors on matters of scientific research and policy. One of the major institute-wide committees is the Scientific Staff Committee (Mitarbeiter- ausschuss), whose members are elected by all researchers. The International Board of Scientific Advisors offers an important source of external review and advice to both the directors and the scientific staff on research matters at the Institute. Members are selected from an international circle of distinguished researchers and appointed by the President of the Max Planck Society. They meet triannually to discuss completed, ongo- ing, and future research projects at the Institute. In this reporting period, the Board consisted of the following members:

Rajeev Bhargava CSDS­—Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, Delhi, India Joanna Bourke Birkbeck College, London, UK Jacquelynne S. Eccles University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA (until 12/2012) Ido Erev Technion­—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel Andreas Gestrich German Historical Institute London, UK Reid Hastie University of Chicago, USA Joachim I. Krueger Brown University, Providence, USA Ruth Leys Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA Herbert W. Marsh University of Oxford, UK (until 12/2012) Barbara A. Mellers University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA Denise C. Park University of Texas at Dallas, USA Manfred Prenzel Technische Universität München, Germany (until 12/2012) Patricia A. Reuter-Lorenz University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA Frank Rösler Universität Hamburg, Germany Wolfgang Schneider University of Würzburg, Germany (until 12/2011) Hans Spada University of Freiburg, Germany Michael R. Waldmann University of Göttingen, Germany

Introduction | 13

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition The Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

The Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition (ABC) (Director: Gerd Gigerenzer) investigates human rationality,­ in particular decision making and risk perception in an uncertain world. Current research focuses on (1) adaptive and ecological rationality, that is, heuristic decision making by experts and laypeople in situations under uncertainty as op- posed to known risks; (2) social intelligence in cooperation and competition; and (3) risk understanding and uncertainty management in everyday life, including applications in medicine, law, education, and financial regulation. Each of these research areas emphasizes the evolutionary foundations of behavior and cognition, in particular their domain specificity and functional adaptiveness.

Research Team 2011–2013

Henry Brighton, Uwe Czienskowski, Flavia Filimon, Wolfgang Gaissmaier, Mirta Galesic, Gerd Gigerenzer, ­Konstantinos V. Katsikopoulos, Monika Keller, Shenghua Luan, Julian N. Marewski (as of 08/2011: University of ­Lausanne, Switzer- land), Björn Meder, Jonathan D. Nelson, Hansjörg Neth, Henrik Olsson (until 07/2012), José ­Quesada (until 09/2011), Lael J. Schooler, Özgür S¸ims¸ek, Jeffrey R. Stevens (as of 09/2011: University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA), Odette Wegwarth, Anja Westram (until 03/2013)

Postdoctoral Fellows Florian Artinger (as of 02/2013: University of Warwick, UK), Sabrina Artinger, Bryan Bergert (until 11/2012), Nicolai Bodemer (until 11/2013), Markus A. Feufel (as of 07/2012: Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany), Mario Fific (as of 09/2011: Grand Valley State University Michigan, USA), ­Wasilios Hariskos, Juliane E. Kämmer (as of 12/2013: Center for Adaptive Rationality), Amit Kothiyal, Michelle McDowell, Mehdi Moussaïd (as of 10/2013: Center for Adaptive Ratio- nality), Azzurra Ruggeri, Laurianne ­Vagharchakian

Predoctoral Fellows Daniel Barkoczi (IMPRS Uncertainty), Stojan Davidovic (IMPRS Uncertainty), Hanna Bettine Fechner (MaxNetAging Research School), Nadine Fleischhut (until 10/2011), Perke Jacobs, Jana Jarecki (IMPRS Uncertainty), ­Astrid Kause, ­Niklas Keller (as of 07/2013: Charité­ Universitätsmedizin ­Berlin, Germany), Jan Multmeier (as of 01/2012: National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians, Berlin, Germany), Malte Petersen, Pantelis Pipergias Analytis (IMPRS Uncer- tainty), Roman Prinz, Martin Rosenauer (until 10/2013), Hagen Sinodoru, Jolene H. Tan (IMPRS Uncertainty), John Wong (MaxNetAging Research School)

16 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Adjunct Researchers Florian Artinger (Warwick Business School, University of Warwick, UK), Ana Paula Bortoleto (University of ­Sheffield, UK), Edward T. Cokely (Michigan Technological University, USA), Markus A. Feufel (Charité­ Universitätsmedizin ­Berlin, ­Germany), Rocio ­García-Retamero (Universidad de Granada, Spain), Julian N. Marewski (University of Lausanne, Switzer­land), Laura Martignon (Ludwigsburg University of Education, Germany), Shabnam Mousavi (John Hopkins Carey ­Business School, Baltimore, USA), Jan Multmeier (National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians, Berlin, Germany), Robin Pope, Jan Gerrit ­Schuurman (Foundation Inspire2Live, Amersfoort, Netherlands), Jeffrey R. Stevens (University of ­Nebraska-Lincoln, USA), Nassim N. Taleb (New York University’s Polytechnic Institute, USA), Peter M. Todd (Indiana University, Bloomington, USA), Gregory Wheeler (Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA)

Visiting Researchers Susanne Abele (Miami University, Oxford, USA), Hal R. Arkes (Ohio State University, Columbus, USA), Uljana Feest (Tech- nische Universität Berlin, Germany), Adam Feltz (Schreiner University, Kerrville, USA), Kevin A. Gluck (Air Force Research Laboratory, Ohio, USA), Wayne D. Gray ­(Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, USA), Till Grüne-Yanoff (Royal Institute of Technology KTH, Stockholm, Sweden), Simone Guercini (Università degli Studi di Firenze, Italy), Bonnie L. Halpern-­ Felsher (University of California, San Francisco, USA), Niklas Keller (Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany), Kevin McConway (The Open University, Open Keynes, UK), Henrik ­Olsson (Berlin), Garold Stasser (Miami University, Oxford, USA), ­Danilo Streck (Universidade do Vale do Rios dos Sinos, São Leopoldo, Brasil), Brian Taylor (University of Ulster, ­Londonderry, UK), Gregory Wheeler (New University of Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal), Wei Zhu (Tongji University, Shanghai, China)

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 17

Introductory Overview

The Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition investigates reasoning and decision making under uncertainty at the levels of both individuals and social groups. The research group con- sists of psychologists, neuroscientists, computer scientists, economists, and researchers from other fields. Using a range of methodologies, such as experimental methods, computer simula- tion, and mathematical analysis, we cooperate in solving the same problems. The Center’s program combines a strong theoretical focus with practical applications, that is, the research group both develops specific models and explores their applications. Applications range from helping physicians and patients understand the statistical evidence arising from medical re- search to working with the Bank of England to develop simple heuristics for a safer, more robust financial world. These practical applications are divided into two sections, one focusing on risk literacy in health and the other on decision making in the wild. Our interdisciplinary approach to studying rationality also stresses the critical role of theory integration in the advancement of psychological theory, a topic which we will detail in a separate section. The Center’s main theoretical focus on rationality can be, albeit artificially, divided into three aspects: bounded, ecological, and social rationality.

Bounded Rationality on decision making under uncertainty into Models of bounded rationality attempt to an evolutionary and ecological framework, a ­answer the question of how people with framework that is missing in most theories limited time, knowledge, money, and other of reasoning, both descriptive and norma- scarce resources make decisions. Specifi- tive. In short, we study the adaptation of cally, we study how people make—and should mental and social strategies to real-world make—decisions in situations under “uncer- environments rather than compare human tainty” (where not all alternatives, conse- judgments to the laws of logic and probabil- quences, and risks are known) as opposed to ity theory. situations with “known risks.” This program is an alternative to the dominant optimization Social Rationality paradigm in cognitive science, economics, Social rationality is a variant of ecological and behavioral biology that poses the ques- rationality, one for which the environment tion of how ­Laplacean superintelligences or is social rather than physical or technical. near omniscient beings would behave. We Models of social rationality describe the study the proximal mechanisms of bounded structure of social environments and their rationality, that is, the adaptive heuristics match with boundedly rational strategies that enable quick and frugal decisions under that people might use. There is a variety of uncertainty. This collection of heuristics goals and heuristics unique to social environ- and their building blocks is what we call the ments. That is, in addition to the goals that adaptive toolbox. define ecological rationality—to make fast, frugal, and fairly accurate decisions—social Ecological Rationality rationality is concerned with goals, such as Models of ecological rationality describe the choosing an option that one can defend with structure and representation of informa- argument or moral justification or that can tion in actual environments and their match create a consensus. To a much greater extent with mental strategies, such as boundedly than the cognitive focus of most research rational heuristics. To the degree that such on bounded rationality, socially adaptive a match exists, heuristics need not trade heuristics include emotions and social norms accuracy for speed and frugality: Invest- that can act as heuristic principles for deci- ing less effort can also improve accuracy. sion making. The simultaneous focus on the mind and its environment, past and present, puts research

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 19 Bounded Rationality

Humans and other animals must make inferences about unknown features of their world under constraints of limited time, knowledge, and computational capacities. We do not conceive bounded rationality as optimization under constraints nor do we think of bounded rationality as the study of how people fail to meet normative ideals. Rather, bounded rationality is the key to understanding how people make decisions in an uncertain world, without utilities and prob- abilities. Bounded rationality consists of simple step-by-step rules that function well under the constraints of limited search, knowledge, and time—whether an optimal procedure is available or not. Just as a mechanic will pull out specific wrenches, pliers, and gap gauges to maintain an engine rather than just hit everything with a hammer, different tasks require different special- ized tools. The notion of a toolbox lacks the beauty of Leibniz’ dream of a single all-purpose inferential tool. Instead, it evokes the abilities of a craftsman, who can provide serviceable solutions to almost any problem with just what is at hand.

Key Reference The Adaptive Toolbox we describe some examples of research into Helversen, B. von, This repertoire of specialized cognitive the adaptive toolbox. Here, we focus on how Wilke, A., Johnson, T., mechanisms, which include fast and frugal depression influences how people search the Schmid, G., & Klapp, heuristics, are shaped by evolution, learning, environment and how the world is repre- B. (2011). Performance benefits of depression: and culture for specific domains of infer- sented in memory, and how these memory Sequential decision mak- ence and reasoning. We call this collection representations can help solve the problem ing in a healthy sample of mechanisms the “adaptive toolbox.” We of how to select heuristics from the adaptive and a clinically depressed sample. Journal of Ab- clarify the concept of an adaptive toolbox as toolbox. normal Psychology, 120, follows: 962–968. doi:10.1037/ • It refers to a specific group of rules or Performance Benefits of Depression in a0023238 heuristics rather than to a general-purpose Sequential Decision Making decision-making algorithm. Sadness, apathy, and preoccupation are • These heuristics are fast, frugal, and com- traits that come to mind when people think putationally cheap rather than consistent, about depression, the world’s most frequently coherent, and general. diagnosed mental disorder. Yet, according • These heuristics are adapted to particular to a study by von Helversen, Wilke, Johnson, environments, past or present, physical or Schmid, and Klapp (2011), depressed individu- social. als perform better than their nondepressed • The heuristics in the adaptive toolbox are peers in sequential decision tasks. In their orchestrated by some mechanism reflecting study, participants—who were healthy, clini- the importance of conflicting motivations cally depressed, or recovering from depres- and goals. sion—played a computer game designed to Fast and frugal heuristics generally consist of resemble everyday decision problems, such as three building blocks: simple rules for guiding household shopping and dating. In the game, search for information (in memory or in the the participants could earn money by hiring environment), for stopping search, and for an applicant in a simulated job search. Each decision making. They are effective when they applicant was assigned a monetary value and exploit the structure of the information in applicants encountered applicants one after the environment and basic cognitive capaci- the other. Participants faced the challenge of ties, such as memory and perception. That determining when to halt search and select is, their rationality is a form of “ecological the current applicant. As von Helversen and rationality” rather than one of consistency colleagues report, while healthy participants and coherence. We continue to explore fast searched through relatively few candidates and frugal heuristics and their importance in before selecting an applicant, depressed par- diverse disciplines, such as biology, econom- ticipants searched more thoroughly and made ics, and cognitive psychology. In what follows, choices that resulted in higher payoffs.

20 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition For decades, psychologists have debated of the recognition heuristic would lead to the Key Reference whether depression has positive side effects. inference that the recognized brand is better. Marewski, J. N., & While researchers have recognized that most Importantly, these niches may not overlap, Schooler, L. J. (2011). symptoms of depression impede cogni- alleviating the problem of strategy selection. Cognitive niches: An eco- logical model of strategy tive functioning, some have proposed that For instance, the fluency heuristic, which selection. Psychological depression may promote analytical reasoning depends on discerning how quickly the brands Review, 118 (3), 393–437. and persistence—that is, qualities useful in were recognized, will most likely be applicable doi:10.1037/a0024143 complex tasks. Past research provides some when a person is familiar with the brands, but evidence that supports this possibility, but knows nothing else about them. In such situ- it focused on individuals with low levels of ations, knowledge-based strategies cannot nonclinical depression. Von Helversen and compete because the requisite knowledge is colleagues demonstrate that even severe unavailable. Overlapping niches would arise depression might benefit decision making. when, for example, abundant knowledge about the alternatives is available. Where dif- The Cognitive Niche Framework for ferent strategies’ niches overlap, the selection Strategy Selection could be guided by the traditional selection Most theories of strategy selection assume mechanisms that depend on effort-accuracy the existence of an effort-accuracy trade-off: trade-offs. In short, for those situations where Expending more effort leads to greater accu- two or more strategies do not overlap, the racy. Marewski and Schooler (2011) proposed cognitive niche framework provides an ac- a complementary approach that asks how count of how strategy selection can emerge the interplay of the cognitive system and the as a bottom-up process—in the absence of environment creates cognitive niches that feedback and learning—solely through the restrict the range of strategies that are appli- interplay between the cognitive system and cable at any given moment in time. Marewski the environment. and Schooler (2011) used computer simula- tions to model how the environment shapes Mapping the Structure of Semantic a person’s representation of the environment Memory in memory. These representations define The cognitive niche framework illustrates that cognitive niches, where some heuristic strate- the more we know about how the environ- gies operate better than others. To illustrate, ment is represented in memory, the better we consider the situation in which a customer can understand the heuristics that depend asks a bartender what kinds of beer are avail- on knowledge retrieved from memory. A able. The bartender mentions two beers that limitation of Marewski and Schooler’s (2011) the customer has never tried, so the customer analysis is that it did not take into account now must infer which of two beers they will the semantic associations that guide what prefer. The customer may recognize both knowledge is likely to be retrieved from mem- brands of beer, just one of them, or neither of ory when a person is using any given heuristic. them. For a brand they recognize, they may, To reveal these associations, Morais, Olsson, in addition, know something about it. What and Schooler (2013) mapped the structure a person knows about these beers depends of individuals’ semantic memory with a new on their past experience and how memory snowball sampling paradigm, illustrated in represents this experience. It is this inter- Figure 1. To start, participants were asked play between the cognitive system and the to generate associates to cue words. Dur- environment that carves out a cognitive niche ing approximately 6 weeks of 1-hour daily for each strategy, or to put it in other words, sessions, the responses to a cue generated by a limited number of situations in which the an individual on one day were used as cues strategy can be applied. For instance, using for eliciting their semantic associates on a the recognition heuristic requires that the subsequent day. In the map of an individual’s decision maker recognizes just one of the two semantic network, depicted in Figure 1, words brands. Here, a straightforward application are represented as nodes joined by links that

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 21 Key Reference Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Morais, A. S., Olsson, H., & Schooler, L. J. (2013). Mapping the structure of semantic memory. Cognitive Science, 37, 125–145. doi:10.1111/ cogs.12013

Iteration 3 Iteration 5

Cue Response Cue from previous iteration

Figure 1. Five iterations of the snowball sampling paradigm. For example, on day 1, the individual was given cue words, such as schnell and picken. In response, the individual generated the words Rad and Vogel, among others. Rad and Vogel, in turn, were used as cues on day 2. After 54 days and 5 iterations, the original set of cues had snowballed in to a network of 9,129 interconnected words (adapted from Morais, Olsson, & Schooler, 2013). © MPI for Human ­Development

represent whether a word was named as an cate that most words are poorly connected associate by that individual in response to a and a minority of words have a high num- cue word. Computer simulations suggest that ber of links. This type of distribution arises these network maps of semantic structure naturally when a memory system incurs costs constructed using the snowball sampling for learning and maintaining connections paradigm reliably depict the structure of between concepts. From a functional stand- semantic memory. Statistical analyses of the point, connections between concepts reflect semantic networks of individuals showed that statistical associations that can be used to they have, among other distinctive features, retrieve information that is likely to be useful distributions of links across nodes that indi- in heuristic inference.

22 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Ecological Rationality

The performance of a decision rule will depend on the structure of the environment in which it is applied. The ABC Research Group studies this relationship systematically by specifying formal models of heuristics and other decision rules. The research program on ecological rationality aims to characterize the structure of environments and understand the fit between these struc- tural characteristics and the performance of decision rules. Performance is measured by exter- nal criteria, such as speed, frugality, and accuracy. Notice how this objective differs to the study of logical rationality, where performance is measured by internal criteria, such as consistency. Here, we present a sample of recent research on the ecological rationality of simple heuristics.

The Importance of Noncompensatory is to ignore weights and simply add cues. This Processing heuristic is called tallying. An intriguing finding in the study of ecologi- Because they use less information and com- cal rationality is that simple heuristics which putation relative to the general linear model, ignore information can often match or exceed are noncompensatory decision rules and the accuracy of the linear decision rule. Our tallying necessarily less accurate? In previous recent research has focused on understanding work, it is has been shown that the noncom- why. To take an illustrative example, consider pensatory heuristic take-the-best achieves the problem of deciding which one of two perfect accuracy if the true cue weights are cities, such as Berkeley and Chicago, has a noncompensatory (i. e., the weight of the first higher value on a numerical criterion, such cue is greater than the sum of all other cue as a city’s homelessness rate. The inference weights and so on; e. g., for four cues, the is made using cues (e. g., one city, in this case weights 4, 2, 1, and 0.5 are noncompensa- Chicago, has a basketball team, while the oth- tory) and these weights are known. Tallying er city, in this case Berkeley, does not) which achieves perfect accuracy if the true cue correlate to some degree with the criterion. weights are equal, in which case the cue The linear rule uses all cues to make an infer- weights are termed fully compensatory. More ence. It estimates the criterion by calculating generally, the space of true cue weights is a weighted sum of all the cue values and then populated by sets of weights that are neither decides on the city with the greater estimated noncompensatory nor fully compensatory. In criterion value. For example, standard mul- such cases, which decision rule is most accu- tiple regression is a special case of the linear rate? One possibility is that take-the-best and rule, where the weights of the cues minimize tallying perform much worse than, say, the the sum of squared errors. perfect benchmark of the linear rule which There are two ways to simplify the linear rule: uses the true cue weights. First, the cues are not added, but are simply This turns out not to be the case. Enumerat- inspected one-by-one based in a prespeci- ing all possible data sets comprised of binary fied order; as soon as a cue is found which cues, previous research has found that, for a discriminates between the two cities (e. g., wide range of compensatory cue weights and the basketball-team cue), a decision is made across different sizes of the consideration based on that cue alone, ignoring the remain- set (i. e., the set of decision alternatives, e. g., ing cues. Such heuristics are noncompensa- the cities that are compared according to tory; the decision made based on the first homelessness rate), take-the-best and tally- discriminating cue cannot be compensated by ing achieve near-perfect performance. For ex- the remaining cues, even if those cues would, ample, if there are three or four binary-valued if considered, lead to an alternative decision. cues, one of take-the-best, tallying, or both, Elimination by aspects and take-the-best are achieve at least 96 % accuracy for each com- examples of noncompensatory heuristics. bination of cue weights and consideration set These heuristics weight, but do not add, cues. size. Two of our recent studies have provided The second way of simplifying the linear rule explanations for this intriguing finding.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 23 Key References Table 1 Katsikopoulos, K. V. (2013). Why do simple Are Noncompensatory Cue Weights Necessary for Noncompensatory heuristics perform well Decision Rules to Perform Well? in choices with ­binary attributes? Decision (a) Analysis, 10, 327–340. doi:10.1287/deca.2013. Consideration 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0281 set size S¸ims¸ek, Ö. (2013). Linear Take-the-best 98 98 97 96 96 96 96 97 98 99 99 100 100 100 100 decision rule as aspira- accuracy tion for simple decision Tallying 94 91 91 92 94 96 97 99 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 heuristics. Advances in accuracy neural information pro- cessing systems: Vol. 26. (b) Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference on Consideration 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Neural Information set size Processing Systems, December 5–8, 2013, Take-the-best 92 88 87 88 90 92 94 96 97 98 99 100 100 100 100 Lake Tahoe, Nevada, USA. accuracy Red Hook, NY: Curran Tallying 99 99 99 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Associates. accuracy

Note. In (a), the accuracy of take-the-best and tallying (in % of correct inferences) are shown as a function of the size of the consideration set for four cues and with cue weights that are the least compensatory. Both take-the-best and tallying reach 100 % accuracy when the size of the consideration set increases. Are compensatory cue weights necessary for compensatory decision rules to perform well? In (b), the accuracy of take-the-best and tallying (in % of correct inferences) are shown as a function of the size of the consider- ation set for four cues and with cue weights that are most compensatory. Again, both take-the-best and tallying reach 100 % accuracy when the size of the consideration set increases.

Katsikopoulos (2013) derived expressions for In a related study, S¸ims¸ek (2013) considered the accuracy of take-the-best and tallying as the degree to which natural environments a function of the cue weights, the size of the have a noncompensatory structure. For a consideration set, and the number of binary large number of environments, the most cues. For four cues, with cue weights that predictive linear rule was identified for each are the least compensatory (e. g., cue weights environment using statistical and machine of 4, 1, 0.75, and 0.5), Table 1a compares learning techniques, including regularized the accuracy of take-the-best and tallying linear models. The resulting cue weights as function of size of the consideration set. were, by and large, compensatory (in 83 % of Table 1b compares the decision rules for the the data sets). However, as Figure 2 shows, most compensatory weights (e. g., cue weights the corresponding noncompensatory deci- 3, 2.5, 2, and 1.25). These results confirm that sion rule, which uses substantially less infor- heuristics are, under some conditions, robust mation than the linear rule, competed very to apparently unfavorable cue weights. As well with the linear rule and could, in some can be seen in Table 1a, although cue weights data sets, achieve higher predictive accuracy. which are highly noncompensatory do not Thus, we again see a noncompensatory deci- in general favor tallying, this simple strategy sion rule performing very well even though achieves 100 % accuracy when considering the environments are largely compensatory. 10 or more alternatives. As can be seen in Why is this? S¸ims¸ek pointed out that even Table 1b, although highly compensatory cue if the environment is compensatory, the cue weights do in general favor take-the-best, values might be such that cues with smaller this compensatory strategy achieves per- weights do not in fact compensate for the fect accuracy when considering 13 or more cues with larger weights. In 51 data sets, alternatives. this property—termed noncompensation—

24 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 1.0

0.9

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Binary 0.7 Accuracy 0.6

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1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 Numeric 0.6 Accuracy 0.5

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Observed noncompensation

Figure 2. Relative to the best-predicting linear model for a given environment, does predictive accuracy increase or decrease when the cues are processed using a noncompensatory decision rule? Plotted as a function of the degree of noncompensation, this figure depicts the change in predictive accuracy in 51 natural environments. Environments are categorized as either containing numeric or binary cues. The accuracy of the best-predicting linear rule is shown by a green circle and the accuracy of the corresponding noncompensatory decision rule is displayed by a blue plus sign. Accuracies on the same data set are connected by a straight line. © MPI for Human ­Development was observed quite frequently, as shown in gained by viewing strategies as addressing Figure 2. what is termed the bias-variance dilemma.

Intelligence in the World Simple Heuristics and the Bias-Variance In 2012, the ABC Research Group published Dilemma Ecological Rationality: Intelligence in the All statistical models, including heuristics, World, a book detailing new contributions err when making predictions. In a given task to the study of ecological rationality (Todd environment, a model’s prediction error et al., 2012; see Box 1). Much of the book can be decomposed into bias, variance, and focuses on understanding the adaptive fit noise. The bias component of prediction error between simple heuristics and the structure reflects the inability of a model to represent of natural environments. A key step toward the systematic patterns that govern the understanding this fit is to explain why simple observations. The variance component of heuristics—such as take-the-best—can, in prediction error reflects the sensitivity of the many natural environments, outperform more model’s predictions to different observations familiar cognitive models. Taking a slightly of the same problem, such as a different different perspective from the work detailed sample from the same population. Together, above, Brighton and Gigerenzer (2012) exam- bias and variance additively contribute to ined the ability of simple heuristics to achieve the total prediction error as follows: Total high predictive accuracy under uncertainty, error = (bias)2 + variance + noise. To achieve where the weights of environmental cues are low bias, models should be capable of fitting not known, but have to be inferred from ob- diverse patterns of data. To achieve low vari- servations. They argue that a more thorough ance, models need to restrict the range of understanding of heuristic performance is patterns they consider in order to limit the

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 25 Key References Ecological Rationality: Intelligence in the World Brighton, H., & ­(Todd, Gigerenzer, & the ABC Research Group, 2012) Gigerenzer,­ G. (2012d). details the recent advances in the study of ecologi- How heuristics handle cal rationality. The idea that more information and uncertainty. In P. M. Todd, more computation yield better decisions has long G. Gigerenzer, & the ABC shaped our vision of rationality. Yet humans and Research Group (Eds.), other animals typically rely on simple heuristics or Ecological rationality: rules of thumb to solve adaptive problems, focusing Intelligence in the world on one or a few important cues and ignoring the (pp. 33–60). Oxford: rest, and shortcutting computation rather than Oxford University Press. striving for as much as possible. In this book, the authors argue that, in an uncertain world, more Todd, P. M., Gigerenzer, information and computation are not always better G., & the ABC Research and instead ask when, and why, less can be more. Group. (2012). Ecological The answers to these questions constitute the idea rationality: Intelligence in of ecological rationality, as explored in the chapters the world. Oxford: Oxford in this book: how people can be effective decision University Press. makers by using simple heuristics that fit well to the structure of their environment. When people wield the right tool from the mind’s adaptive tool- box for a particular situation, they can make good choices with little information or computation—en- abling simple strategies to excel by exploiting the reliable patterns in the world to do some of the work. Heuristics are not good or bad, “biased” or “unbiased,” on their own, but only in relation to the setting in which they are used. The authors show heuristics and environments fitting together to produce good decisions in domains including sports competitions, the search for a parking space, business group meetings, and doctor/patient interactions. The message of Ecological Rationality is to study mind and environment in tandem. Intelligence is not only in the mind but also in the world, captured in the structures of information inherent in our physical, biological, social, and cultural surroundings.

Box 1.

model’s sensitivity. Under uncertainty, a model and its sophisticated counterpart, greedy cannot do both simultaneously, and this is take-the-best, to reduce bias and variance. In why all models must strike a balance between two artificial environments designed to elicit limiting bias and variance—all models face a extreme performance differences between bias-variance dilemma. the two models, Figure 4 details the predictive Brighton and Gigerenzer (2012) first showed accuracies of the two models but also decom- that, when cue weights are not known, but poses their prediction error into bias and vari- must be inferred from observations, take-the- ance. The performance differences arise due best will often outperform more sophisticated to differences in variance, crucially, because models such as the decision tree induc- both models are noncompensatory. The per- tion algorithms C4.5 and CART, the nearest formance differences cannot be explained by neighbor classifier, and a version of take-the- an appeal to properties of the decision rule: best which takes into account conditional The extreme performance differences arise dependencies between cues (known as greed due to the assumptions made when inferring take-the-best). Figure 3 compares, in two cue weights rather than how these weights natural environments, the performance of are used once they have been inferred. take-the-best and these alternative models: These findings have significant implications. Take-the-best outperforms the four alterna- First, they provide a statistical explanation tive models, all of which expend additional for why ignoring information can improve effort in searching for conditional depen- performance—one cannot assume that more dencies between the cues. Why is this? To effort will lead to better inferences, less effort answer this question, Brighton and Gigerenzer can have a dramatic and positive effect on analyzed the relative ability of take-the-best predictive accuracy by reducing variance.

26 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Biodiversity 85

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Mean predictive accuracy (% correct) 55 CART Greedy take-the-best 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Sample size, n

Mammal lifespans 75

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Mean predictive accuracy (% correct) CART Greedy take-the-best 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Sample size, n

Figure 3. How well does the simple heuristic take-the-best perform in comparison to sophisticated tree induction algorithms C4.5 and CART, the nearest neighbor classifier, and a variant of take-the-best which searches for con- ditional dependencies between environmental cues? Here, in two natural environments, the predictive accuracies of the models are plotted as a function of the size of the sample used to estimate the model parameters. In this first environment, the task is to predict which of two Galapagos islands has greater biodiversity. In the second en- vironment, the task is to predict which two mammals is likely to live longer. In both cases, take-the-best achieves a higher predictive accuracy than the alternative models for the majority of sample sizes. © MPI for Human ­Development

Second, these results suggest that improved Naïveté: The Good and The Bad performance is not always due to the ability Complementing the study of the relationship of a model to accurately model the environ- between environmental conditions and the ment—variance reduction is often achieved performance of cognitive models, Jarecki, by making simplifying assumptions when Meder and Nelson (2013) investigated the re- inferring properties of the environment, even lationship between environmental conditions though these assumptions are known not to and human behavior. Focusing on a catego- hold true in practice. rization task, they considered an artificial

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 27 (a) Binary environment Guttman 100 100

90 90

80 80 Take-the-best Take-the-best 70 Nearest neighbor 70 Nearest neighbor C4.5 C4.5 60 CART 60 CART Greedy take-the-best Greedy take-the-best 50 50 Mean predictive accuracy (% correct) Mean predictive accuracy (% correct) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Sample size, n Sample size, n

(b) Take-the-best Take-the-best 3,000 350 (Bias)2 + variance (Bias)2 + variance 2,500 300 (Bias)2 (Bias)2 Variance 250 Variance 2,000 200 1,500 Error Error 150 1,000 100 500 50 0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Sample size, n Sample size, n (c) Greedy take-the-best Greedy take-the-best 3,000 350 2 2 (Bias) + variance 300 (Bias) + variance 2,500 (Bias)2 (Bias)2 Variance 250 Variance 2,000 200 1,500 Error Error 150 1,000 100 500 50 0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Sample size, n Sample size, n

Figure 4. Why does ignoring information benefit performance? Here, the performance of take-the-best and its sophisticated counterpart, greedy take-the-best (which searches for conditional dependencies between cues) are compared in a critical test. In the left-hand column, the models are compared in a “binary” environment designed to elicit poor performance in take-the-best (top-most plots). Take-the-best performs poorly due to its relative inability to reduce variance (shown in the middle and lower plots). In the right-hand column, the models are compared in a “Guttman” environment designed to favor take-the-best (top-most plots). Here, take-the-best performs well due to its relative ability to reduce variance. In both cases, variance explains the performance differences. Note that, because both take-the-best and greedy take-the-best use a noncompensatory decision rule, these performance differences are unrelated to the distinction between compensatory and noncompen­ satory processing. © MPI for Human ­Development

28 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition environment where the cues are independent Key Reference of each other, conditional on the category. For Jarecki, J., Meder, B., & instance, if the two categories in question are Nelson, J. D. (2013). The “has breast cancer” and “does not have breast assumption of class-con- ditional independence cancer,” and two available cues are the results in category learning. In of a mammography and the person’s family M. Knauff, M. Pauen, N. history, the cues are conditionally indepen- Sebanz, & I. Wachsmuth (Eds.), Cooperative dent if the probability of cancer given the re- minds: Social interaction sult of the mammography would not change and group dynamics. if family history also became known. The label Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of the “naïve” is often used to describe the assump- Cognitive Science Society tion of class-conditional independence. (pp. 2650–2655). Austin, Figure 5. Image of a plankton shown to participants TX: Cognitive Science In previous work, it has been shown that for categorization. Three cues were used to classify Society. the environmental condition of conditional plankton: eye (located in the top right), tail (located in independence is favorable to the accuracy the bottom left), and claw (bottom right). The images were based on pictures from the Florida Medical of heuristics such as take-the-best. Thus, to Entomology Laboratory. the extent that people use take-the-best, it Source. Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory should be the case that people believe in con- (with special thank to Prof. Jorge Rey and Prof. Sheila ditional independence. Jarecki et al. (2013) O’Connel). tested this hypothesis. They asked partici- pants to play biologist and classify plankton tion for which the naïve model and the true specimens to one of two possible categories, probabilities most strongly diverge is also labeled “A” and “B.” The planktons had three the configuration that required the greatest binary cues, “eye,” “tail,” and “claw.” Figure 5 number of learning trials for the participants. provides an example illustration of a plankton This provides evidence for the hypothesis provided to the participants. that people may presume class-conditional Jarecki et al. (2013) designed statistical independence early in the learning process. environments in which learners who presume Class-conditional independence or related class-conditional independence would make assumptions provide one way that learners particular kinds of errors, especially early in could make inferences early in the learn- learning. This is because, for certain configu- ing process, before accumulating enough rations of features, the true category (species) evidence to learn the actual class-conditional and the predictions of the naïve model dependencies among features that may apply strongly diverge. Interestingly, the configura- in a particular environment.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 29 Social Rationality

Humans are remarkably social. No other species has such elaborate cooperative practices, exhibits so much empathy toward others, or relies so much on social learning and the cultural transmission of knowledge and values. Decades of research on social cognition seem to suggest that people suffer from a number of biases in their social judgments and behaviors. Studies of different aspects of social rationality conducted by the ABC Research Group focus on the inter- play of human minds and their social environments and show that many seemingly irrational behaviors can be explained by simple rules adapted to particular environmental structures. Here, we present such recent work in the areas of cooperation, social cognition and learning, group decision making, and crowd behavior.

Key Reference Cooperation Zhu et al. (2013) studied behavior in ultima- Zhu, L., Gigerenzer, G., Do Socio-Economic Changes Within a Society tum and dictator games of 248 Chinese citi- & Huangfu, G. (2013). Affect Altruistic Sharing? zens from three cohorts: people born before Psychological traces of Zhu, Gigerenzer, and Huangfu (2013) took Mao’s regime (Cohort I), during the regime China’s socio-economic reforms in the ultimatum advantage of a natural quasi-experiment pro- (Cohort II), and after it (Cohort III). They pre- and dictator games. vided by post-Mao reforms in China to study dicted and found that altruistic sharing, that PLoS ONE, 8 (8): e70769. people from the same society who were raised is, the size of offers in the games, increased doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0070769 with radically different values about distribu- with the number of years lived in the Mao tion of wealth and altruistic behavior. A main era. Cohort I, which spent the maximum time moral principle in the Mao era (1949–1976) possible under Mao’s regime, provided the was equal allocation, which meant state- highest offers in the games (Table 2). Also as owned productive sources, equal distribution predicted, older members of Cohort II offered of wealth and welfare, and no difference in more than the younger ones, while there was workers’ socioeconomic status (Figure 6). In no correlation between age and offers in the 1978, China launched its economic reform other two cohorts, in each of which all mem- led by Deng Xiaoping, which has resulted in bers spent equal time under Mao. This result enormous economic growth accompanied provides additional support that selfishness by changes in social values. Equal allocation was influenced by the number of years under gave way to allocation in terms of contri- Mao’s regime and not by age. Taken together, bution, where the absolute level of com- these results suggest that people’s behavior mon prosperity takes priority over equality in laboratory experimental games is strongly (Figure 7). affected by socioeconomic values they experienced in their social environment over

Figure 6. In Mao’s era, people lived in collectives and Figure 7. Under Deng’s leadership, social-economic re- took all their meals together in a public dining room. forms led to modernization and changes in social values. The characters mean: “Eating costs nothing, but we The characters mean: “Development is the last word.” need to work hard.” Source. Bernd Gross/Wikimedia Commons/Public Source. Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain. Domain.

30 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Key References Table 2 Edele, A., Dziobek, I., & Socioeconomic Changes Affect Sharing in Laboratory Games Keller, M. (2013). Ex- plaining altruistic sharing Size of offers as % of total sum Correlation of age and offers in the dictator game: The Ultimatum Ultimatum role of affective empathy, game Dictator game game Dictator game cognitive empathy, Mean (SE) Mean (SE) r (SE) r (SE) and justice sensitivity. Learning and Individual Differences, 24, 96–102. Cohort I: Born ≤ 1950 53.8 (2.3) 44.0 (3.1) –.08 (.12) –.30 (.12) doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012. Cohort II: Born 1951–1975 46.0 (1.9) 38.5 (2.6) .14 (.10) .38 (.10) 12.020 Cohort III: Born ≥ 1976 46.1 (2.1) 35.4 (2.8) –.06 (.11) –.18 (.11) Malti, T., Gummerum, M., Keller, M., Chaparro, M. P., & Buchmann, M. The table shows participants’ offers and their correlations with age in the ultimatum game and the Note. (2012). Early sympathy dictator game, by cohorts. Cohort I, which spent the maximum time possible under Mao’s regime provided and social acceptance the highest offers in the games (second and third columns). Older members of Cohort II offered more than predict the development the younger ones, while there was no correlation between age and offers in the other two cohorts, in each of of sharing in children. which all members spent equal time under Mao (fourth and fifth column) (Zhu et al., 2013). PLoS ONE, 7 (12): e52017. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0052017 their lifetime and, in particular, during their adolescents followed for a period of 3 years Malti, T., Keller, M., & formative years. in Switzerland. The adolescents reported Buchmann, M. (2013). Do moral choices make us their decisions and emotions regarding feel good? The develop- Do Social Emotions Make Us Altruistic? hypothetical moral conflicts in close friend- ment of adolescents’ In the 18th century, the philosopher David ships. Adolescents predominantly made emotions following moral decision making. Journal Hume argued that moral judgments evolve moral decisions and reported feeling good of Research on Adoles- from sentiment and immediate feelings following these decisions. However, a small cence, 23, 389–397. instead of reasoning. However, existing psy- number of adolescents made selfish decisions doi:10.1111/jora.12005 chological and economic research has mostly and consistently reported feeling good about focused on the cognitive antecedents of these decisions. other-regarding preferences, such as theory Edele, Dziobek, and Keller (2013) continued of mind. Developmental studies are particu- the exploration of individual differences by larly rare, and those that do exist are mostly investigating emotional precursors of altruis- cross-sectional rather than longitudinal. tic behavior in adults. Their participants first Filling this gap, our research has used made sharing decisions in dictator games. longitudinal and cross-sectional designs to After 5 to 7 months they were reinvited (for investigate how social emotions influence al- the second part of the study) to assess two truistic behavior in children, adolescents, and kinds of empathic abilities: cognitive empathy adults. Malti, Gummerum, Keller, Chaparro, (ability to understand what another person and Buchmann (2012) followed a sample is feeling) and affective empathy (ability to of 175 six-year-old children, their primary experience feelings congruent with another’s caregivers, and their teachers over a 3-year emotional situation). Figure 8 shows one of period. They show that sharing resources de- the items used to measure affective empathy. velopmentally increased in children from 6 to Affective empathy emerged as the strongest 9 years of age. Sympathy toward anonymous predictor for the size of offers in the previ- others and feelings of social acceptance ously played dictator games, while cognitive strongly predicted sharing with anonymous empathy did not explain the offers. This sug- others in later years, even after controlling gests that altruistic sharing is strongly shaped for earlier sharing, intelligence, and socio­ by affective reaction tendencies rather than economic status. by reasoning about others’ reactions. Malti, Keller, and Buchmann (2013) report These findings fit well with Hume’s conten- the data from a representative two-wave tion that affect rather than reason is critical longitudinal study of 995 fifteen-year-old both for moral behavior and reasoning, which

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 31 Key References has implications for educational settings. It has been shown that simple heuristics can Fleischhut, N., & Cognitive interventions could be supple- make us smart. In the context of moral situ- Gigerenzer,­ G. (2013a). mented with interventions aimed at support- ations, however, the question is: Do simple Can simple heuristics ing emotional reactions of sympathy and care, heuristics make us good? The answer is no. explain moral inconsis- tencies? In R. Hertwig, thus increasing orientation toward others and Just as simple heuristics only perform well U. Hoffrage, & the ABC decreasing antisocial behaviors. in some environments, the same holds true Research Group, Simple for heuristics in the moral domain. The study heuristics in a social world (pp. 459–485). Do Simple Heuristics Make Us Good? of bounded and ecological morality does not New York: Oxford Univer- Recognizing that behavior in moral situations suggest that simple heuristics make us good. sity Press. is a form of decision making under uncertain- But the more we know about the heuristics Galesic, M., Olsson, H., ty, Fleischhut and Gigerenzer (2013) argue in the adaptive toolbox, including what trig- & Rieskamp, J. (2012). that the study of simple heuristics provides gers their use, the greater the prospects for Social sampling explains apparent biases in judg- a valuable perspective for understanding designing environments which can make us ments of social environ- moral behavior. They argue that (a) moral behave better. ments. Psychological actions are typically guided by heuristics, Science, 23, 1515–1523. doi:10.1177/ and (b) these heuristics are not moral rules, Social Cognition and Learning 0956797612445313 but social rules that are also applied outside How Do People Make Judgments About Their of moral domains. They show that these two Social World? assumptions imply inconsistencies in moral Research on social cognition is dominated by behavior across situations, inconsistencies demonstrations of biases in our judgments between moral judgment and reasoning, of other people. The list of biases is long and and between moral judgment and behavior. includes opposite effects such as findings of These inconsistencies have been a problem both self-enhancement and self-depreciation for “rational” moral theories that attribute relative to other people. Galesic, Olsson, and the cause of moral behavior to some internal Rieskamp (2012) proposed a simple social disposition instead of to an interaction sampling model that explains these biases between social heuristics and the structure without assuming faulty minds. According to of the environment. their model, people make inferences about

How much do you feel with this person?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Not at all A lot

Figure 8. The face represented here is a photo analogous to the items of the MET (Multifaceted Empathy Test) used by Edele et al. (2013) to assess affective empathy. Participants with stronger affective empathy showed more altruistic sharing with anonymous others. © olly—Fotolia.com

32 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Panel A Panel B Panel C Panel D Panel E Panel F Empirical Empirical Predicted Empirical Predicted Empirical population social population population cumulative cumulative distributions circles estimates estimates population population estimates estimates 40 100 J-left: Apparent self-depreciation: Household Own position appears worse wealth than it really is, and more so for better-off people 0 0 Low High Low High Low High Low High Low High Low High 40 100 Apparent self-enhancement: J-right: Own position appears better Frequency of than it really is, and more so work stress for worse-off people 0 0 High None High None High None High None High None High None 40 100 Apparent self-enhancement Symmetrical: for worse-off, apparent self- Number depreciation for better-off of friends people 0 0 None Many None Many None Many None Many None Many None Many

Population distribution Population estimates of worse-off people Population estimates of better-off people

Figure 9. People make inferences about broader populations by sampling from their immediate social environments (Galesic et al., 2012). Empirical data and predictions of the social-sampling model for 3 of 10 studied characteristics of the Dutch population. The x-axes show levels of each characteristic and the y-axes show percent of people at each level. Panel A: Different characteristics have different shapes of population distributions (J-left most people doing badly, J-right most people doing well, or symmetrical). Panel B: Social environments are clustered people tend to know more people similar to themselves. “Worse-off” people are those positioned at one of the three lowest levels of a particular characteristic, while “better-off” people are those positioned at one of the three highest levels. Panel C: The social-sampling model predicts that people use their social circles to estimate population distributions, which is supported by empirical data in Panel D. Panel E: The model predicts apparent self-depreciation and self-enhancement effects that are supported by empirical data in Panel F. The social-sampling model makes two predictions about people’s estimates of their social environments. First, because of the interplay of the shapes of population distributions and the sampling process, apparent self-enhancement will occur when the underlying distribution of the general population is J-right shaped (i. e., when most people are doing well) and apparent self-depreciation when the underlying distribution is J-left shaped (when most people are doing badly). Second, because of the interplay of spatial clustering of social environments and people’s reliance on social circles when estimating population distributions, worse-off people will appear to make larger errors in their estimates when the underlying distribution is J-right shaped, but smaller when the underlying distribution is J-left shaped. All of these patterns of results occurred in previous studies, but so far no single model was able to explain them. © MPI for Human ­Development broader populations by sampling from their What Are the Building Blocks of Social immediate social environments. Interplay of Learning Strategies? these sampling processes and the specific Humans and other animals often rely on structure of social environments leads to ap- social learning when solving problems. Most parent biases in social perception. As shown studies of social learning focus only on the in Figure 9, Galesic et al. (2012) tested the decision phase of social learning strategies predictions of the social-sampling model (e. g., imitate-the-majority), disregarding the on a large probabilistic national sample of interaction between information sampling Dutch participants who evaluated their own and the structure of the social environment. and others’ life circumstances. The social- To begin filling this gap, Barkoczi and Galesic sampling model better predicted the findings (2013) model social learning strategies in than existing accounts based on motivated terms of three basic building blocks, specify- reasoning, cognitive incompetence, egocen- ing how people search for social information tric focus, or simple regression effects. This (e. g., by searching randomly from the whole work highlights the importance of studying population or only among contacts), when both people’s inference processes and their they stop the search (e. g., after sampling a environments to obtain a deeper understand- small or large number of social contacts), and ing of human behavior. how the decision is made (e. g., by imitate-

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 33 Key Reference Barkoczi, D., & Galesic, 1.0 M. (2013). Social learning in complex networks: The role of 0.8 building blocks and environmental change. In M. Knauff, M. Pauen, N. 0.6 Sebanz, & I. Wachsmuth (Eds.), Cooperative minds: Social interaction and group dynamics. 0.4

Proceedings of the 35th Proportion correct Annual Conference of the Best large Cognitive Science Society 0.2 Best small (pp. 1821–1826). Austin, Majority small TX: Cognitive Science Majority large Society. 0.0 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 Time steps

Figure 10. Smaller samples can trump larger samples (Barkoczy & Galesic, 2013). Here, the task was to make repeated decisions between two options where one option was correct and the other incorrect and, over time, the environment may change, rendering previously learned information obsolete. After environmental change, when most agents possess outdated information, imitate-the-majority benefits from smaller rather than larger samples. © MPI for Human ­Development

the-majority or imitate-the-best). Their mance: diversity among its members or their results revealed that, under the assump- individual abilities. Luan, Katsikopoulos, tion that the best member can be reliably and Reimer (2012) addressed this issue in identified, imitate-the-best ­almost always a simulation study in which they manipu- outperforms imitate-the-­majority because it lated agents’ individual accuracy and group is faster to respond to environmental change. diversity. As Figure 11 illustrates, Luan et al. However, while searching for more agents (2012) compared performance of groups with always benefits imitate-the-best, less exhaus- members using these two heuristics while tive search helps imitate-the-majority after varying several external factors, including environmental change, when most agents differences between cue validities and errors possess outdated information (see Figure 10). in information that agents had about cue This counterintuitive result occurs for three values. They found that individual accuracy reasons: (1) a smaller sample is more likely was more important than diversity when cue to include a majority of agents with the cor- validities differed substantially. In contrast, rect option; (2) while the correct option is in when all cues had similar validities, diversity minority, a smaller sample keeps the overall was more important than accuracy. Surpris- accuracy of the group higher compared to a ingly, Luan et al. (2012) also found that larger sample; and (3) smaller samples require erroneous information agents had about fewer instances of correct behavior to reach a cue values had a nonlinear effect on group decision in favor of the correct option, allow- accuracy, as shown in Figure 11. With a ing for faster learning. larger error magnitude, group performance started to get better, reached its best at Group Decision Making some intermediate error level, and only got When Can Diversity Trump Ability in Group worse slowly afterward. In other words, the Decision Making? right magnitude of information errors could In decision-making tasks, it is often unclear actually help a group make better deci- what is more important for group perfor- sions than when there was no error. This

34 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Key Reference Panel A: Large differences in cue validity Panel B: Small differences in cue validity Luan, S., Katsikopoulos, 0.80 0.80 K. V., & Reimer, T. (2012). When does diversity trump ability (and vice 0.76 0.76 versa) in group decision making? A simulation 0.72 0.72 study. PLoS ONE, 7 (2): e31043. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0031043 0.68 0.68

Accuracy (PC) Accuracy (PC) TTB group MIN group 0.64 0.64 TTB indiv. MIN indiv. 0.60 0.60 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Magnitude of error Magnitude of error

Figure 11. Errors in information have a nonlinear effect on group decision accuracy (Luan et al, 2012). When choosing between two options described by a number of cues, individuals and groups used either take-the-best (“TTB indiv.” and “TTB group”) or minimalist heuristic (“MIN indiv.” and “MIN group”). Agents using take-the-best tended to be more accurate, but their decisions less diverse than those using minimalist. Agents were embedded in groups of five and a simple majority rule was applied to determine the group decision. Panel A shows results in an environment where there are large differences in validity, a measure for information quality, among the cues, and Panel B shows results in another environment where the validity differences among the cues are small. The magnitude of information error is measured as the standard deviation of a normal distribution from which random errors are generated and then added to true cue values. © MPI for Human ­Development rather counterintuitive result was observed Finally, when there is too much error, the no matter which strategy, take-the-best or group accuracy gain disappears, and groups minimalist, agents were using and how cue perform below the level they could have validities were distributed. How can this be achieved with no information error. These explained? results demonstrate that ‘‘flawed’’ individu- Luan et al. (2012) speculated that the answer als may rely on groups to achieve levels of lies in the opposing effects that informa- performance that they cannot reach alone tion errors have on group decisions. On the and imply that groups should be tolerant of, one hand, the information errors undermine and even welcome, occasional errors made by individual agents’ performances and drag its members. the group’s performance down. On the other hand, those errors diversify the information How Do Groups Make Decisions Under searched by a group of agents and their indi- Uncertainty? vidual decisions, and this increased diversity In two projects, Kämmer and her collabo- increases the group’s performance. These two rators apply the framework of ecological opposing effects are always present, but do rationality to the group level in order to not always cancel each other out perfectly. explain some of the heterogeneous findings With smaller magnitudes of errors, the gain of research on group decision making. The of group accuracy due to added diversity ecological rationality perspective assumes compensates for the loss due to reduced in- that no decision strategy is good or bad per dividual accuracy, resulting in a net accuracy se; rather, its success depends on the struc- gain. As the magnitude of errors increases, the ture of the environment and on the composi- gain reaches its maximum at some intermedi- tion of the group. Kämmer, Gaissmaier, and ate level, with its exact value depending on Czienskowski (2013) compare the learning factors such as the strategy used, the cue success of individuals and dyads in a multi­ validity distribution, and the size of the group. attribute paired-comparison task, where

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 35 Key References participants had to learn the most adaptive navigation heuristics. An example of process Kämmer, J. E., strategy in an unknown task environment. models is the study of heuristics described Gaissmaier,­ W., & They found that dyads were better able to by Moussaïd, Helbing, and Theraulaz (2011). Czienskowski,­ U. adapt to the (changing) environment than They suggest that the movements of a (2013). The environment matters: Comparing indi- individuals, but only when successful learn- pedestrian can be described by the interplay viduals and dyads in their ing required ignoring less valid information. of two simple navigation heuristics: The first adaptive use of decision These results suggest that groups are supe- describes how pedestrians choose a walk- strategies. Judgment and Decision Making, 8, rior when the environment structure requires ing direction by searching for deep empty 299–329. replacing a default strategy by a more appro- spaces in their field of vision. The second rule Kämmer, J. E., Gaiss­ priate strategy. Small group research often describes how pedestrians adapt their walk- maier, W., Reimer, T., implicitly or explicitly suggests that groups ing speed by keeping the time to collision & ­Schermuly, C. C. (in perform best if they pool all information that with surrounding obstacles above a certain press). The adaptive use of recognition in group is available to their single group members threshold time. The combination of these decision making. Cogni- and that their larger knowledge base makes two heuristics predicts the emergence of tive Science. them superior to individual decision makers. many self-organized crowd patterns, such as Kämmer, Gaissmaier, Reimer, and Schermuly the highway formation, stop-and-go waves, (in press) show that this is not always the and the sudden transition to crowd chaos at case. They examined a paired-comparison extreme densities—a phenomenon that has task in which the recognition heuristic can been observed during recent crowd disasters. play an important role (e. g., “Which of two Moussaïd and Nelson (in press) show that German companies has the higher market process models constitute a simpler and more capitalization?”). In line with the ecologi- realistic description of crowd movements cal rationality perspective, they find that compared to sophisticated and idealized some groups perform—in a theoretically outcome models. This research could help predictable way—better if they bet on group urban planners to design better exit routes members who lack some knowledge, namely, for evacuation of large crowds from buildings those who do not recognize an object. Both and to adapt the environment for a safe plan- of these projects show that individuals as ning of mass events. well as small groups are able to intuitively use the most adaptive decision strategies in How Do Ideas Spread in Large Groups? different choice tasks. They also reveal that The dynamics of collective opinion formation group level regularities are similar to those has important implications for understanding that have been extensively studied on the in- a range of social phenomena. Based on the dividual level and thus extend the decision- results of laboratory experiments, Moussaïd,­ making research to the practically relevant Kämmer, Pipergias Analytis, and Neth (2013) domain of groups. show how participants answering factual questions revise their initial judgment after Crowd Behavior being exposed to the opinion of others. By Can Complex Crowd Behavior Be Predicted by means of a simple model derived from empir- Simple Heuristics? ical observations, they have studied how the Understanding and modeling the behavior of collective opinion changes in a large group of pedestrians and the collective dynamics of people repeatedly, influencing one another. crowd movements is a critical issue for the The results, detailed in Figure 12, show that safe management people in urban environ- two major mechanisms determine the col- ments and during mass events. Moussaïd and lective opinion: (1) the expert effect, induced Nelson (in press) compare two approaches to by the presence of a few highly confident simulating crowd dynamics: outcome models individuals in the group and (2) the majority that describe the behavior of pedestrians by effect, caused by the presence of a critical means of analogies with physical systems and mass of laypeople sharing a similar opinion. process models that describe the cognitive This work opens practical applications for process underlying the behavior by means of the management of conflicting situations in

36 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Key References Opinion of the Moussaïd, M., Helbing, experts D., & Theraulaz, G. (2011). How simple rules deter- mine pedestrian behavior and crowd disasters. Pro- ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 108, 6884–6888. Moussaïd, M., Kämmer, J. E., Pipergias Analytis, P., & Neth, H. (2013). Experts win

Majority wins Social influence and the collective dynamics of opinion formation. PLoS ONE, 8 (11): e78433. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0078433

Opinion of the Moussaïd, M., & Nelson, majority J. D. (in press). Simple 0% 10% 20% 30% heuristics and the model- Proportion of experts in the group ing of crowd behavior. Pedestrian and Evacua- tion Dynamics. Figure 12. Computer simulations indicating the collective opinion of a population in which a large majority of laypeople interact with a small minority of highly confident experts (Moussaïd et al., 2013). At least 20 % of highly confident experts are needed to counterbalance the strength of the majority. © MPI for Human ­Development

which well-informed minorities challenge the that recognition-based forecasts were views of a large majority of laypeople, such particularly competitive when forecasting as helping doctors convince a population of the success of smaller parties. In polls, very laypeople to adopt certain disease prevention few people (if any) declare they will vote for methods or preventing extremist groups from smaller parties, resulting in too few observa- taking control of a large population of people. tions. Wisdom-of-crowds forecasts were even more successful by drawing on the benefits Can Election Results Be Predicted From Small, of recognition while avoiding its downsides – Lousy Samples? recognition cannot discriminate among major “The trouble with free elections is, you never parties and is sometimes caused by factors know who is going to win,” former political unrelated to success. As shown in Figure 13, a leader of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev, simple extension of recognition-based fore- supposedly said. Polling agencies try to solve casts—asking participants what proportion this problem by interviewing large represen- of the population would recognize a party tative samples of citizens to forecast elec- instead of whether they themselves recognize tions. Gaissmaier and Marewski (2011) dem- it—eliminated these downsides. onstrated that very simple forecasting models based on small unrepresentative samples can provide a surprisingly accurate alternative. They aggregated judgments on (1) which of the parties participants recognized (recogni- tion-based forecasts) and (2) how participants think the parties will fare in the elections (wisdom of crowds). ­Gaissmaier and ­Marewski compared these forecasts to simulated polls in four major German elections and found

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 37 Key Reference Panel A: Simulated polls Panel B: Recogniton-based forecasts Gaissmaier, W., & 100 100 100

Marewski, J. N. (2011). 10 Large parties 10 Large parties Forecasting elections Small parties Small parties with mere recogni- 1 1 10 Large parties tion from small, lousy 0.1 0.1 Small parties Actual votes (in %) Actual votes (in %) samples: A comparison 0.01 0.01 of collective recogni- 1 0.001 0.001 tion, wisdom of crowds, None 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 None 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 and representative polls. Sampled votes (in %) Sampled votes (in %) 100 100 0.1 Judgment and Decision 10 Large parties 10 Large parties Making, 6, 73–88. Actual votes (in %) Small parties Small parties 1 1 0.01

0.1 0.1 Actual votes (in %) Actual votes (in %) 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.001 0.001 0 20 40 60 80 100 None 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 None 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 Sampled votes (in %) Sampled votes (in %) Aggregated recognition (in %) N = 34

Panel C: Wisdom of crowds Panel D: Estimated population recognition 100 100

10 Large parties 10 Large parties Small parties Small parties 1 1

0.1 0.1 Actual votes (in %) Actual votes (in %) 0.01 0.01

0.001 0.001 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Mean predicted rank N = 34 Mean estimated recognition (in %) N = 34

Figure 13. Comparison of four different models in their ability to forecast the success of the 27 parties in the German National Elections 2009 (Gaissmaier & Marewski, 2011). Predictors are on the x-axes and actual success on the y-axes. The orange line (large parties vs. small parties) indicates the threshold to enter parliament, which is 5 % in Germany. Panel A: Shown are four randomly drawn runs from simulated polls based on the actual election results with n = 1,000 each. These polls work well until the share of votes of a party is smaller than about 1 %, and there is a substantial risk of not at all observing voting intentions for very small parties. Panel B: Recogni- tion-based forecasts work well for small parties, but do not discriminate among the major parties. Additionally, there are some very small parties that are nevertheless recognized by many, such as the German Communist Party (votes: 0.0044 %; recognition: 65 %). Panel C: Wisdom-of-crowds forecasts are generally better able to differen- tiate between parties than recognition-based forecasts as they draw on the benefits of recognition, but avoid its downsides. Panel D: Asking people about the proportion of the population that would recognize a party, rather than about their own recognition, also eliminates the downsides of recognition-based forecasts. © MPI for Human ­Development

38 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Theory Integration

Psychologists take pride in devising new theories, models, and frameworks that differ from those that preceded them. As Walter Mischel (2009) pointed out, psychologists have a tendency to treat theories like toothbrushes—no one wants to use anyone else’s. This “toothbrush” men- tality has hindered progress in psychology. But much can be gained when researchers venture out of their comfort zone, learn from theories developed in other areas, and discover how these theories relate to their own. Put simply, theory integration can lead to new, surprising discover- ies and provide fresh impetus for understanding puzzling problems and unexplained phenom- ena. The interdisciplinary nature of the ABC Research Group means that we are well-poised to explore the benefits of theory integration and, in this section, we detail some examples.

Herbert Simon’s Spell on Judgment and developing theories, which is consistent with Key References Decision Making complaints about a general lack of theory in Gigerenzer, G. (2010). In order to assess the degree to which social and cognitive psychology (Gigerenzer, Personal reflections on research in judgment and decision making 2010). The authors went on to provide more theory and psychology. Theory and Psychology, attempts to integrate theories, Katsikopou- subtle examples of the lack of theoretical 20, 733–743. los and Lan (2011) analyzed all 377 articles integration. For example, they pointed out Katsikopoulos, K. V., published from 2006 to 2010 in The Journal that, in debates on the descriptive adequacy & Lan, C.-H. D. (2011). of Behavioral Decision Making and Judg- of cognitive theories, researchers were often Herbert Simon’s spell on ment and Decision Making. The first step divided into “advocates/proponents” and judgment and decision- making. Judgment and was to identify the articles that focus on “critics” of different theories. In general, the Decision Making, 6, Herbert ­Simon’s idea of bounded rational- authors concluded that too much time and 722–732. ity. The authors found 91 such articles. For ink have been spent on paying attention to Mischel, W. (2009). The each article, they judged whether it was who said what and when rather than trying to toothbrush problem. theoretically integrative or not. Articles on create a shared and improved understanding Association for Psycho- logical Science Observer, descriptive theory were judged to be integra- of the issues. 21, 11. tive if they contributed to building a theory In the final part of their article, Katsikopoulos that reconciled different conceptualizations and Lan (2011) offer suggestions for fostering of cognition, such as neural networks and theory integration in research into judg- heuristics. That is, the goal was to find those ment and decision making. They argue that articles that helped create a metamodel that researchers need to spend more effort on incorporated concepts from various models. thinking about the primitive aspects of their Articles on prescriptive theory were judged to theories (e. g., whether a model should include be integrative if they contributed to building observable or latent variables). It was further a theory that combined elements of other suggested that precise conceptual thinking methods, such as heuristics and optimization should be taught in classrooms, and examples models. The goal was to identify articles that should be given more exposure in textbooks. helped to create an integrated view that fuses ideas from various sources. Intuitive and Deliberate Judgments Are The main results of this exercise were: (a) Based on Common Principles The number of descriptive articles was much Some of our judgments seem intuitive: They higher than the number of prescriptive come to mind quickly and effortlessly without articles (71 vs. 27) and (b) the proportion of much of our awareness of their origins or integrative articles was higher for prescriptive of the manner of their formation. Others than for descriptive articles. In both cases, seem deliberate: They arise from a lengthy slightly more than half the articles were and painstaking thought process that is integrative (67 % and 52 %, respectively). transparent and accessible to consciousness. Overall, it seems that a substantial number Corresponding to this subjective experience, of articles focus on novel effects, but not on numerous models in social and cognitive psy-

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 39 Key Reference chology have been premised on the assump- (3) Rules’ ecological rationality determines Kruglanski, A. W., & tion that judgments can be formed via two their accuracy. Because of their better fit Gigerenzer, G. (2011a). qualitatively distinct processes or systems. with the presented task, heuristics that Intuitive and deliberative Such dual-system models typically char- require less effort to apply and ignore judgments are based on common principles. Psy- acterize intuitive judgments as associative, parts of the information can at times chological Review, 118, quick, unconscious, effortless, heuristic, and be more accurate than cognitive strate- 97–109. doi:10.1037/ error-prone, whereas deliberative judgments gies that process more information and a0020762 are described as rule-based, slow, conscious, demand more computation. effortful, analytic, and rational. This distinc- In summary, Kruglanski and Gigerenzer (2011) tion, according to Kruglanski and Gigerenzer suggest that the dichotomy between two sep- (2011), is superfluous. Instead, they present arate systems of judgments is unwarranted. arguments and evidence for a unified theo- Though instances of judgment formation may retical approach to intuitive and deliberate differ in multiple ways, such as the content, judgments: Both types of judgment are rule- effort invested, difficulty of formation, and so based and, in fact, the very same rules (e. g., on, the underlying process is uniform across tallying and take-the-best) can underlie both. cases. It consists of rule application in condi- Key to understanding the formation of judg- tions that require a given amount of cognitive ments of any kind is rule selection: How do resources, motivation, and core capacities. individuals select a rule from their adaptive toolbox for a given task? Kruglanski and A Signal-Detection Analysis of Fast-and- Gigerenzer propose a two-step process in Frugal Trees which: (a) characteristics of the task and an Models of decision making can be classified individual’s memory constrain the set of ap- as the following two types: Those that aim for plicable rules and (b) the individual’s process- an optimal solution in a world that is precisely ing potential and the (perceived) ecological specified by a set of assumptions (a so-called rationality of a rule—that is, a match between “small world”) and those that aim for a simple the rule and the informational structure of but satisfactory solution in an uncertain the task with regard to performance—guide world where the assumptions of optimization the final selection from the rule set. The fol- models may not be met (a so-called “large lowing points provide further insights on the world”). Despite the great advancement made rule-selection process. in each model family, there have been few (1) There is no general relation between the attempts to connect the two. Given the po- type of rule and its difficulty of applica- tential for theory integration to offer new in- tion. Rules are based on core cognitive sights, Luan, Schooler, and ­Gigerenzer (2011) capacities, and individual differences in attempted to draw connections between these capacities can influence the speed these two families of model. They showed and the accuracy with which a rule is how psychological concepts originating in executed. Thus, rules typically character- a small-world approach to decision making, ized as intuitive may be easy or difficult namely, the classic signal-detection theory to apply, depending on their degree of (SDT), can be used to understand the workings routinization and their momentary ac- of a class of large-world models known as the cessibility; and the same applies to rules fast-and-frugal trees (FFTs). Their conclusions considered deliberative. were: (2) The greater the difficulty of application, (1) The setting of a subjective decision criterion the more processing potential is needed in SDT corresponds directly to the choice of from an individual. Therefore, when the exit structure in an FFT. This correspon- processing potential is limited, only easy- dence is illustrated in Figure 14. Specifi- to-apply rules will mediate judgments. cally, the earlier an s exit, which points In contrast, when processing potential is to a signal decision, and the more such high, both easy and difficult rules may be exits in an FFT, the more “liberal” the FFT, considered and selected. which means a stronger tendency of the

40 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Key Reference ƒ (x/noise) ƒ (x/signal) Luan, S., Schooler, L. J., & Gigerenzer, G. (2011). A signal detection Correct Hit analysis of fast-and- rejection frugal trees. Psychologi- cal Review, 118, 316–338. doi:10.1037/a0022684

False Miss alarm

µ0 µ1 Observation X noise signal

Decision criterion xc

Cue1 Cue1 Cue1 Cue1

s s n n Cue2 Cue2 Cue2 Cue2

s n s n Cue3 Cue3 Cue3 Cue3

n s n s n s n s FFTss FFTsn FFTns FFTnn

Figure 14. The correspondence between signal detection theory (SDT) and fast-and-frugal trees (FFTs) when understanding the decision criterion. The upper part illustrates the main assumptions and concepts of SDT in a binary decision task, and the lower part illustrates the four possible FFTs that can be constructed when three cues are searched in a set order. Based on the decisions pointed to by the first two exits, the trees are named from left to right FFTss, FFTsn, FFTns, and FFTnn. The arrows connecting the two figure parts indicate the rough locations of the four FFTs’ decision criteria when they are used to make a binary s/n (for signal and noise, respectively) decision.

Among the four, FFTss has the most liberal decision criterion and FFTnn has the most conservative one. The decision criteria of FFTsn and FFTns are less extreme than the other two, with FFTsn being more liberal than FFTns. © MPI for Human ­Development

tree to make more signal than noise deci- tion, and the number of cues, can affect sions relative to their base rates. Setting a an FFT’s d’ as well. decision criterion that matches the payoff (3) FFTs perform well compared to the ideal structure (e. g., the penalties for miss and and the optimal sequential sampling false alarm) and base rates of a task is one models in SDT. Models in SDT are built to crucial characteristic of an ideal observer optimize. In a large world, where sample in the world of SDT. The exit structure in sizes are small, search is costly, and an FFT can be adjusted to result in a proper resources are limited, the performance decision criterion in this regard. of these models may fail to set the upper (2) The sensitivity of an FFT is reflected by the benchmarks as they are supposed to. FFTs order of cues searched and the proper- can perform better or as well as these SDT ties of cues in an FFT. In general, the more models in the large world, with respect the cues are searched according to the to frugality (i. e., the number of cues orders of their d’s—a popular measure of searched for a decision), accuracy, and sensitivity or accuracy in SDT—the higher expected payoffs. the d’ of an FFT. The properties of the cues, These findings demonstrate the potential including the mean and variance of the of theory integration to improve the under- cues’ individual d’s, the intercue correla- standing of common underlying psychological

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 41 Key References structures drawn from apparently disparate dangers of using analytic methods geared for Brighton, H., & theories of cognition. They also demonstrate small worlds to theorize, and make state- Gigerenzer,­ G. (2012). how discoveries can be made by examining ments about, large worlds. Are rational actor models models of one kind from the perspectives of From a statistical standpoint, the study of “rational” outside small worlds? In K. Binmore another. ecological rationality deviates from the & S. Okasha (Eds.), common practice of assuming a probabi- Evolution and rationality: Statistical Foundations of Ecological listic model of the environment. This is why Decisions, co-operation, and strategic behaviour Rationality our research rarely makes claims about, or (pp. 84–109). Cambridge, The distinction between small and large assumes the existence of, optimal solutions. UK: Cambridge University worlds mentioned above draws on the work Instead, ecological rationality adopts what is Press. of Leonard Savage (1954), the inventor of sometimes termed the statistical culture of Savage, L. J. (1954). The ­Bayesian decision theory. While Savage’s algorithmic modeling, where the “true” state foundations of statistics. New York: Wiley. theory, which he set out in The Founda- of nature is treated as unknown, and the sta- tions of Statistics, is accepted by many as tistical objective changes to making accurate providing a solid foundation for the study predictions relative to the observations. This is of rational decision making, Savage himself why much of our research stresses the ability considered it “utterly ridiculous” to apply the of simple models to achieve high predictive theory outside what he termed small worlds, accuracy relative to alternative models, rather where all states, acts, and consequences than make optimal predictions relative to a are known. How does the work of the ABC model of nature. Put simply, in a large world, Research Group, whose expressed purpose is the concept of optimality will always rest on to study decision making under uncertainty, assumptions which are known to be incorrect. relate to Savage’s concerns? Investigating the By focusing on the question of how to make connection, Brighton and Gigerenzer (2012) accurate inferences in a “large,” uncertain framed the study of ecological rationality as world, the ABC Research Group addresses a response to what they called Savage’s prob- Savage’s problem by adopting alternative lem: the problem of assessing the potential statistical foundations.

42 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Risk Literacy in Health

In the 1930s, H. G. Wells predicted that, for an educated citizenship in a modern democracy, statistical thinking would be as indispensable as reading and writing. At the beginning of the 21st century, nearly everyone in industrial societies has been taught reading and writing, but not statistical thinking. However, in a world that is full of uncertainty and risk, statistical think- ing is an indispensable skill. The general lack of training to deal with uncertainties and risks in today‘s technological society has become a huge problem, which has become apparent in various recent crises, from BSE (mad cow disease), to swine flu, to EHEC (Escherichia coli), to the Euro crisis.

“Our aim is to study how people behave in risk situations. We believe that our work can contribute toward the ideal of a society that knows how to calculate risks and live with them.” Gerd Gigerenzer

Should I have a flu vaccination or not? Is it safer to travel by car or by plane? Can early-detection screen- ing tests for cancer prolong my life? Questions like these are the research focus of a team of scientists led by Gerd Gigerenzer, director of the Harding Center for Risk Literacy. The goal of the Harding Center is to help people to understand and assess the risks facing them. The primary focus is on health and medicine as well as educating people from childhood onward to understand statistics. By conducting studies, experiments, and surveys, researchers investigate people’s problems with understanding numbers, and then find solutions. Importantly, researchers of the Harding Center often leave the laboratory to study how real people make real decisions, including interviewing experts, such as physicians, and laypeople, such as patients. Their research is published in the top international journals in medicine (including Annals of Internal Medicine, British Medical Journal, JAMA Internal Medicine, Vaccine) as well as psychological journals. Gerd Gigerenzer writes a regular column on the art of risk communi- cation for the British Medical Journal. The Harding Center is also involved in the university teaching of physicians as well as their continuing education, often in collaboration with leading universities, such as the Charité­ Universitätsmedizin Berlin and the Heidelberg University. Members of the Harding Center give about 50 keynotes, talks, and workshops per year to the medical community. Finally, the Harding Center aims to provide understandable health information to the public in collaboration with, for example, the Bertelsmann Foundation. The Harding Center for Risk Literacy was established in 2009. It is named after David Harding, who pro- vided a generous endowment for the Center. Harding­—global investment manager and director of Winton Capital—became­­ aware of Gerd Gigerenzer’s work after reading Reckoning with Risk, which was shortlisted for the Royal Society Prize for Science Books.

Box 2. The Harding Center for Risk Literacy.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 43 Key Reference At the Harding Center for Risk Literacy (see tions, and prostate-cancer survivors, involved Arkes, H. R., & Gaiss­ Box 2), we investigate how people cope with a number of serious misunderstandings. The maier, W. (2012). risk and uncertainty, the major obstacles PSA controversy engendered rancorous “dis- Psychological research to understanding them clearly, and how cussion” punctuated by denigrating personal and the prostate-cancer screening contro- citizens can be informed more effectively. attacks on the panel members by politicians versy. Psychological It is therefore important to complement and other individuals. Even faced with over- Science, 23, 547–553. laboratory experiments by studying real- whelming evidence, such as a meta-analysis doi:10.1177/ 0956797612437428 world problems and how people—such as that showed that the test did not save lives, physicians or patients—make real decisions, many activists and medical professionals as opposed to studying hypothetical tasks are clamoring for men to continue receiving using undergraduate students. One major their annual PSA test. How can the personal focus of the Harding Center is risk literacy belief and also the personal experience of in health. Risk literacy in health means that some people be so contrary to the scientific patients and doctors understand the benefits evidence that motivated the panel’s recom- and harms of different treatment options so mendations? that an informed decision based on the best Arkes and Gaissmaier (2012) discuss sev- available clinical evidence can take place. As eral factors documented by psychological we demonstrated in this section, difficulties research that may have contributed to the in understanding health statistics are wide- public’s condemnation of the report. They spread and common among physicians and summarize studies showing that an anecdote politicians. As a consequence, both societal or two can have a more powerful effect on and individual decisions about health are of- decision making than a compendium of more ten not based on scientific evidence. Patients reliable statistical data. When a reader of the should not, therefore, blindly follow the USPSTF report tries to digest the information advice of their doctors. Much can be done to about statistical lives, this information does remedy this situation, and we will illustrate not have the same impact as information new methods to assess risk literacy in a more about, for example, the reader’s mail carrier’s effective way and new ways to better inform older brother who had a positive PSA test, a people of the risks they face. Educated biopsy, and a radical prostatectomy, and is citizens are the objective. These citizens now still alive. The information given by the will know which questions to ask and, as a USPSTF that “no trial has shown a decrease in consequence, acquire a more informed (and overall mortality with the use of PSA-based relaxed) attitude toward health risks as well screening through 11 years of follow-up” as risks more generally. will not have the same probative value as awareness of a putative identified beneficiary Risk Illiteracy Has Severe Consequences of the PSA test. The positive view of the PSA for Societies and Individuals test is further exacerbated because many Understanding the Prostate-Cancer people do not understand that a control Controversy group is needed in order to evaluate the ef- In early October 2011, the U.S. Preventive fectiveness of a medical intervention or test: Services Task Force (USPSTF) released a draft Most men who receive PSA screening and are report in which they recommended against still alive do not realize that their outcome using the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) would have been the same had they not been test to screen for prostate cancer. Overall, screened. their conclusion was that the test does more Psychological research is not only instruc- harm than good because it results in many tive to understand the public reaction to the unnecessary and sometimes dangerous treat- USPSTF report; it has also developed more ments. This, too, was the conclusion in the effective means to represent statistical infor- final report released about half a year later. mation about clinical evidence so that it can The resulting furor, fueled by presidential can- be easily understood even by laypeople. Two didates, spokespersons for advocacy organiza- very helpful representations that have repeat-

44 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Prostate cancer early detection by PSA screening and digital-rectal examination. Numbers are for men aged 50 years or older, not participating versus participating in screening for 10 years.

1,000 men without screening 1,000 men with screening

Men dying from prostate cancer: 8 8 Men dying from any cause: 200 200 Men that were diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer unnecessarily: – 20 Men without cancer that got a false alarm and a biopsy: – 180 Men that are unharmed and alive: 800 600

Figure 15. An icon array illustrating the benefits (or lack thereof) and harms of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening and digital-rectal examination for men aged 50 years and older. Based on about 200,000 men in the screening groups and as many in the control groups in randomized trials (Djulbegovic et al., 2010). After 10 years, out of every 1,000 men in the control group (left side), 200 had died, including 8 from prostate cancer. These mor- tality rates did not differ among those in the screening group (right side), but about 200 men were harmed, such as being treated unnecessarily with incontinence and impotence for life (right panel, second group). These num- bers are not meant to be the final verdict on PSA screening, but rather serve to illustrate the order of magnitude of the effects. Note that in light of the most favorable evidence reported, the number of men dying from prostate cancer could be reduced from 8 to 7 out of 1,000, but in light of the total evidence, there is no such reduction. In any case, overall mortality did not decrease as a result of screening in any of the existing trials. Source. Arkes & Gaissmaier (2012). edly been proven to be effective are facts encouraged to involve patients in deci- boxes and icon arrays. Figure 15 illustrates sion making about their health, rather than the benefits (or lack thereof) and harms of the pursuing the paternalistic model in which PSA test with such an icon array. The authors doctors make the decisions for their patients. suggest that augmenting statistics with these However, it is not clear to what degree pa- representations might help committees com- tients actually want to participate in medical municate more effectively with the public and decision making and whether their prefer- with the U.S. Congress and could more gener- ences are influenced by their abilities. An ally be used to educate the public and elevate ability that is essential for the understanding the level of civic discussion. and use of quantitative information about health, and which is therefore an essential Risk Literacy in Health as a Prerequisite to aspect of risk literacy in health, is numeracy. Shared Decision Making Patients with low numeracy might prefer a Risk literacy in health is not only required passive role in their interactions with doctors to have civilized and informed debates on because they have problems understanding a societal level but also for each individual the risks and benefits of different medi- patient. Doctors have been increasingly cal options. Extant studies cannot answer

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 45 Key Reference Galesic, M., & García-­ Retamero, R. (2011b). Do low-numeracy people Germany 29.8% 51.6% 18.5% avoid shared decision making? Health Psychol- ogy, 30, 336–341. doi:10. 1037/a0022723

Low numeracy United States 34.6% 47.1% 18.3%

Germany 13.1% 72.3% 14.6%

High numeracy United States 10.9% 71.9% 17.2%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% More passive No change More active

Figure 16. Divergence of usual and preferred role of patients in medical decision making by numeracy and country. Shown is the percentage of participants who would like to play a more passive role than they usually play, not to change the role they usually play, or to play a more active role than they usually play. People with low numeracy often wish to be more passive than they currently are. © MPI for Human ­Development

these questions because most are based on numeracy patients in making decisions about nonprobabilistic, highly selective patient their health. samples that prevent generalizations to a broader population. Trust Your Doctor? Physicians Are Unlikely In a survey on probabilistic national samples to Inform Their Patients Adequately in the United States and Germany, Galesic Some people argue that the general public and García-Retamero (2011) interviewed will never be risk literate enough to make participants with low- and high-numeracy good decisions about their health. Rather, skills and asked them about their usual and these decisions should mostly be delegated to preferred role in medical decision making. The the experts—physicians. There are, however, roles could be more passive (doctor makes many reasons to assume that physicians will decisions), collaborative (doctor and patients not always decide in the best interest of their decide together), or active (patient makes patients. Besides conflicts of interest and decisions). Figure 16 illustrates the differ- defensive decision making, research at the ence between the participants’ preferred and Harding Center showed that physicians often usual role. A significant number of people do not inform their patients adequately and with low numeracy in both the United States that many physicians themselves actually and ­Germany preferred to be more passive lack the skills to interpret health statistics than they currently were. High-numeracy correctly. people, in contrast, were mostly satisfied with their current role. These results suggest Patients Are Not Informed About that education efforts to increase numeracy Overdiagnosis and Overtreatment as well as using nonquantitative communica- Cancer screening looks for cancer in people tion formats, such as analogies and visual without symptoms. It can produce benefits: displays, may foster involvement of low- Finding true cancer at an early stage can

46 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Key Reference What number of overdiagnosed people per one life saved from cancer death Wegwarth, O., & would you find tolerable while still being prepared to start the screening? Gigerenzer,­ G. (2013b). 30 Overdiagnosis and 26 overtreatment: Evalua- 25 25 tion of what physicians tell their patients about screening harms. JAMA 20 18 Internal Medicine, 173, 2086–2087. doi:10.1001/ 15 14 jamainternmed.2013. 10363

10 not to be screened 7 Percent of people choosing 5 4 4

0 0 1 5 10 20 50 100 Number of overdiagnosed people due to screening per one life saved from cancer death

Figure 17. Faced with the decision to undergo cancer screening, how many overdiagnosed people per life saved are you willing to accept? This graph shows, as a function of overdiagnosed people per life saved, the proportion of people willing to undergo cancer screening. © MPI for Human ­Development reduce the likelihood of the person dying from an argument against screening. Fifty-one it. But screening can also produce harms: percent of all participants were not prepared The most important harm is overdiagnosis, to enter a screening program that results in which can eventually lead to overtreatment. more than one overtreated person per one Overdiagnosis is defined as the detection of life saved from cancer death (see Figure 17). an abnormality that would never progress to However, 59 % would continue their routine cause problems in a patient’s lifetime, such cancer screening even if they learned that it as a nonprogressive prostate cancer. Treating results in 10 overtreated persons per one life a nonprogressive prostate cancer is obviously saved from cancer. not beneficial, and it can even be harmful and For counseling on screening, the results of cause impotence or incontinence as a side ef- the study indicate that physicians remain the fect. What do people who are offered cancer most highly rated source of health informa- screening by their physician learn about the tion. However, the information they provide potential harms of screening, and what extent does not meet patients’ standards. of overdiagnosis would they tolerate? Wegwarth and Gigerenzer (2013) surveyed Many Physicians Do Not Understand 317 men and women from the United States, Cancer Statistics aged 50 to 69 years. Of those, 83 % had at- While it seems natural to assume that tended one or more cancer screenings in the survival is the same as “1−mortality,” the past, but only 9 % (n = 30) had been informed term “survival” takes on a different mean- about the possibility of overdiagnosis and ing in the context of screening. Here, the overtreatment. In stark contrast, the great calculation of survival is based only on those majority expressed a desire to be informed: people diagnosed with cancer, while mortal- 80 % of all participants said they would like ity is based on the whole study population. to have been informed about screening harms To illustrate, imagine a group of patients in before being screened. Of people who had not whom cancer was diagnosed due to symp- yet had any cancer screening, 34 % indicated toms at 67 years of age, all of whom die at that the possibility of overtreatment had been 70 years of age. Each patient survives only

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 47 Key Reference 3 years, so the 5-year survival for the group patient leaflets alike. Do physicians who have Wegwarth, O., Schwartz, is 0 %. Now imagine that the same group to decide which screening tests to offer to L. M., Woloshin, S., undergoes screening. Screening tests by their patient know what screening statistics Gaissmaier, W., & definition lead to earlier diagnosis. Suppose to rely on? Gigerenzer, G. (2012). Do physicians under- that with screening, cancer is diagnosed in all To learn whether primary care physicians stand cancer screening patients at 60 years of age, but they never- understand which statistics provide evidence statistics? A national theless die at 70 years of age. In this scenario, about the benefits of screening, Wegwarth, survey of primary care physicians in the United each patient survives 10 years, so the 5-year Schwartz, Woloshin, Gaissmaier, and Giger- States. Annals of Internal survival for the group is 100 %. Yet, despite enzer (2012) presented 412 internal medicine Medicine, 156, 340–349, this dramatic improvement in survival (from physicians from the United States with two W-92-W-94. 0 % to 100 %), nothing has changed. The same scenarios: In one scenario, the effect of a people die at the same time. cancer screening X was described as improved Thus, only reduced mortality rates prove 5-year survival and increased early detection; that cancer screening saves lives, whereas in the other scenario the effect of cancer improved survival rates and increased early screening Y was described as decreased can- detection do not. Nevertheless, these two cer mortality and incidence. Physicians were statistics are often used to promote screen- further asked additional knowledge questions ing in high-profile medical journals and about screening statistics.

Which proves that a cancer screening test “saves lives“?

More cancers are detected in screened populations than in unscreened populations. Proves 47% Does not prove 49% correct answer Don‘t know 4% Explanation: A screening test can only work if it advances the time of diagnosis and earlier treatment is more effective than later treatment. Simply finding more cancer is therefore necessary, but not sufficient proof.

Screen-detected cancers have better 5-year survival rates than cancers detected because of symptoms. Proves 76% Does not prove 22% correct answer Don‘t know 3% Explanation: 5-year survival always increases whenever a screening test advances the time of diagnosis because of lead time. This is true whether or not the screening test saves lives.

Mortality rates are lower among screened person than unscreened persons in a randomized trial. Proves 81% correct answer Does not prove 14% Don‘t know 5% Explanation: Reduced mortality in a randomized trial is the only valid evidence that lives are saved.

0 20 40 60 80 100 Respondents (in %)

Figure 18. Only reduced mortality rates in randomized trials proves that screening actually saves lives. However, many physicians incorrectly believed that better survival rates (76 %) or even just higher detection rates (47 %) demonstrate that screening saves lives (Wegwarth et al., 2012). © MPI for Human ­Development

48 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Primary care physicians were more enthusias- for whom they, in principle, believed the an- Key Reference tic about the test when it was “supported” by tidepressant to be safe and effective. Which Gaissmaier, W., misleading evidence (5-year survival in- pieces of information would they choose to ­Anderson, B. L., & creased from 68 % to 98 %); in this case, 69 % provide to this (hypothetical) patient? ­Schulkin, J. (in press). How do physicians of physicians would definitely recommend the The authors assessed whether physicians provide statistical test. However, when actually the valid though chose statistical information that was information about less impressive sounding evidence about the complete, transparent, and interpretable, antidepressants to hypothetical patients? test was provided (cancer mortality decreased all of which is necessary to enable informed Medical Decision Making. from 2 to 1.6 in 1,000), the physicians were consent. Completeness means communicating Advance online publica- much less enthusiastic: Only 23 % of them both benefit and side effects. Atransparent tion. doi:10.1177/ 0272989X13501720 would definitely recommend the test in this representation makes clear which proportion case. Furthermore, many physicians did not of people are affected by the antidepressant. distinguish between misleading evidence An example of a transparent representa- (improved survival) and relevant evidence tion would be reporting the event rates for (reduced cancer mortality) when judging both the placebo and treatment groups (i. e., the benefit of screening: 76 % versus 81 %, that the proportion increases from 5.5 % to respectively, stated that these data prove that 11.4 %). Alternatively, one could report the screening saves lives. About half (47 %) of the absolute risk change (i. e., that it increases physicians incorrectly believed that finding by 5.9 percentage points). An example of a more cancers in screened as opposed to un- nontransparent representation is the use of screened populations “proves that screening relative risk. For example, stating that an saves lives.” antidepressant increases the risk of sexual The majority of primary care physicians problems by 107 % (100 % × (11.4–5.5) / 5.5)) mistakenly interpreted improved survival and details a relative risk. It is well documented increased detection with screening as evi- that relative risks lead people—including dence that screening is beneficial. As shown physicians and health professionals—to in Figure 18, few correctly recognized that overestimate the effects of drugs. Finally, only reduced mortality constitutes evidence interpretability means that the information of benefit for screening. is meaningful without additional informa- tion. This is not the case when only one event Many Physicians Do Not Provide Complete rate (either under treatment or placebo) is and Transparent Information Even When presented in isolation without providing com- They Have a Summary of All Relevant Clinical parative information about the other event Evidence at Their Disposal rate or a measure of risk change. For instance, Because physicians are a primary source of knowing that 45 % of patients who took the information for patients during informed antidepressant got better is not interpretable consent, it is important that physicians without knowing that 26 % who took the inform their patients both accurately and placebo also got better. transparently. The last two examples have The results showed that only about a quarter already shown this may often not be the of physicians selected information that case. Gaissmaier, Anderson, and Schulkin (in was complete and transparent (Figure 19b). press) investigated in detail the statistical Among the remaining three quarters of physi- information physicians choose to provide cians, it is interesting to distinguish two ways their patients. To do so, they provided physi- in which the information could be presented cians with summary statistics describing the in a nontransparent way. First, it could be benefits and side effects of an antidepressant represented in a way that makes it difficult detailed in a Cochrane review summarized in to impossible for the patient to understand Figure 19a. Cochrane reviews are considered it. This was the case for about half of the to offer the most trustworthy summaries physicians who selected information that was of clinical evidence. In one scenario, 142 complete, but not transparent (Figure 19c), physicians were asked to imagine a patient or that was not interpretable for the patient

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 49 (a) The complete information that was provided to physicians (c) 33 of 142 physicians (23.2 %) chose complete but nontransparent information (example)

Absolute Relative Absolute Relative Under Under risk change risk Under Under risk change risk treatment placebo in percent- change treatment placebo in percent- change (%) (%) age points (%) (%) (%) age points (%)

Benefit Benefit Condition Condition

improved 45.4 26.1 19.3 74 improved 74 Side effects Side effects

Dry mouth 22.4 12.1 10.3 85 Dry mouth 85 Sexual Sexual problems 11.4 5.5 5.9 107 problems 107

(b) 32 of 142 physicians (22.5 %) chose complete and transparent information (examples)

Absolute Relative Absolute Relative Under Under risk change risk Under Under risk change risk treatment placebo in percent- change treatment placebo in percent- change (%) (%) age points (%) (%) (%) age points (%)

Benefit Benefit Condition Condition improved 45.4 26.1 improved 19.3 Side effects Side effects Dry mouth 22.4 12.1 Dry mouth 10.3 Sexual Sexual problems 11.4 5.5 problems 5.9

(d) 36 of 142 physicians (25.4 %) chose information that was not (e) 34 of 142 physicians (23.9 %) made the benefit appear to interpretable because comparative information was missing outweigh the harm (example, mismatched framing) (example)

Absolute Relative Absolute Relative Under Under risk change risk Under Under risk change risk treatment placebo in percent- change treatment placebo in percent- change (%) (%) age points (%) (%) (%) age points (%)

Benefit Benefit Condition Condition

improved 45.4 improved 74 Side effects Side effects Dry mouth 22.4 Dry mouth 10.3 Sexual Sexual problems 11.4 problems 5.9

Figure 19. Which information do physicians choose to provide to (hypothetical) patients when they have a summary of all relevant clinical evidence at their disposal? In this scenario, 142 physicians were asked to imagine a patient for whom they, in principle, believe an antidepres- sant to be safe and effective. They could select from complete information shown in (a). A similar proportion of physicians (roughly 25 % each) selected information that was (b) complete and transparent, (c) complete but not transparent, (d) not interpretable for the patient because necessary comparative information was missing, or (e) suited for nudging by making the benefit appear to outweigh the harm. © MPI for Human ­Development

50 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Key Reference Measuring Risk Literacy: The Berlin Numeracy Test Cokely, E. T., Galesic, We make sense of our complex and uncertain world with data about risks that are presented in terms of M., Schulz, E., Ghazal, S., ratio concepts, such as probabilities, proportions, and percentages. Whether patients, consumers, and & García-Retamero, R. policymakers correctly understand these risks—that is, whether or not they are risk literate—depends in part (2012). Measuring risk on their statistical numeracy. To assess statistical numeracy, Cokely, Galesic, Schulz, Ghazal, and Garcia- literacy: The Berlin Nu- Retamero (2012) introduced the Berlin Numeracy Test, a psychometrically sound instrument that quickly meracy Test. Judgment assesses statistical numeracy. and Decision Making, 7, The Berlin Numeracy Test typically takes about 3 minutes to complete and is available in multiple languages 25–47. and formats, including a paper and pencil version and an adaptive computer test that automatically scores and reports data to researchers (see www.riskliteracy.org for more information). Figure 20 illustrates the adaptive version of the test and the path and scoring depending on which questions are answered correctly (green arrows) or incorrectly (red arrows), respectively.

Question 1 Out of 1,000 people in a small town, 500 are members of a choir. Out of these 500 members in the choir, 100 are men. Out of the 500 inhabitants that are not in the choir, 300 are men. What is the probability that a randomly drawn man is a member of the choir? Please indicate the probability in percent. ______%

Question 2a Question 2b Imagine we are throwing a 5-sided dice 50 Imagine we are throwing a loaded dice (6 sides). times. On average, out of these 50 throws, how The probability that the dice shows a 6 is twice many times would this 5-sided dice show an as high as the probability of each of the other odd number (1, 3, or 5)? ______out of 50 numbers. On average, out of these 70 throws, throws. how many times would the dice show the number 6? ______out of 70 throws.

Question 3 In a forest, 20% of mushrooms are red, 50% brown, and 30% white. A red mushroom is poisonous with a probability of 20%. A mushroom that is not red is poisonous with a probability of 5%. What is the probability that a poisonous mushroom in the forest is red? ______

Score: 1 2 3 4 Figure 20. The Berlin Numeracy Test assesses risk literacy with two to three questions and takes only about 3 minutes to complete. The figure shows the adaptive version of the test and the path and scoring depending on which questions are answered correctly (green arrows) or incorrectly (red arrows), respectively. Correct answers are as follows: 1 = 25, 2a = 30, 2b = 20, 4 = 50. © MPI for Human ­Development

A total of 21 studies (n = 5,336) showed robust psychometric discriminability across 15 countries (e. g., Germany, Pakistan, Japan, USA) and diverse samples (e. g., medical professionals, general populations, Mechanical Turk web panels). Analyses demonstrated desirable patterns of convergent validity (i. e., that it was correlated with related constructs such as numeracy or general cognitive abilities), discriminant validity (i. e., that it was not correlated with unrelated constructs such as personality or motivation), and criterion validity (it provided unique predictive validity for evaluating both numeric and nonnumeric information about risks). Additionally, the Berlin Numeracy Test was validated by being the strongest predictor of com- prehension of everyday risks (e. g., evaluating claims about products and treatments; interpreting forecasts), doubling the predictive power of other numeracy instruments and accounting for unique variance beyond other cognitive tests (e. g., cognitive reflection, working memory, intelligence).

Box 3.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 51 because necessary comparative information­— beyond understanding numerical risks. Thus, it primarily on the control group—was missing cannot automatically be assumed that graphs (Figure 19d). Second, the information could be are intuitively understood by everyone. represented in a way that makes the benefits In collaboration with the Zurich University of appear to outweigh the side effects and is the Arts, Gaissmaier et al. (2012) developed thereby suited to “nudge” the patient to take graphical displays of the risks of smoking the antidepressant. This was the case for the and the benefits and side effects of various final quarter of physicians (Figure 19e): They painkillers. In an experiment involving 275 either used a technique called “mismatched participants, they tested how well people un- framing” by presenting the benefit as relative derstood graphical representations of health risk change (big number), but the side effects statistics in comparison to presentations of as absolute risk change (smaller number); the same information using only numbers. or they made the antidepressant look more Participants’ comprehension of the health favorable by completely omitting the side statistics was assessed when working with the effects. materials (condition T1) as well as in recall af- In sum, it cannot be assumed that physicians ter about half an hour (condition T2) and after provide patients with complete, transpar- about 2 weeks (condition T3). The authors ent, and interpretable information about a also assessed graph literacy (i. e., the ability treatment, even if they have a summary of the to understand graphically presented informa- relevant clinical evidence at their disposal. tion) with a recently developed and validated Only about a quarter of the physicians did instrument (Galesic & García-­Retamero, so and thus would have enabled informed 2011). As shown in Figure 21, people with consent. The remaining three quarters of phy- high graph literacy were more accurate when sicians failed to facilitate informed consent by working with graphs than when working with either making it difficult to impossible for the numbers. In contrast, people with low graph patient to understand the information or by literacy were not only not better when receiv- making the benefits appear to outweigh the ing graphical instead of numerical informa- side effects, thereby nudging patients toward tion but their comprehension was even worse taking the antidepressant. with graphs than with numbers. Similarly, people with high graph literacy subjectively Communicating Statistical Information perceived graphical information to be more About Health Risks More Effectively accessible than numerical information, while What can be done to improve risk literacy the opposite was true for people with low in health? One promising way is to develop graph literacy. However, when asked how methods to communicate statistical infor- much they liked the representations, most mation about health more effectively. Here, participants reported that they preferred we discuss the use of graphical displays and graphical representations over numbers. This analogies to help people make sense of health was true even for participants with low graph statistics. literacy. Taken together, the results clearly show Numbers Can Be Worth 1,000 Graphs: Some that it cannot be assumed that statisti- People Understand Numerical Representations cal information is better understood when of Risk Better Than Graphical Representations communicated using graphs as opposed to Graphical displays are powerful tools that can numbers. Some people are obviously bet- facilitate the communication and compre- ter off with numbers. However, since the hension of quantitative information. It is majority of participants preferred graphs to often assumed that visualizations are always numbers—including those who had difficul- preferable to numbers in risk communication, ties understanding graphs—there is clearly a and many studies have demonstrated the need to improve graphical presentations and benefits of graphical information. However, make them more accessible, independent of interpreting graphs requires additional skills levels of graph literacy.

52 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Key References T1: Comprehension T2: Recall after 30 min T3: Recall after 2 weeks Gaissmaier, W., Weg­ 0.8 warth, O., Skopec, D., High graph literacy Müller, A.-S., Broschinski, Low graph literacy S., & Politi, M. C. (2012). 0.7 Numbers can be worth a thousand pictures: Individual differences in 0.6 understanding graphical and numerical represen- tations of health-related 0.5 information. Health Psychology, 31, 286–296. doi:10.1037/a0024850

Proportion correct (M + SE) 0.4 High graph literacy High graph literacy Galesic, M., & García-­ Low graph literacy Low graph literacy Retamero, R. (2011c). 0.3 Graph literacy: A Numbers Graphs Numbers Graphs Numbers Graphs cross-cultural com- parison. Medical Decision Figure 21. Gaissmaier et al. (2012) compared how well participants understood statistical information about Making, 31, 444–457. health topics when these were represented with mere numbers or with graphs. Participants’ comprehension of doi:10.1177/0272989X the health statistics was assessed when working with the materials (T1) as well as in recall after about half an 10373805 hour (T2) and after about 2 weeks (T3). Graphical representations of health statistics were not better understood by everyone. Only participants with high graph literacy (i. e., high ability to understand graphical information) showed better comprehension with graphs than with numbers. Participants with low graph literacy, however, actually showed better comprehension and recall with mere numbers. © MPI for Human ­Development

Individual Differences in the Use of Spatial low graph literacy, indicating that such indi- Information in Graph Comprehension viduals more often relied on spatial features One key to the success of graphs is that they to interpret graphs. In sum, these findings exploit the human ability to think about indicate that caution is required to ensure abstract concepts in spatial terms. Transla- that individuals with low graph literacy infer tions of spatial into conceptual information in the correct meaning from graphs. Designing graphs—spatial-to-conceptual mappings—are graphs in which spatial and conventional fea- frequently rooted in our experience with the tures convey the same meaning is an essential environment. For example, larger quantities step toward this aim. of substances typically reach higher positions along the vertical dimension. This experience Using Analogies to Communicate Information can be applied to infer that higher data points About Health Risks in graphs represent higher values. Hence, Doctors often use analogies to explain spatial features (e. g., bar heights) can convey medical concepts to patients, but it is unclear meaning independent of the viewers’ level of whether analogies actually improve under- graph literacy. However, on some occasions, standing of health information. Building on the meaning conveyed by spatial features existing theories of analogies, Galesic and can conflict with information in conventional García-Retamero (2013) designed sev- features (e. g., titles, axes labels, or numerical eral analogies to explain the usefulness of values on scales; see Figure 22). medical screenings. An example is “Cancer Okan, García-Retamero, Galesic, and Cokely screening is to cancer as a car alarm is to (2012) investigated the impact of such con- car theft.” The analogy relates the domain flicts on interpretations and decisions made that requires explanation (the relationship on the basis of bar graphs depicting medical between cancer screening and cancer or the data. Results showed that people frequently target of the analogy) to the domain that is misinterpreted the data, neglecting informa- better grounded in everyday experience (the tion in conventional features. Such errors relationship between a car alarm and car were more common among individuals with theft or the base of the analogy). Here, the

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 53 Key Reference (a) People with different types of influenza (in %) (b) People without different allergies (in %) Okan, Y., García-­ Retamero, R., Galesic, 0 18 M., & Cokely, E. T. 2 16 (2012). When higher bars 4 14 are not larger quantities: On individual differences 6 12 in the use of spatial 8 10 information in graph 10 8 comprehension. Spatial Cognition & Computa- 12 6 tion, 12, 195–218. doi: 14 4 10.1080/13875868.2012. People with influenza (in %)

16 People without allergy (in %) 2 659302 18 0 A B C D E A B C D E Type of influenza Type of allergy

Figure 22. Examples of graphs containing conflicts between spatial and conventional features that were frequently misinterpreted in the study by Okan et al. (2012), particularly by those with low graph literacy. Such a conflict can occur when spatial features (i. e., bar heights) convey different meaning than (1) numerical values on scales (scale-spatial conflicts; left panel) or (2) textual information in the title and axes labels (textual-spatial conflicts; right panel). In both cases, a correct interpretation requires considering information in conventional features and overriding direct spatial-to-conceptual mappings (e. g., recognizing that the usual correspondence between height and quantity is reversed, implying that higher bars do not necessarily represent higher values). For instance, the graph in the left panel includes a numerical scale where values increase from top to bottom. Identifying the type of influenza affecting the largest percentage of people requires attending to the scale. The graph in the right panel presents data about percentages of people without different types of allergy. Identifying the most prevalent allergy requires attending to the title and/or the axis label. © MPI for Human ­Development

Difficult tasks Easy tasks 100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40 Participants with at least one correct answer (in %) 20 20

0 0 Control Best analogy Control Best analogy US low numeracy US high numeracy Germany low numeracy Germany high numeracy

Figure 23. Percentage of participants with high and low numeracy in the United States and Germany, correctly answering at least one of the problems without analogies and with the analogy that most improved accuracy of that group. Difficulty was determined in a pretest with 400 participants in each country. The dotted line indicates chance level of performance. © MPI for Human ­Development

54 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition relationship that holds in the car domain (the tion of the base of the analogies. As shown Key Reference fact that a car alarm sometimes signals theft, in Figure 23, they found that, for difficult Galesic, M., & García-­ but sometimes gives false alarms or does not medical problems, analogies helped high- Retamero, R. (2013f). activate when it should) is also applicable to numeracy people more than low-numeracy Using analogies to communicate infor- the cancer screening domain. people. For easy medical problems, analogies mation about health In a study on probabilistic national samples did not further improve an already high level risks. Applied Cognitive in two countries, Galesic and García-­ of understanding among people with high Psychology, 27, 33–42. doi:10.1002/acp.2866 Retamero (2013f) investigated whether such numeracy, but they enhanced understanding analogies help people with low and high among people with low numeracy. The most numeracy skills to understand easy and dif- helpful analogies were those with high simi- ficult problems involving medical screenings. larity of the relationships between objects in They also investigated whether the helpful- their target and base and those with highly ness of analogies depended on the similarity familiar bases. These results suggest that of the target and the base of the analogies, properly designed analogies can be useful to familiarity of patients with the base of help patients understand complex medical the analogies, and the ease of visualiza- information.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 55 Key References Decision Making in the Wild Gaissmaier, W., & Gigerenzer,­ G. (2012). The study of bounded, ecological, and social rationality conceives behavior as the result of an 9/11, Act II: A fine- interaction between cognition and environment. It investigates the conditions under which grained analysis of regional variations in simple heuristics can both lead to faster, more accurate predictions and increase the transpar- traffic fatalities in the ency of the decision process. In this section, we present a selection of our work outside the aftermath of the terrorist laboratory, beginning with behavioral reactions to terrorism and moving on to financial regula- attacks. Psychological Science, 23, 1449–1454. tion, sports, and slot machines. doi:10.1177/ 0956797612447804 9/11, Act II: Regional Variations in Traffic the indirect damage of terrorist attacks can Gigerenzer, G. (2006). Fatalities in the Aftermath of the Terrorist have particularly fatal consequences and to Out of the frying pan Attacks possibly curb similar psychological attacks in into the fire: Behavioral reactions to terrorist at- Terrorists can strike twice: first, by directly the future, one must pay close attention to tacks. Risk Analysis, 26, killing people and, second, through dangerous the general conditions—such as the respec- 347–351. behaviors induced by fear in our minds. In the tive infrastructure—that are conducive to López-Rousseau, A. 12 months subsequent to the 9/11 terrorist risky, fear-induced behaviors. This could also (2005). Avoiding the attacks, there were about 1,600 more traffic explain why there were fewer Spanish train death risk of avoiding a dread risk. Psychological fatalities in the United States than expected, travelers following the train bombings in Science, 16, 426–428. presumably because fear of dread risks led ­Madrid on 11 March 2004, but without any people to drive rather than fly (Gigerenzer, corresponding increase in car travel. Spain 2006). But why would such an increase in has a less pronounced car-driving culture, traffic and, correspondingly, in traffic deaths which Gaissmaier and Gigerenzer (2012) be observed in some states, but not in others? express in numbers: In the United States in And why was no increase in driving and in 2001, there were around 800 cars registered traffic accidents seen following the similarly per 1,000 inhabitants while, in Spain in 2004, devastating train bombings in Madrid in 2004 this figure was around 600. (López-Rousseau, 2005)? To answer these questions, Gaissmaier and Gigerenzer (2012) Dread Risk conducted new analyses. Which aspect of our brain’s psychology do What they found is that car traffic increased terrorists exploit in their second strike? Low- particularly in the New York vicinity, close to probability events in which many people are where the main attacks on the World Trade suddenly killed, so-called dread risks, trigger Center occurred. Images of these attacks, and an unconscious rule of thumb: If many people thus the accompanying fear, appear to be par- die at one point in time, react with fear and ticularly present for people who lived in the avoid that situation. surrounding area; other studies also support Note that the fear is not about dying per se. It this assumption. However, the authors further is about dying together at one point in time, or identify an even stronger factor that could in a short interval. Where does this tendency explain why the traffic volume increased to fear dread risks come from? One hypoth- sharply even in some states far away from esis is that, in human history, it was likely a New York, especially in the Midwest: There, rational response. For most of our evolution, the infrastructure was simply very favor- humans lived in small hunter–gatherer bands able to driving instead of flying, with a large that may have comprised around 100 individ- number of car-friendly streets and a large uals. In small bands, the sudden loss of many number of registered vehicles in relation to lives could increase the risk of predation and the number of inhabitants (see Figure 24). starvation, and thus threaten survival of the The study findings support the assumption entire group. that the fear created by terrorist attacks can It is difficult to test such historical explana- cause potentially risky behavior. But they also tions directly. Galesic and García-Retamero make it clear that fear alone is not enough (2012) derived and tested an ingenious im- to explain risky behavior. To predict where plication of this explanation. Although there

56 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition (a) Changes: Fatalities

WA ME MT ND OR MN VT NH MA ID SD WI NY WY MI NYC RI CT IA PA NV NE OH UT IL IN NJ Change in fatalities CO WV DE per million inhabitants CA KS MO VA MD KY ≤ 0.0 NC TN 0.5 AZ OK NM AR SC 1.0 1.5 GA MS AL 2.5 TX LA > 2.5 AK

FL β = .42 HI

β = .59

= –.40 (b) Highway system length (c) Changes: Miles β

WA WA ME ME MT ND MT ND OR MN VT OR MN VT NH MA NH MA ID ID SD WI NY SD WI NY WY MI WY MI NYC RI NYC RI CT IA PA IA PA CT NV NE NV NE Proximity to OH OH UT IL IN NJ UT IL IN NJ CO WV DE CO WV DE New York City CA KS MO VA MD CA KS MO VA MD KY KY NC NC TN TN AZ OK AZ OK NM AR SC NM AR SC GA GA MS AL MS AL TX TX LA LA AK AK

FL FL HI HI

Highway system length per Change in miles driven 100,000 inhabitants (miles) per inhabitant

≤ 30 ≤ 0 50 10 70 20 90 30 110 50 > 110 > 50

Figure 24. Maps of the United States showing by state (a) the change in driving fatalities in the 3 months subsequent to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, (b) highway system length, and (c) the changes in the number of miles driven in the 3 months subsequent to the attacks. Also shown are results of regression analyses in which highway system length and proximity to New York City were predictors of changes in miles driven, which, in turn, predicted changes in driving fatalities. © MPI for Human ­Development

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 57 Key References 10 Bodemer, N., Ruggeri,­ A., & Galesic, M. (2013a). When dread 8 risks are more dreadful than continuous risks: Comparing cumulative 6 population losses over time. PLoS One, 8 (6): e66544. doi:10.1371/ 4 journal.pone.0066544 Galesic, M., & García- Retamero, R. (2012). 2 Monetary loss in euros The risks we dread: A Rating of fear (annoyance, size) Number of deaths social circle account. Context-free numbers PLoS One, 7 (4): e32837. 0 doi:10.1371/journal. 10 100 1,000 pone.0032837 Number

Figure 25. Ratings of fear of risks that kill 10, 100, and 1,000 people (red line), annoyance with losses of 10, 100, and 1,000 euros (green line), and size of numbers 10, 100, and 1,000 (blue line). The ratings of loss of 1,000 euros and size of number 1,000 were larger than the ratings of loss of 100 euros and size of number 100. However, fear of risks killing 1,000 people was not larger than fear of risks killing 100 people. Error bars represent ±1 standard error. © MPI for Human ­Development

is some variability in the estimated sizes of have a stronger negative impact on the human groups, past and present, these are in cumulative population size over time in the order of 100 people (estimated sizes are comparison with a continuous risk causing strikingly similar for both Pleistocene groups the same number of fatalities. This difference and modern social circles, such as on Face- should be particularly strong when the risky book). If (a) dread risk fear originates from a event affects children and young adults who response to the danger that a human group would have produced future offspring if they will be wiped out and (b) traces of this fear had survived longer. The authors conducted still exist, then risks that kill 100 people (and a series of simulations with varying assump- thus wipe out the entire social group) should tions about population size, population be dreaded more than those that kill 10 peo- growth, age group affected by risky event, ple, while risks that kill 1,000 people should and the underlying demographic model. not be feared more than those that kill 100 Results confirmed their hypothesis, sug- people. This prediction was supported in nine gesting that fearing a dread risk more than experiments dealing with various ­dangers, a continuous risk is an ecologically rational most of which were conducted outside the strategy. laboratory with nonstudent participants. As Taken together, the three studies on dread Figure 25 shows, the effect is specific to lives risk provide a consistent picture, indicat- lost and is not observed for money lost, that ing that (1) dread risks shape our fears is, when 10, 100, or 1,000 euros are lost or and avoidance behavior, which is why an when no context is specified for the numbers. estimated 1,600 people lost their lives on These results indicate that dread risk fear the road by driving rather than flying after may indeed have an ecological origin and also 9/11; (2) for dread risk fear to be elicited, the stress the importance of considering social number of fatalities apparently needs to co- environments when studying people’s reac- incide with the typical size of human groups tions to dangers. in history; and (3) dread risk appears to have In a study on the adaptive nature of dread been rational in environments with isolated risks, Bodemer, Ruggeri, and Galesic (2013) small groups because the sudden death of a tested the hypothesis that a dread risk may large number of its members is much more

58 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition detrimental to the survival of the entire well in a world where risks can be reliably Key Reference group than if the same number of deaths measured, but have consistently failed in the Haldane, A. G. (2012). occur over time. These results also highlight increasingly uncertain world since the 1980s. The dog and the Frisbee. the domain-specificity of this emotion and Research on simple heuristics has shown that, Speech, Jackson Hole, August 31, 2012. http:// the importance of risk literacy as a general with increasing uncertainty, highly param- www.bankofengland. skill in dealing with modern threats such as eterized models suffer correspondingly from co.uk/publications/Pages/ terrorism. If 9/11 ever repeats itself, terror- overfitting and prediction failure, whereas speeches/2012/596.aspx ists should ideally face a public that does not simple heuristics can be more robust and bet- allow them to exploit this fear. ter equipped to deal with it. The key questions addressed are: Simple Heuristics for a Safer World of (1) Given the failure of complex models (such Finance as value-at-risk) to predict bank failure, The Bank of England Project can simple heuristics make better predic- The financial system has grown in complexity tions? And if so, under what conditions over recent years. Both the private sector and (such as bank size)? public authorities have met this complexity (2) Given the failure of regulatory measures, with complexity, whether through increasing- what set of simple heuristics could help to ly elaborate modeling and risk management create a safer world of finance? strategies or ever-lengthening regulatory One of the heuristics investigated was a rulebooks. (The Basel Accords mushroomed simple, unweighted leverage ratio (the ratio from 30 pages in 1998 to 347 pages in Basel II between debt and capital). After the first to 616 pages in Basel III.) But this helped results of our joint investigation were in, neither to predict nor to prevent the cur- Haldane decided to change the topic of his rent financial crisis. Worse, financial models 2012 Jackson Hole lecture at the annual appeared to show that such a crisis was meeting of the central banks in the United virtually impossible. In August 2007, when States. In his talk The Dog and the Frisbee, he Goldman Sachs’ flagship hedge fund lost argued that the way complex problems are 27 % of its value from the start of the year, solved by simple heuristics (e. g., the gaze its Chief Financial Officer explained that “we heuristic used by dogs to catch Frisbees and were seeing things that were 25-standard by outfielders to catch baseballs) could serve deviation moves, several days in a row.” This as a model of a new approach to bank regula- seems extraordinarily unlucky, considering tion. He noted that the general conditions for that many models predict even a 7-standard the ecological rationality of heuristics relative deviation move happening only once between to complex models include (a) a large number the Big Bang and now. of parameters to estimate, (b) relatively In early 2012, Andrew G. Haldane, Bank of small samples of data, and (c) an instable or England’s Executive Director of Financial unpredictable world. Consistent with these Stability, and Gerd Gigerenzer met in a meet- principles, an analysis of simple leverage ing arranged by Mervyn King, then-governor ratios for the major global banks in 2006 was of the Bank. The goal was to combine the better than an analysis of risk-based capital economic competences of the Bank with the ratios at distinguishing between distressed research on simple heuristics at the Institute. and nondistressed banks. Across the bank- This meeting was the first of several, and a ing book, a large bank may have to estimate research group of four (later five) economists some 1,000 default probabilities and other from the Bank regularly visited the Institute parameters, and the number of parameters in Berlin in 2012, 2013, and 2014 as part of set for the trading book can be even larger. a project titled Simple Heuristics for a Safer Estimating the covariance matrix for each of World of Finance. these risk factors entails estimating millions What inspired the project was the realization of individual risk parameters. It follows that in that an alternative is needed to traditional small, simply structured banks—for instance, finance theory. Financial models may work FDIC-insured (Federal Deposit Insurance

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 59 Key Reference Remember the volcanic ash cloud? The subprime Aikman, D., Galesic, M., disaster? How about mad cow disease? Each new Gigerenzer, G., Kapadia, crisis makes us worry until we forget and start S., Katsikopoulos, K. V., worrying about the next one. When something goes Kothiyal, A., Murphy, E., wrong, we are told that the way to prevent further & Neumann T. (2013). crises is better technology, more laws, and more Taking uncertainty seri- bureaucracy. How can we protect ourselves from the ously: Simplicity versus threat of terrorism? Homeland security, full body complexity in financial scanners, further sacrifice of individual freedom. regulation. Financial How can we counteract exploding costs in health Stability Papers, Bank of care? Tax increases, rationalization, better genetic England. markers. One idea is absent from these lists: risk-savvy citi- zens. And there is a reason. Behavioral economists as well as many psychologists argue that people are predictably irrational and may never learn to deal with risks due to their cognitive illusions. The political consequence proposed is paternalism, soft or hard. Based on the experimental evidence accumulated by the ABC Research Group and col- leagues around the world, this book takes a different perspective: First, everyone can learn to deal with risk and uncertainty. This book explains principles that are easily understood by everyone who dares to know. Second, experts are part of the problem rather than the solution. Many experts themselves struggle with understanding risks, lack skills in communicat- ing them, and pursue interests not aligned with yours. Giant banks go bust for exactly these reasons. Little is gained when risk-illiterate authorities are placed in charge of guiding the public. Third, less-is-more. When we face a complex problem, we look for a complex solution. And when it doesn’t work, we seek an even more complex one. In an uncertain world, this is mistake. Complex problems do not always require complex solutions. Overly complicated systems, from financial derivatives to tax systems, are difficult to comprehend, easy to exploit, and possibly danger- ous. And they do not increase the trust of the people. Simple rules, in contrast, can make us smart and create a safer world.

Box 4.

Corporation) banks in the United States—the The specific results are important, but complex models may pay (which the second equally important is to increase aware- result of our project confirmed). Haldane’s ness of an alternative to traditional finance talk was named Speech of the Year by The theory, in the form of studying the ecological Wall Street Journal. rationality of simple heuristics. To the many Since then, a number of further studies have who consider heuristics to be approxima- been conducted on both questions, and the tions to optimal solutions, it is not yet clear results were jointly published in the Bank of that in an uncertain world, where optimiza- England Financial Regulation Series. Financial tion is unfeasible, heuristics may be the best systems are much better characterized by strategy. As a sign of an emerging change in uncertainty than by risk. As such, conven- thinking, the term simplicity has now entered tional methods for modeling and regulating the language of bank regulation. On 8 July financial systems may be flawed when the 2013, for instance, the Basel Committee on complexity is high. In these situations, simple Banking Supervision released a press release approaches can dominate more complex in which “balancing risk sensitivity, simplicity ones—”less can be more.” This is borne out and comparability” were referred to in the by both simulations of capital requirements title. There is also a Task Force on Simplicity against potential losses and the empirical and Comparability, whose goal is to elimi- evidence on individual bank failures during nate undue complexity from the regulatory the most recent financial crisis. framework.

60 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Key Reference (a) Sources of uncertainty (b) Dynamic environments: Types of change Meder, B., Le Lec, F., & But over But over Osman, M. (2013). Deci- sion making in uncertain time time times: What can cogni- tive and decision sciences say about or learn from economic crises? Trends Actor Others The world Outcomes static “Apparent“ risk Outcomes and in Cognitive Sciences, 17, probabilities change probabilities change 257–260. doi:10.1016/ j.tics.2013.04.008 (c) Decision making scenarios Certainty Risk “Black swan“ Knightian uncertainty Radical uncertainty

Outcomes and probabilities known Unknown or Outcomes known, Outcomes unknown, unheeded probabilities probabilities extreme events unknown unknown

Figure 26. Uncertainty in its various guises. Illustrating sources of uncertainty and situations of decision making under uncertainty using an urn model. (a) Uncertainty can reside in the mind of the boundedly rational agent. Uncertainty can also result from the decisions and influences from other agents and from genuine randomness in the external environment (i. e., the data-generating process). (b) Examples of dynamic environments that involve changes in the decision-making situation over time. Left: The proportion of balls changes in unpredictable (or unknown) ways over time, therefore probability estimates at t1 are of little use at t2. Right: The outcomes themselves change over time, requiring a reformulation of the decision situation. (c) Examples of decision- making scenarios. From left to right: In situations of certainty and risk the outcomes and their probabilities are known. In a “black swan” situation, the urn contains a rare but highly consequential event (“bomb” or, in the case of a positive event, a “diamond”), which is either unknown to the decision maker or ignored in the representation of the decision situation. In a situation of “Knightian uncertainty,” only the outcomes are known, but not their probabilities. The right-most situation example is of radical uncertainty, in which both outcomes and their prob- abilities are unknown. © MPI for Human ­Development

Understanding the Shades of Uncertainty els remains incomplete without a better char- In order to develop tools that lead to a safer acterization of the many forms of uncertainty world of finance, understanding the distinc- with which people have to cope. For instance, tion between measurable risk and uncertainty high-stake decisions, such as whether to bail is essential. Uncertainty refers to situations out banks, highlight the ubiquity of situations in which risks cannot be reliably measured in which decisions need to be made in the or where the full range of alternatives and absence of an objective basis for calculating consequences is not known in the first probabilities of success. place. Probability theory is the proper tool The conceptual difference between situations for known risks, and heuristics are tools for in which probabilities and outcome values are uncertainty. known (or estimated from data) and those in Yet some economists attribute blame to which they are not was already emphasized people rather than to models. A popular as- in the seminal work of Frank Knight, who sumption is that economic models need to be first referred to them as situations of risk remolded to factor in people’s apparent ir- versus uncertainty. Since then, however, little rationality, their “animal spirits” or “cognitive progress has been made in developing a more biases.” Yet the problem is that these models fine-grained taxonomy of uncertainty. Meder are not fit to accommodate uncertainty in the and colleagues propose such a categoriza- first place. Meder, Le Lec, and Osman (2013) tion (Figure 26) and argue that, if the goal argue that a critical analysis of existing mod- is to explain how decisions should be made,

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 61 Key References what is needed is a better understanding Las Vegas and Slot Machines: The Illusion Bennis, W. M., of uncertainty in its various (dis)guises. At of Winning Is Not All in the Players’ Heads Katsikopoulos,­ K. the Cognitive Science Conference 2013 in In 2007, Americans spent $ 34 billion gam- V., Goldstein, D. G., ­Sapporo, they organized a workshop on the bling in commercial casinos, considerably Dieckmann, A., & Berg, N. (2012). Designed to fit role of uncertainty in financial crises, which more than the $ 600 million spent on going minds: Institutions and drew much attention. to the movies. To make a profit, gambling ecological rationality. In institutions are designed so that the average P. M. Todd, G. Gigerenzer, & the ABC Research Does the Hot Hand Exist? gambler loses money. Because gamblers can Group, Ecological The “hot hand” belief in sports refers to the expect to lose, the fact that so many people, rationality (pp. 409–427). conviction that a player has a higher chance who are otherwise risk averse, nonetheless New York: Oxford Univer- sity Press. of making a shot after two or three suc- gamble is perplexing. A number of psycholo- cessful shots than after two or three misses gists and economists have proposed a variety Gilovich, T., Vallone, R., & Tversky, A. (1985). The (resulting in “streaks”). Beginning with a of internal causes as an explanation, from hot hand in basketball: landmark article by Gilovich, Vallone, and people’s failure to understand probabilities On the misperception Tversky (1985) on basketball, this belief has to motivational illusions such as overconfi- of random sequences. Cognitive Psychology, 17, been usually considered a cognitive fallacy dence. Yet there is another way to explain this 295–314. because the actual statistics do not show the behavior, an ecological one. False beliefs may Raab, M., Gula, B., & effect. A key contention is that in basketball in fact be caused by the intentional design Gigerenzer, G. (2012). the defense will attack a “hot” player and thus of the external environment, not simply by The hot hand exists in prevent streaks from occurring. To address internal shortcomings. volleyball and is used for allocation decisions. this argument, Raab, Gula, and Gigerenzer To explore this hypothesis, Bennis, Katsiko- Journal of Experimental (2012) conducted the first study on the hot poulos, Goldstein, Dieckmann, and Berg Psychology, 18, 81–94. hand in volleyball, where the net limits direct (2012) analyzed the design of Las Vegas doi:10.1037/a0025951 defensive counterstrategies, meaning that resort casinos. They show in detail how the streaks are more likely to emerge if a player casino environment is carefully designed is hot. The study addressed three questions. to encourage gamblers’ falsely optimistic First, do athletes and coaches believe in a hot beliefs about the probability of winning. hand in volleyball? The answer was strongly These casino resorts have one or more floors affirmative: 91 % of 115 athletes and 92 % of of hundreds, sometimes thousands, of slot 16 coaches believed in the hot hand. Second, machines that are arranged back to back. and most critically, does the hot hand exist The first type of illusory information is in volleyball? The answer was again yes: acoustic, delivered for instance by machines Depending on the criterion used, 53 % of the that greatly amplify the clanking of coins top 26 German first-division players showed that drop several inches onto a metal tray significant streaks and 46 % showed signifi- in order to signal wins. When winners do cant autocorrelations. Finally, is the hot hand not immediately collect their tokens, wins belief used to inform allocation decisions? are accompanied by music at an escalat- Once more, the answer was yes. The experi- ing volume; the amplified sound of grow- ments and systematic observations indi- ing credits often accrues at a faster pace cated an adaptive use of the hot hand belief: than the credits themselves, adding to the Playmakers allocate the ball more often to perception that players have won more than players with streaks, which leads to better they actually have. Second, visual cues such performance than when allocating the ball to as siren lights on top of the slot machines the player with the higher average base rate. spin and flash whenever a major jackpot has Moreover, the study showed that coaches are been hit. Larger jackpots are paid by hand, able to detect players’ performance variabil- and attendants are instructed to walk slowly ity and use it to make strategic decisions. In toward the winner to extend the waiting volleyball, the hot hand exists, coaches and time so that on busy nights many sirens can playmakers are able to detect it, and playmak- be simultaneously seen and heard. ers tend to use it “adaptively,” resulting in A third and most deceptive trick has become more hits for a team. possible with the advent of the electronic

62 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition slot machine. Whereas the symbols (e. g., misses, the outside representation creates a red seven) on the interior reels of the a false perception of their actual frequency. old mechanical machines reflected what Given that these tricks are unknown to most gamblers saw on the outside window, such a gamblers, no cognitive illusions are needed to one-to-one correspondence no longer exists. explain why players overestimate the prob- If, for instance, the largest jackpot requires abilities of winning. The environment provides three red sevens, the gambler may see two an explanation for gambling behavior that is red sevens and the foot of the third seven just often overlooked in theories that search for one slot above the window, suggesting a near causes inside the mind. In the casino, the illu- miss, even though there may not have actu- sion of winning is real; it is part of the design ally been one. By inflating the number of near of the ­environment.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 63 Publications 2011–2013 (last update: January 2014)

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74 | Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Wolf, M., Van Doorn, G. S., & Woller-Carter, M. M., Okan, Y., Zhu, L., Gigerenzer, G., & Zhu, W., & Timmermans, H. Weissing, F. J. (2011). On the Cokely, E. T., & García- Huangfu, G. (2013). Psychologi- (2011). Modeling pedestrian coevolution of social responsive- Retamero, R. (2012). Com- cal traces of China’s socio-eco- shopping behavior using prin- ness and behavioural consis- municating and distorting nomic reforms in the ultimatum ciples of bounded rational- tency. Proceedings of the Royal risks with graphs: An eye- and dictator games. PLoS ONE, ity: Model comparison and Society of London: B, Biological tracking study. Proceedings 8 (8): e70769. doi:10.1371/ validation. Journal of Geo- Sciences, 278 (1704), 440–448. of the Human Factors and journal.pone.0070769 graphical Systems, 13, 101–126. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1051 Ergonomics Society 56th An- doi:10.1007/s10109-010-0122-8 nual Meeting, 56, 1723–1727. doi:10.1177/1071181312561345

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition | 75

Center for Adaptive Rationality The Center for Adaptive Rationality

The Center for Adaptive Rationality (ARC) (Director: Ralph Hertwig) investigates how people make boundedly rational decisions in complex and uncertain social and nonsocial worlds. The current research focuses on (1) bounded rationality, that is, the simple heuristics that people recruit in order to navigate a complex world; (2) information search and learn- ing as key processes in reckoning with uncertainty; (3) how decision-making strategies develop over the lifespan and respond to the challenges of cognitive aging; and (4) ways in which heuristics, mental strategies, and environments can be designed to empower citizens, patients, doctors, and policy makers to make better decisions. In each of these areas, a variety of methods are employed, including behavioral experiments, computer simulations, mathematical analyses, and neuroscientific tools.

Research Team 2011–2013

Felix Blankenburg (as of 09/2013: Freie Universität Berlin, Germany), Wouter van den Bos, Larissa Conradt, Ralph Hertwig,­ Stefan M. Herzog, Andreas Horn, Tomás Lejarraga, Jutta Mata, Rui Mata, Mehdi ­Moussaïd, Dirk Ostwald, ­Thorsten Pachur, Jan K. Woike

Postdoctoral Fellows Nadine Fleischhut, Renato Frey, Sebastian S. Horn, Mirjam A. Jenny, Juliane E. Kämmer, Arthur Paul Pedersen, Michael Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Renata S. Suter

Predoctoral Fellows Philipp Gerlach, Anika Josef (LIFE), Nathaniel Phillips, Dirk U. Wulff

Adjunct Researcher Felix Blankenburg (Freie Universität Berlin, Germany)

Visiting Researchers Lavinia Flückiger (University of Basel, Switzerland), Arend Hintze ­(Michigan State University, USA), Daniel Hofer (University of Basel, Switzerland), Robin M. Hogarth (Universitat Pompeu Fabra, ­Barcelona, Spain), David Kellen (University of Freiburg, Germany), Patrick H. Khader (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Germany), Timothy James Roper (University of ­Sussex, UK), Timo Torsten Schmidt (Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Germany), Momme von Sydow ­(Heidelberg University, Germany)

78 | Center for Adaptive Rationality “Human beings viewed as behaving systems are quite simple. The apparent complexity of our behavior over time is largely a reflection of the complexity of the environment in which we find ourselves.” Herbert A. Simon, 1996

Introductory Overview

Inspired by Herbert A. Simon’s notion of bounded rationality, the Center seeks to understand how flesh-and-blood decision makers of all ages cope with the staggering complexity and uncertainty of the modern world. We challenge the belief, entrenched among many scholars of the mind, that complex problems can be solved only by complex cognitive machinery. Instead, our research assumes that much of human decision making can be described in terms of simple heuristics. We study such heuristics in two broad domains, namely, games against nature and social games. We investigate how cognitive search and learning function as torchlights helping people to navigate the twilight of uncertainty. We also examine how both processes develop over the lifespan and respond to the challenges of cognitive aging. Finally, informed by insights from our research, we propose heuristics, mental strategies, and environmental changes that can empower citizens, patients, doctors, and policy makers to make better decisions. The psychologists, computer scientists, biologists, neuroscientists, and philosophers in our research group address these questions using a variety of methods, including behavioral experiments, computer simulations, mathematical analyses, and neuroscientific tools. In the following, we outline the theoretical tenets of our four research areas, reporting on work carried out between 2011 and 2013. As the Center was founded in October 2012, this report includes research conducted by ARC members formerly based at the University of Basel’s Center for Cognitive and Decision Sciences. It also outlines plans for future work at the Institute.

Simple Heuristics in a Complex World ity of social worlds entails conditions—such as Key References Simple boundedly rational heuristics can be computational intractability, competing goals Gigerenzer, G., Hertwig, as accurate as, and sometimes more accu- (e. g., fairness vs. maximization), and incom- R., & Pachur, T. (Eds.). rate than, strategies that make the greatest mensurability (e. g., taboo trade-offs)—in (2011a). Heuristics: The foundations of adaptive possible use of information and computation, which heuristics are needed because optimi- behavior. Oxford, UK: including optimization models (Gigerenzer, zation is either impossible or takes more time Oxford University Press. Hertwig, & Pachur, 2011a). The discovery that or computational power than the decision doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/ 9780199744282.001. simplicity and accuracy are not mutually maker can spare. But heuristics can not only 0001 exclusive has introduced urgent new questions substitute for complex strategies, they can Hertwig, R., & Herzog, into the rationality debate: In which environ- also achieve goals that are relevant in many S. M. (2009). Fast and ments can a heuristic outperform a complex social environments and that are otherwise frugal heuristics: Tools decision-making strategy (e. g., a Bayesian hard to achieve (e. g., transparency, fairness, of social rationality. Social Cognition, 27, model) and in which will it lag behind? In speed). There are at least two reasons for heu- 661–698. doi:10.1521/ discussions of which ecologies favor heuristics, ristics’ success: co-optation and ecological soco.2009.27.5.661 it has often been suggested that heuristics can rationality. The social brain houses indisput- Hertwig, R., Hoffrage, succeed only in nonsocial environments. Faced ably complex adaptations. Heuristics can U., & the ABC Research with complex social worlds, it is argued, heu- afford to stay computationally and informa- Group. (2013). Simple heuristics in a social ristics are doomed to fail because their simple tionally lean to the extent that they cleverly world. New York: Oxford architecture is unequal to the task of interact- co-opt these sophisticated capacities (associ- University Press. ing with and predicting the behavior of other ated primarily with the brain’s frontal lobes), intelligent (and often competitive) agents. such as individual recognition, numerical Our approach (Hertwig, Hoffrage, & the ABC abilities, patience, self-control, and memory Research Group, 2013) offers an alternative (Hertwig & Herzog, 2009). Heuristics can also to the vision of the social brain as a complex co-opt external structures, in which case their decision-making machine. The very complex- performance depends on the match between

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 79 Key References the heuristic architecture and the statisti- old age: “Nor, again, do I now miss the bodily Hertwig, R., Davis, J. N., cal structure of the environment in which strength of a young man […]. You should use & Sulloway, F. J. (2002). they are used. By describing these structures, what you have, and whatever you may chance Parental investment: we aim to understand the conditions under to be doing, do it with all your might.” Cato How an equity motive can produce inequal- which heuristics, in particular, and cognitive seems to suggest that the key to success- ity. Psychological strategies, in general, succeed or fail. More- ful aging lies not in struggling to regain the Bulletin, 128, 728–745. over, by analyzing the interactions between strength of youth, but in using available doi:10.1037/0033- 2909.128.5.728 simple heuristics and properties of social and resources flexibly to meet the aspirations and nonsocial environments, we tap into another challenges one faces. Past and current re- Hertwig, R., & Erev, I. (2009). The descrip- counterintuitive capacity of simple heuristics, search at the Institute has greatly illuminated tion–experience gap in namely, the capacity to predict and explain the nature of such adaptation to aging in the risky choice. Trends in complex behaviors: Heuristic–environment cognitive realm. We aim to bring the aspect of Cognitive Sciences, 13, 517–523. doi:10.1016/j. interactions, we believe, afford elegant and ecological rationality to bear on this research. tics.2009.09.004 parsimonious explanations for complex be- From this perspective, the question of how Simon, H. A. (1956). haviors (Hertwig, Davis, & Sulloway, 2002). changes in cognitive capabilities—commonly Rational choice and the gains in childhood and adolescence and de- structure of the environ- Reckoning With Uncertainty: Search and clines in old age—affect decision making has ment. Psychological Review, 63, 129–138. Learning no domain-general answer. Our thesis is that doi:10.1037/h0042769 Many human behaviors and interactions—fall- the impact of changes in cognitive capabilities ing in love, job interviews, marital arguments, is likely to depend strongly on the demands crossing the street—lack a user’s guide detail- and affordances of specific task environments ing possible outcomes and their probabilities. and ecologies. Thus, the quality of decisions Yet tools are available to help people navigate made by people of all ages is the result of how uncertainty. Decision makers can often, task demands and affordances interact with though not always, deal with uncertainty by heuristics and other cognitive strategies. To searching for information and by learning. For better understand this interaction, we aim to Herbert A. Simon, external and internal search describe the structure of decision environ- was perhaps the definitive cognitive process ments, the process of strategy selection, and of human life and bounded rationality. Yet the sophisticated cognitive capacities that many past and current investigations and heuristics exploit, as well as developmental theories of choice under risk and uncertainty trajectories of these capacities. have largely ignored search and learning as well as the structure of choice environments. Empowering and Educating Decision Our goal is to apply the vision of bounded Makers rationality to a field that has been deeply According to Thomas Jefferson, democ- wedded to domain-general neo-Bernoullian racy depends on an informed and educated theories of choice, which often omit processes electorate. The currently most influential of learning and search. To this end, we bring approach to social engineering, however, has the notion of ecological rationality to bear abandoned the goal of empowering citizens on life’s gambles (see Simon, 1956); we bring through information and education. Often search back into the study of choice under risk called “nudging,” this approach assumes and uncertainty (Hertwig & Erev, 2009); we that people suffer from stable “decisional ir- explore the theoretical relationship between rationalities” that lead them to make choices simple heuristics and algebraic models of detrimental to their health, wealth, and hap- choice; and we investigate the biological and piness. Its proposal for containing the fallout cognitive foundations of cognitive search and from these irrationalities is to allow policy risk taking. makers, for instance, to nudge people toward better outcomes by changing the default Decision Making Across the Lifespan option in the decision environment. Yet while In Cicero’s de Senectute, Cato, the elder, ex- people clearly do not always make good deci- plains to two younger men how to flourish in sions, decision making is not as egregiously

80 | Center for Adaptive Rationality irrational as suggested by the nudge ap- tive risks and the harms as absolute risks), proach. Moreover, people make their decisions for example, as a nudge toward undergoing in a world already rife with nudges that are interventions that may not be in their best not designed in their interest, and the number interest. Likewise, teaching people about the of such contradictory, manipulative, and even power of two principles—diversity of opinion malevolent nudges will always dwarf the and error offsetting through aggregation—to number of those tailored by benevolent policy foster good intuitive predictions gives them makers (assuming that such policy makers a versatile tool for tapping the wisdom of the even exist). crowd in a single mind. Both these examples Fortunately, there is an alternative to the illustrate that people can be empowered to “libertarian paternalism” of nudging. By make choices that are good for them—rather shedding light on the mind’s repertoire of than merely kept from making choices that heuristics and cognitive strategies and their are bad for them—through education and interactions with the world, we can help environmental changes (e. g., matched instead people both to nudge themselves and to of mismatched framing), an enriched cogni- recognize when others are nudging them for tive repertoire (e. g., simulating the wisdom reasons that are less than noble. For instance, of the crowd in one mind), or both. Nudg- patients who are educated about the dif- ing is not enough. We must equip people to ference between relative risk and absolute build their own competencies—and make up risk can evaluate the benefits of proposed their own minds—by fostering risk literacy medical treatments or tests for themselves. and decision-making awareness. In our view, Patients who are so informed will recognize Thomas Jefferson’s belief in the importance mismatched framing (e. g., expressing the of an educated and informed public is as benefits of a medical intervention as rela- relevant today as it was in his time.

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 81 Research Area 1: Simple Heuristics in a Complex World

The mind is called on to perform in two very broad domains, social games and games against nature. “Games against nature” refer to situations in which a person needs to predict or outwit nature to perform ancestral tasks and modern equivalents thereof, such as foraging for food and navigating home, exploring unknown or challenging terrains (e. g., mountains, lakes, rivers, deserts), and fighting diseases that kill livestock and people. The outcome a person experi- ences in these games is determined jointly by his or her decision and the true state of nature. “Social games,” in contrast, refer to situations in which how well a person fares depends not on a dispassionate other such as nature, but on the decisions of other self-interested players, and includes not only decisions (e. g., whether or not to cooperate), but also judgments (e. g., about where a person lives), estimates (e. g., of a person’s mate value), and categorizations (e. g., whether a person belongs to a hostile tribe) of social entities.

Games against nature and social games repre- simple heuristics offer solutions to problems sent distinct domains. Yet the challenges that of both types. Therefore, the starting premise decision makers face, among them intrac- of our investigation of bounded rationality tability, time pressure, information scarcity, in a complex world is that humans’ social and dynamically changing environmental intelligence is not qualitatively different from circumstances, cut across both domains, and their nonsocial intelligence and that impor-

Key Reference Our book Simple Heuristics in a Social World (published in 2013 by Oxford University Press) Hertwig, R., Hoffrage, investigates how people make decisions in social domains, including mate choice, health, U., & the ABC Research advice giving, persuasion, cooperation, sharing, and moral decision making. It demon- Group. (2013). Simple heuristics in a social strates how to study the mind in the social environments in which decision making actu- world. New York: Oxford ally takes place. It illustrates how models of heuristics (e. g., fast and frugal decision trees) University Press. can offer a theoretical alternative to influential as-if models in economics (social prefer- ence models). It demonstrates how simple heuristics can exploit regularities of social connectivity to make inferences whose accuracy is comparable to those made by informationally more demanding strate- gies. Furthermore, it shows how models of simple heuristics can explain surprising moral inconsistencies and how a heuristic that was once highly efficient (the trust- your-doctor heuristic) can become dysfunc- tional in modern medical environments rife with conflicts of interest between patients and physicians. Finally, by shedding light on the adaptive toolbox of simple heuristics used to navigate social environments—and, in particular, by analyzing those heuristics’ strengths and weaknesses—the book lays a foundation for designing social environ- ments and heuristics in ways that empower people to make better decisions (see Re- search Area 4: Empowering and Educating the Decision Maker). New Book! Simple Heuristics in a Social World

Box 1.

82 | Center for Adaptive Rationality tant aspects of both kinds of intelligence can Harnessing the Information in People’s Key Reference be modeled in terms of boundedly rational Social Networks: The Social-Circle Salganik, M. J., Dodds, simple heuristics. This does not mean that the Heuristic P. S., & Watts, D. J. exact same heuristics are employed to play In myriad social domains, people’s decisions (2006). Experimental study of inequality both types of games, although some heuris- are influenced by their observations of others. and unpredictability in tics do travel between the domains. In what In fact, imitating the behavior of others is a an artificial cultural follows, we describe the heuristics that we powerful and versatile heuristic that helps market. Science, 311, 854–856. doi:10.1126/ have discovered, first those employed in social people navigate the thickets of complex social science.1121066 worlds and then those employed in games environments. Knowing what others do, want, against nature. In addition, we describe our like, or have can help people decide, for ex- analyses of the accuracy and ecological ample, whether to engage in helping behavior rationality of social tools for rendering deci- and what media to purchase and consume. In sions, such as making decisions in collectives Salganik, Dodds, and Watts’ (2006) influential or harnessing the wisdom of the crowd within investigation of simulated cultural markets, the privacy of an individual mind. for instance, individuals’ music preferences

Which event category is more frequent in the population: A or B? Start

A+ B– Choose A A– B– Guess Recognition A– B+ Choose B A+ B+ A > B Choose A Circle 1 A < B (self) Choose B A = B A > B Choose A Circle 2 A < B (e. g., family) Choose B A = B A > B Choose A Circle 3 A < B (e. g., friends) Choose B A = B A > B Choose A Circle 4 A < B (e. g., acquaintances) Choose B A = B

Guess (or recruit cue-based strategy)

Figure 1. Flow chart showing the social-circle heuristic and the relationship of its sampling process to the recog- nition principle and inferences based on other cues. The heuristic first checks whether a recognition cue discrimi- nates between the two event categories. If it does, the recognition heuristic is applied (i. e., choose the recognized category). If it does not, it inspects circles 1 to 4 sequentially to see whether the number of relevant instances differs between the two event categories. As soon as a circle discriminates, no further circles are inspected and the event with the higher number in the circle is inferred to be more frequent in the population. If none of the circles discriminates, an inference is made either by guessing or using a cue-based strategy (e. g., take-the-best, tallying) (adapted from Pachur et al., 2013a). © MPI for Human Development

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 83 (a) Frequency distribution (b) Spatial distribution

Flat Random Clustered (medium) Clustered (high) 1,200 1,000 800 600

Frequency 400 200 0 Event categories

Skewed 1,200 1,000 800 600

Frequency 400 200 0 Event categories Figure 2. The ecological rationality of the social-circle heuristic. In environments with a skewed frequency distribution, the frequency drops off rapidly from the most frequent event category to less frequent categories (lower left panel); in environments with a flat frequency distribu- tion, the frequency drops off more smoothly (upper left panel). The six grid panels show different spatial distributions of the instances of an event category (i. e., the extent to which instances of the same category occur in close spatial proximity), separately for flat and skewed frequency distributions. The spatial distribution is random, has a medium degree of clustering, or has a higher degree of clustering. The social- circle heuristic shows higher accuracy (relative to a compensatory strategy) in environments with a skewed frequency distribution and a clustered spatial distribution of instances (adapted from Pachur et al., 2013a). © MPI for Human Development

Key Reference shifted substantially when they were given proposed and tested one possible model of a Pachur, T., Hertwig, R., information about choices of other consum- noncompensatory instance-based strategy. & Rieskamp, J. (2013a). ers in the market. Although people sometimes To infer which of two events occurs more Intuitive judgments of have the benefit of such explicit frequency frequently in the general population (e. g., social statistics: How exhaustive does sampling information (e. g., how many people have seen lung cancer vs. skin cancer), the social-circle need to be? Journal of a movie on its opening weekend), often no heuristic (Figure 1) searches a person’s social Experimental Social such objective social statistics are available. circles sequentially for relevant instances Psychology, 49, 1059– 1077. doi:10.1016/j. In such cases, people must rely on much more in the order “self,” “family,” “friends,” and jesp.2013.07.004 limited tallies of experience stored in their “acquaintances.” As soon as the number of in- own memory. stances within a given circle is higher for one One mental tool that can be used to harness event than for the other, no further circles are the information encapsulated in a person’s inspected and the event with more instances social network is the social-circle heuristic, is judged to be more frequent in the popula- which mentally samples instances rather than tion. For a sizable proportion of participants cues. Models of instance-based inference in Pachur et al.’s studies, the social-circle usually assume a compensatory process, heuristic was better able to describe how in which instances are integrated across a people judged the relative frequencies of person’s various social circles (e. g., family, ac- various events than a compensatory process. quaintances). Given the considerable evidence Consistent with a noncompensatory process, for noncompensatory strategies in cue-based participants who were classified as follow- inference, however, might these also play ing the social-circle heuristic showed faster a role in instance-based decision making? decision times the fewer circles the heuristic ­Pachur, Hertwig, and ­Rieskamp (2013a) needed to inspect.

84 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Coming Soon! Learning From the Most Successful: The Collective Trap Researchers The practice of imitating one’s most successful peers is often regarded as an intelligent Jan K. Woike shortcut that reduces individual learning costs, and the popular management literature Jean-Philippe advocates imitation of successful competitors. However, recent research demonstrates Bonardi that the undersampling of failure may bias this approach, a problem that may be even Rocio García- larger when people learn in groups rather than on their own. Computer simulations based Retamero on real-world economic data sets show that success-focused imitators perform worse than both group learners who integrate the experience of other group members and isolated learners. In this new project, we are exploring explanatory mechanisms, boundary condi- tions, and environmental structures (stationary vs. nonstationary environments) to shed light on when and why imitation-based learning can become a “collective trap.”

Joint project with Jean-Philippe Bonardi (University of Lausanne, Switzerland) and Rocio García-Retamero (University of Grenada, Spain).

Box 2.

Using computer simulations, Pachur et al. alternative modeling approach, grounded in Key References (2013a) identified environmental structures process models of heuristics, captures not Fischbacher, U., Hertwig, that improve or undermine the accuracy of only ­behavioral outcomes but also the pro- R., & Bruhin, A. (2013). the social-circle heuristic. The simulations cesses behind them. Fischbacher, Hertwig, and How to model heteroge- neity in costly punish- varied the frequency distribution of the event Bruhin (2013; Hertwig, Fischbacher, & Bruhin, ment: Insights from categories (skewed vs. flat) and the spatial 2013) used decision trees to model respond- responders’ response distribution of agents with a particular prop- ers’ decisions in the mini-ultimatum game—a times. Journal of Behav- ioral Decision Making, 26, erty, such as a disease (randomly distributed strategic exchange scenario frequently used 462–476. doi:10.1002/ or clustered; Figure 2). The social-circle in economics to investigate motives beyond bdm.1779 heuristic (relative to a compensatory heuristic material self-interest. In this game, one player Hertwig, R., Fischbacher, called “availability-by-recall”) benefitted (the proposer) chooses between two pos- U., & Bruhin, A. (2013). most from a skewed frequency distribution sible allocations of an amount of money—for Simple heuristics in a social game. In R. and from clustered occurrences of instances. instance, ¤ 100 may be divided either equally Hertwig, U. Hoffrage, & (50 : 50) between players or unequally in the the ABC Research Group, Simple Sequential Heuristics in a Social proposer’s favor (e. g., 80 : 20)—and the other Simple heuristics in a social world (pp. 39–65). Game player (responder) chooses to accept or reject New York: Oxford Univer- Warren Buffett, one of the world’s richest that allocation. If the responder accepts, the sity Press. doi:10.1093/ people, has pledged to commit more than allocation will be implemented; if not, both acprof:oso/ 9780195388435.003. 99 % of his wealth to philanthropy during players will go away empty-handed. 0002 his lifetime. Not only Buffett but human Four kinds of trees were fitted to four types beings in general display a wide array of of responders, identified by a finite-mixture social behaviors that are baffling to anyone model analysis. Figure 3 shows the proportion who assumes—as many economists do—that of correctly described responder decisions people are motivated by material self-interest (i. e., accept vs. reject) and the predicted alone. Economists have proposed several response times for two of the four trees. The theories to accommodate behavioral prefer- priority tree is a process model for responders ences that take account of other people’s who sequentially consider two criteria: (1) Is desires, behaviors, and outcomes in addition the payoff offered at least as large as that re- to one’s own. All these theories retain the ceived by the proposer (status criterion)? (2) Is utility framework, injecting some psychology the payoff offered at least as large as that into the utility function by adding new terms represented by the other, foregone allocation (e. g., inequity aversion). Yet they remain as-if (kindness criterion)? The tree predicts that a models, with little or no ambition to capture responder will take more time if he or she has the actual process of decision making. An to consult the kindness criterion in addi-

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 85 Key Reference (a) Priority tree (b) Priority+1 tree Pachur, T., & Marinello,­ G. (2013). Expert intu- Status criterion met? Status criterion met? itions: How to model the decision strategies of airport customs officers? No Yes No Yes Acta Psychologica, 144, 97–103. doi:10.1016/j. Accept: Accept: Kindness criterion met? Kindness criterion met? actpsy.2013.05.003 100%, 3.5s 100%, 4.5s

No Yes No Yes

Reject: Accept: Accept: Mirror criterion met? 97%, 5.2s 80%, 5.0s 94%, 4.7s

No Yes

Reject: Accept: 46%, 6.2s 70%, 6.1s

Figure 3. Two decision trees describing the processes underlying decisions in the mini-ultimatum game. The priority tree assumes that a maximum of two criteria are consulted (status and kindness); the priority+1 tree assumes use of one additional criterion (mirror criterion: “If I had been the proposer and faced the same choice, would I have proposed the same division?”). Numbers represent the correctly described decisions and the average response times. The results illustrate that the larger the number of criteria consulted, the longer it took to make a decision (adapted from Hertwig et al., 2013). © MPI for Human Development

tion to the status criterion in order to decide of gaze (i. e., looking at the customs officer whether to accept the proposed allocation. or not). The customs officers had an aver- The observed response times support this age of 16 years’ experience in the profession. prediction (also in the priority+1 tree) and A control group of novices, matched to the further suggest that a substantial proportion experts with respect to education, age, and of respondents take various social consider- gender, also completed the task. Pachur and ations into account, sequentially and predict- Marinello modeled the two groups’ decisions ably. More generally, these findings suggest using compensatory and noncompensatory that models of heuristics offer a powerful strategies and found substantial differences process-oriented alternative to as-if utility in the use of each strategy type. Whereas the models. We are now testing the extent to novices generally seemed to rely on com- which these decision trees generalize to other pensatory strategies that integrate multiple social games and extending this modeling ap- cues, most of the experts’ decisions were best proach to the processes behind the proposer’s described by the noncompensatory take-the- decision making. best heuristic, which “bets” on one good cue. One possible explanation is that the experts’ Heuristics in the Wild: Catching the experience in making customs decisions Couriers and knowledge of the cues’ diagnostic value Experts and novices use different strategies to allowed them to put the cues in diagnostic make inferences. Pachur and Marinello (2013) rank order and apply a simple lexicographic presented customs officers at two interna- strategy. The novices, who had less knowledge tional airports in Switzerland (Zurich and of the cue hierarchy, weighted the cues more Basel) with pairs of passenger profiles and equally (rather than betting on one). had them indicate which passenger in each pair they thought would be more likely to Dialectical Bootstrapping: The Wisdom of smuggle drugs. Each passenger was described Many in One Mind on eight dimensions, including speed of gait, In 1906, British scientist and writer Sir ­Francis number of bags, origin of flight, and direction Galton visited a livestock fair where a compe­

86 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Coming Soon! Decisions From Experience in Social Interaction Researchers In social games, how well a person fares depends not only on a dispassionate “other” such Nadine Fleischhut as nature but also on the decisions of other self-interested players; that is, on the conflu- Florian Artinger ence of stochastic and social uncertainty. Although people sometimes (in “decisions from Sebastian description”) enjoy access to statistical information about what to expect from others, Olschewski they often (in “decisions from experience”) have to rely on a sample of observations from Kirsten Volz the social environment instead. In this new project, we are investigating whether the Ralph Hertwig description–experience gap (see Research Area 2: Reckoning With Uncertainty: Search and Learning) observed in games against nature (monetary lotteries) generalizes to social games. Specifically, we are using the mini-ultimatum game to investigate how the way in which people acquire social information affects their behavior in a social bargaining situation. Before making each offer, proposers learn how often each allocation has been rejected in previous experiments, thus gaining insight into its acceptability in the popula- tion. In the description condition, rejection rates are given as probabilities, whereas in the experience conditions, proposers either sample previous responders’ choices for as long as they wish (“free sampling”) or are forced to sample a fixed number of them (“matched sampling”). A first finding is that people sample substantially less in this social game than in structurally identical games against nature. One interpretation is that social norms (e. g., equity), a somewhat neglected lever of bounded rationality, help people to predict unknown probabilities (e. g., of rejection) and thus to limit search for information.

Joint project with Florian Artinger (University of Warwick, UK), Sebastian Olschewski (University of ­Tübingen, Germany), and Kirsten Volz (University of Tübingen, Germany).

Box 3. ti­tion was being held. Fairgoers were asked opposed to choose between—their estimates Key References to guess the weight of a butchered ox. when they actively contradict themselves Herzog, S. M., & Although the 787 estimates given spanned and as the size of the disagreement between Hertwig,­ R. (2014). a wide range, the mean estimate was only the first and the second estimate increases Think twice and then: Combining or choosing one kilogram off the mark. This phenomenon, (Herzog & Hertwig, 2014). in dialectical boot- called the “wisdom of crowds,” arises when The French poet Paul Valéry said, “Je ne suis strapping? Journal of individual judges do not all make the same pas toujours de mon avis” (“I don’t always Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and errors. Provided that some estimates are too agree with myself.”). Although vacillating be- Cognition, 40, 218–232. high and others are too low, the errors tend tween opinions can be agonizing, dialectical doi:10.1037/a0034054 to cancel one another out. Notably, the errors Herzog, S. M., & are particularly likely to diverge when people Hertwig,­ R. (2013a). The rely on different information and strategies crowd within and the benefits of dialectical and make their estimates independently of bootstrapping: A reply one another. to White and Antonakis The “wisdom of crowds” can be conjured (2013). Psychological Science, 24, 117–119. within a single person by instructing that doi:10.1177/ person to take several different perspec- 0956797612457399 tives and to take the average of the resulting Herzog, S. M., & nonredundant estimates as a final judgment Hertwig, R. (2009). (Herzog & Hertwig, 2013a; Figure 4). Herzog The wisdom of many in one mind: Improving and Hertwig (2009) showed that urging individual judgments people to think differently when generating with dialectical boot- a second estimate can boost this averaging Figure 4. Part of the wisdom of the many resides in an strapping. Psychological individual mind. Science, 20, 231–237. gain (“dialectical bootstrapping”). Further- doi:10.1111/j.1467- more, people are more likely to combine—as © Cifoart-Fotolia.com 9280.2009.02271.x

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 87 Key References bootstrapping shows that being of two minds, ing effective decision making, conflicts of Conradt, L., List, C., like Valéry, can work to a decision maker’s interest can improve decision outcomes & Roper, T. J. (2013). advantage. Our ongoing research aims to for all stakeholders as long as stakeholders Swarm intelligence: extend the scope and explore the boundaries have some goals in common. By contrast, When uncertainty meets conflict.American of dialectical bootstrapping by addressing conflict-free decisions made by animals with Naturalist, 182, 592–610. questions such as: What techniques other identical goals are often surprisingly poor. doi:10.1086/673253 than actively contradicting oneself can boost The underlying mechanism appears to be Hills, T. T., & Pachur, T. estimate-averaging gains? Which technique is that individual decision makers never have (2012). Dynamic search best suited to which domain, task, and perfor- perfect information, so their decision making and working memory in social recall. Journal of mance criterion? What role do confidence and is always subject to error. When members of Experimental Psychology: uncertainty play in resolving conflicts among a decision-making group have conflicting Learning, Memory, and estimates? goals, their individual errors are only weakly Cognition, 38, 218–228. doi:10.1037/a0025161 correlated with one another. Such groups can Swarm Intelligence: When Uncertainty thus benefit considerably from decision shar- Raaijmakers, J. G. W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1981). Meets Conflict ing, as it offsets uncorrelated errors. Conradt Search of associative In a phenomenon called “swarm intelligence,” et al. ’s (2013) ­results provide a strong argu- memory. Psychological animals that make shared decisions pool ment for dominant groups not to exclude Review, 88, 93–134. doi:10.1037/0033- information, thereby offsetting individual other (e. g., minority) factions from collective 295X.88.2.93 errors and increasing decision accuracy. But decisions. what if those decisions involve conflicts of interest between individual decision mak- Search and Working Memory in Social ers (Figure 5)? Should animals (or people) Recall make shared decisions with conspecifics The proximal social environment shapes many whose goals are different from—and partly decisions. It is therefore crucial to under- in conflict with—their own? Conradt, List, stand how this environment is represented in and Roper (2013) developed a group decision people’s minds—specifically, how they “travel” model that shows that, contrary to intuition, through their social memory when retrieving conflicting goals often increase both the ac- information from it. To examine this issue, curacy and the individual gains derived from Hills and Pachur (2012) modeled responses in shared decisions (Figure 6). Far from hamper- a social fluency task using a computational memory model inspired by Raaijmakers and Shiffrin’s (1981) framework called Search of Associative Memory (SAM). The participants’ task was to recall the names of people they knew personally. In modeling the order in which the names were recalled, the key ques- tion was to what extent people dynamically switched between different representational cues in memory. Candidate cues for retrieval were frequency of contact with the recalled person (e. g., a current colleague vs. an old Figure 5. Meerkats are one of many species in which school friend), social proximity (e. g., whether collective decisions can involve uncertainties and two consecutively recalled people know each conflicts. Group members have to negotiate communal other), and social category (e. g., relative, foraging routes, individual breeding opportunities within the group, and job allocations with respect to friend, colleague). By way of illustration, shared vigilance and cooperative care for young—all Figure 7 shows the retrieval order for two in an uncertain and changeable environment. Decision participants, with color indicating the social outcomes have heterogeneous fitness implications for individuals, and therefore preferences and goals category of the people recalled. The networks between group members often differ. on the right represent the social proximity © Evelyne Zehntner (The Kalahari Meerkat Project, structure by connecting members who know www.kalahari-meerkats.com) each other with a line.

88 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Low productivity Low conflict High conflict 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00

High productivity Low conflict High conflict 1.0 1.0 0.9

Standardized gains for an A-animal 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 Proportion of A-animals amongst decision makers Diversity peaks when proportion is 0.5

Figure 6. Decision gains as a function of the goal diversity of decision makers. Decision gains often peak when decision makers are maximally diverse with respect to individual decision goals (here: in the middle of the curves, at around point 0.5 on the horizontal axes). Results are shown for low- and high-productivity environments (i. e., environments characterized by a low or a high probability that either of two decision options yields a positive payoff); for low- and high-conflict situations; and for several levels of uncertainty (uncertainty increases from red lines, through blue and orange lines, to green lines; note that for clarity of presentation, vertical scale ranges differ across panels) (adapted from Conradt et al., 2013). © MPI for Human Development

Coming Soon! The Wisdom of Crowds in Conflicts of Interest Researchers People may share similar goals without their interests being completely aligned. To take Stefan M. Herzog an example from current events, consider Western countries’ collaborating on the shared Larissa Conradt goal of fighting international terrorism while at the same time spying on one another. When judgments are made in situations of uncertainty about goals that involve conflict across individuals, it can be advantageous to aggregate the judgments of several indi- viduals (“wisdom of crowds”). Previous research has investigated aggregation methods (e. g., weighted/unweighted mean/median, trimming of outliers) that lead to accurate and robust aggregate estimates. These studies have usually assumed (at least implicitly) that judgments are made by “objective” jurors. However, individual judgments are seldom completely objective, but rather biased by personal goals. Although it is widely acknowl- edged that conflicts of interest can bias judgments, the problem of how best to aggregate conflict-biased judgments has been little explored. In this new project, we will investigate successful aggregation rules for judgments in environments in which individuals have conflicting goals. First, we will use computer simulations to identify the most accurate and robust methods of aggregating individual judgments by goal-biased jurors. Second, we will test experimentally whether people employ those aggregation methods in relevant conflict situations.

Box 4.

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 89 25,000 28 32 Partner 20,000 Family Friend 21 22 33 34 Acquaintance 23 25,000 31 18 25 26 20 27 17 15 24 16 10,000 19 1 7 13 35 14 8 11 6 3 4 Recovery time (msec) 5,000 12 2 30 9 5 0 29 10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Order of recall

25,000 30 33 Partner 14 20,000 Family 20 Friend 15 10 11 Acquaintance 5 9 25,000 2 8 4 6 3 7 10,000 23 1 32 21 18 16 17 Recovery time (msec) 5,000 13 35 27 24 19 12 25 31 22 26 28 0 29 34 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Order of recall

Figure 7. Typical retrieval patterns for two participants and their corresponding social networks. Dots represent individuals recalled. Size indicates social proximity to the individual previously recalled, with the smallest, filled dots indicating no social proximity with the previous individual, and largest, unfilled dots indicating the highest social proximity to the previous individual. The social networks to the right correspond with the recall patterns on the left. Numbers inside vertices indicate the order of recall. The participant in the upper panel has a working-memory capacity (mea- sured as operation span) of 44. The participant in the lower panel has an operation span of 27 (adapted from Hills & Pachur, 2012). © MPI for Human Development

Key Reference A model assuming that people switch dy- How Good a Mirror of the World Is Hertwig, R., Herzog, namically between the frequency-of-contact Retrieval Fluency? S. M., Schooler, L. J., & cue and the social proximity cue best pre- Human cognitive machinery has evolved to Reimer, T. (2008). Fluency dicted the order of retrieval. Individual dif- enable people to navigate an often danger- heuristic: A model of how the mind exploits a ferences in the number of switches between ous and uncertain world. How successfully by-product of informa- these two cues were negatively correlated people deal with this world depends on, tion retrieval. Journal of with working-memory capacity. In other among other factors, the fit between their Experimental Psychol- ogy: Learning, Memory, words, people with lower working-memory cognitive machinery and environmental and Cognition, 34, capacity were less consistent in their cue use structures. In their empirical and theoretical 1191–1206. doi:10.1037/ during recall, suggesting that they may be analyses of the ecological rationality of the a0013025 less efficient in cognitive search. Overall, the fluency heuristic (Hertwig, Herzog, Schooler, results highlight that the external structure & Reimer, 2008), Herzog and Hertwig of the social environment (i. e., the intercon- (2013b) found that a seeming by-product nectedness of a person’s social network) is of the operation of our cognitive machin- an important driver in how people navigate ery—namely, the fluency of the processing the cognitive representation of this structure experience, that is, the extent to which a and that working-memory capacity plays a cognitive operation feels easy or hard, swift key role in searching within the cognitive or slow—carries information about impor- representation. tant quantitative dimensions such as the

90 | Center for Adaptive Rationality truth of statements, the danger of objects, and the behaviors of others. Across 25 data sets, Herzog and Hertwig calculated an Surrogate correlation average retrieval fluency validity of 62 % Ecological (i. e., the object retrieved more fluently from correlation memory scored higher on the criterion in 62 % of all pair comparisons considered). All obtained fluency validities were above Fluency validity chance level, the sole exception being the domain of infectious disease incidence. Thus, retrieval fluency enables people to Figure 8. The ecological validity of retrieval fluency. An inaccessible or unknown criterion (e. g., a company’s sales volume) is reflected by a mediator variable (e. g., draw inferences that clearly surpass chance the number of times the company is mentioned in the media; ecological correla- performance. tion), and the mediator influences the fluency of retrieval (surrogate correlation). To illustrate retrieval fluency and its poten- The mind, in turn, can use retrieval fluency to infer the criterion (fluency validity) (adapted from Herzog & Hertwig, 2013b). tial to assist in making inferences about the world, consider the following two names: Bill © MPI for Human Development Gates and Steve Ballmer. Which of the two men has amassed the larger fortune? Many Affect and Strategic Selection Key References people are likely to recognize both names Undoubtedly, emotions and affect play a key Finucane, M. L., and so cannot simply use recognition or lack role in the workings of the mind. Their role in Alhakami, A., Slovic, P., thereof to make an inferential bet (i. e., the bounded rationality and in how people deal & Johnson, S. M. (2000). The affect heuristic in recognition heuristic: choosing the recog- with a complex probabilistic world is rela- judgments of risks and nized object over the unrecognized one). tively little understood, however. For instance, benefits.Journal of Be- However, it is likely that the retrieval fluency how does affect help people to make infer- havioral Decision Making, 13, 1–17. doi:10.1002/ of both names (i. e., the time a person takes ences about the world? One prominent pro- (SICI)1099-0771 to judge whether or not he or she recog- posal of a mental mechanism relying on af- (200001/03)13:1<1::AID- nizes a name) is not the same. As Herzog fective cues is the affect heuristic (Finucane,­ BDM333>3.0.CO;2-S and Hertwig’s (2013b) analyses showed, this Alhakami, Slovic, & Johnson, 2000). Pachur, Herzog, S. M., & difference in retrieval speed has inferential Hertwig, and Steinmann (2012) experimen- Hertwig, R. (2013b). The ecological validity of flu- power. How does retrieval fluency help inform tally compared different implementations of ency. In C. Unkelbach & decisions? The more often someone encoun- the affect heuristic to see which was better R. Greifeneder (Eds.), The ters a name, the higher is its memory strength able to account for people’s judgments of experience of thinking: How the fluency of men- and the more likely and quickly the memory risk. The affect heuristic was operationalized tal processes influences system will be able to retrieve its record. That based on precisely defined definitions of af- cognition and behavior is, environmental frequencies (e. g., acquired fect—namely the amount of dread evoked by a (pp. 190–219). London, UK: Psychology Press. through newspapers and magazines) can act risk—thus addressing the frequently criticized as a mediator that connects an unknown lack of precision in the original descriptions of Pachur, T., Hertwig, R., & Steinmann, F. or inaccessible quantity in question (the these models. People’s reliance on the affect (2012). How do people criterion) with our memory processing. In heuristic varied as a function of how they judge risks: Availability such cases, retrieval fluency can predict a were asked to judge the risks. The heuristic’s heuristic, affect heuristic, or both? Journal of variable that is not itself a frequency, but descriptive power was higher in value-of-a- Experimental Psychology: rather anything from the population size of a statistical-life judgments than in judgments Applied, 18, 314–330. city or the revenues of a company to the net of risk frequency. For availability-by-recall, doi:10.1037/a0028279 worth of a billionaire, as long as the variable an alternative strategy that relies on in- Pachur, T., Hertwig, is correlated with environmental frequencies. stance knowledge (see Section: Harnessing R., & Wolkewitz, R. (in press). The affect gap in Retrieval fluency can thus serve as a “cheap” the Information in People’s Social Networks: risky choice: Affect-rich yet informative cue that permits people to The Social-Circle Heuristic), the pattern was outcomes attenuate make accurate inferences about the world reversed. attention to probability information. Decision. (Hertwig et al., 2008). Figure 8 depicts the In addition to being used as cues in decision triangular relationship between criterion, making, emotions may also influence the mediator, and retrieval. selection of heuristics. Pachur, Hertwig, and

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 91 Key References Wolkewitz (in press) tested the hypothesis inspection of the most important cue; others Khader, P. H., Pachur, that people use different strategies in risky required the retrieval of additional cues. The T., & Jost, K. (2013). choice depending on whether the potential varying retrieval demands were reflected in Automatic activation of consequences of a decision are affect-rich the patterns of blood-oxygenation-level- attribute knowledge in heuristic inference from or affect-poor. In support of this hypothesis, dependent (BOLD) activation. For instance, memory. Psychonomic they found that the compensatory expected the BOLD activation in the dorsolateral Bulletin & Review, 20, value strategy, which combines outcome and prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)—which is assumed 372–377. doi:10.3758/ s13423-012-0334-7 probability information, described people’s to selectively control posterior storage areas— affect-poor choices very well. In affect-rich was more pronounced during decisions that Khader, P. H., Pachur, T., Meier, S., Bien, S., choices, by contrast, people seemed to follow required the retrieval of the values on all Jost, K., & Rösler, F. a simple noncompensatory heuristic that ne- four cues than during decisions that required (2011). Memory-based glects probability information. For instance, retrieval of only one cue. Further, the retrieval decision making with heuristics involves affect-rich choices involving negative affect of specific cue information was manifest in increased activation were best described by the minimax heuris- the cue-specific posterior representation of decision-relevant tic, which evaluates risky options simply by areas. For instance, the BOLD activation in the memory representations. Journal of Cognitive comparing their worst possible outcomes. area representing the location cue (lowest in Neuroscience, 23, This difference in strategy selection between the cue hierarchy) was prolonged when this 3540–3554. doi:10.1162/ affect-rich and affect-poor tasks even led to cue’s retrieval was required (vs. not required; jocn_a_00059 systematic preference reversals within one Figure 9). Beyond such specific activation Tversky, A., & Kahneman, and the same person. A subsequent process- patterns, which presumably reflect controlled D. (1992). Advances in prospect theory: Cumula- tracing study revealed that people indeed retrieval processes, there was also evidence tive representation of paid less attention to probability information of automatic knowledge activation. Poste- uncertainty. Journal of in affect-rich choices than in affect-poor rior representation areas for specific cues Risk and Uncertainty, 5, 297–323. doi:10.1007/ choices. received some boost in activation even when BF00122574 the cues were irrelevant to the decision. This The Neural Signature of Limited Search interpretation received further support from By definition, a heuristic is a strategy that ig- a behavioral investigation in which Khader, nores part of the available information. Does Pachur, and Jost (2013) observed a so-called limited search for cues have a specific neural “fan effect” in memory-based decisions us- signature? In a first step toward answering ing the take-the-best heuristic. Specifically, this question, Khader et al. (2011) used func- participants showed slower response times tional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to and higher error rates when making deci- investigate the memory processes associated sions about objects for which they had more with the use of the take-the-best heuristic. In extensive cue knowledge than when their cue a learning phase, participants first memorized knowledge was sparse. visual cue information about various (ficti- tious) companies, such as their geographic lo- How to Integrate Models of Heuristics and cation, the face of the manager, and the type Algebraic Models of Risky Choice of product manufactured. Each of these cues When the Royal Swedish Academy of Sci- involved visual information known to be rep- ences awarded the Nobel Prize for Economic resented in a different region of the posterior Sciences to Daniel Kahneman in 2002, it cortex. Participants were also trained in using lauded two pillars of his joint work with Amos the take-the-best heuristic, which they were Tversky: the heuristics-and-biases program instructed to employ in a subsequent decision and cumulative prospect theory (CPT; Tversky phase. Specifically, their task was to decide, & Kahneman, 1992). Both lines of research based on the cue information memorized in investigate human judgment and decision the learning phase, which of two companies’ making and how it systematically deviates commercial success was greater. from standard assumptions of the rational During the decision-making process, partici- choice paradigm in economics; both also offer pants’ brain activation was recorded. Some alternative descriptive modeling frameworks decisions could be made through retrieval and to standard economic theory. Notwithstand-

92 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Key Reference Cue hierarchy Building ROI Object ROI 0.5 0.5 Suter, R. S., Pachur, T., 0.4 0.4 & Hertwig, R. (2013). How does prospect 0.3 0.3 theory reflect heuristics’ probability sensitivity 0.2 0.2 in risky choice? In M. 0.1 0.1 Knauff, M. Pauen, N. Sebanz, & I. Wachsmuth 0 0 (Eds.), Cooperative minds: Social interaction –0.1 –0.1 and group dynamics. 0 6 12 18 24 0 6 12 18 24 Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of the Face ROI Location ROI Cognitive Science Society 0.4 0.4 (pp. 1408–1413). Austin, 0.3 0.3 TX: Cognitive Science Society. 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0 0 –0.1 –0.1 0 6 12 18 24 0 6 12 18 24 Activation Time (seconds) Extended Time (seconds) increases when “building“ response when “location“ cue is required cue is required

Number of cues required by TTB 0 (control) 2 (objects, buildings) 1 (objects) 3/4 (objects, buildings, faces/locations)

Figure 9. Blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) activation in the four regions of interest (ROIs) in the posterior areas associated with four cues (i. e., product manufactured, image of the company building, face of the manager, and geographical location) when participants made comparative inferences about companies’ commer- cial success using the take-the-best heuristic (TTB). The different lines in each plot represent the activation in tri- als that varied in terms of how many of the cues were required by TTB. The cue hierarchy (ordered by importance) is shown in the left panel (adapted from Khader et al., 2011). © MPI for Human Development ing these commonalities, there is also a fas- choice. Because the two approaches rest on cinating disconnect between the two lines of fundamentally different assumptions and research. CPT was a conservative attempt to algorithms, they are ordinarily treated as assemble the minimum set of modifications to antithetical, if not incommensurable. The two the expected utility theory required to provide theoretical traditions can in fact be inte- a descriptive account of risky choice, whereas grated, however (see Suter, Pachur, & Hertwig, the theoretical thrust of the heuristics-and- 2013). CPT describes choices in terms of biases program was anything but conserva- psychophysical constructs (e. g., diminishing tive. For instance, the representativeness sensitivity to probabilities and outcomes) as heuristic, which was proposed to explain well as psychological constructs (risk aversion base-rate neglect, was not a restrained modi- and loss aversion). Might this description fication of Bayes’ theorem; it replaced Bayes’ work regardless of whether the nature of the integration of prior probability with specific process generating the choice is multiplica- evidence by a similarity relationship. tive and compensatory (as premised in CPT) or The dissociation between algebraic models ignores considerable subsets of information such as prospect theory and heuristic models and is noncompensatory (as premised in many is particularly evident in research on risky heuristics of risky choice)?

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 93 Key Reference Minimax heuristic Most-likely heuristic Hills, T., & Hertwig, R. γ γ (2011). Why aren’t we smarter already? Evolu- + + tionary trade-offs and δ δ cognitive enhancements. Current Directions in δ− δ− Psychological Science, 20, 373–377. doi:10. 1177/0963721411418300 α α

λ λ

φ φ Low High Low High Parameter values Parameter values

Figure 10. Parameter profiles of cumulative prospect theory’s value and weighting function parameters fitted to the simulated choices of the minimax heuristic and the most-likely heuristic. The different parameter values indicate how sensitive the heuristics are to probability information (γ) and outcome information (α), their degree of risk aversion in the gain and loss domains (δ+ and δ–, respectively), their loss aversion (λ), and their sensitivity to differences in the subjective valuations of options (φ). © MPI for Human Development

Using computer simulations, Suter, Pachur, choices are fairly noisy. These observations and Hertwig fitted CPT to choices gener- suggest that the gulf between algebraic and ated by different choice heuristics and made heuristic models is not as wide as it is often the following observations: Despite starkly made out to be, and mapping them onto different algorithmic structures, CPT accom- one another yields substantial insights for modates heuristic choices with a good model both traditions. For instance, fitting CPT to fit. Furthermore, the resulting CPT parame­ the choices of heuristics permits researchers ter profiles portray each heuristic alone and to describe heuristic choices using classical relative to the others in psychologically constructs of algebraic models, such as sen- meaningful ways. For instance, Figure 10 sitivity to probability and outcome informa- shows that, when fitted to the choices of the tion, risk aversion, or loss aversion. Heuristics, minimax heuristic (whose policy is to ignore in turn, offer a cognitive foundation for the probability information and choose the op- parameter values estimated within the CPT tion with the better worst case), the resulting framework. CPT parameters indicate low sensitivity to probabilities (γ), high sensitivity to outcomes Why Aren’t Humans Smarter Already? (α), and high risk aversion in the loss domain The notion of bounded rationality acknowl- (δ–). The most-likely heuristic (whose policy edges the natural limits of human cognition. is to choose the option with the more likely But must these bounds be accepted? Phar- best case) results in parameters indicating macological enhancers of cognition promise high probability sensitivity and high outcome a new, less bounded future for humankind, sensitivity as well as low risk aversion in the including more focus, more willpower, and loss domain. Further findings from this theory better memory, with applications ranging integration are that CPT parameters can from education to military combat. Underly- reflect a lexicographic search strategy as well ing such promises is a “more-is-better” model as the interaction of heuristics’ policies and of cognition. As Hills and Hertwig (2011) have choice environments. Finally, model recovery pointed out, however, such a naïve linear analyses show that, although CPT is able to model is at odds with cognition’s evolutionary accommodate choices based on heuristics, origins. Specifically, the targets of cogni- CPT and heuristics can still be distinguished tive enhancers—for example, attention and with high accuracy, even when observed memory—are subject to selection, raising the

94 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Key Reference A small gain in A has Schooler, L. J., & a high cost in B Hertwig,­ R. (2005). How Trait B Trait A forgetting aids heuristic inference. Psychological Review, 112, 610–628. ∆GainA doi:10.1037/0033-295X. 112.3.610 ∆LossB Performance

t* ^t Optimal trade-off Abilities are wanting: Here gains in A are greater Cognitive trait than losses in B

Figure 11. A gain/loss asymmetry. Performance scores associated with the cognitive traits A and B follow a decelerating function (e. g., gains in performance have diminishing returns). Using pharmacological drugs to shift the value of trait A beyond the point of the optimal trade-off between traits yields a performance gain in trait A (ΔGainA ) that is smaller than the corresponding performance loss in trait B (ΔLossB ) (adapted from Hills & Hertwig, 2011). © MPI for Human Development following question: Why haven’t humans al- control of attention entails a delicate balance ready evolved the abilities that cognitive en- between too much and too little focus. hancers offer? If better memory, for example, Equally important evolutionary trade-offs is unequivocally beneficial, why do seemingly are reflected in unintended side effects of trivial neuromolecular changes that would enhancers on other traits. Figure 11 illustrates enhance memory, such as overexpression of this potential asymmetry between perfor- NMDA receptors in the hippocampus, appar- mance losses and performance gains. Assume ently not exist in natural populations? that gains have diminishing returns. In that Cognition is the evolutionary product of trade- case, using pharmacological enhancers to offs over multiple ecological and physiological shift the values of trait A upward will indeed constraints. The categorical more-is-better yield a performance gain (ΔGainA). Yet this assumption is therefore false in this context. gain may come at a sizable “hidden” price: a

Many recently discovered “less-is-more” loss (ΔLossB ) of even larger magnitude in per- effects, such as the benefits of forgetting formance associated with trait B. The promise on heuristic inference (Schooler & Hertwig, of pharmacologically boosting the cognition 2005), are inconsistent with a linear model of healthy individuals thus overlooks the of cognition. In addition, trade-offs over risks associated with ∩-shaped performance constraints are reflected in the ubiquity of curves and cognitive side effects. ∩-shaped performance curves. For example, amphetamines have been proposed as a way to boost attention. While they do improve at- tentional performance among low-performing individuals, they can actually reduce the performance of high performers. Optimal

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 95 Key Reference Coming Soon! The Normative Challenges of the Descriptive Theory of Bounded Hertwig, R., & Volz, K. Rationality G. (2013). Abnormality, Hertwig and Pedersen are editing a special issue of Minds and Machines: Journal for rationality, and sanity. Artificial Intelligence, Philosophy, and Cognitive Science. The contributions to this special Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17, 547–549. issue will focus on several philosophical implications of research on bounded and ecologi- doi:10.1016/j.tics. cal rationality (see also Hertwig & Volz, 2013). A key question is how theories of rational- 2013.08.011 ity ought to accommodate the surprising success of boundedly rational heuristics, which violate putative norms of strategic or epistemic rationality. If a theory of rationality ought to countenance the capacities and limitations of real-world agents in the context of their environments, what epistemic or pragmatic standards can distinguish among rational, ara- tional, and irrational decision making, inference, and belief formation? In addition, to the extent that coherence, or internal consistency among a decision maker’s beliefs, choices, and reasons, must be supplemented by standards of correspondence, or the relationship between the actor’s attitudes and the hard facts out there in the world, can a satisfactory systematic account of these standards be articulated? These and related questions have received scant or no attention, despite their significance for the foundations and method- ology of research programs in normative and descriptive decision making, inference, and belief. The special issue will contribute to a more systematic elaboration of the implica- tions of simple, boundedly rational heuristics for theories of rationality.

Box 5.

96 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Research Area 2: Reckoning With Uncertainty: Search and Learning

Many human behaviors—falling in love, job interviews, marital arguments, crossing the street— come without a package insert detailing possible outcomes and their probabilities. Yet there are torchlights helping people to navigate this twilight of uncertainty. In many uncertain environ- ments, decision makers can benefit from the vicarious experience of others or bring to bear relevant experience and knowledge of similar situations stored in memory. In some cases, they can gain hands-on experience of the initially unknown payoff distributions. We have referred to people’s drawing on experience of payoff distributions and making choices on this basis as Key References “decisions from experience” (Hertwig, Barron, Weber, & Erev, 2004). In this section, we first Erev, I., Ert, E., Roth, A. describe our ongoing expedition into the world of experienced-based decision making, and then E., Haruvy, E., Herzog, sketch a set of projects designed to reveal the biological and cognitive foundations of risk tak- S. M., Hau, R., Hertwig, R., Stewart, T., West, R., ing and decisions from experience. & Lebiere, C. (2010). A choice prediction com- Studying decisions from experience is nothing interest in decisions from experience. More- petition: Choices from experience and from new. Godfathers of modern decision science over, it has brought to the fore what Herbert description. Journal of such as Ward Edwards did exactly that. Al- A. Simon regarded as the cognitive process of Behavioral Decision Mak- though behavioral decision researchers began bounded rationality: cognitive search (and, by ing, 23, 15–47. doi:1002/ bdm.683 to turn away from the transients of learn- extension, learning). ing in the 1970s, concerns for learning and Erev, I., & Roth, A. E. (1998). Predicting how experienced-based decision making remained Choice Ecology and Search people play games: alive in research on experimental games (e. g., In decisions from experience, people are Reinforcement learning Erev & Roth, 1998) and operation research. the masters of their information search to in experimental games with unique, mixed strat- What is novel, however, is that, in the last the extent that they control how much to egy equilibria. American 10 years, various researchers have systemati- explore and when to exploit. Yet some control Economic Review, 88, cally pitted decisions from experience against may also reside in the environment and in 848−881. decisions from descriptions, commonly using interactions between the environment and monetary lotteries. Their investigations have psychological constructs such as loss aversion Hertwig, R. (in press). Decisions from experi- revealed a systematic and robust difference and risk aversion. Lejarraga, Hertwig, and ence. In G. Keren & G. Wu between the two kinds of decisions, and this ­Gonzalez (2012) analyzed several data sets (Eds.), Blackwell hand- “description–experience gap” (see Hertwig, to find out how two key ecological proper- book of decision making. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. in press; Hertwig & Erev, 2009) has rekindled ties influence exploration: domain of choice Hertwig, R., Barron, G., Weber, E. U., & Erev, I. (2004). Decisions from 8 experience and the effect of rare events in risky 7 Variance experienced choice. Psychological 6 No variance experienced Science, 15, 534−539. doi:10.1111/j.0956- 5 y = –0.1x + 4.6 7976.2004.00715.x 4 Hertwig, R., & Erev, I. 3 (2009). The descrip- 2 tion−experience gap in y = 0.031x + 0.1 risky choice. Trends in 1 Cognitive Sciences, 13, 517−523. doi:10.1016/j. Mean difference in sample size 0 tics.2009.09.004 –1 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 Lejarraga, T., Hertwig,­ Problem order R., & Gonzalez, C. (2012). How choice ­ecology influences search in Mean difference (averaged across participants) in sample size between the risky option and the safe Figure 12. decisions from experi- option across 30 problems in the Technion Prediction Tournament (Erev et al., 2010). The graph includes the trend ence. Cognition, 124, lines for each mean difference and the corresponding linear equation (adapted from Lejarraga et al., 2012). 334–342. doi:10.1016/j.­ © MPI for Human Development cognition.2012.06.002

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 97 Researchers Coming Soon! A Meta-Analysis of Decisions From Experience About a decade after the discovery of the description–experience gap, Wulff and Hertwig Dirk U. Wulff have collated the data from 21 independent published articles—all employing the sampling Ralph Hertwig paradigm (Hertwig et al., 2004). The data (involving more than 1,000 participants and over 10,000 choices) are currently being analyzed. Two initial results are plotted in Figure 13a. First, the original finding by Hertwig et al. (2004) that people rely on relatively small sam- ples has proved to be robust. Across all studies, Wulff and collegues observed a median of 14 draws per participant and problem. Second, Figure 13b demonstrates a robust recency effect: Observations made later in the sequence have more impact on the final choice than observations made earlier. Drawing on this comprehensive data set, Wulff and Hertwig plan to investigate a host of issues by, for example, running an extensive model competi- tion, analyzing search policies, and examining the stopping rules for search.

(a) (b)

1.0 Hertwig et al. (2004)

0.8

0.6 Prediction accuracy 0.4

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Complete First Last Sample size Data used for prediction Figure 13. (a) On average, participants drew about 14 samples per problem, close to the original finding of Hertwig et al. (2004) and sufficiently small to lead to notable sampling error. (b) Participants prefer the option with the highest experienced mean. Within a sequence, however, they are more likely to choose the higher mean of the “last” samples as compared to the “first” samples. © MPI for Human Development

Box 6.

Key Reference (gains vs. losses) and experienced variance risky than the safe option when they experi- Pachur, T., & Scheibe- (variance vs. no variance). The prospect of a enced variance relative to when they did not. henne, B. (2012). loss invoked more search than the prospect Constructing preference of a gain, with a relative average increase Constructing Preference From Experience from experience: The en- dowment effect reflected in search in the range of 25 % to 29 % (but Decisions from experience offer a great meth- in external ­information with substantial interindividual variability). odological advantage relative to decisions search. Journal of Like losses, the experience of variance also from description. Specifically, the experimen- Experimental Psychol- ogy: Learning, Memory prompted more exploration. Figure 12 shows tal paradigms used to investigate decisions and Cognition, 38, that, averaged across all participants, samples from experience lay open what is otherwise 1108−1116. doi:10.1037/ were larger in the risky than in the safe option difficult to observe: people’s search for infor- a0027637 for participants who experienced variance. In mation. Taking advantage of this strength, contrast, participants who failed to experi- Pachur and Scheibehenne (2012) used the ence the risky option’s variance allocated sampling paradigm to examine the informa- nearly equal search effort to both options tion search preceding the endowment effect. (orange curve). At the individual level, 52 of The endowment effect describes people’s 75 (69 %) participants sampled more from the tendency to value items they own more

98 | Center for Adaptive Rationality 0.30 Seller 0.25 Buyer

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05 Stopping index 0.00

–0.05

–0.10

–0.15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Window size

Figure 14. Stopping index characterizing the sampling behavior of sellers (in green) and buyers (in orange) prior to the evaluation of the lotteries. Bars above zero indicate that search tends to be terminated after encountering relatively high outcomes, whereas bars below zero indicate that search tends to be terminated after encountering relatively low outcomes. Error bars indicate ±1 standard error of the mean. The graph shows that sellers tend to stop search after encountering large outcomes, whereas buyers tend to stop after encountering low outcomes. Window size refers to possible sizes of recent memories (adapted from Pachur & Scheibehenne, 2012). © MPI for Human Development highly than items owned by others, leading to and separately for buyers and sellers. Sellers discrepancies in selling and buying prices. The terminated search after having encountered most common explanation for this divergence relatively high outcomes, indicated by a stop- is loss aversion: sellers simply value an object ping index higher than 0; buyers terminated they own more highly than buyers do. This search after having encountered relatively explanation remains silent about the underly- low outcomes, indicated by a stopping index ing cognitive processes, however, particularly lower than 0. These search patterns led sellers in terms of how much each party knows about to experience the lotteries as more valuable the subject item. than the buyers did, revealing a sample gap. Pachur and Scheibehenne asked a group of Moreover, the size of the sample gap was participants to indicate both selling prices substantially correlated with the size of the and buying prices for lotteries, where the lot- resulting endowment effect: larger discrepan- teries’ payoff distributions had to be learned cies in experience were associated with larger by sequential sampling and participants discrepancies between buying and selling were free to decide when to stop information prices. These results extend past work on the search. Buyers and sellers differed consider- cognitive underpinnings of the endowment ably in terms of when they stopped search. effect and emphasize the key role of search The length of search was quantified using a behavior in the emergence of the effect. They stopping index, defined as the log-ratio of the also offer insights into search in decisions probability of stopping after having sampled from experience more generally: The perspec- a high outcome to the probability of stop- tive of the decision maker—here, buyer versus ping after having sampled a low outcome. seller—can have a considerable impact on Figure 14 shows the stopping index for as- how long people search and, ultimately, on sumed sampling windows of different sizes, their valuation of risky prospects.

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 99 Researchers Decisions From Experience in Competitive makers may seize the better option while Worlds others are still engaged in search. How long Nathaniel Phillips Whether the question is what to eat, where should people search before choosing be- Ralph Hertwig to live, or whom to mate with, decisions are tween uncertain options under competition? Yaakov Kareev often made under competitive conditions. And how long do people actually search? Judith Avrahami This holds for species ranging from humans Phillips, Hertwig, Kareev (Hebrew University to hermit crabs. Hermit crabs are always on of Jerusalem, Israel), and Avrahami (Hebrew the lookout for new and better shells. When a University of Jerusalem, Israel) examined Key Reference solitary crab encounters an empty shell, it in- these questions experimentally and by means Hills, T. T., & Hertwig, spects it thoroughly before deciding whether of simulation. They compared the effective- R. (2012). Two distinct to leave its current shell for the new one. ness of different search and choice strategies exploratory behaviors­ When a group of crabs encounters an empty implemented under different competitive in decisions from experience: Comment shell, however, the crab nearest to the shell and solitary environments. Their simulations on Gonzalez and Dutt makes a split-second decision about whether showed that minimal search is adaptive (2011). Psychological to take it based on visual inspection alone. when people are uncertain about how long Review, 119, 888–892. doi:10.1037/a0028004 Similarly, on a slow shopping day, a leisurely their competitors will search and when small shopper can examine all of a TV’s attributes samples are likely to distinguish good options and even search for expert reviews of it on his from bad. or her smartphone before deciding whether Will people rely on searches as minimal as just or not to buy. On a frantic shopping day like one draw? Figure 15 presents the distribution Black Friday, in contrast, the same shopper of sampling rounds across all decision tasks might spend only a few seconds looking at the in solitary versus competition conditions. In TV before deciding whether to buy it before the solitary condition (no competition), the someone else does. median number of sampling rounds was 18. In this project, we extend the decisions- In the competition condition, in contrast, from-experience paradigm to competitive the median number of sampling rounds was social situations. Although information just 1. These findings suggest that competi- search can boost the chances of identifying tion shifts the balance between exploration a superior alternative, competing decision and exploitation (see also Hills & Hertwig,

Solitary

Competition

1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Sampling rounds

Figure 15. Distribution of sampling rounds and boxplots across all decision tasks and individuals, separately for the solitary and the competition conditions, respectively. © MPI for Human Development

100 | Center for Adaptive Rationality 2012) in an uncertain choice environment: ioral measures of risk ranging from 20 % to Key Reference Faced with the threat of being outpaced in upwards of 60 %. Less is known, however, Mata, R., Hau, R., the process of making a decision, people about the specific genes that underlie such Papassotiropoulos, A., & dramatically reduce search. This seems to behaviors. Mata, Hau, Papassotiropoulos, and Hertwig, R. (2012). DAT1 polymorphism is associ- be a smart thing to do in ecologies in which Hertwig (2012) examined the role of a specific ated with risk taking in competitors can be expected to choose polymorphism of the dopamine transporter the Balloon Analogue quickly and in which modal samples are gene (SLC6A3; alternate symbol: DAT1) in a Risk Task (BART). PLoS ONE, 7 (6): e39135. good indicators of an option’s value. It is a widely used and potentially clinically relevant doi:10.1371/journal. proverbial truth that you should “look before behavioral measure of risk taking, the Balloon pone.0039135 you leap.” In our competitive environment, it Analogue Risk Task (BART). Behavior in BART emerged that a quick peek before leaping was is known to be associated with activity in very helpful—but that more extensive looking striatal reward-processing regions, and DAT1 permitted the competitor to leap first and is assumed to modulate striatal dopamine lev- thus gain an edge. els. Mata et al. (2012) found that carriers of DAT1 alleles, which presumably result in lower DAT1 Polymorphism Is Associated With striatal dopamine availability (10R/10R), Risk Taking in an Experienced-Based showed more risk-taking behavior than Paradigm carriers of the alleles associated with higher A significant portion of individual differences striatal dopamine availability (9R) (Figure 16). in financial decision making and risk-taking These analyses suggest that the mechanism behavior can be attributed to genetic dif- underlying this association is diminished ferences between individuals. This result is sensitivity to rewards among those who take suggested by a number of twin studies, with more risks. heritability estimates regarding behav-

(a) (b) 14 38

12 36 10

34 8

6

Payoff (euro) Payoff 32

4 Mean number of pumps 30 2 10R/10R 9R 0 28 0 32 64 9R 10R/10R Mean number of pumps Genotype

Figure 16. (a) Payoff in the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (in euro) by mean number of pumps for 9-repeat carriers (9R) and 10-repeat homozygotes and 11-repeat carriers (10R/10R). The green curve represents the expected value of the respective mean number of pumps. (b) Mean number of pumps and respective 95 % confidence intervals for 9-repeat carriers (9R) and 10-repeat homozygotes and 11-repeat carriers (10R/10R) (adapted from Mata et al., 2012). © MPI for Human Development

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 101 Researchers The Biological and Cognitive Foundations (in Berlin) of Risk Taking: The Basel–Berlin Risk Study Although economists and psychologists share Felix Blankenburg an interest in how the human mind masters Renato Frey risk and uncertainty, they have developed Ralph Hertwig rather different theoretical frameworks Andreas Horn and behavioral paradigms to approach the Tomás Lejarraga subject (Schonberg, Fox, & Poldrack, 2011). Rui Mata Economists understand risk as variability Dirk Ostwald and risk taking as a preference for variability, Thorsten Pachur and use well-defined but contrived decisions between monetary gambles to reveal people’s Figure 17. Participant performing a driving task that permits researchers to study the propensity to take penchant for risk. Psychologists, in contrast, risks in real-life traffic situations. Key References often conceive risk taking as behavior with © Nathaniel Phillips Horn, A., Ostwald, D., potentially harmful consequences and use Reisert, M., & Blanken­ behavioral paradigms that aim to be more burg, F. (in press). The representative of risk taking in the real world. havior and model parameters with candidate- structural-functional connectome and the de- Regardless of the behavioral paradigm used, specific genetic polymorphisms and hormonal fault network of the hu- however, one finding is common: Individuals states. man brain. Neuro­Image. vary dramatically in their risk-taking behavior. Data from 1,500 participants are being col- Advance online publica- tion. doi:10.1016/j. For illustration, let us consider Lucian Freud lected at two sites: the University of Basel and neuroimage.2013.09.069 and Immanuel Kant. The former was one of the MPI for Human Development in Berlin. Schonberg, T., Fox, C. R., the greatest painters of the 20th century, Next to numerous risk-taking tasks, respon- & Poldrack, R. A. (2011). had at least 14 children (by various moth- dents complete a survey about their real-life Mind the gap: Bridging ers), was a compulsive gambler, and amassed risk-taking behavior (e. g., use of substances, economic and natural- istic risk-taking with staggering debts before his paintings began gambling). In addition, they work on a battery cognitive neuroscience. to sell for millions. The latter was one of the of cognitive paradigms designed to quantify, Trends in Cognitive greatest philosophers of all time, had no for instance, working-memory capacity and Sciences, 15, 11–19. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010. children, never married, and is purported not numeracy. Data collection at both laborato- 10.002 to have traveled far beyond the limits of his ries began in April 2013 and will last approxi- hometown, Königsberg. What is the source of mately 1 year. Subsamples of the core study these individual differences in the propensity will be used to replicate findings to measure to take risks? the reliability of behavioral measures (i. e., the The Basel–Berlin Risk Study draws on insights reliability of risk preferences) and to charac- from decision science, cognitive psychology, terize the link between global brain connec- and neuroscience to answer this question, tivity and risk-taking behavior (Horn, Ostwald, among others. Specifically, the study uses a Reisert, & Blankenburg, in press). large array of behavioral paradigms—rang- ing from risky choices (decisions from descriptions) between well-defined lotteries and experienced-based sequential choices between alternatives with unknown con- sequences to simulations of real-life risky activities, such as overtaking a car on a busy highway (Figure 17)—to gauge respondents’ risk-taking behavior. Second, the study uses established and new mathematical models of choice behavior to model the cognitive processes underlying risk taking. Third, the study collects genetic and hormonal samples, thus making it possible to associate overt be-

102 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Coming Soon! Neural Basis of Decision Making and Choice Researchers Progress in the cognitive neuroscience of human decision making is relatively slow Dirk Ostwald because of a gap between theory and experimentation. On the theoretical level, cognitive Felix Blankenburg process models have typically been developed without much concern for neurocomputa- Ralph Hertwig tional implementations of the postulated processes. Consequently, these models do not permit researchers to derive quantitative biophysical predictions for neuroimaging data. At the same time, the integration of experimentally recorded EEG-fMRI data within a coherent functional-biophysical framework has not yet been achieved. This project strives to help bridge these gaps. To this end, a first investigation focuses on the electrophysi- ological constraints of risky decision making by means of stochastic time-series models (STSMs). STSMs offer a useful starting point for the noninvasive study of the neural basis of risky decision making. A well-developed STSM for choice is Decision Field Theory (DFT; ­Busemeyer & Townsend, 1993). It corresponds to the Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process, whose key parameters represent psychological concepts such as attention switching, memory decay, and approach–avoidance conflicts. The project’s first aim is to make DFT directly accessible to Bayesian model identification and to derive neurobiologically plausible DFT predictions (see Ostwald, Kirilina, Starke, & Blankenburg, in press; Ostwald, Porcaro, Mayhew, & Bagshaw, 2012). The second goal is to demonstrate how different risky choice strategies—for instance, the minimax heuristic, the most-likely heuristic, and expected value calculus (Brandstätter, Gigerenzer, & Hertwig, 2006)—can be accommodated under the DFT framework and give rise to quantitatively different diffusion behavior. We will first consider description-based choice and then apply a similar approach to decisions from experience.

Key References Busemeyer, J. R., & Townsend, Ostwald, D., Kirilina, E., Starke, Ostwald, D., ­Porcaro, C., J. T. (1993) Decision Field L., & Blankenburg, F. (in press). Mayhew, S. D., & Bagshaw, A. P. Brandstätter, E., ­Gigerenzer, Theory: A dynamic cognition A tutorial on variational Bayes (2012). EEG-fMRI based infor- G., & Hertwig,­ R. (2006). The approach to decision making. for latent linear stochastic mation theoretic characteriza- priority heuristic: Making Psychological Review, 100, time-series models. Journal of tion of the human perceptual choices without trade-offs. 432–459. doi:10.1037/0033- Mathematical Psychology. decision system. PLoS ONE, 7: Psychological Review, 113, 295X.100.3.432 e33896. doi:10.1371/journal. 409–432. doi:10.1037/0033- pone.0033896 295X.113.2.409

Box 7.

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 103 Research Area 3: The Lifespan Development of Decision Making

Who runs the world? Judging from the average age of the people featured in the Forbes 2013 ranking of the World’s Most Powerful People (61 years), political and economic power is concen- trated in the hands of people who are, on average, considerably older than the general popula- tion. Older adults’ overrepresentation in influential roles may be intensified in the future by demographic aging across the globe. Indeed, the average age of members of the U.S. Congress has risen fairly steadily since the 1980s. Against this backdrop, the following question is more pertinent than ever: Given that aging is associated with decline in many cognitive abilities, how does older adults’ decision making compare with that of younger adults?

From the perspective of ecological rationality, and their developmental trajectories. Further- no categorical and domain-general answer to more, we aim to go beyond the laboratory, this question can be given. Instead, the im- exploring the implications of developmental pact of aging on decision making will depend changes in decision processes for real-world strongly on the demands of the specific task decisions, from health-care choices to the or ecology (Figure 18), and decision perfor- allocation of time and other resources to mance is ultimately the result of how the offspring. This section presents a sample of demands of specific decision tasks or environ- past, current, and planned work aimed at ments interact with core cognitive abilities understanding the lifespan development of

Abilities, skills, knowledge 100 α2 80 60 40 20 Percent maximum Percent α1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Age

Performance 100 80 60 ρ2 40 20

Percent maximum Percent ρ1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Age

Figure 18. Illustration of the link between cognitive abilities and decision performance as a function of age. The top panel shows the hypothetical age gradients for two different factors (i. e., different abilities, skills, or knowl-

edge); α1 represents an early peaking ability (e. g., fluid intelligence) andα 2 a late peaking ability (e. g., crystal- lized intelligence). The bottom panel shows task performance for two tasks that differ in the demands put on α1 and α2; while one task (in green) taxes mostly α1, the second task (in orange) taxes both α1 and α2, which results in the latter showing a delayed peak performance relative to the former. © MPI for Human Development

104 | Center for Adaptive Rationality decision making and its potential implications age: 68.3 years) searched for less informa- Key References for real-world decisions. tion and relied more on simpler strategies. Mata, R., Helversen, Importantly, the tendency to rely on simpler B. von, Karlsson, L., The Aging Decision Maker: Decisions From strategies was related to individual differences & ­Cüpper, L. (2012). Adult age differences Memory in fluid abilities, suggesting that age-related in categorization and The link between aging and memory decline cognitive decline may limit access to more multiple-cue judgment. has long been recognized. But what are the complex strategies. Older adults also seem Developmental Psychol- ogy, 48, 1188–1201. potential effects of age-related memory to avoid using strategies that rely heavily on doi:10.1037/a0026084 decline on decision performance? Given that memory retrieval in other inference tasks, such Mata, R., Schooler, successful decision making in everyday situ- as estimation and categorization (Mata, von L. J., & Rieskamp, J. ations often requires retrieving previously Helversen, Karlsson, & Cüpper, 2012). (2007). The aging deci- encountered information, one factor mediat- In a number of ongoing studies, we are in- sion maker: Cognitive aging and the adaptive ing age differences in decision performance is vestigating the impact of age-related decline selection of decision likely to be the memory demands of decision on memory abilities and interactions with strategies. Psychology tasks. Retrieving information from memory task demands. Specifically, these studies test and Aging, 22, 796–810. doi:10.1037/0882- can be an effortful process, marked by consid- the notion that decision performance is a 7974.22.4.796 erable involvement of control structures. function of both individual abilities and the Park, D., & Reuter- Aging is associated with deficits in some way in which decision-relevant information is Lorenz, P. A. (2009). The frontal control structures as well as in storage represented (e. g., whether decisions are made adaptive brain: Aging components of memory (Park & Reuter-Lorenz, from tabulated information or from memory; and neurocognitive scaf- folding. Annual Review of 2009). Consequently, older adults are likely see Box 8: Age Differences in Decisions From Psychology, 60, 173–196. to show difficulties in the selective retrieval Memory). Our results point to a significant doi:10.1146/annurev. of information in decisions from memory. In age-by-task interaction: While older and psych.59.103006. 093656 a study using a decision paradigm with high younger adults show similar decision per- memory demands, Mata, Schooler, and Ries- formance when information is conveniently kamp (2007) found that older adults (average displayed in a tabulated manner, older adults

Coming Soon! Age Differences in Decisions From Memory Researchers Younger and older adults were asked to make decisions in two situations that put varying Anika Josef demands on memory. Specifically, participants had to decide between job candidates in a Rui Mata simulated personnel selection scenario. In an extensive learning phase, participants first Thorsten Pachur learned about five job candidates in terms of five binary attributes or cues (e. g., previous Ralph Hertwig job experience, social competencies). In addition, they learned the relative importance of each cue (i. e., cue ranking) and cue direction (i. e., which of the two cue values represents the desired attribute). Second, in a decision phase, participants chose between pairs of candidates when provided with either no information (high-memory-demand condition) or all information (low-memory-demand condition) about the candidates. Across two stud- ies, older adults (average age of 69.9 and 68.8 years, respectively) needed more time than younger adults to reach the same memory performance level, in line with the expectation of age-related deficits in encoding newly learned information. More importantly, age- related performance differences in the decision phase increased as a function of memory demand (see Figure 19a). Both younger and older adults relied more on simpler deci- sion strategies, that is, strategies that integrate fewer pieces of information, as memory demand increased (Figure 19b). However, as expected, older adults showed a stronger tendency to reduce cognitive load by relying on fewer pieces of information, particularly in the high-memory-demand condition. Follow-up studies will investigate whether such age differences are the result of a strategic decision to rely on simpler heuristics or of an in- ability to execute decision strategies that require many pieces of information to be recalled from memory.

Box 8.

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 105 Key References (a) (b) Bundorf, M. K., Mata, R., Schoenbaum, M., 1.0 Low demand High demand & Bhattacharya, J. Younger adults (2013). Are prescription 0.9 Older adults drug insurance choices consistent with expected 0.8 utility theory? Health Tally 2 Psychology, 32, 984–994. adults Younger Tally 3 doi:10.1037/a0033517 0.7 Tally 4 Hertwig, R. (2012a). The Tally 5 psychology and rational- 0.6 ity of decisions from ex- perience. Synthese, 187,

0.5 Older adults 269–292. doi:10.1007/ Low demand High demand s11229-011-0024-4

Figure 19. (a) Decision performance (error bars represent 95 % confidence intervals), measured in terms of proportion of correct inferences. (b) Strategy classification of younger and older adults in the low- and high- memory-demand conditions. We fitted strategies that tallied up 2, 3, 4, or 5 pieces of information, respectively, for each candidate. © MPI for Human Development

are at a significant disadvantage when infor- such cases, people can make decisions from mation has to be retrieved from memory. description (Hertwig, 2012a). However, many We plan to extend this line of work to the consequential decisions, such as whether to early phases of the lifespan to test the make a financial investment, back up one’s hypothesis that protracted maturation of computer, or drive despite poor eyesight, are memory abilities may also lead to difficulties made without the benefit of such explicit, in making decisions from memory. Feasibility quantitative risk information about the studies are being conducted to assess whether possible outcomes and their probabilities. In neuroimaging studies using an inference- such cases, people may adopt any of various from-memory paradigm can shed light on strategies. For example, when equipped with how different neural structures contribute current or recalled experiences of risks, people to age differences in decisions from memory. can make decisions from experience (Hertwig, Age-related disruption of medial-temporal, 2012a). To what extent does aging lead to hippocampal, and frontal regions may nega- different patterns of risk taking as a function tively affect associative binding and retrieval of how risk information is acquired? processes. Neuroimaging studies have the Aging is associated with structural and potential to help assess the relative contribu- neuromodulatory changes thought to un- tion of associative and strategic components derlie age-related decline in some aspects of of information retrieval during decision mak- memory, learning, and cognitive control. These ing from memory. age-related changes may impact risky choice in different ways. First, decline in some aspects Age Differences in Risky Choice of cognitive control, such as working memory, People acquire information about risk in at may affect strategy selection and application least two different ways. Sometimes they (see Section: The Aging Decision Maker: Deci- have access to convenient summary descrip- sions From Memory, above). Second, deficits tions of risky prospects. For example, weather in reward learning can lead to difficulties in forecasts give a probability of precipitation, learning the associations between options snowfall, or hurricane landfall at a given loca- and their payoffs and, ultimately, in adapting tion, and decisions concerning insurance can decision behavior to specific task structures. be made on the basis of summary statistics Such learning deficits seem particularly likely from population information (Bundorf, Mata, to affect decisions from experience, in which Schoenbaum, & Bhattacharya, 2013). In decision makers must learn about options from

106 | Center for Adaptive Rationality (a) Decisions from description (b) Decisions from experience Author Year N g Author Year N g Kim 2005 80 0.95 Denburg 2005 80 2.72 Zamarian 2008 85 0.19 Baena 2010 78 1.72 Kim 2005 106 0.09 Zamarian 2008 85 0.76 Bruine 2007 119 0.07 Fein 2007 164 0.71 Roennlund 2005 384 0.05 McPherson 2002 60 0.61 Lauriola 2001 49 0.03 Denburg 2009 152 0.48 Holliday 1988 48 –0.08 Isella 2007 80 0.32 Weller 2010 419 –0.24 Wood 2005 155 0.10 Mikels 2009 44 –0.39 Henninger 2010 112 0.05 Mayhorn 2002 116 –0.61 Lamar 2004 43 –0.03 Lee 2007 21 –0.89 IGT 0.28 Sure/Risky –0.03 Ashman 2003 32 0.06 Samanez-Larkin 2010 77 0.50 Rafaely 2006 103 –0.03 Samanez-Larkin 2011 108 0.43 Rafaely 2006 87 –0.13 BIAS 0.46 Dror 1998 36 –0.45 Blackjack –0.07 Henninger 2010 112 0.90 Rolison 2011 84 –0.23 Deakin 2004 86 0.31 Henninger 2010 112 –0.71 CGT 0.47 BART –0.38

–1 0 1 –1 0 1 2 3 Figure 20. Forest plots indicating individual and weighted effect sizes for studies using (a) decisions from description and (b) decisions from experience. The positions of the squares on the horizontal axis indicate the effect size for each study; diamonds represent the weighted ef- fect size for the task. Positive values indicate higher risk taking in older relative to younger adults; negative values indicate lower risk taking in older relative to younger adults. The errors bars indicate the 95 % confidence intervals of the effect sizes, and the sizes of the squares are inversely proportional to the respective standard errors (i. e., larger squares indicate smaller standard errors). Sure/Risky = Sure Thing versus Risky ­Gamble task, CGT = Cambridge Gambling Task, IGT = Iowa Gambling Task, BIAS = Behavioral Investment Allocation Strategy task, BART = ­Balloon Analogue Risk Task (adapted from Mata et al., 2011). © MPI for Human Development feedback over time and retrieve the learned in- Behavioral Investment Allocation Strategy Key Reference formation when relevant. In sum, the learning (BIAS) task, but they were more risk averse Mata, R., Josef, A., and memory demands of tasks involving deci- when learning favored risk-seeking behavior, Samanez-Larkin, G. R., sions from experience could be an important as in the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). & Hertwig, R. (2011). Age differences in moderator of age differences in risky choice. In decisions from description, in contrast, risky choice: A meta- In a systematic meta-analysis, Mata, Josef, younger and older adults showed similar risk- analysis. Annals of the Samanez-Larkin, and Hertwig (2011) found taking behavior in the majority of tasks, and New York Academy of Sciences, 1235, 18–29. 29 comparisons between younger and older there were no clear age-related differences as doi:10.1111/j.1749- adults on behavioral tasks thought to measure a function of whether options were framed as 6632.2011.06200.x risk taking (N = 4,093). The studies relied on gains or losses. Mata et al. (2011) concluded tasks that differed in several respects, such as from these results that task characteristics the amount of learning required. The results may be pivotal in determining age-related dif- suggest that age-related differences vary ferences in risky choice. considerably with task characteristics— in par- One open question is which aspects of ticular, with learning requirements (Figure 20). decisions from description and experience In tasks involving decisions from experience, contribute to the moderation of age effects. age-related differences in risk taking stemmed We currently are investigating this ques- from lower learning performance: Older adults tion. For example, we are examining whether were more risk seeking than younger adults specific formats of decisions from experience when learning favored risk-avoidant behavior, can increase or decrease task difficulty for as in the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) and the people with limited learning abilities, such as

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 107 Researchers Coming Soon! The Development of Risk Taking During Adolescence Adolescence is well known to be a period of increased risk taking in many domains. Most Wouter van den Bos developmental studies conducted to date have used risky decisions from description or Ralph Hertwig classic economic gambles. Paradoxically, most of these studies found that adolescents were as, or even more, risk averse than adults. Evidently, these kinds of tasks lack some aspect that may lead to the risk-seeking behavior often seen during adolescence. One salient difference between decisions from description and real-life risky decisions is that in real life we often do not know the true probabilities. We may therefore have to make a choice based on unknown outcome probabilities or on some limited experience. Neuroimaging and computational modeling studies have suggested specific mechanisms that may underlie probabilistic learning across development (van den Bos, Gürogˇlu, van der Bulk, Rombouts, & Crone, 2009) and that these changes are related to fronto-striatal connectivity (van den Bos, Cohen, Kahnt, & Crone, 2012) and cortical thickness (van den Bos, Crone, & Gürogˇlu, 2012). Using simple experimental designs, we will study how both ambiguous decisions and decisions from experience change across development. Another suggested source of adolescent risk taking that is not captured by the classic gambling paradigms is social influence. It is known that adolescence is a period of major social reorientation (van den Bos, 2013). During this period, there is a strong shift from parental to peer influence that is accompanied by great changes in the social brain. We will use novel social network analyses to identify the mechanisms of peer influence on risky behavior. In addition, we will apply a multimodal approach, combining computational models with measures of brain function (fMRI, EEG) and structure (VBM, DTI) to identify the processes that underlie developmental changes in learning. We will implement several cross-sectional designs that sample from different age groups (early and late childhood, early and late ado- lescence, and young adulthood), which may be followed up later in longitudinal studies.

Key References Bos, W. van den, Cohen, M. X., Bos, W. van den, Crone, E. A., Bos, W. van den, Gürogˇlu, B., Kahnt, T., & Crone, E. A. (2012). & Gürogˇlu, B. (2012). Brain Bulk, B. G. van der, Rombouts, Bos, W. van den. (2013). Striatum-medial­ prefrontal­ function during probabilistic S. A. R. B., & Crone, E. A. Neural mechanisms of social cortex connectivity predicts learning in relation to IQ and (2009). Better than expected re-orientation across adoles- developmental changes in level of education. Develop- or as bad as you thought? cence. The Journal of Neurosci- reinforcement learning. Ce- mental Cognitive Neurosci- The neurocognitive develop- ence. 33 (34), 13581–13582. rebral Cortex, 22, 1247–1255. ence, 2, 78–89. doi:10.1016/j. ment of probabilistic feedback doi:10.1523/ doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr198 dcn.2011.09.007 processing. Frontiers in Neu- JNEUROSCI.2667- roscience, 3: 52. doi:10.3389/ 13.2013 neuro.09.052.2009

Box 9.

older adults. In addition, we have extended memory. Search is integrally associated with the design of the Basel–Berlin Risk Study (see the exploration–exploitation dilemma, that is, Research Area 3: Reckoning With Uncer- the trade-off between searching for additional tainty: Search and Learning) to include a large resources (such as information) and stopping sample of older adults, and we will also test search to exploit the resources already avail- the extent to which age differences generalize able. Cognitive control is a promising candi- across different social and nonsocial domains. date mechanism for the regulation of explora- tion–exploitation trade-offs. Cognitive control Should I Stay or Should I Go? Age refers to the system or class of processes that Differences in Internal and External Search are involved in controlling or managing other Search is ubiquitous in daily life. Not a day cognitive processes, such as maintaining and goes by in which we do not search for con- updating information in working memory or sumer products, online news, or names from focusing attention in the face of interference.

108 | Center for Adaptive Rationality In this vein, cognitive control can be under- Hills, Mata, Wilke, and Samanez-Larkin (2013) Key References stood as the link between traditionally dis- investigated age differences in memory search Helversen, B. von, & parate cognitive domains or abilities, such as (“Name all the animals you can think of”) in Mata, R. (2012). Losing inhibitory function, working memory, and task a group of 185 participants between 29 and a dime with a satisfied mind: Positive affect switching. Crucially, cognitive control has been 99 years of age. Their results suggest that older predicts less search in se- implicated in age differences in how people adults have more difficulty in maintaining quential decision making. deal with exploration–exploitation trade-offs— focus on specific memory cues and therefore Psychology and Aging, 27, 825–839. doi:10.1037/ specifically, in goal maintenance and switching search more dispersedly in memory. More a0027845 (Mata & von Helversen, in press). specifically, their computational modeling sug- Hills, T., & Hertwig, R. gests that older adults are poor at maintaining (2010). Information Age and Search in Memory focus on local cues (similarity) and thus switch search and decisions The cognitive control hypothesis—the idea more often than younger adults between using from experience: Do our patterns of sam- that age differences in cognitive control can global cues (frequency) and local cues (similar- pling foreshadow our impact search and exploration–exploitation ity) to probe memory. The thesis that declining decisions. Psychological decisions—is best supported by work on search cognitive control underlies such differences Science, 21, 1787–1792. doi:10.1177/ in memory. Assuming that memory is patchy received support from Hills et al.’s (2013) 0956797610387443 (clustered), efficient search necessarily balanc- empirical finding that the number of switches Hills, T. T., Mata, R., es the goal of exploring different patches of the between memory cues was correlated with a ­Wilke, A., & Samanez- memory space with the goal of exploiting such measure of cognitive ability, with more switch- Larkin, G. R. (2013). patches. Models of memory search assume that ing being correlated with lower abilities and Mechanisms of age-­ related decline in these goals are pursued, respectively, by relying fewer items recalled (see also Hills & Hertwig, memory search across on global cues, which favor traveling from one 2010). Overall, these results suggest that, as the adult life span. patch to another, and local cues, which favor people age, they tend to change patches too Developmental Psychol- ogy, 49, 2396–2404. moving within a patch. In formal memory frequently, abandoning promising patches doi:10.1037/a0032272 models, this amounts to switching between before having exhausted their full potential. Mata, R., & Helversen, using cues such as frequency (base rate) to find B. von. (in press). Search semantically distant items and using cues such Age and Search in the World and the aging mind: as similarity to find semantically related items Factors other than cognitive control, such Promise and limits of the cognitive control belonging to the same patch. For example, as affect, may also lead to age differences in hypothesis of age differ- when asked to identify tokens of a particular search. General positive affect, for example, ences in search. Topics in category, such as animals, people may start can guide decision making by signaling that Cognitive Science. globally by using the base rate to identify a a satisfactory state has been achieved. Con- common animal, such as DOG, and then using sequently, age differences in positive affect the local cue of similarity to produce a similar can also lead to age differences in search. Von item, such as CAT. Using local cues serves the Helversen and Mata (2012) investigated how goal of exploiting the specific patch (e. g., pets) cognitive ability and affect contribute to age whereas using global cues serves the goal of differences in sequential decision making by exploring the memory space at large. Impor- asking younger and older adults to shop for tantly, it is assumed that maintaining focus on items in a computerized sequential decision- local cues is an effortful process that requires making task. Older adults showed higher cognitive control. Individuals who excel at positive affect and searched less than younger such tasks seem to be able to find the right adults. Moreover, positive affect, but not cog- frequency of switching between patches—that nitive abilities, was correlated with individual is, to abandon the current patch when effort differences in search, suggesting that people would be better invested in exploring the space who were in a better mood terminated search for more promising patches. and made decisions earlier (Figure 21). A The cognitive control hypothesis suggests that further study that manipulated mood likewise aging impacts memory search through the suggested that individuals in a positive mood ability to handle activation and deactivation stopped search earlier. These results are con- of memory retrieval cues and hence to balance sistent with previous findings indicating that the goals of exploration and exploitation. affect can be used as a cue to guide decisions

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 109 Key References 14 7 Coall, D. A., & Hertwig, R. (2010). Grandparental investment: Past, present, 12 6 and future. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 10 1–59. doi:10.1017/ 5 S0140525X09991105 8 Coall, D. A., Hilbrand, S., 4 & Hertwig, R. (in press). 6 Predictors of grand- affect Positive 3 parental investment 4 decisions in contempo- (mean rank) Performance rary Europe: Biological 2 2 Older adults relatedness and beyond. Younger adults PLoS ONE. 0 1 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 Number of options searched Number of options searched

Figure 21. Search, performance, and positive affect. The left panel shows the curvilinear relationship between search and performance in the sequential decision task (lower values indicate higher ranks of the chosen option and thus higher performance) for younger and older adults (younger adults are denoted by orange dots; older adults by green dots); the right panel shows the linear relation between search and positive affect separately for younger and older adults (adapted from von Helversen & Mata, 2012). © MPI for Human Development

about when to stop accumulating information Ageing and Retirement (SHARE). SHARE en- and suggest that, independent of cognitive compasses 11 European countries and 22,967 control abilities, the typically higher levels of grandparent–child dyads. Drawing on this positive affect in older age may contribute to large-scale data set, Coall et al. (in press) were insufficient search and lower performance in the first to show that the biological relation- simple decision tasks. ship between grandparents and grandchildren contributes to variation in grandparental What Predicts Grandparental Investment Decisions in Contemporary Europe? Evidence from traditional societies shows that the presence of a grandparent can be as beneficial to children’s survival as such fun- damental life improvements as the introduc- tion of a safe water supply (Coall & Hertwig, 2010). In industrialized nations, the evidence is mounting that—especially in families with few resources—grandparents can buffer children’s development against the potentially adverse effects of impoverished environments (Figure 22). At the same time, millions of grandparents invest nothing in their grand- children. Why do grandparents invest (or not invest) in their grandchildren? And what fac- tors impact their levels of investment? Coall, Hilbrand, and Hertwig (in press) ana- Figure 22. In contemporary Europe, biological grandpar- lyzed a wide range of biological, economic, ents are more likely than their nonbiological counter- parts to invest heavily in their grandchildren (looking sociological, and psychological predictors of after them on a daily or weekly basis). Paradoxically, grandparental care in contemporary Europe, however, they are also more likely to invest nothing at all. using data collected in the Survey of Health, © iStock.com/bowdenimages

110 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Coming Soon! Does Grandparental Care Influence Cognitive Aging and Mortality? Researchers Most research on grandparental investment has focused on its effects on grandchildren, Sonja Hilbrand but such investment is not a one-way street (see Coall & Hertwig, 2011). Grandparents Ralph Hertwig may reap benefits from their good deeds and from the resulting relationships with their Denis Gerstorf children and grandchildren, and those potential benefits go far beyond inclusive fitness. Ulman ­Lindenberger Some studies suggest that grandparents report significantly greater satisfaction with their contact with their children and grandchildren than parents do with their children. One possibility is that grandparenting is inherently rewarding because it becomes a central “life project” for people later in life. Providing resources to grandchildren may have a measureable impact not only on a person’s life satisfaction but on health as well. In a recent study, Poulin, Brown, Dillard, and Smith (2013) tested the hypothesis that providing help to others (family members and friends) is associated with less stress and lower mortality among the helpers. Specifically, over the 5 years of the study, they found that, when faced with stressful situations, those who had helped others during the previous year were less likely to die than those who had not helped others. While Poulin et al. ’s (2013) study sheds light on the association between stress and mortality, little is known about how helping grown children and grandchildren (grandparental investment) might influence the process of cognitive aging and mortality. Specifically, grandparental care may help delay time-to-death trajectories of change for indicators of cognitive functioning (see Gerstorf, Ram, Lindenberger, & Smith, 2013). In a joint project between ARC, LIP, Sonja Hilbrand (University of Basel, Switzerland), and Denis Gerstorf (Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany), we are currently investigating the effects of caring for grandchildren on cognitive aging. With its rich set of measures, the Berlin Aging Study (BASE) (pp. 233–238) offers a unique opportunity to conduct such a comprehensive analysis of the degree to which grandparental care impacts time-to-death trajectories of late-life developmental change in various domains.

Key References Gerstorf, D., Ram, N., Lindenberger, U., & Poulin, M. J., Brown, S. L., Dillard, A. J., Smith, J. (2013). Age and time-to-death & Smith, D. M. (2013). Giving to others Coall, D. A., & Hertwig, R. (2011). Grandpa- trajectories of change in indicators of and the association between stress and rental investment: A relic of the past or a cognitive, sensory, physical, health, social, mortality. American Journal of Public resource for the future? Current Directions and self-related functions. Developmental Health, 103, 1649–1655. doi:10.2105/ in Psychological Science, 20, 93–98. Psychology, 49, 1805–1821. doi:10.1037/ AJPH.2012.300876 doi:10.1177/0963721411403269 a0031340

Box 10. investment in modern European societies. had fewer children and grandchildren, and had Biological grandparents were more likely than children who were more likely to be employed. nonbiological grandparents to make high At the same time, biological grandparents investments in their grandchildren. Paradoxi- were more likely to have characteristics cally, however, they were also more likely to associated with reduced or no investment: invest nothing at all. Central to understanding They were less healthy and older, and their why biological and nonbiological grandparents children and grandchildren were older as well. invest differentially in their grandchildren are Moreover, biological grandparents were less the dimensions on which they differ. Many likely to have a partner and had more conflicts factors previously found to be linked to in- with their children about how their grand- creased investment were also associated with children were raised. This pattern of differ- being biologically related to grandchildren. ences between biological and nonbiological Specifically, biological grandparents were grandparents can help explain why biological more likely to be female, felt more duty to relatedness is associated with high as well as their family, lived closer to their grandchildren, with no investment in grandchildren.

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 111 Research Area 4: Empowering and Educating the Decision Maker

In his utopian novel, Walden Two, B. F. Skinner (1976) set an ambitious goal for the behavioral sciences, namely, to use their knowledge of human behavior to create environments and in- stitutional structures conducive to the pursuit of human happiness and fulfillment under condi- tions that today would be called “sustainable.” In words that sound eerily prescient, he wrote: “It is now widely recognized that great changes must be made in the American way of life. Not only can we not face the rest of the world while consuming and polluting as we do, we can- not for long face ourselves while acknowledging the violence and chaos in which we live. The choice is clear: either we do nothing and allow a miserable and probably catastrophic future to overtake us, or we use our knowledge about human behavior to create a social environment in which we shall live productive and creative lives and do so without jeopardizing the chances that those who follow us will be able to do the same.” (p. xvi)

Key References As this quote illustrates, in the heyday of their freedom of choice. Specifically, in this Pachur, T., & Bröder, behaviorism, scientists like Skinner were section, we demonstrate how—by address- A. (2013). Judgment: committed to “engineering” environments ing deficits in people’s knowledge, modifying A cognitive process- and institutions to increase the quality and choice environments, and taking advantage ing perspective. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: sustainability of human life. At least part of existing and newly designed fast and frugal Cognitive Science, 4, of that commitment no doubt survived the heuristics and cognitive strategies—laypeople 665–681. doi:10.1002/ demise of behaviorism by migrating into more and experts alike can be empowered to make wcs.1259 applied fields, such as clinical and educational better decisions. Let us begin with laypeople Pachur, T., & Olsson, H. psychology. On a theoretical level, however, and some consequential deficits in health- (2012). Type of learning task impacts perfor- mainstream cognitive psychology, the para- related knowledge. mance and strategy digm that supplanted behaviorism, aban- selection in decision doned the goal of social engineering. Yet re- Which Learning Protocol Empowers Robust making. Cognitive Psy- chology, 65, 207–240. cently, interest in social engineering has been and Accurate Inferences? doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych. rekindled by research on, for example, risk According to Simon’s vision of bounded ratio- 2012.03.003 communication, goal implementation, and nality and the notion of ecological rationality, Rebonato, R. (2012). Tak- what has come to be called “nudging” (Thaler cognitive strategies enable good decisions ing liberties: A critical ex- & Sunstein, 2008). The nudge approach has to the extent that they are adapted to the amination of libertarian paternalism. New York: achieved widespread attention and inspired structure of the environments in which they Palgrave Macmillan. various attempts to redesign public poli- are used. But how do decision makers select Skinner, B. F. (1976/ cies. At the same time, some tenets of the from their repertoire of strategies such that 1948). Walden Two. nudge approach—for instance, the seemingly mind matches environment? (For a review of New York: ­Macmillan. oxymoronic concept of “libertarian pater- research on the “strategy selection” prob- Thaler, R., & Sunstein, C. nalism”—have been sharply criticized (see lem, see Pachur & Bröder, 2013.) As Pachur (2008). Nudge: Improving Rebonato, 2012). Although we consider some and Olsson (2012) discovered, the learn- decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. of the tools used in the nudge approach (e. g., ing protocol under which the probabilistic New Haven, CT: Yale defaults) to be useful, we do not share its un- structure of an environment is experienced University Press. derlying philosophical convictions, according plays an important role in strategy selection. to which individuals make consistently poor Two frequently used learning protocols were choices because they suffer from “decisional compared. In the direct-criterion-learning irrationality” (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008, p. 5) protocol (Figure 23a, upper part), partici- and that choice architects—policy makers and pants were trained on individual objects and other supposedly benevolent authorities— received feedback on the objects’ absolute must exploit this decisional irrationality to criterion value. In the learning-by-comparison nudge behavior in a different direction. protocol (Figure 23a, lower part), participants In our view, there is a way to guide behavior were trained on pairs of objects and received toward better outcomes that pose less (or feedback on which of the two had the higher no) risk of manipulating people or restricting criterion value (but no information about

112 | Center for Adaptive Rationality (a) (b) Direct criterion learning Classification 1.0 Is the bug deadly (i. e., toxicity > 0.5)? Bug Back Green 0.8 Spot Round Gland Large Abdomen White Accuracy 0.6 Toxicity: 0.4 Learning by comparison Bug is NOT deadly Direct criterion learning 0.4 Old items New items Learning by comparison

Which bug has a higher toxicity?

Bug A Bug B Back Green Green Spot Round Wedge Gland Large Large Abdomen White Yellow

Figure 23. (a) The two learning protocols used in Pachur and Olsson (2012). In the direct-criterion-learning protocol, one object is presented in isolation, and the learner receives feedback on the object’s absolute criterion value. In the learning-by-comparison protocol, two objects are presented, and the learner receives feedback on which object has the higher criterion value, without receiving any feedback on the objects’ absolute criterion values. The feedback offered in the two learning protocols is shown in the dotted rectangles. (b) Performance in a classification task was considerably more robust after learning by comparison than after direct criterion learning (error bars represent ±1 standard error of the mean). The performance of participants in the latter learning proto- col dropped considerably when they judged new items (i. e., those not encountered during training) relative to old items (i. e., those encountered during training). By contrast, the performance of participants in the learning-by- comparison condition did not differ between old and new items (adapted from Pachur & Olsson, 2012). © MPI for Human Development their absolute values). After direct criterion designing learning environments that offer learning, people were more likely to make comparative—that is, less—rather than abso- inferences about an object by comparing it lute—that is, more—information. Specifically, with previously encountered objects (i. e., giving the decision maker the opportunity to exemplar-based processing); after learning compare objects during learning appears to by comparison, in contrast, they were more foster inferential competence that transfers likely to make inferences based on cues. That more easily to a new context. is, in the latter learning protocol, people This discovery about fostering learning abstracted cues and cue weights. One possible environments has powerful implications for reason is that the abstraction of cue weights training across a wide range of professional for individual cues is cognitively easier when domains (e. g., medicine, law enforcement), two objects are presented together than when for educational settings, and for attenuating each object is shown in isolation. the effects of cognitive aging. Importantly, the differences in strategy selec- tion between the two types of learning tasks Do People Recognize the Symptoms of also impacted decision accuracy. Performance Heart Attack and Stroke? in a classification task was considerably more Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause robust after training in the learning-by-com- of death and a significant cause of chronic parison than in the direct-criterion-learning disability in Europe. To be most effective, protocol. These results suggest a promis- medical interventions must be performed ing avenue for improving decision making: within a few hours of a heart attack or stroke.

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 113 Key Reference Rapid access to treatment is thus crucial to one in five respondents did not recognize a Mata, J., Frank, R., & reducing rates of death and chronic disabil- single stroke symptom. Moreover, respon- Gigerenzer, G. (in press). ity. Citizens should ideally be able to both dents diagnosed with high blood pressure or Symptom recognition of recognize the symptoms of a heart attack and obesity—two key risk factors for heart attack heart attack and stroke in nine European countries: stroke and know how to respond. To what and stroke—knew no more about stroke warn- A representative study. extent do laypeople have these competen- ing signs or how to respond to strokes than Health Expectations. cies? To find out, Mata, Frank, and Gigerenzer others. Advance online publica- tion. doi:10.1111/j.1369- (in press) conducted a representative survey in Germans and Austrians were “top of the 7625.2011.00764.x nine European countries. The goal was to test class,” on average recognizing the highest people’s ability to recognize symptoms of a numbers of symptoms: about 3 of 6 for a heart attack and stroke. In addition, respon- heart attack and about 5 of 14 for a stroke dents were asked what they would do if they (Table 1). Respondents in Italy, Poland, ­Russia, witnessed someone with suddenly impaired and Spain knew only about half as many vision, speech problems, numbness, or one- symptoms. But did the Germans and Austrians sided weakness—all typical symptoms of a also know what to do if they saw someone stroke. Data were collected from more than with symptoms typical of a stroke? Only 10,000 residents in Austria, France, Germany, one-third of them said they would immedi- Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Spain, ately call an ambulance, the option with the and the United Kingdom. highest chance of ensuring effective, timely The majority of respondents recognized only treatment. In contrast, two thirds of the few of the symptoms of a heart attack or participants in Russia and Poland—and half stroke. Of six established warning signs of a of the total sample, on average—said they heart attack, chest pain was the only symp- would call an ambulance. Rather than calling tom recognized by most participants (80 %), an ambulance, 28 % of Germans and 30 % of while 8 % did not recognize any heart attack Austrians would suggest that the hypothetical symptoms. Ignorance of stroke symptoms was individual suffering stroke symptoms sip tea even greater. Of 14 warning signs of a stroke, or water or go to bed and wait. slurred speech, paralysis, and a lopsided face In sum, the majority of respondents in nine were recognized most often, but none of them European countries recognized few symptoms by more than 44 % of participants. Almost of a heart attack or stroke, and many did not

Table 1 Recognizing Heart Attack and Stroke Symptoms and Reacting Appropriately

Average over nine Euro- pean United coun- Nether- King- tries Austria France Germany Italy lands Poland Russia Spain dom

Mean number of correctly recognized heart 2.3 2.9 2.3 3.2 1.9 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.9 ­attack symptoms (out of 6 possible) Mean number of correctly recognized stroke 3.3 4.9 4.2 5.0 2.0 3.7 2.6 2.6 2.1 4.2 symptoms (out of 14 possible) Percentage of participants who would call an 51% 34% 43% 33% 49% 41% 66% 64% 42% 58% ambulance if they saw a person with stroke symptoms (i. e., a person suffering from sudden impaired vision, speech problems, numbness, or one-sided weakness; respondents were not told that these symptoms are typical of a stroke)

Note. Highest mean or percentage per line is emphasized in orange (adapted from Mata et al., in press).

114 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Coming Soon! From Attributions of Responsibility to Public Policies Researchers Excessive weight and obesity reduce life expectancy and increase the number of end-of- Jutta Mata life years with compromised health and quality of life. Policy makers, scientists, and many Ralph Hertwig citizens worldwide agree that the global obesity epidemic requires a forceful response. There is less agreement, however, about the form this response should take. Public-health specialists largely blame changes in the environment for the stark rise in obesity over recent decades; consequently, they propose policies at the environmental or societal level to address the obesity epidemic (e. g., higher taxes on obesity-related products such as sugary drinks, better nutrition labeling, bans on vending machines in public places, etc.). It is much less clear what citizens think about the causes of obesity and what prevention measures they consider to be effective and are willing to endorse (e. g., higher taxes on high-calorie foods have often been opposed by the public). To gain a better understanding of lay beliefs about obesity, Mata and Hertwig surveyed a representative sample of Germans, investigating their views on the role of causes of obe- sity, approaches to its treatment, and effectiveness of prevention measures. Lay beliefs about obesity in Germany proved to be most closely aligned with those about alcoholism and tobacco dependence. In contrast to experts, who generally blame environ- mental factors for obesity, the lay respondents in this survey attributed obesity largely to the individual. Depression showed a contrasting pattern of results (Figure 24). The attribution of responsibility for health problems to individuals has consequences for the public’s views on policy. For example, respondents tended to support individual-level treatment of obesity (more strongly than, e. g., changes to the environment). Moreover, the more responsibility for a given health problem they attributed to the individual, the more likely they were to expect people to pay for their treatment for that problem themselves.

100

80

60

40

20 Attribution of responsibility

0 Obesity Alcohol Tobacco Depression

Figure 24. A representative sample of 973 Germans aged 14 years and older indicated to what extent indi- viduals with obesity are responsible for their own weight; 0 = not responsible at all, 100 = fully responsible. Parallel questions were asked for alcoholism, tobacco dependence, and depression. Alcohol = alcoholism, tobacco = tobacco dependence. The plot widths represent the density of the distributions. The horizontal lines represent the mean judgments. © MPI for Human Development

Box 11.

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 115 Key Reference know how to respond in case of symptoms. education a mandatory part of the school Gigerenzer, G., Mata, J., The discrepancy between symptom knowl- curriculum. & Frank, R. (2009). Public edge and knowledge of how to respond was knowledge of benefits of especially large in Germany and Austria. The How Simple Rules Guide Food Choices breast and prostate can- cer screening in Europe. generally low level of knowledge documented The stock trader Ivan Frederick Boesky from Journal of the National in this representative survey seems likely to the United States is known not only for Cancer Institute, 101, lead to delays in treatment, contributing to being the person who inspired the fictional 1216–1220. doi:10.1093/ jnci/djp237 Europe’s high rates of mortality and morbidity character Gordon Gekko in the movie Wall from a heart attack and stroke. These findings Street, but also for his eccentric food choices. add to a growing body of research showing At a lunch meeting in the Café des Artistes, a that health-related knowledge in Europe is high-end restaurant in Manhattan, Boesky is so lacking that it may well lead to delayed or said to have ordered all eight main dishes on no treatment, wrong interpretation of test the menu. When the food arrived, Boesky took results, and potentially harmful overtreat- one bite of each dish, chose one, and sent the ment (Gigerenzer, Mata, & Frank, 2009). This rest back. Unlike Wall Street tycoons, most research challenges health-care professionals consumers cannot afford to sample all the to conceive ways of conveying such important available options before deciding what to eat. knowledge to everyone. One approach is to Instead, they use information available in the go beyond unsystematic news coverage and environment (restaurant menus, packaging public health campaigns and make health labels) to make food choices.

(a) (b)

Dish name Name Veal meatball Duck breast

Picture Picture

Price 7.20 CHF 8.80 CHF Price

Calories 680 kcal 1,020 kcal Calories

Protein 27 g 43 g Protein

Fat 25 g 50 g Fat

Carbohydrates 67 g 98 g Carbohydrates

Cholesterol 10 mg 318 mg Cholesterol

Salt 1,205 mg 90 mg Salt

Choose this dish Choose this dish

1 Sec. 1 Transition 1 Click

Figure 25. How can the information search process in a food choice task be studied and visualized? (a) The names of the options were displayed in a matrix, along with a picture of, the price of, and several pieces of nutritional information about each one. These boxes were covered. Participants could look up information by moving the mouse over a cell (e. g., calories in the duck breast), which then opened. It closed again as soon as the participant started inspecting other cells. After finishing gathering information, the participant made a choice by clicking on one of the buttons at the bottom of the matrix. (b) Attention plot visualizing the search process by integrating three types of information: The width of each cell corresponds to the average number of cell openings; the height of each cell corresponds to the average length of cell openings; the arrows correspond to the average number of transitions between cells (adapted from Schulte-Mecklenbeck et al., 2013). © MPI for Human Development

116 | Center for Adaptive Rationality How is the information from these sources be designed to foster good consumer deci- Key References utilized? A common view in the food choice sions (see Box 12)? Frey, R., Hertwig, R., & domain is that consumers first examine all Herzog, S. M. (in press). the available information and then integrate Fostering Surrogate Decisions Surrogate decision making: Do we have to it for each option (dishes, products) before Some medical conditions can rob people of trade off accuracy and choosing the option with the highest overall the ability to participate in decisions about procedural satisfaction? value. Skeptical of this account, Schulte- their own treatment. In the United States, Medical Decision Making. Advance online publica- Mecklenbeck, Sohn, de Bellis, Martin, and for instance, as many as 15,000 patients tion. doi:10.1177/ Hertwig (2013) ran an experiment designed who live in a persistent vegetative state and 0272989X12471729 to detect the use of a broad range of strate- another 100,000 who are minimally conscious Schulte-Mecklenbeck, gies that either look up and weight all the cannot express their preferences in the event M., Sohn, M., De Bellis, available information (e. g., weighted additive of life-threatening medical complications. E., Martin, N., & Hertwig, R. (2013). A lack of rule) about food options or pick one attribute Under such circumstances, other people have appetite for information of the options and base the choice on that the difficult task of making decisions on the and computation: Simple piece of information (e. g., lexicographic rule). patients’ behalf. The task of “surrogate” deci- heuristics in food choice. Appetite, 71, 242–251. Particular attention was paid to the process sion makers is to infer incapacitated patients’ doi:10.1016/j.appet.2013. by which people arrived at their choices. Par- preferences accurately, thus preserving their 08.008 ticipants decided between two lunch dishes right to autonomy and control. Several ap- at a time (see Figure 25a). The dishes were proaches to making surrogate decisions have sampled from an actual canteen. Participants been proposed, and many countries have were able to look up information about the adopted laws detailing how surrogate deci- dishes on nine attributes commonly provided sion making should proceed. Do these laws lay on food packages or restaurant menus (name, out decision protocols that yield high-quality picture, price, calories, protein, fat, carbo- surrogate decisions? hydrates, cholesterol, and sodium content). In the surrogate context, decision quality This search process was recorded using varies on at least two dimensions: proce- Mouselab, a process-tracing tool, and choices dural satisfaction and accuracy. Procedural were assigned to strategies based on (1) how satisfaction refers to the perceived fairness information was acquired (either within or of the decision procedures, independent of between options), (2) the completeness of in- a decision’s consequences. Accuracy refers formation acquisition, and (3) the (extracted) to the proportion of surrogate decisions that weights of the nine attributes. are in line with the patient’s actual prefer- The strategy classification showed that ences, which in the case of incapacitated only 27 % of participants looked up all the people are—by definition—unknowable. The available information. In contrast, 69 % of most direct way to assess accuracy is to elicit participants used simple strategies based people’s decisions in hypothetical scenarios on limited information search, completing similar to those described in living wills and the task in less than half the time taken by to have surrogates independently infer these those who searched exhaustively. Figure 25b decisions. combines all the process data collected To find out whether current laws specify within an attention plot. Participants com- decision protocols that facilitate procedural pared the dishes’ names, pictures, and prices satisfaction and accuracy, Frey, Hertwig, and within and between options, but switched to Herzog (in press) investigated (1) how people between-option comparison once the focus would prefer surrogate decisions to be made moved to nutritional information values. This if they were to become incapacitated or a pattern is consistent with the use of simple surrogate, respectively; (2) how accurate rules that rely on attribute-wise compari- different ways of making a surrogate deci- sons between dishes. These findings suggest sion are in predicting patients’ preferences; that people make food choices using simple and (3) whether procedural satisfaction and heuristics that ignore much of the available accuracy are compatible goals or require information. If so, how can food labels best trade-offs. First, procedural satisfaction was

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 117 Researchers Coming Soon! Frugal and Ecologically Smart Food Labels Based on our finding that consumers rely on little information when making food choices, Michael Schulte- we are now investigating food package labels as a key decision aid. Food labels play a vital Mecklenbeck role in informing consumers quickly and accurately about a food’s healthiness and nutri- Jutta Mata tional characteristics. This is particularly important in making choices between processed Ralph Hertwig foods such as cereals and yoghurts, where products within the same food category can range from very nutritious to extremely low in nutritional value.

Mediator: Food label PER SERVING 450 5g 360mg 14g 500mg 3g Calories Sat Fat Sodium Sugars Potassium Fiber 25% DV 15% DV 14% DV 12% DV

Surrogate correlation

Ecological correlation

Criterion: Healthiness Judgment

Knowledge validity

Figure 26. What is the correspondence between a food product’s ingredients and consumers’ judgments of its healthiness? Healthiness is often a decisive factor in food choice. A consumer can judge the healthiness of a product via either of two paths: by direct knowledge of the criterion (that is, knowing that a product is healthy or not) or by consulting product information, usually found on the food label. Food labels can thus serve as a mediator between the products to be judged and the person making the judgment. © Photos: iStock.com/fotofrog, MPI for Human Development, iStock.com/ValuaVitaly

To evaluate how healthy a product is (a question of major concern for many), consum- ers without direct knowledge of the product’s healthiness must rely on cue information, usually presented on the nutrition label (Figure 26). In probabilistic environments, cues are sometimes highly intercorrelated. This project examines the extent to which such intercorrelations exist in the food environment—and whether it might be possible to take advantage of them in communications of nutritional information by giving priority to the best predictors of a product’s healthiness and thus reducing the amount of information that must be presented (vicarious functioning). To determine the extent to which nutri- ents are correlated, we have analyzed food label information on a wide range of products in German supermarkets belonging to two product groups: cereals (N = 97) and yoghurts (N = 246). Nutrients showing particularly high correlations with each other are identified as having high information redundancy; that is, knowing the value of one nutrient informs the consumer about the value of the other. For example, the correlation between fat and saturated fat in yoghurts is .97. Such redundancies offer a starting point for designing more frugal and ecologically smart food labels. The second step in this project will be to investigate the extent to which consumers are aware of such redundancies and make spontaneous use of them (or can be taught to make use of them) in applying simple heuris- tics to food choice.

Box 12.

118 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Procedural satisfaction High Patients (n = 331) Surrogates (n = 287) Preference (rank)

Low Patient- Family Family Physician Legally Statistical designated (discussion) (voting) assigned prediction surrogate surrogate rule

Figure 27. In a mixed-age online sample, participants were asked to assume the role of either a surrogate or a patient. They then ranked their preferences for different approaches to making surrogate decisions: having the decision made by a person previously designated by the patient; jointly by the whole family by finding a consen- sus through discussion; jointly by the whole family through independent and anonymous voting; by the attending physician; by a family member assigned to the role of surrogate through a legally specified hierarchy; by a sta- tistical prediction rule that takes into account the preferences of similar patients. Error bars show bootstrapped 95 % confidence intervals of mean ranks (adapted from Frey et al., in press). © MPI for Human Development investigated by assigning participants to the patient and asked to imagine being in differ- role of a hypothetical surrogate or patient. ent health states. She then privately indicated The findings showed that participants in whether or not she would want to be treated both roles had closely aligned preferences for various potentially life-threatening medi- about the way surrogate decisions should be cal complications and whom she wants as made (Figure 27): Procedural satisfaction was her designated surrogate. The other family highest with a patient-designated surrogate, members, acting as surrogates, inferred this followed by shared surrogate decision-making person’s preferences. The results showed that, approaches (with family members finding a leaving the decision to a patient-designated consensus through discussion or, if no con- surrogate, the approach previously found to sensus can be found, by voting). The least pre- be preferred, correctly predicted 68 % of the ferred options were to delegate the decision patients’ treatment preferences. The second to a physician, to appoint a legal surrogate and third most preferred procedures—having according to a nearest-relative hierarchy, and family members reach a shared surrogate de- to rely on a statistical prediction rule. No cur- cision through discussion or voting—achieved rent legal decision architecture is in line with 71 % and 72 % accuracy, respectively. The the order of preferences empirically observed default legal surrogates were 70 % accurate. in this study. Thus, the various approaches to surrogate What would implementation of these prefer- decision making did not differ substantially ences mean for inferential accuracy? A study with respect to accuracy. However, a more of 64 families in Switzerland gauged the pro- fine-grained signal detection analysis re- portion of correct predictions made through vealed that, in those medical scenarios where each of the decision procedures (except there was no clear majority preference (for delegating the decision to a physician or a treatment or no treatment), only the shared statistical prediction rule). In each family, one decision-making approaches showed better- person was randomly assigned to the role of than-chance discriminatory performance, and

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 119 Key References only the family-voting approach had a neutral to a specialist. The tree was developed and Hertwig, R., Meier, N., decision criterion (the others had a bias tested based on data from a large epide- Nickel, C., Zimmermann, toward treatment). miological study of 1,382 randomly selected P.-C., Ackermann, S., These findings indicate that people prefer a women from Dresden (Germany) aged 18 to Woike, J. K., & Bingisser, R. (2013). Correlates of shared approach to making surrogate deci- 25 years. The tree’s ability to detect depressed diagnostic accuracy in sions in the absence of a patient-designated mood was compared with that of a naïve patients with nonspe- surrogate and that implementing such shared, maximization model and two compensatory cific complaints.Medical Decision Making, 33, collective decision making would not com- models (Figure 28b). Specifically, the tree and 533–543. doi:10.1177 promise accuracy. Therefore, shared surrogate the two compensatory models were fitted /0272989X12470975 decision making promises high procedural to the BDI score of the sample and cross- Jenny, M. A., Pachur, satisfaction without sacrificing accuracy. validated on the BDI score approximately T., Williams, L., Becker, 18 months later. Although the fast and frugal E., & Margraf, J. (2013). Simple rules for detect- How General Practitioners Can Benefit tree inspected only approximately one cue, on ing depression. Journal From Simple Decision Trees average, it outperformed the naïve maximi- of Applied Research in One of the key challenges that medical diag- zation model and performed comparably to Memory and Cognition, 2, 149–157. doi:10.1016/j. nosticians face is how to separate the wheat both compensatory models. Simple decision jarmac.2013.06.001 from the chaff, or how to identify relevant tools have previously received relatively little Nemec, M., Koller, M. T., information amid what is often an abun- attention in mental health settings. As this Nickel, C. H., Maile, dance of symptoms, test results, and aspects analysis demonstrates, however, they offer a S., Winterhalder, C., of a patient’s history. Their next challenge is competitive and easily administered alterna- Karrer C., et al. (2010). Patients presenting to how to integrate this winnowed-down set of tive to computationally and informationally the emergency depart- information. One important aid to diagnostic demanding models in the everyday practice of ment with non-specific data selection and integration is a fast and general practitioners. complaints: The Basel Non-specific Com- frugal decision tree. Because of their simplic- plaints (BANC) study. ity and transparency, decision trees are more Navigating the Quagmire of Nonspecific Academic Emergency likely to be integrated into diagnosticians’ Symptoms Medicine, 17, 284–292. doi:10.1111/j.1553- daily practice than, for instance, expert Patients presenting to emergency depart- 2712.2009.00658.x systems. ments (ED) with nonspecific complaints, Depressive disorders are among the most such as weakness, fatigue, or dizziness, pose prevalent psychiatric disorders and have a particular challenge to the diagnostic huge personal, familial, and societal costs. decision-making process. General weakness, More than 80 % of people with a history of for example, is associated with hundreds of major depressive disorder have more than one diagnoses, some of them life-threatening. Not episode of depression. Early detection and surprisingly, the misdiagnosis rate in cases treatment—which may help prevent potential involving nonspecific complaints is higher future episodes—is therefore vital. Individu- than in cases with specific symptoms, such as als experiencing symptoms of depression chest pain (see Nemec et al., 2010): According often first consult their general practitioner. to the Basel Non-specific Complaints (BANC) Because most general practitioners are not study, the misdiagnosis rate for such patients specialized in detecting depression, Jenny, is five times higher than the overall misdiag- Pachur, Williams, Becker, and Margraf (2013) nosis rate of 10 %. sought to develop a simple screening tool that What helps or hinders accurate diagnosis of could help improve early detection rates. nonspecific complaints? Hertwig et al. (2013) The 21-question Beck Depression Inventory had Swiss ED physicians, internists, and fam- (BDI), a standard instrument used to screen ily practitioners diagnose seven real patient for depressed mood, was simplified into a histories: six involving nonspecific symptoms decision tree consisting of four binary (yes (see Box 13: A Patient History Involving Non- vs. no) questions (Figure 28a). If a patient specific Symptoms, for an example). Respon- answered all four questions in the affirma- dents indicated the three most likely diag- tive, she would be considered to be in a noses for each history and which cue(s) they clinically depressed mood state and referred considered crucial in reaching the diagnosis.

120 | Center for Adaptive Rationality (a)

Have you cried more than usual within the No No clinically last week? depressed mood Yes (b) Have you been disap- 4 pointed in yourself or No clinically No hated yourself within depressed mood the last week? 3 Yes

2 Have you felt discouraged No clinically about the future within No d’ FFT depressed mood the last week? 1 LR Yes UW NM 0 Have you felt that you No clinically failed in your life within No depressed mood the last week? –1 Fitting Cross-validation Yes

Clinically depressed mood

Figure 28. (a) Fast and frugal decision tree to screen for depressed mood. Questions are asked in the order given. A respondent who gives four affirmative answers is identified as having clinically depressed mood; if at least one question is answered in the negative, the respondent is not considered to be in a clinically depressed mood. The decision tree’s frugality arises from the small number of questions and the fact that the interview can be termi- nated as soon as a respondent answers a question in the negative. (b) Detecting depressed mood by means of a simple lexicographic and noncompensatory fast and frugal tree (FFT), a simple compensatory unit-weight model (UW), a complex compensatory logistic regression (LR), and a naïve maximization model (NM), which assumes that nobody is depressed. The screening methods were compared in their ability to discriminate (d’) between depressed and nondepressed women according to signal detection theory. The FFT, UW, and LR were fit to a first data set and cross-validated on a second data set (collected 18 months later). Error bars indicate ­Bayesian 95 % highest density intervals. Despite their simplicity, the FFT and UW performed comparably to the LR. Note that the noncompensatory FFT considers less information than the compensatory UW, which by definition considers all available information (adapted from Jenny et al. (2013). © MPI for Human Development

This first study of diagnostic accuracy in cases ties of patient histories proved to be associ- involving nonspecific symptoms demonstrat- ated with accuracy: cue consensus and cue ed that such cases are not invariably unsolv- substitutability. The more physicians agreed able, though some are. Figure 29 shows two on which cues (symptoms) were crucial (i. e., measures of accuracy. Across histories, the had high cue consensus), the more likely the percentage of correct diagnoses ranged from problem was to be correctly diagnosed. Cue 14 % to 64 %, with an average of 34 %; the substitutability denotes the extent to which percentage of correct differential diagnoses a patient history allows diagnosticians to (where the correct diagnosis was listed among rely on cues other than the diagnostic ones the three mostly likely diagnoses) ranged from (determined by experts) and still arrive at the 29 % to 87 %, with an average of 53 %. correct diagnosis. Cue substitutability was In an analysis of the probabilistic nature highly correlated with diagnostic accuracy. of diagnostic inference in the context of For instance, in the patient history that nonspecific symptoms, two structural proper- was most often diagnosed correctly (64 %;

Center for Adaptive Rationality | 121 A Patient History Involving Nonspecific Symptoms A 78-year-old male patient was brought to the emergency department by ambulance, referred by his general practitioner. Starting the previous weekend, the patient noticed an increasing weakness in his legs. Also frequent hiccups. Lives at home with his wife, who is in Germany at present, and with a female caretaker. Intake of medication this morning not certain. No pains. History of cough last weekend, but not right now. No expectoration. Final diagnosis: Pneumonia

Box 13.

urinary tract infection), four of the total of cific complaints. For instance, to what extent five cues (symptoms) had positive validity; might admitting physicians be able to rely, that is, most cues in this history represented under time pressure, on their first clinical interchangeable paths to the correct diagno- impression of a patient’s health state to make sis. Even if no diagnostic cue was identified, a rapid disposition decision to ambulatory accuracy was nevertheless nearly 40 %. In care? A total of 1,278 adult patients admit- contrast, the most difficult problem (14 %; ted to the EDs of two Swiss hospitals with congestive heart failure 2) required identify- nonspecific complaints were analyzed. Initial ing a single diagnostic cue among six cues, results suggest that both mortality and acute and the performance of physicians who failed morbidity are highly predictable on the basis to identify this cue was dismal. of first clinical impressions combined with In addition to analyzing the structural proper- two simple cues (sex and age). If this finding ties of case histories, we have investigated proves robust, it could be of great practical other ways of empowering ED physicians to value in diagnosis and treatment—especially deal effectively with patients with nonspe- in emergencies.

100

90 Correct diagnosis Correct differential diagnosis 80

70

60

50

40

30

20 Correct (differential) diagnosis (in %)

10

0 UTI CHF 1 PNEU FRAIL VINTOX CHF 2 Case histories

Figure 29. Number of correct diagnoses (i. e., correct diagnosis was listed as the most likely) and correct differen- tial diagnoses (correct diagnosis was listed among the three most-likely diagnoses) per patient history, averaged across physicians (UTI = urinary tract infection, CHF 1/2 = congestive heart failure 1 and 2, PNEU = pneumonia, FRAIL = frailty, VINTOX = valium intoxication) (adapted from Hertwig et al., 2013). © MPI for Human Development

122 | Center for Adaptive Rationality Publications 2011–2013 (last update: January 2014)

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Center for Adaptive Rationality | 127

Center for the History of Emotions The Center for the History of Emotions

The Center for the History of Emotions (HoE) (Director: Ute Frevert), which opened in 2008, examines emotions as a major feature of human development both in an ontogenetic and phylogenetic sense. The research rests on the assump- tion that emotions—feelings and their expressions—are shaped by culture and learned in social contexts through social practices. Since these contexts and practices change in space and time, emotions are held to be historically variable. In order to detect and explore this variability, the Center’s scope includes different societies within and outside Europe. Spe- cial attention is paid to institutions that bear a strong impact on human behavior and development, such as the family, school, law, religion, the economy, the military, and the state, as they have developed since the (early) modern period.

Research Team 2011–2013

Juliane Brauer, Pascal Eitler, Dagmar Ellerbrock, Ute Frevert, Benno Gammerl, Bettina Hitzer, Uffa ­Jensen, Anja ­Laukötter, Margrit Pernau, Jan Plamper (as of 09/2012: Goldsmiths University of London, UK), Monique Scheer (as of 10/2011: University of Tübingen, Germany), Anne Schmidt

Postdoctoral Fellows Magdalena Beljan, Philippe Bongrand (as of 09/2011: Université de Cergy-Pontoise, France), Daniel Brückenhaus (as of 8/2012: Beloit College, Wisconsin, USA), Merih Erol (as of 02/2011: Princeton University, USA), Joachim C. Häberlen (as of 09/2013: University of Warwick, Coventry, UK), Mana Kia (as of 07/2013: Columbia University, New York, USA), Laura Kounine, Philipp Nielsen, Stephanie Olsen, Yuthika Sharma (as of 09/2013: Goethe University Frankfurt a. M., Germany), Gian Marco Vidor, Claudia Wassmann (as of 06/2013: University of Navarra, Spain)

Predoctoral Fellows Moritz Buchner, Sabine Donauer (as of 12/2013: Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Bonn, Germany), Monika ­Freier (as of 04/2013: IMPRS Moral Economies), Joseph Ben Prestel, Imke Rajamani, ­Mohammad Sajjad (as of 04/2013: Presidency University, Kolkata, India), Maritta Schleyer (as of 10/2013: University of Bonn, Germany)

Adjunct Researcher Rob Boddice (Freie Universität Berlin, Germany)

Visiting Researchers Fernanda Alfieri (Fondazione Bruno Kessler-Istituto Storico Italo-Germanico, Trento, Italy), Jack Barbalet (Hong Kong Baptist University, China), Clare Bielby (University of Hull, UK), Marta Gil Blasco (University of Valencia, Spain), Christa Ehrmann-Hämmerle (University of Vienna, Austria), Helena Flam (Leipzig University, Germany), Fabiene Gama (Institut Interdisciplinaire d’Anthropologie du Contemporain, Paris, France), Eva Giloi (Rutgers University, Newark, USA), Deborah Gould (University of California, Santa Cruz, USA), Ursula von Keitz (University of Bonn, Germany), Julia Moses (Univer- sity of Sheffield, UK), Sophie Anne Oliver (University of Konstanz, Germany), Tine van Osselaer (University of Leuven [KU Leuven], Belgium), Daniela Saxer (University of Zurich, Switzerland), Mark Seymour (University of Otago, New Zealand), Karen Asta Arnfred Vallgarda (University of Copenhagen, Denmark), Helen Watanabe-O´Kelly (University of Oxford, UK)

130 | Center for the History of Emotions Sensation is crucial … Kazimir Malevich, The World as Non-Objectivity (First Edition Munich, 1927, p. 65)

Sensations and emotions, as the Russian artist Kazimir Malevich ac- knowledged, are crucial in a variety of ways: They are as crucial for the painter in guiding his brush as they are for the viewer in making sense of and appreciating a work of art. But they are also crucial in a wider sense, as Malevich’s Three Female Figures suggests. The women’s faces are blank and lack any sign of emotion. They resemble hollow shapes that need to be filled in order to be rendered human. Figure 1. K. Malevich (ca. 1930). Three Female Figures. © akg-images, Berlin Introductory Overview

We chose Malevich’s painting as the Center’s signet because it invites us to think about human emotions from a social and historical perspective. As much as emotions can be seen as es- sential markers of human beings, they are part of a social world that is in constant flux. When Malevich painted the Three Female Figures, he had been witness to the Soviets’ ambitious and violent education experiments. New citizens were to be created with new feelings inscribed into human faces and bodies. But the will to produce and instrumentalize emotions does not apply exclusively to totalitarian regimes. Liberal and democratic societies have also attempted to shape individual and collective emotions. Feeling rules exist in any given society, and they deeply influence what and how people feel.

Conceptual Orientation: Feeling Rules and differ according to gender, age, social class, Key Reference the Experience of Emotions ethnic background, religion, and sexual ori- Frevert, U. (2011b). Emo- To unearth these rules means to investigate a entation. What is perceived as hegemonic is tions in history—Lost and great number of social practices and contexts. open to debate, criticism, and change. Faced found. Budapest: Central European University In modern and dynamic societies, rules for with numerous and potentially contradictory Press. feeling are generally not given from above, on feeling rules in different institutions, people a large-scale or societal level, or in a dictato- figure out how best to navigate them and rial manner. Rather, they are an integral part assess their importance for their own lives of institutional arrangements and environ- and individual development. As members of ments that come to bear heavily on people’s social groups and institutions, they are not mental and emotional maps. Feeling rules are passive recipients and objects, but rather taught and learned in the family, in personal active participants in creating, upholding, or friendships, at school, in peer groups, in the dismantling these rules through day-to-day army, at the workplace, at church, and in poli- social practices. tics. They can be acquired by reading poems Stressing the social embeddedness of feeling and novels, by listening to music and attend- rules means shedding light on their historicity. ing concerts, by watching a drama on stage, Change largely occurs through institutional or by going to the movies. More bluntly still, rearrangements. Once an institution loses its they are exposed in advice manuals, which power (we can take the army as an example), saw an extraordinary proliferation during the its feeling rules become less defining and bind- 19th and 20th centuries. ing within society at large. When families turn Feeling rules, again, should not be mixed up into intimate emotional spaces explicitly nur- with unequivocally and authoritatively stated turing feelings of mutual trust, empathy, and norms, prescriptions, and demands. They love, as it happened in the 19th century, this are constantly negotiated, questioned, and shift has repercussions on other institutions contested. Within a given society, they may as well, like school and friendship. Placing a

Center for the History of Emotions | 131 strong and positive emphasis on sensibility, as Research Areas bourgeois cultures in Europe did around 1800 Historicizing emotions as a central feature or 1900, in turn affected scientific research on of human development both in ontogenetic emotions as it progressed from the late 18th and phylogenetic terms requires a threefold and gathered speed from the late 19th century. perspective as represented in the following Scientific approaches to emotion (and emotion research areas: regulation) were in high demand by industrial • Education and Cultivation of Emotions. companies that tried to enhance workers’ per- Here, research focuses on historical at- formance during the 20th century. “Emotional tempts to form emotions in and through intelligence,” a concept hyped since the 1990s, various institutional settings. They include has its roots in the “psychophysics” of work advice literature in the Indian context, developed during the late 19th and early 20th Persian love lyrics, and medical films, as centuries. much as character-building practices in Exploring these closely interconnected the classroom, collective singing in schools historical processes allows us to link feeling and youth clubs, or the various initiatives to rules to the dynamic structure of modern (and “civilize” emotions in colonial encounters. modernizing) societies. But what does it tell • Emotions and the Body. Projects in this Figure 2. Engravings us about feelings “as such”? If emotions are research area concentrate on how emo- (details) by Daniel Chodowiecki, illustrat- supposed to have a physiological and neuro- tions are and become embodied through ing the Center’s three nal basis, we might conclude that this basis practices such as anti-AIDS activism, love Research Areas. is set and fixed in the human body and its for animals, religious enactments, grieving, Source. Kupfersamm­ systemic make up. Does this not imply then, or confrontation with illness and death. lung zu J. B. Basedows that shame, happiness, grief, etc. must always • Emotions and Power. Power and power Elementarwerke für die Jugend und ihre Freunde, feel the same, regardless of time, space, and differentials are seen as crucial when feel- Berlin/Dessau, 1774, culture? ing rules and emotional experiences are Tab. V, XXIV, and XXXIV./ The answer to this question is twofold: While concerned. This takes place in urban spaces SUB Göttingen. we agree with colleagues from the natural that can be regarded as experimental and life sciences that emotions are felt and grounds for shaping appropriate emotions embodied in a physical way, historians have and emotional styles. It also appears in or- begun to consider the body as a historical ganizational politics, which aim to contest artifact rather than something objectively hegemonic frames of political action. As given. How the body is perceived and con- a major object of political communica- ceptualized clearly determines how bodily tion, emotions hold value both for those in sensations are felt and experienced. At the power and others challenging that power. same time, the body has long since been In the economic sphere, too, the power of believed to interact with mental processes. emotions becomes increasingly acknowl- Since the early modern period, experts and edged and worked upon, both in the field of practitioners in the fields of dance and advertising consumer goods and in human theater have been well aware of how people resource management. can create bodily feelings by using emotional It goes without saying that these areas and language (words, mimics, gestures). In this perspectives are not strictly separate from vein, feeling rules as expressed in advice each other. Instead, they inform all projects, manuals or novels, or practiced in social albeit to varying degrees. The same holds true interactions at the workplace, in religious for the Center’s geographical scope. While congregations, or during political rallies, are some projects use a classic comparative ap- bound to influence what an individual person proach (e. g., by conceptualizing Berlin and experiences as his or her “inner feeling.” Cairo as emotionally intense urban spaces), Consequently, the change of feeling rules the majority follow a transnational approach and practices is thought to have an effect on that pays attention to encounters, entangle- what and how a person feels as shame, hap- ments, and self-comparisons. Such an ap- piness, grief, etc. proach is not confined to European countries,

132 | Center for the History of Emotions but purposefully includes non-European to the extent that economic behavior might, regions, above all South Asia. Rather than under certain circumstances, be guided by assuming striking similarities or profound moral concerns. differences among those regions, we develop How can historians approach the relationship a language and methodology which takes between morality and emotions, particularly into account cultural specificities while, at with regard to economics as having largely the same time, offering a common ground for been viewed as a social sphere beyond moral general theoretical insights. judgment and emotional motivation? Does it make sense to extend the notion of “moral/ Past and Future Research emotional economies” to include adjacent By and large, the research framework has areas such as social and welfare policies, remained relatively stable since 2008 when environmental issues, or leisure industries? the Center was established. Some projects What is to be gained (and lost) by streamlin- Figure 3. Cover of Adam Smith’s first work have come to an end because researchers left ing the Center’s research program along these published in 1759, the the Institute to pursue their careers elsewhere parameters? These questions will be discussed founding stone for his (e. g., as professors, in the United States, Great and answered at the Center’s upcoming oeuvre. Britain, Germany, and India). Other projects retreat in March 2014, allowing for potential Source. archive.org. are being continued and will eventually result future redirections. in a “second book” required for a tenured As for (2) (Law and Emotions), a call for ap- university position. New projects have been plications was posted in September 2013, added as new researchers joined the Center, inviting researchers with an interest in legal thus enriching and enlarging its program history to focus on the relationship between without changing its general orientation and law and emotions. While this field has seen direction. growing interest by legal scholars during the As for future projects, three are about to be last decade, it has thus far escaped the atten- launched: tion of both legal historians and historians of (1) Morality and Emotions emotions. The new focus is meant to change (2) Law and Emotions this and introduce a new research topic. It (3) Reform Pedagogy and Emotions. is important in light of the fact that law has As for (1) (Morality and Emotions), the newly become an increasingly powerful instrument initiated ­IMPRS Moral Economies of Modern for shaping and regulating social practices Figure 4. Justitia. Societies poses a challenge to the Center in since the onset of the modern period. At the that it assumes a close link between mor- same time, it constitutes a particular way of Source. Wikimedia Com- mons/Public Domain. als and emotions in economic behavior and perceiving societies and is, as such, deeply development. This link was evident at the very influenced by social, political, economic, and start of modern economies, but later fell into cultural concerns. For historians of emotions, oblivion. Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations, law—meaning legal thought, codifications, widely considered the seminal text of liberal and practice—offers a highly promising per- economics, built on his Theory of Moral Senti- spective on how emotions have been histori- ments, whose title alludes to the intimate re- cally conceptualized and how these concepts lations the author saw as prevailing between have shaped interpersonal relationships. Penal morality and emotions. Two hundred years law is exceptionally rich and meaningful for later, the British historian E. P. Thompson this purpose. Two issues are prominent: so- explored the “moral economy of the English called crimes of passion and crimes of honor crowd” during the 18th century and attri­ (including insults and offenses). Both have buted food riots to emotions incited by the been perceived and treated as criminal acts breach of commonly held moral standards of spurred by emotions (affects, passions, feel- market behavior. Contemporary philosophers ings, agitation/excitement). Law continuously equally stress the emotional underpinnings struggled to make sense of these emotions, as of moral commitment and vice versa, while legal professionals were under high pressure recent economic experiments have pointed to relate emotions to paramount categories of

Center for the History of Emotions | 133 Key References free will, individual responsibility, and culpa- tion meant analyzing the changing role of Caruso, M., & Frevert, bility. Legal debates thus offer deep insights emotions, such as trust and love, in ­teacher– U. (Eds.). (2012b). Emo- into discourses on reason and affect, good student relationships. Drawing on the tionen in der Bildungsge- and bad morals, “cool” and “hot blood,” and experience of private tutors in noble or upper schichte (Jahrbuch für Historische Bildungs- just–unjust/acceptable–despicable emotions. middle-class households, these interpersonal forschung No. 18). Bad These discourses were by no means purely emotions were questioned and challenged Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. theoretical: Rather, they had strong repercus- in public schools and only resurfaced around Frevert, U., & Hoff­ sions on how justice was administered, how 1900, especially in the context of reform mann, T. (2012). defendants framed their defense, and how the pedagogy. Gefühle im pädago- gischen Verhältnis: Das public commented on the case. This widely influential strand of educational lange 19. Jahrhundert Candidates were selected in December 2013 theory and practice will be further examined und ein Postscript. In and invited to a workshop to clarify and in a collaborative project engaging research- M. ­Caruso & U. Frevert (Eds.), Emotionen in explore further potentials of the approach. ers from other institutions. The plan is to der Bildungsgeschichte Diachronic and comparative perspectives on establish a junior research group that will (Jahrbuch für Historische law making and jurisprudence will be at the bring together a number of senior research- Bildungsforschung No. 18) (pp. 47–69). Bad fore, and the time period in question spans ers working on a coauthored book through a Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. from the 17th to the early 21st century. series of workshops. Examining the education Frevert, U., & Wulf, C. Comparisons can be intra-European as well as of emotions in reform pedagogy calls for a (Eds.). (2012a). Die extra-European to comply with the Center’s transnational framework, bringing together Bildung der ­Gefühle commitment to transnational history. Germany, Great Britain, and India (and, at a (Zeitschrift für Erzie­ hungswissenschaft,­ As for (3) (Reform Pedagogy and Emotions), it later stage, Russia and Latin America). As the Sonderheft No. 16). builds on the Center’s long-standing interest actors of the reform movement were already Wies­baden: Springer VS. in how emotions were taught and learned working in a transnational context between in educational institutions. This interest 1880 and 1960, the project has a genuine manifested itself in a volume on the cultiva- potential to move beyond a purely compara- tion of feelings (Bildung der Gefühle, edited tive study. It will shed light on how emotional by Ute Frevert and Christoph Wulf) followed knowledge and practices traveled and were by a special issue of Jahrbuch für Historische communicated across cultures. For India, this Bildungsforschung, edited by Ute Frevert is highlighted by Rabindranath Tagore’s visit and Marcelo Caruso. Introducing a history of to Paul Geheeb’s Odenwald School. It also emotions approach to the history of educa- includes Zakir Husain, who was the driving

A Year of Significant Birthdays On the occasion of the Institute’s 50th anniversary in 2013, the Board of Directors commissioned Kerstin Singer, research assistant of Figure 5. Paul Geheeb Ute Frevert, to develop an exhibit to commemorate founding director and Rabindranath Tagore, 1930. Hellmut Becker, born 100 years ago. The son of a Prussian education minister began his career as the de- Source. ETH-Bibliothek Zurich, Bildarchiv. fense lawyer of the main defendent in the “Ministries Trial” (the 11th trial for war crimes in Nuremberg). In the young Federal Republic of Germany, the legal advisor specialized on cultural institutions and became a political entrepeneur regarding matters of education. He convinced the Max Planck Society of the need to found our Institute and can be considered the leading exponent of educational research in the 1960s and 1970s. The exhibit, which not only focuses on the distinctive aspects of his influential life and work but also addresses some controversial aspects, attracted markedly positive feedback from its visitors. It also constitutes the start of the Center’s deeper engagement with reform pedagogy, a fundamental issue in Hellmut Becker’s and his father’s life and work.

134 | Center for the History of Emotions force behind Delhi’s Jamia Millia University 2 years, we met regularly and frequently Key References and the pedagogical program of the Congress in order to designate a common corpus of Frevert, U., Eitler, P., movement. As much as he adopted ideas of sources and to develop a conceptual toolbox Olsen, S., Jensen, U., Kerschensteiner’s working school, he was and share ideas, problems, and results. This Pernau, M., Brücken­ haus, D., Beljan, M., also influenced, as Tagore was, by Tolstoi’s kind of collaborative work can only be done Gammerl, B., Laukötter,­ writings. at an institution that offers a common space A., Hitzer, B., Plamper,­ For a long time, the history of reform peda- as well as reliable financial and infrastruc- J., Brauer, J., & Häberlen,­ J. C. (in press). gogy had mainly been written by its protago- tural backing. It sends an important signal to Learning how to feel: nists. Our approach allows for a fresh and the community of scholars: Working closely Children’s literature and nonpartisan perspective. By concentrating together and critically reviewing each other’s the history of emotional socialization, 1870–1970. on teacher–student relations, processes of chapters on a constant and painstakingly Oxford: Oxford University community formation, and political culture, detailed basis guarantees a high degree of Press. emotions are addressed on two levels: as coherence and thorough analysis. It thus pro- Frevert, U., Scheer, M., educational tools and as learning targets. duces results that are superior both to edited Schmidt, A., Eitler, P., Research will focus on pedagogical debates volumes and to single-author books. Hitzer, B., Verheyen, N., Gammerl, B., Bailey, C., and practices keen on creating a personal- In their second collaborative project, the & Pernau, M. (2014). ity marked by a specific set of habitualized group addressed the crucial question of how Emotional lexicons: emotions (that are often linked to creating an emotions can be and have been learned. Continuity and change in the vocabulary of feeling altogether new and, allegedly, better world). Drawing on current psychological research on 1700–2000. Oxford: how children’s books enhance their readers’ Oxford University Press. Collaborative Projects: Emotional Lexicons emotional awareness, such books and advice and Learning How to Feel manuals dating from ca. 1870 to 1970 were From the very beginning, research at the chosen as primary sources. Each researcher Center was conducted both individually and participating in the new project focused on a collectively. Researchers worked on topics of particular emotion or emotional setting that their own choosing that spoke to the guiding was related to his/her individual research questions and assumptions of the Center as a project. Again, the joint project underwent whole. But they also committed themselves to many stages and rereadings. The result was collaborative work. In 2009, they contributed very well received by (anonymous) reviewers to a special issue on the history of emotions in and will be published by OUP in 2014 under a German peer-reviewed journal, Geschichte the title Learning How to Feel. It rests on the und Gesellschaft. At the same time, they started to work on a joint project investigat- ing the conceptual history of emotions over 300 years. Using European encyclopedias and dictionaries, they collected and analyzed articles on emotions and related lemmata (feeling, affect, passion, sensitivity, drive, etc.) in order to trace not only shifts and changes, but also continuities in the way those terms Figure 6. The Struwwel- were defined and contextualized. The findings peter, first published in 1845, became one of the were published in a coauthored book in 2011. most successful German An English version was published in 2014 by children’s books and was Oxford University Press (OUP), under the title translated into numerous languages. Emotional Lexicons: Continuity and Change in the Vocabulary of Feeling 1700–2000. Source. Hoffmann, H. (1876). Der Struwwel­ It was not easy, to say the least, to convince peter oder Lustige OUP that this was not an edited volume, but Geschichten und drollige a coauthored monograph building on a long Bilder (100th ed.). Frankfurt a. M.: Lite­ra­ and intense collaboration between several rische Anstalt), [5] not members of our Center. Over the course of paginated.

Center for the History of Emotions | 135 assumption that the ability to feel unfolds dren with emotional learning tools that helped through a complex dialogue with the social them to navigate their emotional lives. and cultural environment. The fundamental formation of feelings takes place in child- A New Book Series With OUP hood and youth when children gain practical In 2011, negotiations about a new book se- emotional knowledge through manifold social ries with OUP started. The publisher showed interaction and, specifically, through reading. strong interest in fostering innovative This kind of knowledge, the book argues, un- research and helping to shape a new field. derwent several broader changes in the period The first volume of this series onEmotions under consideration. Emotional interaction in History, edited jointly by Ute Frevert between adults and children gave way to a and Thomas Dixon (Queen Mary College, focus on those among children, while gender London), appeared in February 2014. As a categories became less distinct. Children were second volume, Jan Plamper’s monograph increasingly taught to take responsibility for on History and Feeling (see p. 163) has their own emotional development, to find “au- been accepted for publication. In 2013, the thenticity” for themselves. In the context of manuscript of Learning How to Feel (see changing social, political, cultural, and gender above) was positively reviewed and will agendas, the building of nations, subjects and be published in 2014. Further projects by citizens, and the forging of moral and religious members and nonmembers of our Center values, Learning How to Feel demonstrates are currently under review. how books and advice manuals provided chil-

Key Reference Internet Portal: Sources and Interpretations • Advice literature (e. g., on raising children, Laukötter, A. (2013a). Claiming that emotions have a history and love relationships, sexuality, manners); such Editorial. History of render themselves to historical analysis usu- manuals allow us to catch a glimpse into emotions—Insights into ally invites the question of how knowledge the normative construction of feelings, research. (October 30, proceed in gathering information. The newly and practicing emotions. 2013) established online portal History of Emo- • Fictional literature and children’s books as (German translation: Editorial. Geschichte der tions: Insights into Research (editors: Anja important resources providing knowledge Gefühle—Einblicke in die ­Laukötter, Margrit Pernau) aims at giving on how specific situations are emotion- Forschung. ) through which the history of emotions can certain generational conflicts and the be explored. It provides thought-provoking redefinition of the self. impulses for other historians and stimulates • Different media (such as photography, interdisciplinary communication. films, internet blogs); they not only repre- Theoretical and methodological aspects of sent emotions but also produce and create the history of emotions approach are touched emotions, since they have intended or upon in short contributions focusing on vari- unintended effects on the emotional state ous sources. Each article starts with a specific of the reader, visitor, viewer, or listener. source, such as: The platform went online in October 2013; • “Ego-documents” (diaries, memoirs, autobi- new articles (both in English and German) will ographies) that give important information be added on a quarterly basis. National and about the emotional self-construction of international experts in the field of the history their authors, as well as the development of of emotions have been and will be invited to emotions over an individual’s lifespan. contribute. Thus, the platform will not only

136 | Center for the History of Emotions become a stimulus for debates but will also University of Oxford; Helena Flam, Leipzig Speakers included offer itself as a comprehensive archive for the University; Ursula von Keitz, University of Norman­ Naimark (Stanford University), expanding field. Konstanz, previously University of Bonn, who Robert Aronowitz all spent their sabbatical at the Center) and (University of Public Colloquium often come to us with Alexander von Hum- Pennsylvania),­ Mark Seymour A central feature of the Center’s activities boldt Research Fellowships (Christa Ehrmann- (University of Otago), is the public colloquium organized twice a Hämmerle, University of Vienna; Eva Giloi, Sanjay Joshi (Northern month throughout the academic year. We Rutgers University). Apart from working on Arizona University),­ Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht invite internationally known scholars to pres- their own research and writing, they also (Stanford University), ent their work and explore how it touches on participate in the Center’s internal and public Astrid Eckert the history of emotions. They thus widen our colloquia (as lecturers and interlocutors). They (Emory University), Edhem Eldem own perspectives and enable us to engage bring their special expertise as advisors and (Bogˇaziçi University), in research carried out in similar or adjacent consultants relating to others’ research, and Michael Geyer fields of knowledge. At the same time, they they act as informal mentors for the Center’s (University of Chicago), Susannah Heschel add to the Center’s visibility and popularity. junior and senior researchers. (Dartmouth College), As the colloquium is open to the public and In numerous cases, formal and ongoing col- Peter Stearns (George usually draws a number of university students laborations arose from contacts made during Mason University),­ Ruth Leys (Johns Hopkins as well as colleagues, it also helps to attract the visitors’ stay at the Center. To give just University),­ future researchers and collaborators. one example: Christa Ehrmann-Hämmerle’s Robert L. Trivers Speakers come from a range of disciplines. research focusing on the Habsburg military in (Rutgers University), Carolyn Dean Apart from historians, we welcome sociolo- the late 19th century lent itself to a fruitful ex- (Brown University), gists, political scientists, anthropologists, evo- change with Ute Frevert’s long-standing inter- Francesca Trivellato lutionary biologists, economists, philosophers, est and expertise on the army as a “school” of (Yale University), Jack Barbalet (Hong Kong and scholars from literature studies. Between male emotions. Her second project on Writing Baptist University), 2011 and 2013, 44 talks (see Appendix 2) (about) Love? Historical Analyses Regarding the and Véronique Bénéï were given. They addressed crucial questions Negotiation of Gender Relations and Positions (CNRS, Paris). regarding methods, sources, and interpreta- in Couple Correspondences of the 19th and tion, as well as interdisciplinary challenges 20th Centuries (funded by the Austrian Science Key References and promises. Fund) examines a large sample of “love letters” Gefühle als geschichts­ as well as letter-writing manuals and other mächtige Kategorie: Visiting Researchers normative texts that shaped the letter cultures, Ingrid Bauer und Christa Hämmerle im Gespräch The presence of visiting researchers is of vital even of the working classes. This project invited mit Ute Frevert. (2013). importance to the Center’s work. They add an intense exchange with Benno Gammerl, L’Homme: Europäische their projects to our research agenda and mainly on methodological questions regarding Zeitschrift für feministi­ sche Geschichtswis- engage in mutually inspiring debates and the analysis of qualitative data. In this context, senschaft, 24 (1), collaboration. As a general rule, they bring the Center hosted a homonymous workshop 109–118. doi:10.7767/ their own funding (Helen Watanabe O’Kelly, on 10 February 2012. Introduced by Ute Frevert lhomme.2013.24.1.109 and commented by Benno Gammerl, it was Gammerl, B. (2013a). attended by many internal and external re- Queer Romance? Ro- mantische Liebe in den searchers. Subsequently, researchers from our biographischen Erzählun- Center participated in conferences on Roman- gen von westdeutschen tic Love in Vienna (June 2012) and in a panel on Lesben und Schwulen. L’Homme: Europäische “Love” at the German History Society’s annual Zeitschrift für feminis- conference in London (September 2013). tische Geschichtswis- senschaft, 24 (1), 15–34. doi:10.7767/ Impact lhomme.2013.24.1.15 When the Center started in 2008, the history Figure 7. Picture postcard from World War I of emotions was a genuinely new approach [“My love will accompany you through the battle and that still had to win colleagues’ attention the danger”]. and approval. Since then, it has witnessed an Source. www.zeno.org/bildpostkarten. amazing surge of interest, both nationally and

Center for the History of Emotions | 137 Key References internationally. In March 2013, the Comité The long-standing collaboration with Aleida AHR conversation: International des Sciences Historiques (CISH) Assmann (University of Konstanz) and her The historical study of nominated Ute Frevert, together with the research group on History + Memory, winner emotions. Participants: Australian historian Philippa Maddern, as or- of the 2009 Max Planck Research Prize, was Nicole ­Eustace, Eugenia Lean, Julie Livingston, ganizers of a Major Theme Day on Historiciz- deepened and further developed during the Jan Plamper, William­ ing Emotions at the 2015 Jinan Congress that review period. Assmann’s and Juliane Brauer’s M. Reddy, and ­Barbara welcomes historians from all over the world. joint publication on the emotional dimensions H. Rosenwein. (2012). American Historical This can be considered a kind of knightly ac- of how young people deal with the Holocaust Review, 117, 1487– colade for the new approach, testifying to its showed the extent to which the research in- 1531. doi:10.1093/ professional appeal and attraction. terests of both groups complement and enrich ahr/117.5.1487 In October 2013, the annual conference of the one another. This was followed by the interna- Gammerl, B. (Ed.). German Studies Association (GSA) included a tional conference on Empathy and the Blocking (2012a). Emotional styles—concepts and seminar on Revisiting the Study of Emotions of Empathy, organized by Aleida Assmann and challenges [Special in German Studies. Two out of three panels Ute Frevert together with Steven Aschheim Issue]. Rethinking His- dealt exclusively with the research conducted (Hebrew University, Jerusalem), in July 2011. tory, 16 (2). Abingdon: Routledge. at our Center, thus acknowledging its leading The conference invited psychological, role in the field. They also identified Bettina aesthetic, cognitive, social, and historical Hitzer’s review article as the fundamental perspectives to redress empathy as a pro- reference. Since it was published in H-Soz-u- social emotion and cross-disciplinary topic. Kult, the major internet portal for historical Prosocial emotions, and especially empathy, studies, high access figures confirm the grow- have been considered a major driving force in ing interest in the history of emotions both mankind’s cognitive and social evolution. They in its empirical research and methodological allow human actors to achieve mutual under- challenges. standing of aims and goals, anticipate others’ Following a forum debate opened in 2010 by reactions, and cultivate the coordination of the journal German History (in which Ute Fre- complex activities, which led to evolutionary vert had participated), the American Historical leaps that were withheld from other species. Hitzer, B. (2011a, No- Review in 2012 published the sixth AHR Con- The conference built on earlier efforts to link vember 23). Emotions­ versations on the topic The Historical Study of a historical perspective on empathy with ex- geschichte: Ein Anfang Emotions. Jan Plamper was asked to contrib- periments conducted by social neuroscience. mit Folgen [Forschungs­ bericht]. ­H-Soz-u-Kult. ute and represent the Center’s approach. Ute Frevert’s talk on Witnessing Public Cruelty (January 5, 2011) odology of the history of emotions approach: In bystanders’ reactions to public executions 2012, Monique Scheer published an article on and shaming practices as a case in point. It how to understand emotions as social practices was not before the early 19th century that bridging dichotomies such as body and mind, predominant feelings of curiosity, indiffer- structure and agency, and expression and ence, Schadenfreude, or lust for revenge experience. In 2013, Benno Gammerl edited a were mitigated by concepts of sympathy and special issue of the journal Rethinking History, compassion. Following this shift of public introducing the concept of emotional styles sensibilities, public executions and shaming (rather than emotional regimes) as a promising practices were gradually abolished. heuristic for further research. Palgrave-Macmillan signaled clear interest in the publication of a selected essay collection Conferences and (Inter-)National and submitted the proposal for peer review. Collaboration Shame and shaming remained on the Center’s Bringing together scholars from various conference agenda. In December 2012, a disciplines and national backgrounds, confer- conference on Shame and Shaming in Twen- ences offer the opportunity for international tieth Century History was organized by Ute collaboration as well as for broadening the Frevert and Mary Fulbrook (UCL) highlighting Center’s research perspectives. common research activities of the Center (see

138 | Center for the History of Emotions the project Honor and Shame on pp. 172–173) Jensen together with Raphael Gross and and the UCL AHRC Research Group Rever- Daniel Wildmann (Leo Baeck Institute London) berations of War. Papers focused on prac- and Stefanie Schüler-Springorum (Center tices, experiences, and memories of shame for Research on Anti-Semitism, Berlin), and shaming during and after World War II. took place in April 2012. Suggesting a new Panels addressed how feelings of shame and understanding of anti-Semitism by studying practices of shaming related to gender, class, its emotional dimension, a group of interna- and political power. Psychological theories of tional historians investigated a broad variety shame were confronted with literary repre- of anti-Semitic phenomena, such as Russian sentations and political-juridical texts. Em- anti-Jewish pogroms, Nazi Rassenschande, or pirical cases covered France, the Netherlands, postwar anti-Israeli propaganda. A selection Germany, Poland, and China. of papers was published in a special issue of the peer-reviewed journal Geschichte und Ge- sellschaft. The conference triggered plans for future cooperations, such as an international research group on Hate Pictures. Many more events and conferences took place during the review period. Some of them illustrate the Center’s international collabora- tions, like the conference entitled Learning to Feel: Emotions Beyond Nature vs. Nurture (April 2011) in Jerusalem, a joint interna- tional collaboration between the Center for the History of Emotions, Berlin, and Van Leer Institute, Jerusalem, in collaboration with The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, and Tel Aviv University. Others show the fruitful outcome of our collaboration with guest researchers and our dedication to an interdisciplinary approach, like the conference co-organized in October 2012 by our guest researcher, sociologist Helena Flam. The establishment and implementation of the Minerva Research In her keynote lecture The Disappearance of Focus of Emotions, Violence, and Peace was Shame? Ruth Leys (Johns Hopkins University) marked by an interdisciplinary conference questioned the motives, intentions, and meth- Emotions and Violence in 20th Century Europe: ods behind the scholarly use and interpreta- Historical Perspectives on Violence Prevention tion of shame. This was followed up on in the and Peace Education, June 2013. final roundtable discussion, which problema- Events like the workshop entitled Gefühls­ tized shame as an iridescent term open to räume (January 2013), a joint collaboration historically variable definitions. Considering by our three researchers Margrit Pernau, the “what,” “who,” “how,” or “why” of shame/ Benno Gammerl, and Joseph Prestel, not shaming means exploring different contexts, only serve as the starting point for individual times, and cultures. Ongoing research must research, such as Pernau’s project on Space take into account shame’s intimate embed- and Emotion, which is currently in develop- dedness in community norms and practices, ment. Furthermore, they show how fruitfully which have a strong bearing on how and and successfully our researchers are able to whether individuals feel ashamed (and of link their individual research projects with what). their colleagues’ research interests and ac- The conference Emotions and the History of tivities, which are described in the following Modern Anti-Semitism, organized by Uffa parts.

Center for the History of Emotions | 139 Researchers Research Area: Education and Cultivation of Emotions Ute Frevert Margrit Pernau Rob Boddice Philippe Bongrand Juliane Brauer Merih Erol Benno Gammerl Uffa Jensen Mana Kia Anja Laukötter Stephanie Olsen Monika Freier Mohammad Sajjad

Figure 8. Engraving by Daniel Chodowiecki. Source. Kupfersammlung zu J. B. Basedows Elementarwerke für die Jugend und ihre Freunde, Berlin/Dessau, 1774, Tab. V./SUB Göttingen.

Our main assumption is that emotions are subject to a complex process of cultivation, that is, of social formation and cultural learning. This process largely determines what individuals feel and how they make sense of and value those feelings. The education of feelings takes place in and through institutions, such as family, school, clubs, the military, and religious, professional, and local communities, as well as via media, such as novels, poems, advice literature, scientific tracts, music, and film. These institutions and media became increasingly important and com- prehensive during the modern period, albeit to varying degrees. While schools and schooling get ever more inclusive and dominant, and thus parallel the impact of religious institutions, the latter gradually lose out as emotional learning environments, at least in Western societies. The research team examines how people were driven to have, show, or suppress certain feelings. It also pays attention to what happened when people realized that they felt “differently” and did not fit (or did not want to fit) regular patterns and how this challenged dominant feeling rules and emotional styles.

Collaborative Research Activities (Selected) ogy, education, and emotions in historical The 3-day international conference on Child- perspectives convened from 29 November hood, Youth and Emotions in Modern History to 1 December 2012 in Berlin. Seven panels was organized by Stephanie Olsen and Juliane addressed questions related to: Schools, Brauer. After the call for papers attracted Space, and Discipline; Media and Emotional around 200 proposals from all over the world, Knowledge Acquisition; Religion; Emotion select scholars interested in the intersection and Children; The Nation and Its Exclusions; of childhood, youth, developmental psychol- Emotional Education in Colonial Settings;

140 | Center for the History of Emotions Adolescence, Medicine, and the Body; and Olsen. It will include contributions from histori- Key Reference Policing, Child Welfare, and Child Observation. ans of Britain and the Empire, ­Europe, Latin Brauer, J., & Lücke, In 25 talks from the academic world of Ger- and North America, Africa, Asia, and South Asia M. (Eds.). (2013b). many, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, Italy, Great and will focus on national, imperial, and global Emotionen, Geschichte und historisches Lernen: Britain, Canada, United States, Argentina, perspectives on childhood and emotions in the Geschichtsdidaktische Japan, India, and Israel, researchers set the 19th and 20th centuries. und geschichtskulturelle foundation for a comparative history of the In July 2011, Juliane Brauer and Martin Lücke Perspektiven. (Eckert: Die Schriftenreihe. Studien education of emotions through an explora- (Freie Universität Berlin) jointly organized a des Georg-Eckert-Insti- tion of formal and informal educational conference on Emotions and Historical Learn- tuts zur Internationalen contexts of the 19th and 20th centuries. The ing Revisited: Perspectives From ­Historical Bildungsmedienfor­ schung No. 133). conference focused on educational strategies ­Culture and Didactics. It deliberately fol- ­Göttingen: V+R unipress. within different institutions, namely, family, lowed up on a homonymous conference that state, school, or religious communities, which took place 20 years ago on emotionality contributed to, and sometimes competed in, as a category of historical didactics in the providing children and youth with the neces- wider framework of the history of mentali- sary emotional and moral frameworks for ties and everyday life. Back then, researchers shaping the next generation of men, women, had shown deep anxieties in approaching workers, and citizens. the topic, while today the latter seems very The contributions, discussions, and mainly the much up-to-date and attractive, as argued roundtable with well-known representatives by participants from the fields of historical from different disciplines linked with child- didactics, modern history, developmental hood studies, impressively demonstrated the psychology, pedagogical institutions, muse- fruitfulness of the interdisciplinary perspec- ums, and memorial sites. In their contribu- tive. It deepened the dialogue with the Max tions and debates, they linked new insights Planck Research Group Affect Across the from the history of emotions with theories Lifespan, represented by Michaela Riediger’s and observations about emotions in histori- talk, as well as the roundtable participation cal learning processes. The conference took a by the developmental psychologist Rainer large step forward in establishing and stimu- Silbereisen. The conference offered a variety lating discussions within the field of teaching of different answers on questions such as: and research, highlighting the potential for How did children and youth navigate this historical learning range of emotional contexts, feelings, and as well as reflecting expressions in different phases of growing on the contribution up? To what extent were various forms of of emotions in the childhood education informed by questions formation of histori- of emotion? How did changing historical cal awareness. perceptions of childhood interact with chang- Some of the papers ing conceptions of emotions and vice versa? were then revised How did the professionalization of disciplines and submitted to related to childhood and youth, and child peer review. In 2013, welfare, change the notion about a distinct they were published set of emotions in childhood? In what ways in a volume connect- can we integrate the history of emotions and ing emotions and the history of childhood and youth in order to central paradigms gain further insight into both fields? What are of historical culture, the methodological challenges here and what such as the his- sorts of source material can be marshaled? torical formation of A collection of groundbreaking essays by some meaning, empathy, of the participants as well as other recognized imagination (or nar- scholars in the history of childhood and emo- rativity), awareness, tions is to be edited and published by ­Stephanie and identity.

Center for the History of Emotions | 141 Researcher Civility, Civilization, and Civil Society they were also an asset to civilize peoples and The core questions of this research area have societies. The book is thus a contribution to Margrit Pernau been followed in three different projects. the history of emotions, to global history, and Civilizing Emotions: Concepts in Asia and Europe to the history of concepts; three rapidly devel- Key References 1870–1920, a collaboration with the University oping and innovative research areas, which are Pernau, M. (2014). of Oslo, has successfully finished its investiga- being brought together here for the first time. Civility and barbarism: tion of the semantic network of civility in four Emopolis (Emotions and Political Mobilizations Emotion as criteria of European and nine Asian languages. The book in the Indian Subcontinent) is a collabora- difference. In U. Frevert, M. Scheer, A. Schmidt, manuscript, coauthored by 13 authors from tive project with the Centre d’Études de l’Inde P. Eitler, B. Hitzer, N. 7 countries across 3 continents, is currently et de l’Asie du Sud at the École des Hautes Verheyen, B. Gammerl, under review by Oxford University Press. Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS) at Paris, C. Bailey, & M. Pernau, Emotional lexicons: Civilizing Emotions traces the history of the which brings together scholars from Political Continuity and change in concepts “civil,” “civility,” and “civilization,” Science, Sociology, Anthropology, Literature, the vocabulary of feeling which are very much in use in today’s political and History, who are based in France, Germany, 1700–2000 (pp. 230– 259). Oxford: Oxford debates. Unlike former histories of these con- India, Pakistan, and the United States. Within University Press. cepts, which have been traditionally limited this framework, this contribution focuses on Pernau, M. (2012b). Male to Europe and rarely ventured beyond the anger and its management amongst South anger and female malice: 1840s, Civilizing Emotions chooses a global Asian Muslims since the 18th century, explor- Emotions in Indo-Muslim perspective and highlights the role of civility ing the interconnected levels of knowledge advice literature. History Compass, 10, 119–128. and civilization in the creation of a new and about anger as embodied in language, as well doi:10.1111/j.1478- hierarchized global order in the era of high as in texts from theology, moral philosophy, 0542.2012.00829.x imperialism and the entanglements it brought medicine, and psychology. It also focuses on about. the norms making anger socially desirable or The hierarchy of the global order was premised undesirable, and on the expression of anger. on the ascription of emotions and the ability to In connection with this project, the researcher perform a certain emotion management. Civi- spent 1 month as a visiting professor at the lizing Emotions brings out the role of emotions EHESS. Finally, different aspects of civil- as an object of the civilizing process as well as ity play a prominent role in the monograph the agency which was ascribed to emotions: Emotions in South Asia, 1857–2000, which is Emotions needed to be actively civilized, but currently being written.

Figure 9. Africa mein European tahzeeb [European Civilization in Africa], Avadh Punch, 3 July 1890. Source. Hasan, M. (2007). Wit and humour in colonial North India. New Delhi: Nyogi Books, p. 77.

142 | Center for the History of Emotions The Science of Sympathy: Morality, experience of others’ pain as pain (sympa- Researcher Evolution, and Victorian Civilization thy, compassion, pity, tenderness). Building Rob Boddice Science of Sympathy (SOS) is funded by the significantly upon the conferencePain as Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, hosted Emotion; Emotion as Pain: Perspectives From by the Friedrich-Meinecke-Institut, Freie Modern History, hosted by the Birkbeck Key Reference Universität Berlin, with the full collaborative Pain Project in London in 2012, the project Boddice, R. (2012b). support of the Center. It began as a research investigates both the emotional context of Species of compassion: fellowship at the Institute in 2011. SOS takes different kinds of pain as well as developing Aesthetics, anaesthetics, and pain in the physi- as its starting point a paradox concerning the concept of physical pain as intrinsically ological laboratory. 19: the evolution of emotions and morality that emotional/affective. Using newly emerging Interdisciplinary Studies lies at the heart of Charles Darwin’s Descent approaches from the history of emotions, in the Long Nineteenth Century, 15. (December 11, 2013) collapse through its increasing tendency to scope, with expertise coming from medical preserve the “weak.” The project explores at- practice, the medical humanities, literature tempts to resolve Darwin’s paradox and their studies, cultural anthropology, art history, influence on the intellectual atmosphere and and conceptual art. Its geographical scope the formation and implementation of social includes the United States, Canada, Great policy at the fin de siècle as well as the ways Britain, Japan, China, and Europe, with a in which they shaped the emergence of eu- temporal range from the 18th century to the genic theories. Building on extensive primary present. This part of SOS will culminate in an research on the private correspondence, edited volume, to be published by Palgrave books, experiments, and professional records Macmillan in 2014. of evolutionary, medical, and psychological scientists, SOS critically analyzes intellec- tual debates among evolutionary scientists about the definition, meaning, and role of sympathy in the evolution of morality. This gives way to an exploration of the influ- ence of these debates in three late-Victorian controversies: vivisection and the rise of physiology, compulsory vaccination (par- ticularly against smallpox), and eugenics. This is situated within the general context of opposition to Darwinian morality and the cultural contest over the terms of sympathy. SOS is unique in providing a history-of- emotions approach to questions of social policy, medical and scientific practice, and social engineering, enabling a single coherent analysis of all these controversies together. The project lays bare the founda- tions of 20th-century moral questions in relation to public health, biomedical ethics, and procreation. The project encompasses an additional element: Pain and Emotion in Modern His- Figure 10. State-enforced sympathy? tory. It is a rich exploration of the affective Source. The Anti-Vivisection Review, 2 (10), 1911, expression of pain, the emotional experience p. 250. of pain (with or without lesion), and the

Center for the History of Emotions | 143 Researcher Observing Emotions, Emotionalizing the domination of the academic criterion in Observations: Children’s Emotions and assessing and guiding children. Philippe Bongrand School Assessments in France During the A first component of this “unsuccess story” 1950s and 1960s lies in the failure of a branch of French Key Reference As in many Western countries, a fundamen- scientific psychology, namely,Caractérolo - Bongrand, P. (2012). tal change occurred in France during the gie, to gather consensus on the legitimate La mise en système 1950s and 1960s. Thanks to the unification way to objectify “emotionality.” Though et l’économicisation of a “modern educational system,” schooling this science of emotions enjoyed spectacu- de l’enseignement en France au début no longer focused exclusively on educating lar success among families, teachers, and des années 1950: La but also on orientating children within the political and academic elites at the begin- fonctionnalisation d’une system. While guiding children requires cer- ning of the 1950s, it rapidly lost credibility institution. Politix: Revue des Sciences Sociales tain criteria, public policies clearly prompted and influence against differential psychol- du Politique, 98 (2), educators to teach and guide children not on ogy and intelligence tests. Schematically, 35–56. doi:10.3917/ the basis of their academic performance, but intelligence science, tools, and pedagogies pox.098.0035 according to their personality, abilities, and outdid emotion-related scientific and politi- desires, as expressed or recognized through cal discourses. At the same time, emotions emotions. This project retraced this strong at school remained central in the literature attempt to psychologize teaching and, in published for parents: Therein emerged a this way, to design a new status for emotions major misunderstanding. in schools. Its results provide an explana- Another component of this failed emo- tion of how this attempt failed and, as a tionalization consisted in the difficulties of consequence, how it unintentionally led to designing and generalizing a unique model of “dossier scolaire,” that is to say, a school record containing all academic, social, eco- nomic, psychological, or behavioral, informa- tion about every child in order to empower teachers. While different prototypes compet- ed with each other, archival material shows that sections about personality and emotions were filled out by teachers based on academic criteria. These case studies participate in the major social process whereby the educational sys- tem fosters new expectations among parents and children, which consist in discovering and implementing the self as well as achieving social mobility through school. The project focused on the interaction between macro- and microlevels, namely, on the link between the history of the French educational system (institutional design, schooling policies, pedagogical tools, organization of compulsory education) and the construction of (schooled) personalities (self, feelings, vocations, at- titudes toward educators and knowledge). Foucault’s concept of governmentality enables one to think of these separate levels Figure 11. An advice manual teaches parents how to transmit “les attitudes posi- together, and to deepen the hypothesis of a tives” about school. failed emotionalization of the educational Source. Mes enfants réussissent mieux en classe. Comment les aider, les soutenir, system, which remains a (paradoxical) way to les encourager, Marabout-Flash, 1966, p. 19. assign a social status to emotions.

144 | Center for the History of Emotions Youth, Music, and the Cultivation of from the 1960s to 1980s, increasingly clashed Researcher Feelings in a Divided Germany with the conception of feelings of youth Juliane Brauer At the end of the war in 1945, a new youth cultures. What ensued was a deliberatively was said to emerge “with new feeling induced clash of different emotional styles. and new spirit;” a youth that “enticingly One can show whether and how hegemonic Key References beckons the future.” At least this was what conceptions of feeling become broken down Brauer, J. (2012b). Clash- one of the first new youth songs, which and nuanced. The search for true, authentic es of emotions: Punk often resounded in 1945 in Soviet occupied feelings, mainly in punk music around 1980, music, youth subculture, and authority in the GDR Germany, declared. The collective singing of filled the state with fear of uncontrolled (1978–1983). Social Jus- new songs, which spread an optimistic vision youth feelings. This section of the project tice: A Journal of Crime, of the future as embodying power, courage, adopts a change in perspective from one of Conflict & World Order, 38 (4), 53–70. reliance, patriotism, and collective strength, political, pedagogical ideas and concepts, to prevailed in the Soviet occupation zone and one of alternative dispositions of feelings in Brauer, J. (2012d). “… das Lied zum Ausdruck the early German Democratic Republic (GDR) youth communities. The focus here too is on der Empfindungen as an especially apt way to not only win over developments in the GDR, though by adopting werden kann”: Singen but also to shape the hearts and minds of the similar perspectives, a similar comparison/ und Gefühlserziehung in der frühen DDR. In youth as “landlords of tomorrow.” Hundreds contrasting with the Federal Republic of M. Caruso & U. Frevert of new children and youth songs emerged, Germany (FRG) can be done. Here too it is (Eds.), Emotionen in primarily in the first two decades following important to consider song repertoires and der Bildungsgeschichte (Jahr­buch für Historische the war. also to examine the performativity of singing Bildungsforschung Specifically, this research project deals with on the emotional repertoire. No. 18) (pp. 126–146). how the cultivation of youth feelings in East The project’s goal is a monograph that offers Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. Germany compared with discourses and prac- a new interdisciplinary perspective on the tices in West Germany by focusing on songs history of childhood and youth in a divided and singing. Collective singing is defined as Germany by analyzing strategies of cultiva- an emotional practice, wherein emotions are tion of feelings through music. experienced and inculcated onto the body as well as acted out over the body. Based on this assertion, the main questions are: What were the strategies and practices of the cultiva- tion of youth feelings? Which emotions were officially claimed? How did they change? How and in which manner did the youth react? The musical educational discourses between 1946 and the mid-1960s, as well as the considerations about youth work in the only youth organization permitted—the Freie Deutsche Jugend (FDJ)—clearly show that the protagonists promised a strong educational effect from collective singing. In the first section, the project inquires about politically favored dispositions toward feelings in the Soviet occupation zone and the GDR such as enthusiasm, Heimatliebe (love of one’s home), confidence, trust, and pride. Against this background, the project draws out a selec- tive comparison to West German pedagogical discourses and youth organizations like the Figure 12. The song book “We sing new songs” was Falken and Pfadfinder. published by the largest publishing house for children’s The conception of emotions of the state, and youth literature in the GDR. which had remained remarkably consistent Source. Cover, Verlag Junge Welt, 1952.

Center for the History of Emotions | 145 Researcher Pious Emotions: The Formation of the This project drew on recent theoretical ap- “Ethical Self” in the Greek Orthodox proaches in the anthropology of religion, which Merih Erol Populations of the Ottoman Empire and have considered pious and moral subjectivities Greece (1830–1922) to be formed through the reconstruction of Key Reference Research on religion in the context of 19th- emotions, desires, and dispositions. These stud- Erol, M. (2012). Worship century Ottoman and post-Ottoman Southeast ies were largely inspired by Michel Foucault’s and liturgy in the Greek Europe has often focused on the relations analysis of ethical formation. Foucault placed Orthodox community of between institutionalized religion (the Church) emphasis on “the forms of relations with the Constantinople/Istanbul in the nineteenth cen- and the State, while more recent research has self, on the methods and techniques by which tury. (Working Papers). turned its attention toward the sphere of reli- he works them out, on the exercises by which ­Princeton, NJ: Seeger gion, ideology, and politics. Yet little work has he makes of himself an object to be known, and Center for Hellenic Studies. been done so far on personal belief and private on the practices that enable him to transform worship. This project explored the formation of his own mode of being.” Furthermore, by pious and moral selves in the Greek Orthodox drawing on Bourdieu’s concept of habitus and urban populations in Ottoman Istanbul and expanding their investigations into the body, Izmir, and Athens, the capital of the Kingdom these recent studies in the analysis of religion of Greece, in the period 1830–1922, with a and ritual called for the study of the embodied special interest in the role of emotions, at- experience of religion. Thus, based on these titudes, and dispositions linked to piety. Apart theoretical and methodological premises, this from the connectedness or the prominence of project analyzed the discourses and practices these three cities in terms of having signifi- that were related to the cultivation of pious cant Greek-speaking Orthodox populations, and moral selves among Greek Orthodox urban the specific focus on Athens, Istanbul, and populations in 19th-century Athens, Istanbul, Izmir provides comparative ground to observe and Izmir. the similarities and differences in piety and With this aim, the project particularly exam- morality discourses and practices, both in a ined first-person narratives (memoirs, auto­ nation-state in the making and a multiethnic biographies, and letters to family members and multireligious empire. from a private archive), biographies, and nov- els. In order to trace narratives describing the sensual experience of religion and descrip- tions of rituals, it also examined other primary sources, such as hagiographical literature (the lives of saints), sermons, ecclesiastical and theological journals, periodicals of religious societies and brotherhoods, newspapers, as well as European travelers’ accounts. More- over, one of the project’s aims was to analyze the normative discourses on the control of passions, desires, and emotions that existed in the 19th-century religious and ethical texts to which the urban and educated Greek Orthodox had access. In doing so, it particu- larly looked at a body of ethical guides, writ- ten—mostly in modern Greek/katharevousa but also in Karamanlidika (Turkish written in Greek alphabet)—to be used in the education of youth and children, and the prominent mo- nastic texts of the previous centuries whose newer editions were widely read among the Figure 13. Pious emotions described in Greek newspapers. Greek-speaking populations in the eastern Source. Title page of “Akropolis,” Easter, 1885. Mediterranean in the 19th century.

146 | Center for the History of Emotions Homosexuality and Emotional Life in Rural of his partnership was primarily due to their Researcher West Germany (1960–1990) life far away from the adulterous temptations Benno Gammerl Focusing on emotions in the history of homo- of urban gay scenes. And Ms. Fischer who sexualities helps to generate more accurate partook in the lesbian land movement claims and multifaceted accounts than otherwise that living in a rural cooperative allowed her possible. Analyzing lesbian and gay publica- to find her authentic self. Based on these and tions from 1960 to 1990, as well as 32 oral other articulations, one can argue that it was history interviews from the perspective of not so much the homosexual exodus into cit- emotions, time and again raises important ies or the urbanization of the countryside that Figure 14. Logo of the objections against oversimplified narratives accelerated the normalization of homosexual- project “anders fühlen”— “feeling differently.” regarding queer liberation. Analyses of gen- ities, but rather the manifold and continuous eration-specific scripts of fear and criticism interactions between rural and urban lesbian © Frank K. Schulz toward the long-held belief concerning the and gay lifestyles. contrast between gay-friendly cities and the The project has furthermore pursued three homophobic countryside demonstrate this. theoretical lines of enquiry. The first dwells Key References Many commentators assume that, in the upon the contact zones between queer theory Gammerl, B. (in press-b). 1970s, postwar homosexual shame was and affect theory. The second explores the Ist frei sein normal? supplanted by gay pride, with fear (of being role of the researcher’s emotions within the Männ­liche Homosexuali­ täten seit den sechziger discovered) simultaneously giving way to research process. The third finally engages Jahren zwischen Eman- fearlessness. Comparing the narratives of with the interplay between spatial constel- zipation und Normal- Ms. Eitner (born 1951) and Ms. Otte (born lations and emotional practices. Paying isierung. In P.-P. Bänziger, M. Beljan, F. X. Eder, & 1967), however, rather reveals a qualitative attention to space-specific emotional styles P. Eitler (Eds.), Sexuelle change. In one typical passage, Ms. Eitner allows—among other things—for an under- Revolution? Zur Ge- relates a fear story that leads from a bodily standing of emotions as liminal phenomena schichte der Sexualität im deutschsprachigen Raum attack to a final gasp of relief (interview 2, that resolves the problematic dichotomies seit den 1960er Jahren sequence 172). Ms. Otte describes fear rather between bodily affect and verbal expression, (1800|2000 Kulturge- as an uneventful internal dialogue about as well as between subjective interiority and schichten der Moderne). Bielefeld: transcript. what might happen if she, for example, visited social conventions. a lesbian bar (interview 1, sequence 52). Gammerl, B. (in press-d). Remained in the Moved to town Alternated more often Transitory feelings? On Ms. Eitner’s attack-defense fear script countryside challenges and trends corresponds with her memory of visiting a Mr. Schumann (1935) Mr. Kuhn (1938) Ms. Schmidt (1943) within the history of feminist seminar on violence against women Mr. Weber (1943) Ms. Lippold (1943) emotions. Contempo- ranea: Rivista di storia in the 1970s where she had learned how Mr. Riedel (1943) Mr. Meyer (1944) dell’800 e del ‘900. female solidarity could help to overcome fear. Mr. Ückert (1945) Mrs. Fischer (1947) Ms. Otte’s self-reflexive timidity is instead Mr. Melling (1949) Ms. Schneider (1950) exclusively focused on her personal develop- Mr. Harrer (1951) Ms. Eitner (1951) Ms. Gruberova (1952) ment and learning to openly talk about her Ms. Lehmann (1954) anxieties only once she started living in a Ms. Jäger (1955) Ms. Opitz (1955) stable partnership. If we view these diverging Mr. Pohl (1956) patterns as generation-specific, then it is not Mr. Wisneck (1957) Mr. Franke (1958) Mr. Albrecht (1960) Ms. Voss (1962) the disappearance, but the shifting patterns Mr. Gärtner (1963) Mr. Helmlinger (1963) of fear that need to be addressed. Mr. Schubert (1965) In terms of the rural-urban divide, many Mr. Zimmermann (1966) Ms. Gehring (1967) observers assume that homosexuals can live Ms. Otte (1967) happily only in large cities. Yet a closer look Ms. Brehme (1969) at the narratives of those interviewees who Ms. König (1970) Ms. Jansen (1970) Mr. Uhl (1970) prefer rural habitats (see Figure 15) indicates Figure 15. Interviewees with pseudonyms listed according to their year of birth (in that this metronormative stance ignores nu- brackets), their geobiographical patterns of mobility and their preferring urban resi- merous opposing views. Mr. Wisneck, for ex- dencies (red), favoring rural habitats (green), valuing both equally (blue), or judging ample, praises rural openness over urban su- the differences between urban and rural settings ambivalently (grey). perficiality. Mr. Pohl claims that the longevity © MPI for Human Development

Center for the History of Emotions | 147 Researcher Curing Emotions: A Transnational History as the turbulent history of the psychoanalytic of Psychoanalysis in Berlin, London, and movement, can be discussed only within the Uffa Jensen Calcutta (1910–1940) framework of the history of emotions. Curing Emotions studies the history of As a transnational history of emotions, Curing Key References psychoanalysis with a special focus on its Emotions asks about the patterns of ap- Jensen, U. (2012a). transnational character and emotional signifi- plication of psychoanalysis and its effects in Neuere Forschungen cance. The book will discuss the dissemination different cultural settings. One of the results zur Geschichte der of psychoanalytic knowledge and practice in of the project is the surprising diversity of Psychoanalyse. Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, 52, Berlin, London, and Calcutta. In all three of psychoanalytic practice, which the historiog- 765–800. these cities, therapeutic cultures emerged raphy usually explained, if at all, as forms of Tändler, M., & Jensen, in the early 20th century largely, though not deviation from a Freudian norm. U. (Eds.). (2012b). Das exclusively, around psychoanalysis and its Curing Emotions will instead focus on the Selbst zwischen Anpas- application in private practices, hospitals, plural origins of psychoanalysis in these dif- sung und Befreiung: Psychowissen und or psychiatric clinics. These cultures also ferent settings, thus explaining its relative Politik im 20. Jahrhundert influenced the broader middle classes in these global success with its very productivity and (Veröffentlichungen­ urban centers through its use in discussions flexibility. A further set of questions explores des Zeitgeschicht­ lichen Arbeitskreises about literature, art, religion, education, etc. the integration of psychoanalytic knowledge Niedersachsen No. 27). While Berlin became one of the first and and practice into different notions of selfhood Göttingen:­ Wallstein. certainly the most developed therapeutic in various cultural settings. In the distinct cultures after World War I, London proved urban cultures, dissimilar psychoanalyses important for the international dissemina- emerged, in which emotions functioned as a tion of psychoanalytic knowledge. From here, marker of difference, because they depended psychoanalysis “traveled” into the colonized heavily on culturally specific assumptions world. Consequently, the first non-Western regarding selfhood and culture. At the same branch of the psychoanalytical movement time, however, psychoanalysis also created a would emerge in Calcutta. traveling culture. In this global dimension of Psychoanalysis was not just a body of knowl- psychoanalysis, the role of emotions is still edge about the self and its psychological open to debate: Did psychoanalysis also begin structure. It originated in—and continued to to create a transnational mode of experienc- be bound up with—questions of therapeutic ing and thinking about emotions? practice. Here, emotions (or, in the language of Curing Emotions will thus provide a new his- psychoanalysts, “affect”) played a major role torical account of psychoanalysis. By studying on all levels: in the relation between patient the non-Western part of its global dis- and analyst (“transference,” “countertransfer- semination on equal basis with the European ence”), in the nature and origins of neurosis “original” setting, a new perspective from (infantile “Oedipus complex”), in the emotion- the margins becomes evident. Thus, many alized setting of the psychotherapeutic ses- assumptions about the essentially Western sions, etc. Moreover, important aspects of the nature of psychoanalysis are called into biographies of early psychoanalysts, as well question. By foregrounding emotions within the theory and practice of psychoanalysis, its history can be retold without the usual focus on Freud as the innovator of a new scientific discipline. Hence, questions about the truth- status of psychoanalysis, which have informed much of the historical literature—and, to some degree, continue to do so—become less important. Instead, one can appreciate the wide-ranging cultural and regional applica- Figure 16. Lumbini Clinic. tions of psychoanalytical knowledge as well Source. Anonym, Lumbini Park Silver Jubilee, Calcutta as the therapeutic and emotional effects it 1966. had in a global dimension.

148 | Center for the History of Emotions Friendship, Love, Loyalty: Persianate Ethics the ideal virtuous Persianate self was male, Researcher of Self and Community Before Nationalism Muslim and of Middle East descent, this Mana Kia This project focuses on how notions of friend- project also explores the way in which people ship, love, and loyalty were formulated and who did not fit this ideal were able to negoti- expressed in the period just before and during ate differences of gender, place of origin, and Key References the early phases of colonial expansion in religion using the ethical language of adab. Kia, M. (in press-a). South Asia (1739–1835). Shifting social rela- As such, this project also historicizes concepts Adab as literary form tions and political loyalties in this period have of difference and their role in the conception and social conduct: Reading the Gulistan in often been considered from perspectives that and practice of social and political affiliation late Mughal India. In A. assume ahistorical protonationalist sensibili- in this pivotal period between the decentral- Korangy & D. J. Sheffield ties. By contrast, the project argues that a ization of Mughal imperial power and the (Eds.), No tapping around philology: A Festschrift particular type of basic education among British colonial domination of South Asia. As in celebration and honor ­Persians contained a notion of ethics that cre- the 18th century waned, Europeans, often of Wheeler McIntosh ated modes of practicing affiliation, conceiv- representing colonial interests if not outright Thackston Jr.’s 70th birthday. Wiesbaden: ing of difference, and imagining community. office holders of various East India Compa- Harrassowitz. This ethics of proper conduct (adab) structured nies, entered into these Persianate forms of Kia, M. (2013). Limning perceptions and practices of affiliation and friendship. The project argues that it was the land: Social encoun- difference and can elucidate loyalties in the precisely the cosmopolitan nature of these ters and historical mean- intertwined interpersonal relations of society homosocial relationships, which embraced ing in early nineteenth- century travelogues and politics. The perception and expression of those who could master adab regardless of between Iran and virtuous and ignoble emotions were indivisibly parochial affiliations, that partly enabled the India. In R. Micallef & bound up in the perception and expression rise of British colonial rule. S. ­Sharma (Eds.), On the wonders of land and sea: of ethical conduct. This study interrogates Persianate travel writing assumed analytic terms and concepts, like (Ilex Foundation Series emotions, as internally located and separate No. 10) (pp. 44–67). Boston: Ilex. from their outward expression. Proper conduct and moral substance (akhlaq) are deeply inter- related, demanding new readings of source materials that acknowledge the role of the body and social interactions as central sites of emotion in Persianate South Asia. Ideas of ethics, virtue, and the emotions in normative texts of education serve as a start- ing point for understanding what animated notions of loyalty and friendship. The project then analyzes the ways these ideas play out in social praxis by examining letters, poetry, travelogues, memoirs, and biographical texts. In particular, there was an explosion of biographical writing in this period, and these sources have often been ignored in social and cultural historical scholarship. Many socially and politically significant relation- ships were called friendships, highlighting the way in which the ideals of friendship were considered the model for relations in multiple social and political contexts. An understand- ing of loyalty based on a valorized notion of Figure 17. Humayun received by Shah Tahmasp (1544). homosocial love cemented these relationships Source. Illustration from the Akbarnama, Vol. 1, by between rulers and their subjects, patrons Abu’l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, ca. 1603–1604. and clients, and teachers and students. Since © British Library

Center for the History of Emotions | 149 Researcher Emotions and Knowledge in Health transfers in the history of medical films in Education Films, 1910–1990 Germany, France, and the United States. The Anja Laukötter Science has long been interested in the project attempts to connect a discursivization research and analysis of emotions and has of emotions and knowledge with practice- Key References significantly molded the way that they are oriented approaches through an analysis on Laukötter, A. (2013d).­ overall perceived. At the same time, emotions three levels. Wissen als Animation: are often enlisted in the production and cir- Film in discourse: An analysis of the interna- Zur Transformation culation of scientific knowledge, in theories, tional discourse on this important instrument der Anschaulichkeit im Gesundheitsaufklärungs- methods, practices, and media coverage. On of health education shows how and why both film.Montage, AV: this basis, the project examines the rela- proponents and opponents of this educational Zeitschrift für Theorie tionship between emotions and knowledge, tool used the linkage between knowledge and und Geschichte audiovi- sueller Kommunikation, focusing specifically on the medium of health emotions in their argumentation. Moreover, 22 (2), 79–96. education films in the period from 1910 to the analysis shows that contemporary medici- Laukötter, A. (2011b). 1990. nal concepts of prevention and the “preven- (Film-)Bilder und medi­ Throughout the 20th century, particularly tive self” influenced these discourses, as well zinische Aufklärung im in countries such as Germany (and later the as emotional approaches of film theorists and beginnenden 20. Jahr­ hundert: Evidenz German Democratic Republic [GDR]), France, philosophical and psychological approaches, und Emotionen. In K. and the United States, many health education some of which continue even today and have Friedrich & S. Stollfuß films were produced with the intention to shaped fundamentally our understanding of (Eds.), Blickwechsel: Bildpraxen zwischen change the attitudes of the broader public to- knowledge transfer through the media. Wissenschafts- und ward health. Accordingly, the project aims to Film as practice: By examining case studies Populärkultur (Augen- show in which ways emotions such as disgust, of health education films in Germany, France, Blick: Marburger Hefte zur Medienwissenschaft­ fear, empathy, and trust were inscribed into the United States, and later the GDR, the proj- No. 50) (pp. 24–38). the production and conveyance of scientific ect illuminates how a specific, varied form of Marburg: Schüren. knowledge within these films. Moreover, the the “scientifically emotionalized moral tales” project questions the ways in which the films was created through different film techniques significantly changed scientific discourses, (e. g., montage, animations, narrative struc- scientific practices, and the relationship tures) to prevent the spread of contagious between science and the public. diseases among the population. Several of The project focuses on films that dealt with these films were not only used within national sexually transmitted diseases that were borders but were circulated internationally. widely seen and discussed by the public. This (transnational) dimension of knowledge Moreover, these films appeared from the and emotions is analyzed against the back- very beginning of film production: from films ground of contemporary medical and societal about gonorrhea in the Weimar period, to developments. In this sense, changes and French and American films that aimed to pre- continuities in strategies and techniques of vent the spread of syphilis among the armed the knowledge transfer process are identified. forces, to GDR HIV/AIDS films in the 1980s. Film as a research objective: The question of Alongside many differences, we find strongly whether, how, and under what conditions comparable developments and manifold health education films on the prevention of diseases influenced the attitude of viewers was not only a question discussed among experts but also a research topic. Throughout the 20th century, psychologists attempted to measure the emotional and knowledge trans- fer impact of these films through audience research studies. An analysis of these experi- Figure 18. Film still: Soldiers in an educational film ments shows how perceptions of emotions screening. and knowledge are embedded into research Source. Sex Hygiene (US, 1942, John Ford/Otto methods, practices, and settings, and in which Brower). ways this remains operative even today.

150 | Center for the History of Emotions Emotional Manhood: Adolescence, Informal with future fatherhood: Good heads of fami- Researcher Education, and the Male Citizen in Britain, lies would be good citizens. In addition, the Stephanie Olsen 1880–1914 increasing professionalization of disciplines In the first 5 months of the Great War, one related to childhood—education, social work, million men volunteered to fight. Yet, by the and especially psychology—is shown to have Key References end of 1915, the British government realized changed the nature of informal education Olsen, S. (2014). Juvenile that conscription would be required. Why did for boys and impacted popular conceptions nation: Youth, emotions so many enlist, and conversely, why so few? of boyhood and adolescence. One compo- and the making of the modern British citizen, Focusing on analyses of widely felt emotions nent of the project relates to the transmis- 1880–1914. London: related to moral and domestic duty, Emotional sion and adaptation of British religious and Bloomsbury. Manhood broaches these questions in new missionary views on emotional education Olsen, S. (2012b). ways. In the context of a widespread consen- for elite boys in India. The project as a whole Informal education: sus on the ways to make men out of boys, an demonstrates that masculinity was not only Emotional conditioning and enculturation in informal curriculum of emotional control, key about patriarchal or imperial outlooks in this British Bands of Hope to shaping the future citizenry of Britain and era but also about emotional attachment and 1880–1914. In M. ­Caruso the Empire, is revealed. The project demon- loyalty to family and community, in peace- & U. Frevert (Eds.), Emo- tionen in der Bildungs­ strates that the militaristic fervor of 1914 was time and in war. geschichte (Jahrbuch­ für an emotional outpouring based on associa- Historische Bildungs- tion to family, to community, and to Christian forschung No. 18) (pp. 110–125). Bad cultural continuity. Significantly, the same Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. emotional response explains why so many men did not volunteer, with duty to family and community perhaps thought to have been best carried out at home. Specifically, the project deals with how children and youth were informally edu- cated, through influential popular media and youth groups in Britain and its Empire, in the generations before World War I (1880–1914). Appeals to emotion and the shaping of “cor- rect” emotional responses on these important issues were thought key to the shaping of the next generation of men. Religious organiza- tions that focused on the temperate and manly upbringing of boys, from the Religious Tract Society, to the Church of England Temperance Society, and the Band of Hope are a main focus, while ideological similarities between these groups and for-profit, “secular” publishers, like the Amalgamated Press, are established. All of these publishers promoted The project’s core is a monograph, Juvenile their ideas through the youth groups they Nation: Youth, Emotions and the Making of the organized and, perhaps even more pervasively, Modern British Citizen, 1880–1914 (London: through the written word. Bloomsbury, 2014). The central themes have The historical study of emotions is tied to been explored broadly in the international an examination of some of the fundaments conference Childhood, Youth and Emotions of society and the individual’s place in it: in Modern History, hosted at the Institute family, religion, and citizenship. The project and related significantly to the group project defines citizenship to represent the historical Learning How to Feel. The proceedings of multivalence of the term, including its emo- the conference are now being edited and tional resonance. Crucially, it was associated augmented.

Center for the History of Emotions | 151 Researcher Cultivating Emotions—Hindi Advice Qualitative content analysis of the source Literature in Late Colonial India material indicates the shifting and increasing Monika Freier With its focus on normative literature, this role that emotions were given in normative dissertation project investigated the creation literature. Advice books condemned anger, Key Reference of culturally and historically situated knowl- greed, and lust as moral vices and appealed to Freier, M. (2012). Cul- edge about emotions and the evolvement of their readers to control, eradicate, or domes- tivating emotions: The norms, which are styled as moral markers of ticate them. In contrast, emotional norms and Gita Press and its agenda excellence. The dissertation project con- styles were propagated as necessities for in- of social and spiritual re- form. South Asian History sisted of three case studies, each centering dividual and social refinement. The Enlighten- and Culture, 3, 397–413. on a different subgenre of advice books ment ideal of sympathy (variously translated doi:10.1080/19472498. published from the late 19th to the middle as samvedan´s¯ ılta ¯, su´s¯ılta ¯, saha¯nabhu¯ti, etc.) 2012.693711 . of the 20th century: (1) works on ethics and became styled as a universal marker of civility. etiquette, (2) religious advice literature, and Hindi self-help books and etiquette manu- (3) domestic manuals centering on marital als reclaimed this emotional style in order to advice, home science, and sexual hygiene. postulate the excellence of morally educated Official reports from the British colonial Indians and their subsequent right to cultural government, journal articles, and autobio- (and political) leadership. The popularization graphical material formed additional source and ongoing reinterpretation of religious material for the study. Archival sources were scriptures became central for Hindu reform accessed in public libraries and archives in groups, including proponents of the “ortho- India as well as in the India Office collections dox” Sanatan Dharm movement. The latter of the British Library, promoted dispassionate feeling (niska . ¯mbha¯v) thanks to the finan- as a comprehensive emotional ideal that cial support of the could unify all Hindus across sectarian Max Planck Society boundaries. Ethical, sexual-pathological, and a scholarship and eugenic approaches began to inform from the German ongoing discussion celibacy and emotional Historical Institute and sexual abstinence (brahmaca¯rya) in the London. ­20th-century India. This led to the propa- Hindi advice litera- gation of a rigid lifestyle, characterized by ture started off in the sexual, bodily, and emotional celibacy. Hindi 1870s as a genre domestic advice manuals, however, also promoted through promoted (bodily) love as a virtue that made patronage. The the success of a marriage and that would ul- production of Hindi timately secure the future of the nation. Hindi literature in the late advice literature thus formulated prescriptive 19th century was rules for the cultivation of emotions. These further fostered by became markers of identification for emo- a politically inspired tional communities, formed on the basis of an language movement. education of the heart, (Hindu) religion, and Toward the middle political independence. of the 20th century, Findings from the research project have been Figure 19. This book cover from an advice manual however, authors discussed with a peer audience at confer- depicts three demons personifying lust, greed, and of advice literature ences such as the 22nd European Conference anger (left side, top to bottom). They try to morally and had to increasingly on South Asian Studies (Lisbon, 2012) and the emotionally deteriorate a traditionally clad Hindu by pulling him away from god (right side, top) and toward employ effective 8th South Asia Graduate Students Confer- the earth, which is described as the “possession of the strategies to position ence (University of Chicago, 2013), and also three-fold demons.” their works on the published in a peer-reviewed journal. The dis- Source. Poddar, H., Sama¯ j kis or ja¯ raha¯ hai [Which competitive commer- sertation was submitted to the Freie Univer- direction does society move?]. Gorakhpur, n.d. cial market. sität Berlin in March 2013, the thesis defence © Gita Vatika, Gorakhpur was in June 2013.

152 | Center for the History of Emotions Loving the Master? The Debate on violation of the injunctions of the shar¯ı ’a, Researcher Appropriate Emotions in North India wastage of money and time, negligence of the Mohammad Sajjad (ca. 1750–1830) proper ways of performing the practices—are This doctoral project started in October 2008 also found in the Sufi texts. The opposition and was successfully defended on 21 December to these practices resulted in the division of 2012. It explored the debate on appropriate Muslims in India into sects which are now emotions within the Sufi circles in North India known as masalik (schools). This division, as during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the dissertation argues, needs to be studied focusing on the love relationship between the from the perspective of emotions as much as Sufi master and the disciple, as well as the it has been studied from the perspective of the practices prescribed by the Sufis to cultivate shar¯ı ’a. Sufi practices were justified by some emotions. Various groups during this period Sufi scholars associated with “reformist” Islam intensely discussed questions regarding how on both legal and emotional grounds. Others to cultivate divine love and examined the role considered these practices to be accretions and of emotions in the master–disciple relation- cultural borrowings and drew a line between ship. They privileged emotional styles that faith and infidelity to form a distinct religious were grounded in emotion knowledge derived identity by excluding not just Hindus, but also from different disciplinary traditions—moral those Muslims who participated in these prac- philosophy, medical discourse, theology, and tices. This contestation reveals that the reform- Sufi ideas and beliefs. Instead of explicitly ist discourse remained a contested subject with contesting established concepts, Sufi scholars various interpretations among the proponents emphasized the need to interpret them. Some of normative and doctrinal Islam. of them intended to implicitly substantiate the ideological positions of their respective Sufi orders while others laid emphasis upon bringing reconciliation among various religious groups by giving inclusive and different interpretations. This study argues that the Sufi practices were debated for their “emotional effects,” which were held by some to be the means to cultivate divine love, while others argued that the emotions generated by them were not re- quired by the shar¯ı ’a. However, both of these groups claimed to support “normative and doctrinal Islam.” Thus, even “normative Islam” was subject to contestation. The analysis of the individual intellectual projects of this pe- riod proves that, despite their call for renewal and reform, Muslim scholars of this period do not fall neatly into categories of reform- ist Islam and traditional Islam. This project thus proposes that, instead of essentializing an antagonism between Sufism and doctrinal Islam or a dichotomy between “folk syncretic Figure 20. Cover of Ma’mulat-I Mazhariyya Va Mahbub practices” and “normative high Islam,” reform Al-Arifin, written by Na’imullah Bahraichi. Besides should be studied as a complex process. biographical details about Mirza Mazhar (d. 1781), this Most Sufi scholars believed in the meditational book deals with the subtle components of the soul, master-disciple relationship, celebration of birth an- role of the Sufi masters, in seeking help from niversary, and other mystical practices. dead saints and in miracles, and they also con- Source. Ma’mulat-I Mazhariyya Va Mahbub Al-Arifin doned the celebration of death anniversaries. (The Prayer Formula and Practices of Mirza Mazhar However, concerns regarding excesses—the [Persian]). Lahore: Matba’ Muhammadi, n.d.

Center for the History of Emotions | 153 Researchers Research Area: Emotions and the Body Margrit Pernau Magdalena Beljan Pascal Eitler Bettina Hitzer Uffa Jensen Jan Plamper Monique Scheer Yuthika Sharma Gian Marco Vidor Claudia Wassmann Moritz Buchner

Figure 21. Engraving by Daniel Chodowiecki. Source. Kupfersammlung zu J. B. Basedows Elementarwerke für die Jugend und ihre Freunde, Berlin/Dessau, 1774, Tab. XXIV. /SUB Göttingen.

Projects within this research area take special account of the fact that emotions are embodied. Body language, particularly mimics and gestures, are seen not only as expressions of emotions, but also as social practices encoding and “impressing” emotions. Apart from social conventions and educational efforts, changing concepts of the body influence the way in which emotions are felt and expressed, evoked and tempered. Historical analyses of emotions that consider the biological-physiological substrate of body language can and do draw on findings from the natural and life sciences. At the same time though, they historicize those findings by placing them firmly into their social, political, religious, and aesthetic contexts.

Collaborative Research Activities (selected) (London), as well as members of other Centers From 22–24 September 2011, Bettina Hitzer at the Institute such as Wolfgang Gaissmaier and Anja Laukötter organized an international (ABC) addressed the conceptualization and conference on Emotions and Medicine in the use of emotions in medical and public health 20th Century. Combining historical perspec- discourses and practices. tives and contemporary surveys, 15 talks The first panel explored how emotions were were offered to an audience of historians, conceptualized in the course of the 20th cen- psychologists, neuroscientists, sociologists, tury, mainly in the disciplines of psychiatry, and representatives of public health institu- physiology, and psychology. Research here tions. External participants such as Otniel E. focused on how emotions worked and if they Dror (Jerusalem), Christine Holmberg (Berlin/ were more closely linked to the body or to the Washington D.C.), Christopher Lane (Chi- mind and soul. Those active in the field either cago), Patrice Pinell (Paris), Rhodri Hayward attempted to draw the line between “normal”

154 | Center for the History of Emotions and “pathological” emotions or to defer and Jerusalem) and Pilar León-Sanz (University Key References even blur the line. of Navarra, Pamplona). The perspective was Eitler, P. (2013a). Ein- How did medical staff refer to this kind of widened so as to encompass a more general führung: Gewaltverhält- research, if at all? Were other models or as- history of science stretching back to the nisse—eine körperge- schichtliche Perspektive. sessments of emotions equally or even more Middle Ages. Results have been accepted Body Politics: Zeitschrift important—for instance, those provided by for publication in the highly ranked journal für Körpergeschichte, sociology, theology, psychotherapy, political OSIRIS (in 2016) (History of Science and 1(2). ideology, or what we could call public morale? the Emotions, eds. Otniel E. Dror, Bettina Eitler, P. (2013c). Im These were some of the questions addressed Hitzer, Anja Laukötter, Pilar León-Sanz), with “Reich der Sinne”? Porno­ grafie, Philosophie und by the second panel, which focused on the contributions from a wide range of scholars die Brutalisierung der role of emotions in medical research and from Canada, France, Germany, Israel, Spain, Sexualität (1968–1988). practice. It investigated not so much emotions Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the Body Politics: Zeitschrift für Körpergeschichte, in general, but rather networks of specific United States. 1(2). emotions that were thought to structure the work and professional relationships of researchers, doctors, nurses, and patients. Moral assessments and political uses of those emotions came to the fore in the third panel, which presented three different case studies of emotional campaigning. The fourth panel One of the longer ranging initiatives has took up a question that has been tackled for been the launch of the new online journal centuries: Are there any emotions, emotional Body Politics. It is dedicated to the history of www.bodypolitics.de/en states, or a certain handling of emotions the body from the 18th to the 21st century, which have a pathologizing effect on the available free of charge and in open access body? And—in reverse—could some emotions format (using double-blind peer reviews). The contribute to staying healthy or even cure first volume with two issues, on the topics diseases? of Fordism and Violence, appeared in 2013. This conference was a starting point for Henceforth, articles in German or English will further international cooperation with be published three times per year. historians Otniel E. Dror (Hebrew University, The project is done in collaboration with the University and Research Library, Erfurt/ Gotha, simultaneously published in the Digital Library of Thuringia, and financially supported by the German Research Founda- tion (DFG). Pascal Eitler, founder and member of the Editorial Board, which also includes Magdalena Beljan and Monique Scheer, is currently managing editor together with Maren Möhring (Potsdam) and Marcus Otto (Braunschweig). The Scientific Advisory Board consists of international scholars from vari- ous disciplines, including Ute Frevert, Dagmar Herzog (New York), Jakob Tanner and Philipp Sarasin (Zurich), as well as Franz Xaver Eder (Vienna). The launch of this new journal reflects the particular attention scholars have paid to the history of the body during the past 20 years. The research team on Emotions and the Body has widely contributed to this emerging field.

Center for the History of Emotions | 155 Researcher Space and Emotion localities. Collaboration with the universities Emotions are mediated through the senses of Copenhagen and Aarhus is under negotia- Margrit Pernau and the body, and hence situated in space. tion. Landscapes, building styles, and urban set- Within the history of emotions team, it is Key Reference tings evoke emotions—people draw on a linked with the projects of Benno ­Gammerl Pernau, M. (in press-c). different register of emotions when travel- and Joseph Prestel. In collaboration with Space and emotion: ing through a wild mountainous region or the Centre Marc Bloch in Berlin, the three Building to feel. History strolling through a garden, when walking researchers organized the workshop Feel- Compass. through the lanes of their neighborhood or ings in the City: Emotions and Urban Space visiting a shrine. At the center of the project (November 2011). is the question of how emotions in space are brought about: On the one hand, emotions do not inhere to space itself, but are cultur- ally learned and hence subject to historical change. On the other hand, natural and built spaces also set a certain material frame which is neither wholly malleable, nor devoid of a need for interpretation. This project focuses on the urban history of Delhi from the foundation of the city of Shahjahanabad from the 17th to the 20th century. In order to explore the processes through which certain spaces are made to evoke certain emotions, it brings together approaches from the history of emotions, art history, cultural geography, and urban stud- ies. Possibilities are currently being explored Details of a map of Delhi (ca. 1840). for linking written, visual, and oral sources to Figure 22. a digital map of Delhi, permitting a reor- Source. British Library. ganization of the historical archive around

Figure 23. Divan.i Khass (private audience chamber) at Delhi, part of Amal-i Salih, a history of Shah Jahan by Muhammad Salih Kanbu, ca. 1830. Source. British Library.

156 | Center for the History of Emotions Intermediality 1980s. This dissertation project explores the Researchers This project draws together two other projects change in the concept of anger in Indian Margrit Pernau which have until now been pursued sepa- popular discourse by means of Hindi and Imke Rajamani rately: Expressing Emotions: Music, Film, and Telugu films and other film-related media Literature in India, which brought together a such as film magazines. First results on how number of guest researchers at the Institute, the knowledge, moral evaluation, bodily Key Reference and an ongoing engagement in the field of expressions, and aesthetics of anger were Rajamani, I. (2012). the history of concepts, mainly in the institu- changed in the audiovisual mode and in the Pictures, emotions, tional framework of the History of Concepts interplay of different media in cinema as conceptual change: Anger in popular Hindi Group (the international association for con- a cultural circle have been published in an cinema. Contributions to ceptual history), Concepta (the association for article. A methodological approach for the the History of Concepts, the training of young conceptual historians, analysis of cinema as a site of doing emo- 7 (2), 52–77. doi:10.3167/ choc.2012.070203 board member since 2009), and the journal tions and emotion concepts as multimedial Contributions to the History of Concepts (edi- semantic nets has been formulated in a tor 2009–2012, member of the Editorial Board chapter for the dissertation. The work for the since 2012). main analytical chapter on the change of the “Intermediality” pursues a twofold goal. First, angry male body in popular Hindi and Telugu it aims at overcoming the latent logo-cen- films has been completed. Further research trism of the history of emotions by system- will focus on the conceptual change of atically focusing on the interface between anger from vice to virtue in the course of its language, images, films, and auditive media. politicization, the social implications of this Possibilities for this were explored in a read- moral reframing and the meaning of anger’s ing group that brought together scholars from changing audiovisual aesthetics. A paper on South Asia and Europe. Second, this approach how anger in popular Indian cinema facili- shall lead to a revisiting of some of the basic tated notions of political mobilization was assumptions of conceptual history by bringing presented at CEIAS (Centre d’Études de l’Inde the history of the body and the senses into et de l’Asie du Sud)/EHESS in Paris in May a dialogue with more language centered 2013. The research of anger as a concept approaches. This can lead to the exploration linking electoral politics and popular culture of possibilities of investigating the iconic in India to the present day will further be qualities not only of metaphors, but also of pursued in the context of the international concepts and integrating a new set of sources research project EMOPOLIS: Emotions and into conceptual history projects. Political Mobilizations in the Indian Subcon- In the India group, this project is also central tinent, based at CEIAS. for the work of Yuthika Sharma (postdoctoral fellow 2013) and Imke Rajamani (predoc- toral fellow, financed by Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes). Shweta Sachdeva (Max Planck Junior Research Fellow, New Delhi) is presently on maternity leave, but will join the group again in 2014.

Imke Rajamani (Dissertation Project) Angry Young Man: The History of Anger in Popular Indian Films, ca. 1970–1990 The “angry young man” conquered the Indian cinema screens in the 1970s. The underdog hero, who fought in action-packed films against a criminal and corrupt establish- Figure 24. The Angry Young Man as an Indian working class hero: Famous actor ment, is still remembered today as the most Amitabh Bachchan as Iqbal in Coolie. prominent cinematic icon of the 1970s and Source. Film still from the Hindi movie Coolie (1983).

Center for the History of Emotions | 157 Researcher Ambivalent Emotions: Conflicts and lyzes popular books written by politicians, Convergences in Dealing With HIV/AIDS scientists, journalists, and AIDS activists. In Magdalena Beljan Being diagnosed with AIDS in the early 1980s addition, it integrates archive material of the meant being diagnosed with a fatal disease. AIDS movement organization ACT UP, movies, Key Reference There was no hope, no efficient therapy, and documentaries, and ego documents. Beljan, M. (in press-c). almost no knowledge about the disease, the The project shows how the media was part of “Unlust bei der Lust?”: infection, and its transmission. Official poli- a system that constructed different groups Aids, HIV & Sexualität tics seemed to ignore the problem, while mass of victims. “Risk groups,” especially gay in der BRD. In P.-P. Bänziger, M. Beljan, F. X. media reported in a dramatic way about the men, were blamed for the infection and for Eder, & P. Eitler (Eds.), unknown and “scary” disease. Much has been the quick spread of the disease. They were Sexuelle Revolution? Zur said in scientific research about the “AIDS described as promiscuous and careless, while Geschichte der Sexualität im ­deutschsprachigen hysteria” in the 1980s in Western countries. hemophiliacs and children were pictured as Raum seit den 1960er The common underlying assumption is that “innocent victims.” Gay magazines also picked Jahren (1800|2000 mass media had a huge impact on emotions— up the question of whether gay men should Kulturgeschichten der Moderne). Bielefeld: that is, on forming and producing emotions— change their sex life and partnerships. None- transcript. and that they fostered an atmosphere of fear. theless, they still made it clear that homo- But instead of reproducing this idea, this sexuals were victims and not guilty. research project questions it and discusses the The turn in the late 1980s from looking at ambivalence of emotions. During the last 30 “risk groups” to focusing on “risk practices” years, the AIDS issue has undergone a radical seemed to de-emotionalize the discourse change in Western countries, which can be about the spread of the infection. But as described as a process of normalization. It the project explores, even this shift did not is no longer a mortal threat, but a treatable entirely expel the notion and model of guilt. though not curable infection. How did this The liberal AIDS policy in Germany, with its shift happen? And what role did emotions concept of responsibility and its idea of “you play in this process? don’t get AIDS—you catch it“ (“AIDS bekommt Though this project concentrates on Germany man nicht, man holt es sich”), reinforced the in the 1980s and 1990s, the analysis also notion that people were responsible for their includes a wider perspective on the history of own fate. the body, on the self, on self-help organiza- This idea of being responsible for one’s own tions, on the sexual disease may not be new. But AIDS, in contrast revolution, and on to other diseases, was an “embarrassing” dis- developments related ease, not only because it has been character- to the public health ized as a “gay disease” but also because of its system. Major sourc- classification and description as a “sexually es for the project are transmitted disease” (STD). People were different print media ashamed at being diagnosed HIV positive be- and publications of cause being infected meant one had too much self-help organiza- sex; or at least the “wrong” kind of sex. tions (Deutsche Nevertheless, a central strategy in official AIDS Hilfe e.V.), HIV/AIDS politics and prevention was to Figure 25. The magazine aktuell provided a but also material produce the feeling of responsibility and of portrait of the German from the prevention being concerned (Betroffenheit) about HIV/ artist Jürgen­ Baldiga work of the German AIDS in the population. Rita Süssmuth, Ger- (1959–1993), gay and HIV positive, who documented Federal Centre for man Federal Minister of Health (1985–1988), his suffering from the Health Education described this in 1987 as “producing the feel- disease in his art. (Bundeszentrale ing that AIDS bothers everybody” (AIDS. Wege Source. Cover of für gesundheitliche aus der Angst, 1987, p. 76). The project finally aktuell—das Magazin der Aufklärung). Fur- shows the rise and decline of this concept and Deutschen AIDS-Hilfe, No. 8, Nov. 1994, special thermore, the project its crucial role in normalizing and emotional- issue on guilt. includes and ana- izing HIV/AIDS.

158 | Center for the History of Emotions The Love of Animals and political-historical questions, while at the Researcher Animals play a much larger role in the same time delving into the booming interdis- Pascal Eitler research on emotions than one would ini- ciplinary realm of human–animal studies; a tially suspect. Not only within scientific and sphere which continues to probe the emo- psychological research are feelings or affects tionalization and politicization of animals and Key References considered something that connects humans human–animal relations without reflecting Eitler, P. (2014). The “ori- and certain animals on an evolutionary level, upon its historical origins and its understand- gin” of emotions: Sensi- and which points to a collectively acquired ing of the body. tive humans, sensitive animals. In U. Frevert, ability of the body and especially of the brain. Over the past 5 years, this project has de- M. Scheer, A. Schmidt, Emotions (particularly fear or anger) have veloped these three aspects relating to the P. Eitler, B. Hitzer, N. long appeared in cultural studies’ research as past 200 years, basing itself on Germany and Verheyen, B. Gammerl, C. Bailey, & M. Pernau, virtually ahistorical; they were seen as erup- undergoing comparisons with Great Britain, Emotional lexicons: tive, and in this sense animalistic. France, and the United States, and is founded Continuity and change in This research project attempts by contrast on a broad resource framework (sources the vocabulary of feeling 1700–2000 (pp. 91–117). to show how the attribution of feelings to from advice literature and lexicons, to films Oxford: Oxford University certain animals should be historicized and and pictures, novels, children’s literature, Press. contextualized. The notion that animals scientific studies, legal legislation, and animal Eitler, P. (2013e). Der possess feelings (and not merely sensations) welfare literature). The first results were put Schutz der Tiere und is a conception that took hold both scientifi- up for discussion in the form of articles and die Transformation des Politischen im 19. und cally and within society at large, in the case essays. 20. Jahrhundert. In F. of Europe and North America, only over the The project is presently in its final stages and Bösch & M. Sabrow course of the last 150 years. In this regard now turns itself to the concluding ques- (Eds.), ZeitRäume 2012/13: Potsdamer Al- it is essential to address a somatization of tion of whether one can actually historically manach des Zentrums für emotions and thereby an emotionalization substantiate and adequately analyze (with Zeithistorische For­schung of animals. the help of which sources?) the acquisition (pp. 87–97). Göttingen: Wallstein. Furthermore, the project attempts to show of certain feelings in certain animals against how what one would generally term the “love the background of of animals” emerged and disseminated within this comprehensive this emotionalization process. The attribution emotionalization of feelings to certain animals increasingly process (and not by led to showing these animals feelings of love nature!). Though this and affection, empathy and compassion. The question can easily history and presence of mutual cohabita- be sentimentally mis- tion with so-called “pets” is only conceivable interpreted, it should within the framework of the emotionalization still be understood of human–animal relations. heuristically. Indeed, Thirdly, the attribution of feelings to ani- if one conceives mals not only went hand in hand with the feelings as not simply consequential emotionalization of human– given, but rather animal–relations, mainly in the framework of from the perspective the family; from the 19th century (in Great of the history of the Britain, Germany, France, and the United body as acquired, States) this attribution headed strongly incorporated, and toward a moralization and politicization of capable of altera- human animal relations and led to the rapid tion then this as yet development of an internationally linked unsolved question animal-protection movement. Meanwhile, in should be examined. Germany, animal welfare had even attained The project will be constitutional status. completed in 2014 in Figure 26. 1972 German Yearbook on Animal Protec- In this sense the project at hand traces mul- the form of a mono- tion (Vol. 17). tidimensional transformation of emotional graph. Source. Tierschutzverlag (Buberl und Co.), Munich.

Center for the History of Emotions | 159 Researcher Emotion and Religion in the New Age of Yoga and the more short-lived boom in Movement so-called Biofeedback therapy. The New Age Pascal Eitler Since their beginnings in the 19th century, movement was, in this sense, not simply an Key References the social sciences have analyzed or postu- important component of an “alternative” life- Eitler, P. (2013d). “Orte lated a close connection between religion and style; it rather drastically promoted a type of der Kraft”: Körper, emotions. However, within the framework of body-centered “therapeutization” that affects Gefühle und die religiöse secularization (Säkularisie­rungsthese), this virtually all lifestyles across the board. “Holis- Topologie im “New Age.” In F. Bösch & L. Hölscher assumed connection was rarely brought under tic” medicine and emotional “self-realization” (Eds.), Jenseits der Kirche: unbiased investigation. This project examines have, if nothing else, evolved more and more Die Öffnung religiöser one of the most recent religious histories: the into the standard benchmark of a “fulfilled” Räume seit den 1950er Jahren (Geschichte der New Age movement of the 1970s and 1980s. life, be it private or public, in relationships or Religion in der Neuzeit Even today, this movement is often rashly in careers. No. 5) (pp. 176–199). marginalized as cultish, rather than seriously The project could put its research findings up Göttingen: Wallstein. reconstructed as a part of culture, due to its for a variety of discussions in its numerous Eitler, P. (2011b). “Selbst­ alleged irrational—and indeed, emotional— contexts. Stemming from diverse guidebooks heilung”: Zur Somatisie­ rung und Sakralisierung foundations. to keynote texts, from illustrated pictures in von Selbstverhältnissen The project explores the emotionalization of esoteric trade magazines to the reception in im New Age (West- religious practices and discourses in the West the mass media, it is possible to reconstruct deutschland 1970–1990). In S. Maasen, J. Elberfeld, German New Age movement, emphasizing the central role of the body in each different P. Eitler, & M. Tändler the importance of the body and focusing sphere—not only regarding the acquisition (Eds.), Das beratene on four different spheres. (1) The project of feelings but also for their preservation Selbst: Zur Genealogie der Therapeutisierung in first addressed the crucial significance of and assessment. From the perspective of the den “langen” Siebzigern emotions within the much-discussed “new” history of the body, the developments within (1800|2000 Kulturge- gender order of the New Age movement, es- the New Age movement indicate that “real,” schichten der Moderne No. 7) (pp. 161–181). pecially concerning the so-called “New Man”. “deep” feelings must not only be advertised Bielefeld: transcript. (2) Based on this research, the project pro- or explained; they must rather be gradually ceeds to question the incorporated and rehearsed. And they are relevance of feelings by no means always successfully real- within the multifac- ized. Against this background, the project eted politicization also undertakes a historically sharpened, of the New Age critical reflection of the ever-increasing movement as a social emphasis on “authentic” feelings and “self-­ movement, elucidat- realization.” ing the affirmative In this context, the New Age movement relationship to the first illustrates that such a multifaceted so-called “alterna- emotionalization process harkens back to tive milieu” of the specific foundations and diverse resources. Women’s Movement In this case, so-called “oriental” techniques and the Green Party. of the body and religions, or philosophies like (3) Over the past Buddhism or Hinduism, played a critical role. 3 years, the project Additionally, the New Age movement thereby has closely examined emerged not as an allegedly irrational cult, from an emotional- but rather as a historical, highly interesting historical perspective prism, which allows for the observation of esoteric discourses the rapidly changing meaning of emotions in on health and alter- the 1970s and 1980s. (4) Finally, the project native medicine in will turn to the spacial dimension of the New the 1970s and 1980s, Age movement and the media’s impart- Figure 27. Advice manual (Know yourself: Your health particularly within ing of “sacred” feelings. The project is to be and your body) published in Munich in 1987. the framework of the completed in 2015 in the form of a small Source. Wilhelm Goldmann Verlag. long-lasting success monograph.

160 | Center for the History of Emotions Oncomotions: New Perspectives on the and harmful emotion. This changed during Researcher History of Cancer in the 20th Century the 1960s in the wake of a larger reevalua- Bettina Hitzer “Illness is the night-side of life, a more onerous tion of emotions. Fear gained new currency citizenship. Everyone who is born holds dual as a powerful means to deter people from citizenship, in the kingdom of the well and an unhealthy lifestyle until the 1980s when Key References in the kingdom of the sick. Although we all cancer education favored the conviction that Hitzer, B. (in press-e). prefer to use only the good passport, sooner or people had to be encouraged through the use Oncomotions: Experi- later each of us is obliged, at least for a spell, of positive images, feelings, and hope. ence and debates in West Germany and the United to identify ourselves as citizens of that other The emotion models employed by cancer States after 1945. In F. place”. (Susan Sontag, 1978) awareness campaigns were informed by Biess & D. M. Gross (Eds.), Throughout the 20th century, countless citi- psychological and medical theories that also Science and emotions after 1945: A transatlan- zens of Sontag’s kingdom of the sick had to live played a role in explaining and treating cancer. tic perspective. Chicago: with, and more often die of cancer. But the en- While older humoral cancer etiologies claimed University of Chicago counter with cancer also shaped debates and that there was a close connection between Press. experiences of talking about, explaining, en- melancholy and cancer growth, emotions Hitzer, B. (2013). Körper- during, and acting upon disease and dying, the vanished from oncology in the late 19th cen- Sorge(n): Gesundheits­ politik mit Gefühl. In vulnerable body and our Selves. These debates tury as a result of the commitment to cellular C. Jarzebowski & A. not only spoke to the emotions of many people, pathology. The new psychosomatic medicine Kwaschik (Eds.), Perform- but emotions were frequently at their center. that first emerged during the 1920s reintro- ing Emotions: Inter- disziplinäre Perspektiven Thus, in discussing and implementing cancer duced emotions into oncology. Personality auf das Verhältnis von awareness campaigns, treatment options and studies tried to substantiate the assumption Politik und Emotion in der coping strategies, as well as palliative and that specific ways to handle emotions made Frühen Neuzeit und in der Moderne (pp. 43–68). terminal care, people also reasoned about the people prone to cancer. This model of a cancer Göttingen: V&R unipress. meaning and moral value of emotions, about personality soon found its way into popular the way to express, talk, or keep still about self-help books. Moreover, it influenced and them, and, ultimately, about the potential modified the way in which cancer patients impact of these emotions on the body. were treated and cared for by establishing the This history of what could be termed as onco- new discipline of psycho-oncology that em- motions focuses on Germany from the 1910s phasized the role of emotions in curing cancer until the 1990s. The following two short or enhancing a patient’s quality of life. paragraphs sum up some of the findings. First attempts at raising cancer awareness in Germany started around 1900. While these campaigns were constructed upon the convic- tion that spreading knowledge was sufficient, fear soon became a topic of heated debate. As notions of fear oscillated between its moti- vating and its paralyzing effects, public health workers tried to promote a form of rational- ized concern. This trend toward blocking fear in favor of a feeling of concern and duty gained momentum during the National So- cialism era. Easy-access detection procedures and condemning cancer fear as cowardice and irresponsibility toward one’s own children and the Volk served this purpose. But experienced against the backdrop of exterminating chroni- cally ill people, this strategy nevertheless used an underlying logic of fear. In the postwar Figure 28. Cover of a German magazine dedicated to era, evoking fear was anxiously avoided since the topic Cancer: A Disease of the Soul? it was perceived as a dangerous, irrational, Source. Der Spiegel 45/1977.

Center for the History of Emotions | 161 Researcher Feelings Against Jews: The Emotional modern anti-Semitism can more easily be History of Modern Anti-Semitism comprehended by using the tools that the re- Uffa Jensen Anti-Semitism is an emotionally laden phe- cent literature on emotions and their history nomenon. Ever since Richard Wagner in his has developed. Key References infamous Judaism in Music (1850, reissued In this context, two theoretical developments Jensen, U. (2013c). Poli- in 1869) spoke of an “unconscious feeling,” prove to be profitable for historical research tik und Recht. Paderborn: “a rooted dislike of the Jewish nature,” even on modern anti-Semitism. Firstly, by chal- Schöningh. an “involuntary repellence” against Jews, lenging the distinctions between cognition Jensen, U., & Schüler- such emotionalized language has appeared and emotion as historically and culturally Springorum, S. (2013a). in anti-Semitic discourse. Anti-Jewish texts, dependent, it becomes possible to move be- Einführung: Gefühle gegen Juden. Die Emo- speeches, slogans, films, images, etc., quite yond them and to investigate their interplay tionsgeschichte des mo­ frequently relied on various emotions like in the formation of anti-Semitism. Secondly, dernen­ Antisemitismus. hatred, anger, fear, disgust, resentment, envy, this interplay takes place within the human Geschichte und Gesell- schaft, 39, 413–442. pride, etc. These forms of communication body, which recent proposals for the history of could have social effects, mainly through emotions put at the heart of their endeavor. group formation by emotional synchroniza- In this way, anti-Semitism can be shown to tion. Moreover, violence against Jews was mobilize the body in particular ways. How- often coordinated by complex forms of ever, the argument is not that the body of the emotional mobilization. Finally, Jewish reac- anti-Semite harbors essentialized anti-Jewish tions to anti-Semitism habitually included an emotions, but that historical anti-Semitism emotional involvement, among them moral relies upon specific bodily practices in the feelings of condemnation and indignation, form of emotions. but also fear, anger, pride, etc. The project intends to reopen and refocus Consequently, the French philosopher Jean- historical and conceptual discussions about Paul Sartre (1905–1980) described anti- modern anti-Semitism by using the historical, Semitism, in Anti-Semite and Jew (1946), as sociological, psychological, and neurological “something quite other than an idea”: as a scholarship on emotions. It also proposes to “passion.” Yet much investigate the available historical sources of the literature in anew by focusing on their emotional aspects: the social sciences What kind of emotions were involved when and in history has historical actors, groups, or institutions focused on cognitive embraced anti-Semitic notions, for example, aspects of racism and fear, anger, resentment, envy, etc.? How and anti-Semitism. In- when did an emotionalized language of anti- deed, many European Semitism emerge? What kind of emotional languages imply styles or even different emotional habitus cognitive connota- are visible in these sources? How did the tion with words like emotional synchronization within groups prejudice , préjugé, or work and to what effects? Along these lines, Vorurteil. Ultimately, the project will result in a wealth of new data, such an understand- insights, and historical arguments, which ing of anti-Semitism promises to substantially enrich the historical relies on the persua- research on modern anti-Semitism. As a start- siveness of rational ing point, the project has led to an extensive arguments to oppose conceptual, theoretical, and historiographical such phenomena. essay which introduces the volume Feelings This project argues, Against Jews in the leading German journal however, that impor- Geschichte und Gesellschaft that Uffa Jensen Figure 29. Feelings Against Jews: Richard Wagner’s tant aspects like the has coedited together with Stefanie Schüler- “Judaism in Music” (1869). endurance, strength, Springorum, the director of the Center for Source. Verlag J. J. Weber. and intensity of Research on Anti-Semitism (Berlin).

162 | Center for the History of Emotions History and Feeling: Foundations of the neuroscience—seem promising for a genuine Researcher History of Emotions cooperation with historians. Jan Plamper This book grew out of the Thyssen Founda- The book, especially its chapter on experi- tion funded Dilthey Fellowship project Fear: mental psychology/life science, has benefit- Soldiers and Emotion in Russia, 1800–2000 ted enormously from the multidisciplinary Key References (funding period: 2008–2012). While work- setup of the Institute through institute-wide Plamper, J. (2012a). ing on soldierly fear in Russia and on general conferences, advice on literature, and critical Geschichte und Ge- multidisciplinary research on fear (Plamper readings of drafts by colleagues from the fühl: Grundlagen der Emotions­geschichte. & Lazier, 2012), conceptual problems began other research centers. A placement in the München: Siedler. piling up so fast that at some point a pause January 2013 NDR list for the best nonfic- Plamper, J., & Lazier, seemed warranted in order to think some of tion (place 5–6), significant media attention, B. (Eds.). (2012). Fear: them through: The result is the prize-winning an invitation to participate in an American Across the disciplines. Geschichte und Gefühl. The book has a dual Historical Review conversation on the emo- Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. function. On the one hand, it synthesizes tions (Nicole Eustace, Eugenia Lean, Julie the history of emotions, including relevant ­Livingston, Jan Plamper, William M. Reddy, research in adjacent fields, such as philoso- and Barbara H. Rosenwein, 2012), an April phy, anthropology, sociology, linguistics, and 2013 Geisteswissenschaften International the life sciences. It attempts to present as prize to fund the translation into English broad and as balanced as possible an overview (rights acquired by Oxford University Press), as of—highly complex—thinking about the well as a license sold to Il Mulino publishers emotions, from Plato to the latest affective for an Italian translation, show that Geschich- neuroscience in user-friendly language and in te und Gefühl accomplishes the mission of the the form of narrative exposition. On the other Institute to produce internationally visible hand, Geschichte und Gefühl intervenes in a multidisciplinary basic science that, at its rapidly expanding field of research. It makes best, manages to bridge the natural sciences/ plain its skepticism about facile borrowings humanities divide. from the neurosciences, without ruling out the usefulness of such borrowings per se. Its argument is that historians who do borrow need to develop a deeper familiarity with the universalizing neuroscience findings on which they base their histories. Specifically and firstly, these historians should ask how robust a finding is: For instance, at the time of this writing in fall 2013, it looks like none of the three neuroscientific hypotheses about emo- tions most popular in the humanities, ­Joseph LeDoux et al.’s two roads to fear, ­Antonio Damasio et al.’s Somatic Marker Hypothesis (SMH), and ­Giacomo ­Rizzolatti et al. ’s mirror neuron hypothesis will stand the test of time. Secondly, historians who do use neurosci- ence findings should do so in full awareness of their specific epistemology, which includes reductionist experimental designs, iron distinctions between true/false, and universal claims to truth. At the same time, Geschichte und Gefühl sketches promising areas of a future history of emotions, thereby showing how several areas of neuroscience—func- tional integration, neuroplasticity, and social

Center for the History of Emotions | 163 Researcher Religious Enthusiasm: Emotional Practices The central claim of this study is that this Among Revivalist Protestant Groups in the interaction, and with it the experience of Monique Scheer United States and Germany God’s presence and the knowledge (or hope) The works of early 20th-century sociologists, that He exists, is mediated for Protestants at Key References such as Max Weber and Norbert Elias, have least as much by feelings as it is by the word. Scheer, M. (2012a). taught generations of students of German Because of this, Protestant emotions have Are emotions a kind of culture to view the Reformation and the been the object of intense scrutiny and polic- practice (and is that development of Protestant pieties as an im- ing as part of the process of discernment: that what makes them have a history)? A Bourdieuian portant step along the road to rationalization. is, determining whether feelings are actually approach to understand- Progressively, Christian belief was becom- mediating the supernatural or not. ing emotion. History and ing not only less supernatural but also less The study combines anthropological and Theory, 51, 193–220. doi:10.1111/j.1468- emotional. This study offers a different view: historical methods in a comparative approach. 2303.2012.00621.x Emotions are central to modern Protestantism Fieldwork among neo-Pentecostals—known Scheer, M. (2012c). and, for this reason, they are hotly contested, for the intensity of their emotional practices— Protes­ tantisch­ fühlen highly regulated, and constantly cultivated. and among mainline Protestants focuses on lernen: Überlegungen The reason why emotions are so central lies in how they talk about emotions in relation zur emotionalen Praxis der Innerlichkeit. In the core tenet of Protestant spirituality: the to their religious practice. This information U. Frevert & C. Wulf elimination of mediators between God and is situated in broader historical contexts (Eds.), Die Bildung der the individual soul. through the examination of sources that deal Gefühle (Zeitschrift für Erziehungswis- The Protestant doctrine of universal priest- with the same issues in the 19th century, senschaft, Sonderheft hood, its rejection of the veneration of the including polemics against revivalist groups, No. 16) (pp. 179–193). saints, and its reduction of the number of apologetic writings defending the cultivation Wiesbaden: Springer VS. doi:10.1007/s11618-012- sacraments and symbolic interpretation of of intense emotional states in church, and 0300-1 Communion meant that far less was al- first-person conversion accounts that discuss lowed to generate or support the experience religious experience in terms of emotions. of God’s presence. But that was indeed the A theoretical foundation for the study was point: Communication with God was not to be laid in the development of the concept of dependent on media, it was to be direct. God “emotion as practice” and a methodologi- looks directly into people’s hearts and they cal outline for studying “emotional prac- interact or communicate with Him directly, tices.” Rather than viewing religious feelings from the heart. as “arising” when they are “triggered” by religious practices, such as singing a hymn, murmuring a prayer, or listening to a sermon, this approach assumes that emotions (and their absence) are learned and practiced as a “technique of the body” (M. Mauss) and stored as overlearned habits in the “habi- tus” (P. Bourdieu). The religious practices of a particular group are bound up with the emotional practices they cultivate; they are designed to produce certain feelings, which are nevertheless experienced as involuntary, adding to their persuasive force. The practice-theory approach provides a vantage point from which both the “folk theory” as well as the scientific discourse of the protagonists can be analyzed. From this Figure 30. Bodily postures shape the emotions which perspective, the primacy of interiority that mediate interaction with God in Protestant settings. they share is not only shown to have its roots Source. Open Doors Deutschland e.V. in Protestant practice, but also to engage © Adam Rozanas moral dimensions of selfhood.

164 | Center for the History of Emotions Visual Culture of Hindustani and Shah Alam II (r. 1759–1806), whose Researcher Entertainments in Early Colonial India reigns span the transitional era of the Mughal Yuthika Sharma 1748–1858 State (18th and early 19th century) as it came Pictures of Hindustani entertainments in under the control of the British East India early colonial India embodied an artist/viewer Company. exchange of a homogenized idea of pleasure, Research outcome: This research foregrounds the visual and sensorial codes of which were the role of visual culture in mediating collec- accessible by a wide segment of North Indian tive thought and suggest ways to reinterpret society. This research offers a historical tra- the political and intellectual history of this jectory of the visual culture of rag’o rang, the period through the lens of emotions. The Indo-Persian concept of “pleasurable enter- aim here is to contextualize pleasure in elite tainment,” from its fairly aristocratic sensibil- performance culture in order to demonstrate ity of a connoisseurship-based appreciation of its changing structure as a form of public the arts in the 18th century to its communal entertainment. Overall, this study contrib- interactive format as popular entertainment utes to the intellectual history of the modern in 19th-century India. Entertainment pictures South Asia by considering the role of pleasure, thus offer a unique perspective into the a central category of emotion, and visual making of mass culture at the fundamental culture in writing history. juncture when courtly pleasures were dis- seminating into the public realm. Literature review summary: The project is an interdisciplinary investigation that aims at exploring the role of emotions as a tool of cultural analysis. The relationship between emotion and cultural practice remains an area of fruitful beginnings in the context of South Asia (Lynch, 1990; Kaviraj, 2000; Ali, 2002; Orsini, 2007; Dehejia, 2002), even as its methods are in the process of being defined by scholars (Matt, 2011; Rosenwein, 2006; Stearns, 1985; Reddy, 2001). This study especially benefits from a recent scholarship on the relationship between emotions and the arts, particularly painting and music, using an interdisciplinary approach to the study of emotions in history (Couk & Mills, 2005). In particular, recent work on the role of pleasure as a signifier of power in French court culture (Cowart, 2008; Frevert, 2012) offers useful parallels for this research on the relationship between power and politics of pleasure in Anglo-Mughal India. Methodology and source material: Through a study of two foundational texts and accom- panying images from the late Mughal court and the Anglo-Indian public sphere, this proj- ect charts transitions within popular culture and taste in Delhi society. It proposes a longue durée analysis of the performance and visual Figure 31. Muhammad Shah and female companions on a terrace at night culture of rag’o rang, under two Mughal rulers (ca. 1720–1725). Muhammad Shah “Rangila” (r. 1719–1748) Source. V&A Museum, IS.133:64/B-1964.

Center for the History of Emotions | 165 Researcher Grieving for Children in Italy in the Long In 19th-century Italy, death also had an 19th Century important educational function for children, Gian Marco Vidor During the long 19th century, Italian middle particularly when it struck a member of the and upper classes allowed for more and more peer group, both in real life and in literary Key References space for the communication of emotions fiction. What specifically characterized the Vidor, G. M. (in press-b). linked to the loss of infants, children, and emotional repertoire linked to the death of a The departure of an young adults. The final event was often child was the influence of certain elements, angel: Writing about the accompanied by a plethora of written texts which had a great importance in soothing loss of the child in late nineteenth and early of different kinds that were occasionally the negative feelings caused to the family twentieth century Italy. collected, printed, and distributed. In the new by the tragic event: the “metamorphosis” In M. Sonzogni & E. Towl cemeteries, which were perceived and used of the dead child into an angel, the peace (Eds.), Writing separation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh as important public and social spaces, an achieved by the cult of memories, and the University Press. ever-increasing number of monuments were very strong albeit not quite dogmatic belief Vidor, G. M. (in press-f). dedicated to children. Grieving had mani- in a reunion in the afterworld. Furthermore, Satisfying the mind and fold public dimensions that were considered these elements seem to play a significant role inflaming the heart: crucial in the long and complex process of in shaping what emerged as a homogeneous Emotions and funerary epigraphy in nineteenth what may be regarded as the formation of a emotional style of dying for some of these century Italy. Mortality. collective emotional community, in a histori- children. Described in the texts as a good cal period marked by efforts of the elites—in Christian death, written accounts of sickness, particular after the unification of the country including the final event of dying, followed a in 1861—to construct a shared Italian culture. common hagiographic narrative in which the Communicating the feelings for the loss of a body played an important role. Through their loved one, even when this happened to be a gestures, their way of looking and speaking child, was perceived as a learning experience. with the people surrounding them, these chil- Emotions were deemed an important element dren showed a sense of serenity, of patience, in enabling the transmission of certain values, and a spirit of resignation, without too much especially through funerary epigraphy. At the apprehension about their destiny, but with same time, sharing feelings as well as reading great empathy for their family. In addition to about the feelings of others was supposed to the consolatory and pedagogical function of help the living cope with their own grief. such descriptions and this sort of postmortem emotional “embellishing,” it seems plausible that, at a certain level, some of these children performed or tried to perform a set of positive emotions perceived as normative, through the control of their body language and the avoid- ance of any excess. Finally, working on the funerary material culture for children offered the opportunity to explore postmortem pho- tography; a historiographical topic that has been neglected in Italy. Focused specifically on children, this research relates to Moritz Buchner’s wider analysis of the mourning culture of liberal Italy.

Figure 32. Treatises and manuals for writing various types of inscriptions and printed anthologies of epitaphs (19th–20th century). © Gian Marco Vidor

166 | Center for the History of Emotions A Genealogy of Science of Emotion, crucial for understanding the contemporary Researcher 1860–2000 debates both in the late 19th century and Claudia Wassmann This project investigates the genealogy of today. Not only were the paths laid out for contemporary terminology of emotion from the ways in which psychology, medicine, and a historical perspective. The term emotion psychoanalysis, respectively, have treated Key References is used here as a shortcut to encompass and studied the emotions throughout the Wassmann, C. (2014). emotional, affective, and feeling states. The 20th century, but experimental methods Picturesque incisiveness: project makes two claims: Firstly, that emo- were also developed that anticipated the Explaining the celebrity of James’ theory of emo- tion was understood in the late 19th century formats used in psychological laboratories tion. Journal of the as a cognitive concept that united mind and today. For instance, French research provided History of the Behavioral body, rather than dichotomizing them, and fine case studies of “depressed patients” Sciences, 50 (2), 1–23. doi:10.1002/jhbs.21651 secondly, that we need to consider emotion and introduced the term “depression” long as an international concept rather than a before it became a diagnosis in the Diagnostic Wassmann, C. (2012a). On emotion and the ­“British term.” Indeed, the German Gefühl and and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders emotions: A comment the French émotion provided crucial elements (DSM). And German psychophysiologists and to Dixon, Mulligan and in the conceptualization of emotion in psy- pedagogues invented complex designs for the Scherer, and Scarantino. Emotion Review, 4 (4), chology at the turn of the 20th century. experimental study of emotions in the labora- 385–386. doi:10.1177/ This history of science traces the genealogy tory that made innovative use of pictorial im- 1754073912445821 of our contemporary terminology of emotion ages, photography, and film. In light of these back to two contexts: Firstly, to the mid-19th reasons, this project argues that the concept century German psychophysiological litera- of emotion, as it is framed by the natural ture and its reception and transformation in sciences, cannot be explained by British and French psychological writings and, secondly, American sources only, as do recent stud- to the debate about “the nature of emotion” ies on this aspect of the history of science. that revolved around William James’ “theory Because the German and French language of emotion” after the publishing of the Prin- literature from the 19th century has received ciples of Psychology (1890). Widening the comparably little attention in historiography, perspective both beyond the Anglo-American the project gives voice to these sources. It also context and beyond laboratory procedures widened the scope to include applied research shows that the understanding of emotion on emotion in pedagogy in France and Ger- in physiological psychology was much more many at the turn of the 20th century. complex and less exclusively concerned with bodily aspects of emotion than was hitherto assumed. Indeed, physiological psychologists not only worked out fundamental features of the body’s physiology, which were unknown at the time, they also studied emotion as a cognitive concept. Analyzing the cognitive as- pects of emotions, such as the role of emotion in cognition, volition, and decision making, was just as essential to them as studying the regulation of the physiological changes in the heart’s rhythm and in respiration. Most importantly, central to their aims was to com- prehend emotion in terms of brain function, like vision and language. This research thus laid the groundwork for numerous themes that emotion research in the neurosciences Figure 33. William James (1842–1910), author of the has taken up once more today. epoch-making article What is an emotion?, reprinted Framing emotion as an international concept in The principles of psychology, 1890. informed by German and French research is Source. Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain.

Center for the History of Emotions | 167 Researcher Grief and Mourning in Middle-Class Italy repugnant. In contrast, “modern” and “civi- (1860–1915) lized” styles were characterized by the control Moritz Buchner This research project explores the practices of mimics, gestures, and voices. Main sources of grief and mourning in liberal Italy before include scientific and literary texts, obituary World War I. The project argues that, in publications, newspaper articles, advice lit- the late 19th century, a characteristically erature, public instructions, as well as letters bourgeois culture of mourning was estab- and diaries. They testify to grief being strongly lished and became more clearly defined, but identified with the loss of interpersonal rela- was soon contested by new social dynamics. tions. According to bourgeois ideas, these Methodologically, grief and mourning are bonds were essentially founded on emotional considered social and emotional practices of affection. In the moment of death, the “plea- the upper and middle classes that deliberately surable” feelings of sympathy converted into set them apart from the traditions of other “painful” emotions like sorrow and anguish. groups; specifically, the lower social classes, These sentiments were highly appreciated the population of southern Italy and the because they reinforced bourgeois values and, countryside, as well as those whose practices beyond that, the social order. were perceived as outdated. These “wrong” However, not every expression of love and ways of grieving were closely connected to sorrow was “right.” Bourgeois emotional body language considered as excessive and styles tended to contain emotions, implying a nonimpulsive and nonphysical way of con- duct. Mourning practices tended to disem- body feelings. For instance, women and men were ascribed different emotional spaces, and hygienic measures were intended to prevent physical agitation. Additionally, emotional practices were outsourced to professionals, and feelings were expressed through texts and objects. Finally, the aesthetic expression of emotions was crucial. “Wrong” practices were judged as ugly, either because they were “excessive” or because they lacked “proper” emotional- ity. Only expressions that were moderate and empathic were considered “decent.” This was relevant for bodily expressed emotions but also for the shaping of graveyards or funeral processions. By investigating those rites and practices, the project is closely related to Gian Marco Vidor’s work in this research team.

Figure 34. Funeral service for Guido Visconti di Modrone, 18 November 1902 in Milan (Italy). Source. Archive of the Visconti di Modrone family, Milan (Italy).

168 | Center for the History of Emotions Research Area: Emotions and Power Researchers Ute Frevert Dagmar Ellerbrock Daniel Brückenhaus Joachim C. Häberlen Philipp Nielsen Anne Schmidt Sabine Donauer Joseph Ben Prestel Maritta Schleyer

Figure 35. Engraving by Daniel Chodowiecki. Source. Kupfersammlung zu J. B. Basedows Elementarwerke für die Jugend und ihre Freunde, Berlin/Dessau, 1774, Tab. XXXIV. /SUB Göttingen.

We often talk about powerful emotions­—emotions that overwhelm us, that prompt us to do things and act in a certain way. Much less frequently though do we talk about how power is emotionally cast, how it utilizes, elicits, and manipulates emotions. The why, when, and where are as important as the how. The projects sharing this research focus explore the interrela- tions between power and emotions in two major fields: politics and the economy. They analyze crucial emotional concepts of national and international policy (such as honor and shame, or loyalty and trust), and they investigate how the carefully observed and controlled importance of feelings unfolded in the world of human capital management and the consumer society.

Collaborative Research Activities (selected) While it seems easy to affirm the intercon- The major conference within this research nection of emotions and capitalism, the ques- team took place on 28–30 June 2012 on tions of how capitalist cultures are shaped Emotions and Capitalism. It was organized through emotional discourses and practices, by Sabine Donauer and Anne Schmidt in and how emotions have been shaped through cooperation with Christoph Conrad (Univer- capitalist cultures, are rarely explored in de- sity of Geneva). Ute Frevert and the Center’s tail. In their introduction, Anne Schmidt and visiting researchers Helena Flam (Leipzig Sabine Donauer outlined the different ways Figure 36. Devotional University) and Daniela Saxer (University of in which capitalist and emotional practices objects of emotional power: Pipe bowl with Zurich) participated as chairs and speakers. are mutually constituted and changed, using portraits of Marx and The timeliness and importance of the topic is examples from advertising and debates about Lassalle. evident in the large number of proposals (140) the meaning of emotions at the industrial © Deutsches Historisches responding to the call for papers. workplace. Museum, Berlin/A. Psille

Center for the History of Emotions | 169 Key Reference Karin Knorr Cetina (University of Chicago), of becoming an emotional being in different Frevert, U. (in press-a). who gave the opening talk, examined the stages of capitalism. Passions, preferences, strong emotional attachment of currency The organizers are currently editing a volume and animal spirits: How traders to the market. By closely analyzing the with English and German contributions to be does Homo Oeconomicus cope with emotions? In F. everyday practices on the trading floors, she published by Mohr Siebeck in 2014. Biess & D. M. Gross (Eds.), provided deep insights into the structures of From 14–15 November 2013, Philipp Nielsen Science and emotions today’s financial capitalism. organized an interdisciplinary conference after 1945: A transatlan- tic perspective. Chicago: The following 17 talks were grouped into four on I, the People: Negotiating Individual and University of Chicago panels: Financial and Trade Markets, Habitus Collective Emotions in Democratic Societ- Press. and Consumption, Workplace, and Postsocial- ies. In recognition of the fact that emotions ism as a Capitalist Laboratory. Historians, soci- are social practices, just as democracy, and ologists, and economists, among them Avner considering the breadth of both domains, Offer, Thomas Welskopp, and Anna Temkina, the conference brought together scholars discussed numerous case studies. The talks from five fields: political theory, law, sociol- explored, for example, how the privatization ogy, history, and architecture/media studies. of multiple liferisks brought about a “specula- The participants discussed the meaning of tive habitus” in neoliberal Australian society, emotional practices and regimes for demo- how a new emotional type emerged with the cratic settings in the 20th and 21st centuries. advent of capitalism in the Russian urban They queried the ways in which the borders middle class, and how the inmates of World between individual identity and public politics War II prisoner-of-war camps organized their are produced, shaped, or destroyed. Here, the daily material exchanges according to the conference built on new research of the last emotional economy they had acquired in their decade that has moved beyond the dictum country of origin. that emotions are primarily harmful for a This broad range of empirical material opened supposedly rational democratic discourse. up fruitful perspectives on how to over- This new research has instead stressed their come the ahistorical analytical categories importance for social movements, political of capitalist “rationality” and “interests.” participation, and collective identity. Along- Moreover, they suggested ways of systemati- side experts from six countries, Sarah Zalfen cally connecting the macro- and microlevel of from the Institute’s Max Planck Research capitalist practices, such as linking the history Group Felt Communities gave a talk, and the of production and consumption regimes, Center’s Minerva Research Group leader Dag- wealth and income distribution with the lived mar Ellerbrock chaired a panel on Emotions, experience of class, subjectivity, and ways Democracy, and Identity in Law.

Figure 37. Opening remarks by Philipp Nielsen for the conference I, the People: Negotiating Individual and Collec- tive Emotions in Democratic Societies (November 2013). © MPI for Human Development

170 | Center for the History of Emotions Emotional Citizens: Love, Loyalty, and Trust eagerly to enhance individual and national Researcher in Politics wealth. This rather modern notion of citizen- Ute Frevert Building on earlier publications on trust, ship did not translate into political rights and research carried out between 2011 and 2013 power sharing; it did, however, bring forth focused on three projects: a type of “emotional politics” that tried to Key References (1) the early modern structure of politics and form a personal bond between the king and Frevert, U. (2013a). La its notions of love and loyalty, his subjects. The project examined how that politique des sentiments (2) emotional politics during the long politics was designed and applied, as well as au XIXe siècle. Revue d‘Histoire du XIXe Siècle, 19th century, and the way that it was received, challenged, and 46, 51–72. (3) trust as a political promise/challenge in demanded by different groups of subjects. It Frevert, U. (2012b). Ge- modern politics (19th and 20th centuries). was not so much words and texts that were fühlspolitik: Friedrich II. As to the structure and practice of politics studied in this regard, but rather practices, als Herr über die Herzen? in the absence of modern, constitutional, rituals, and performances. Although words Göttingen: Wallstein. and parliamentary regimes of power sharing, and texts were a central element of political research concentrated on the reign of the communication, images, celebrations, and Prussian king Frederick II (1740–1786), whose direct encounters were ultimately much more 300th birthday was celebrated in 2012. As an influential in translating political goals into absolutist ruler, Frederick had no reason to try visible action. to win his subjects’ hearts and campaign for Unsurprisingly, emotional politics received a their love, trust, and loyalty. Subjects had no huge boost after the French Revolution that share in government, and they obeyed orders introduced political power sharing into the from above rather than taking initiative from European agenda. As subjects became citi- below. Still, the king was not content with zens, they gradually learned to voice political gaining his subjects’ obedient compliance: interests. Yet, they remained susceptible to a He also sought their reverence, gratefulness, language of emotions that directly influ- and kind feelings. As an “enlightened” ruler, enced their relationship with the monarchy. he was well aware that this kind of positive They framed their demands in terms that emotions could turn passive “slaves” into ac- built an emotional bridge toward the king tive and productive citizens who would work and queen. But they also became accus- tomed to voicing dissent, making claims and threatening to withhold their emotional support should those claims not be met. At the same time, the monarchy intensified its emotional approach and eagerly presented itself as a close friend, approachable and concerned about the needs and woes of the citizens. In this instance, too, words were insufficient to convey the message: Personal appearances, media images, and symbolic actions became increasingly important in the efforts of the monarchy to appear close to the people. On another note, the emotional lexicon of politics underwent a number of crucial shifts and transformations. Loyalty, the key notion of premodern political com- munication, gradually lost its relevance, although it remained present well into the 20th century. Concomitantly, trust gained in symbolic weight and actual importance: as a Figure 38. Ring commemorating Frederick II. conditional offer and as one that demanded Source. Gleimhaus Halberstadt. reciprocity. Trust talk abounded during the

Center for the History of Emotions | 171 Key References 1848 revolution when citizens challenged Honor and Shame: An Emotional History Frevert, U. (2014c). the royal monopoly of power. From then on, of Power Über Vertrauen reden: trust gradually crept into the language of In continuation of a long-standing interest Historisch-kritische politics and found multiple expressions both in the micro- and macropolitics of honor and Beobachtungen. In J. Baberowski (Ed.), Was in constitutional procedures and in power shame, research has mainly concentrated on ist Vertrauen? Ein inter- negotiations. three aspects: disziplinäres Gespräch The reason why trust became such a powerful (1) the role of honor in preparing and negoti- (Eigene und fremde Welten: Repräsenta- political concept during the 19th and 20th ating World War I, tionen sozialer Ordnun- (and 21st) centuries has been explored in (2) the gradual delegitimation of honor gen im Wandel No. 30) greater depth in the third research project un- talk and practices in Europe during the (pp. 31–47). Frankfurt a. M.: Campus. der this heading. It started in the 18th century 20th century, and when trust emerged as an affective state that (3) the importance of shame and shaming Frevert, U. (2013b). Vergängliche Gefühle gained more and more approval. In addition practices in premodern and modern times. (Historische Geisteswis- to institutions like family and friendship, trust In contrast to present-day popular notions senschaften: Frank- was also introduced as a governing principle about honor, former generations of Europe- furter Vorträge No. 4). Göttingen:­ Wallstein. in political and economic relations. This ans were convinced about honor’s emotional was explored both through texts and social thrust since they had experienced it in mani- practices, ranging from love and courtship to fold ways. Honor and the accompanying sense social bonding experiences in youth groups of pride and self-assurance were firmly built and associations, from teacher–student rela- into the self-perception and self-fashioning tions to factory councils, from sending poems of the upper classes (nobility and educated to honor the Emperor’s birthday to promising middle classes). Honor was also crucial for trust (and confidence) on election posters. artisans, journeymen, and workers, and it in- creasingly pervaded international relations, as could be witnessed during the 19th century. As much as nations replaced monarchs as the primer bearers of sovereignty, national honor (rather than royal or princely honor) became a major token of foreign and imperial/colonial politics. National honor was at stake when conflicting interests had to be sorted out, and it was deliberately and strategically invoked to gather popular support for government policies. The July 1914 crisis highlights how honor was called upon in order to legitimize, make sense of, and give credence to each stance. All major players referred to national honor as that which had compelled them to go to war. Honor here was generally linked to Figure 39. Election posters, 1946. notions of chivalry that prompted a large power (e. g., Russia or Great Britain) to rescue Source. Bundesarchiv Koblenz. smaller powers (Serbia, Belgium) from the violating hands of others. Gender images were paramount in ordering the landscape of European politics. The language spoken in July 1914 (and during the war) thus bor- rowed heavily from the language of honor as it had been inscribed in common social practices since the late 18th century. This is what made it easily comprehensible by wider

172 | Center for the History of Emotions parts of the national public. But it would be dishonored if they behaved in a shameless Key References misleading to conclude that this language fashion. A survey of lexicon articles on shame Frevert, U. (in press-b). contributed to the inevitability of war. Honor published between the mid-18th and the Piggy’s shame. In U. and its practices were much less aggressive early 21st century revealed that the meaning Frevert, P. Eitler, S. Olsen, U. Jensen, M. Pernau, D. than generally assumed. On the contrary, of shame has changed significantly. While it Brückenhaus, M. Beljan, they offered options of peaceful ­deliberation had initially been considered as a complex so- B. Gammerl, A. Laukötter, and conflict solution. The fact that these cial emotion, it was increasingly tied to sexual B. Hitzer, J. Plamper, J. Brauer, & J. C. Häberlen, options were not explored and used in 1914 and bodily shame and, as such, heavily femi- Learning how to feel: can be attributed to the power of a different nized. This was radically challenged by the Children’s literature and language that had become popular from the second wave of feminism, with slogans such the history of emotional socialization, 1870–1970. 1880s: the language of radical competition as “shame was yesterday.” At the same time, Oxford: Oxford University and enmity favored by nationalist circles. In shaming processes that had been commonly Press. contrast to the proponents of honor, those used in legal and educational practices were Frevert, U. (2013e). radicals no longer acknowledged equality as a called into question as they contradicted the Vertrauensfragen: Eine basic principle of the European state system. notion of human dignity (that was increas- Obsession der ­Mo­der­ne (Beck’sche Reihe Instead, they applied the logic of “my gain, ingly invoked and referred to from the 1960s No. 6104). München: another’s loss,” that is, the logic of destruc- onward). While public shaming experienced a Beck. tion and annihilation. Within this logic, politically orchestrated upheaval in the 1930s respectful, honor-based politics was a matter and 1940s, it later retreated to the classroom of the past. (and is currently experiencing a new revival in While this project focused on 1914 as a case the legal practice of the United States). study, the second project examined honor more broadly as a “lost” emotion, that is, as an emotional style and practice that lost its appeal in Europe during the 20th century. Re- kindled by the powers that had lost the war in 1918, it experienced a propagandistic revival during the 1930s and early 1940s. The way in which the next war was fought, however, completely discarded older concepts of honor Frevert, U. (2011b). Emo- and was rather oriented toward the logic of tions in history—Lost and annihilation. After 1945, the language of found. Budapest: Central European University national honor largely disappeared alongside Press. notions of masculine or family honor that had been prominent in earlier times, mainly as a result of changes in gender relations. It is interesting to note, however, that this devel- opment has been challenged in recent years by the so-called crimes of honor occasionally committed by male members of immigrant (Muslim) communities. Further research predominantly in the field of criminal law and jurisprudence will shed light on how this challenge has been conceptualized and negotiated. Figure 40. Propaganda campaign, 1917. The third project examined the opposite of Source. Library of Congress. honor: shame. It explored how shame figured on the list of predominantly female virtues, becoming one of women’s most valued assets: Whereas men lost their honor through dis- honest and cowardly behavior, women were

Center for the History of Emotions | 173 Researcher Imperial Passions: The Role of Emotions in left-wing activists and government officials Modern Colonial Conflicts shaped the expansion of state surveillance Daniel Brückenhaus The goal of this project was to study how in the early 20th century. The resulting fears emotions influenced the relationships about “Germano-Bolshevik colonial intrigues” Key Reference between colonizers and colonized in the were of central importance in exacerbat- Brückenhaus, D. (in European colonial empires during the 19th ing inner-European political tensions and in press). Ralph’s compas- and 20th centuries. This question was pursued leading the Western colonial powers toward sion. In U. Frevert, P. in the context of three case studies. They reconceptualizing their colonial strategies Eitler, S. Olsen, U. Jensen, M. Pernau, D. Brücken­ focused on fear, compassion, and honor/ in a more transnational and transimperial haus, M. Beljan, B. shame, respectively, and were each related to manner. Gammerl, A. Laukötter, a broader academic undertaking. The second case study was part of a coop- B. Hitzer, J. Plamper, J. Brauer, & J. C. Häberlen, The first case study was conducted in the con- erative research project on the history of Learning how to feel: text of revisions for an existing book manu- emotions in modern childhood literature. It Children’s literature and script on the surveillance of anticolonialists in resulted in a book chapter, which analyzed the history of emotional socialization, 1870–1970. the 20th century. It demonstrated how British how “compassion” among Europeans toward Oxford: Oxford University and French anxieties about the possibility non-Europeans was described and judged in Press. of anticolonialists cooperating with German 19th- and 20th-century children’s books in Britain and Germany. As the chapter argued, a late 19th-century positive reevaluation of “going native” among European children allowed these children to express their emotions more freely, without, however, undermining prevailing notions of European superiority over “natives.” The third case study was conducted as part of the initial planning for a future book project on the role of dignity, honor, and shame in a colonial context. It focused on analyzing how laughter and ridicule as an emotional strategy could undermine another person’s feeling of personal and social self-worth. The research demonstrated how laughter and ridicule could turn into an important means by which colonizers could deny the colonized entry into a European “circle of honor.“ Meanwhile, the frequently expressed fears of colonizers about “being laughed at” point to the fact that the colonized could, in turn, make use of laughter to subvert colonial hegemonies. Together, these three case studies show that emotions were not just a by-product or surface phenomenon of colonial relationships, but that they influenced and structured these relationships in decisive ways. This research can thereby help us understand how senti- ments that, at first view, might seem to work on the individual and personal level only, were in fact intertwined deeply with large-scale Figure 41. Illustration from R. M. Ballantyne, ­Gascoyne, The Sandal Wood Trader: A historical change over time. Tale of the Pacific. London 1864. Source. Project Gutenberg.

174 | Center for the History of Emotions Trust and Politics in Everyday Life Furthermore, the book examines the role of Researcher A revised version of Joachim C. Häberlen’s politics and politicization within the local Joachim C. Häberlen 2011 University of Chicago PhD thesis, working-class movements. In Leipzig, it argues, entitled Vertrauen und Politik im Alltag: Die a deep politicization of the local working- Arbeiterbewegung in Leipzig und Lyon im class movement turned into an impediment Key References Moment der Krise, 1929–1933/38 [Trust and for political mobilization. Particularly in the Häberlen, J. C. (2013a). Politics in Everyday Life: The Working-Class face of communist attempts to politicize all Between class war on all Movement in Leipzig and Lyon at the Moment aspects of social life, political activists, and fronts and anti-political autonomy: The contested of Crisis, 1929–1933/38] is a compara- even members of the Communist Party, began place of politics in the tive study of the working-class movement’s to long for spaces such as swimming pools working-class move- struggle against the rise of the radical right or sport associations that remained free of ments of Leipzig and Lyon during the inter- at the end of the Weimar Republic and the politics. The overpoliticization of everyday life war years. Contemporary Third French Republic. Based on local case thus resulted in a turning away from politics European History, 22, studies, the book analyzes the dynamics of altogether. In Lyon, by contrast, the relatively 33–63. doi:10.1017/ S0960777312000471 political mobilization at the rank-and-file small importance of party politics paradoxical- level. It begins with the observation that ly constituted a precondition for the successful Häberlen, J. C. (2013c). Vertrauen und Politik im the organizationally and numerically strong mobilization of its workers. Unlike in Leipzig, Alltag: Die Arbeiterbe- German working-class movement failed to party politics had never turned into a “nui- wegung in Leipzig und offer effective resistance against the rise of sance,” which is why politics could mobilize Lyon im Moment der Krise 1929–1933/38 (Kritische Nazism, whereas the French working-class and unite formerly hostile workers during a Studien zur Geschichts­ movement succeeded in mobilizing hundreds profoundly political crisis in 1934. wissenschaft No. 210). of thousands of workers against a perceived Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. fascist threat in February 1934. To explain this difference, the book first investigates the role of trust and distrust within the local working-class movements of Leipzig and Lyon. Building upon sociological theories of trust, as for example developed by Niklas Luhmann, the book suggests that trust enables people to judge whether their interlocutors are telling the truth or not; especially in situations in which this cannot be verified. After examining a variety of practices that functioned as “proof of (dis-) trust,” the book then shows how trust collapsed within Leipzig’s working-class move- ment, whereas Lyon’s workers succeeded in building relations based upon trust. The book thus provides an empirical example for how the micro- dynamics of creating trust and distrust can be studied historically in the context of grassroots politics.

Center for the History of Emotions | 175 Researcher Politics of Emotions: The New Left in West only provided an analysis of the “emotional Germany From the 1960s to the 1980s regime” of capitalism but effectively created Joachim C. Häberlen This research project examines the role of one themselves. emotions within the West German alterna- Importantly, this is not to argue that the Key References tive left in the post-1968 years. Drawing in “emotional suffering” (Reddy) under capital- Häberlen, J. C. (in part upon earlier cultural critics and theorists, ism was only imagined. Rather, the project press-b) Sekunden der such as Wilhelm Reich and Herbert Marcuse, argues that the discursive analysis and practi- Freiheit: Zum Verhältnis these alternative leftists developed a critique cal enactment of negative emotions created von Gefühlen, Macht und Zeit in Ausnahme­ of urban, capitalist society that put emo- these feelings of boredom, frustration, and situationen am Beispiel tions at the center. Capitalism, they argued, fear within leftist social milieus. Building der Revolte 1980/81 produced only fear, frustration, loneliness, and upon Monique Scheer’s work on “emotions in Berlin. In C. Rauh & D. Schumann (Eds.), boredom, leaving little space for any positive as practices,” the project explores the ways Ausnahmezustände: and intense feelings. One might read these in which these emotions were practiced and Entgrenzungen und texts as a critical analysis of what could be thereby created. Even though the project Regulierungen in Eu- ropa während des Kalten called with William Reddy the “emotional for the most part analyzes texts—primar- Krieges. Göttingen: regime” of capitalism, that is, the possibilities ily a broad range of radical leftist journals Wallstein. and limitations of emotional expression under from large and small cities in West Germany, Häberlen, J. C., & Smith, capitalism. However, the knowledge that left- such as Info BUG, Pflasterstrand, Das Blatt, or J. (in press). Struggling ist authors produced about feelings in capital- radikal—the analysis of how actors per- for feelings: The politics of emotions in the West- ist society was not only descriptive but also formed emotions moves beyond the unfruit- German radical left, ca. highly normative. Although ostensibly meant ful distinction between “true” inner feelings 1968–1984. Contempo- to explain to readers why they would feel and mere “expressions” of feelings. Enacting rary European History, 23. bored, afraid, or frustrated, texts like Duhm’s and expressing emotions was, the project Fear in Capitalism also suggested to readers proposes, itself a productive act—whether how they should feel in capitalism. In a sense, through ostensibly objective descriptions of such normative texts helped to produce the these emotional states, discursive analyses of very “emotional regimes” they sought to de- one’s own imbrication in these emotional re- scribe. Leftist authors, the project argues, not gimes, or more straightforward performances of resistance such as street protests. But radical leftists did not stop at merely criticizing capitalism for the emotional void it allegedly produced. By naming specific features of capitalism—including the built environment, work, and consumption under capitalism—as responsible for negative feelings, they also created possibilities for generating alternative emotional practices, which would yield intense emotions outside and beyond the “emotional regimes” imposed by capitalism. Such practices could include acts of violence but also other bodily practices like collective cuddling, experimental com- municative practices, or novel forms of living together. Analyzing both how radical leftists critically interpreted the feelings capitalism produced and the alternative emotional prac- tices they developed, the project examines alternative leftist activists made feelings a central political concern. Figure 42. Leftist magazine. Source. Pflasterstrand, 1977.

176 | Center for the History of Emotions Democratic Emotions: Compromise and importance of compromise in all govern- Researcher Parliamentary Culture in German History ment agreements and beseeched the Social Philipp Nielsen The goal of this project is to investigate the Democratic opposition “with all [his] heart” emotional attitudes toward compromise in to agree. “No one would be happier [about German parliamentary culture(s) and their this] than (…) the German people.” The second evolution over the course of the 19th and aspect of the project eschews the theoretical 20th centuries. This is not meant as a teleo- debates for the political routines of parlia- logical history toward an ideal democratic mentarians and other elected officials. Here, consciousness. Rather, it is an investiga- the dynamics of budget negotiations across tion into the role of emotions in democratic German history are analyzed. Not only are politics and the various ways in which they budgets at the heart of parliamentary politics supported and undermined the political pro- but they also must be passed in regular cess. The project provides a history of political intervals and cannot be delayed indefinitely culture in Germany that goes beyond a di- or be shelved. As such, they are sites at which chotomy of rational democracy and emotional compromises need(ed) to be found on a dictatorship. By focusing on compromise, it regular basis. In addition, as budgets are offers an account of the changing emotions inherently forward looking, they reveal not surrounding what is arguably the centerpiece only a societal present but also expectations of parliamentary politics. Which feelings and aspirations about the future that are dominate in relation to compromise has intimately linked to emotions. These debates crucial implications both for constitutional form an important counterpart to the debates theory and for practical politics. Whether in constitutional law that equally reflect on compromise is hailed or reviled, celebrated an ideal and future order. The project, thus, or condemned, influences the shape of and sees emotions as a way to link theoretical conduct within political systems. with practical aspects of political culture in Attitudes toward compromise are culturally general, and democratic culture in particular. determined. They vary across time and milieu. The debates between the constitutional theorists Carl Schmitt and Hans Kelsen in the 1920s and 1930s, for example, are well known and historically coded as quintes- sentially “Weimar.” For Kelsen, compromise alone ensured the peaceful resolution of differences of opinion, the slow and tedious creation of social harmony. For Schmitt, on the other hand, compromise meant selling out, all dead form and no feeling. The debates about compromise in the Weimar Republic were themselves emotionally charged. Kelsen worried about the “dismissive, even contemp- tuous” attitude of opponents of compromise. In March 1919, the publicist Kurt Tucholsky, for example, sarcastically wrote of the “little compromise” he saw between left and right, conspiring behind the back of and against the people. In the early postwar years, there were fewer theoretical disputes about compromise. Yet this did not make references to it any less Figure 43. Text of the satirical “Song of Compromise.” emotional. In a speech to parliament in 1953, Source. Kurt Tucholsky, Das Lied vom Kompromiss. Federal Chancellor Adenauer stressed the Weltbühne, 15 (12), 13.3.1919, p. 297.

Center for the History of Emotions | 177 Researcher Advertising Emotions advertising culture and generated, together This research project examines how advertis- with other entities and developments, chang- Anne Schmidt ers and consumers were generated within ing advertising practices. the 20th-century network-like advertising With the help of new light technologies, Key Reference culture. Additionally, the project is interested selected materials and colors, cleverly devised König, G., & Schmidt, in the consequences of the process of the product arrangements, and much more, A. (in press). Moderne “making up” of advertisers and consumers for new rooms were, for example, created at Ambivalenzen: Konsum- the development of advertising and market- the beginning of the 20th century by means kultur und Propaganda im Ersten Weltkrieg. In T. ing practices. Finally, the project examines of which perceptions, sensations, feelings, Schleper (Ed.), Aggression the repercussions of these practices for the desires, and consciousness of the consumers und Avantgarde. Essen: advertisers and consumers. In doing so, the were newly animated, linked, regulated, and Klartext-Verlag. attention will primarily focus on the analysis instrumentalized for sales—and namely in of emotions. ways that consumer versions suggested. The Specific forms of emotional conduct (dispo- changing advertising practices urged for the sitions, experiences, qualities, capabilities, realization of generated consumer versions. stances, manners, behavior patterns, gestures, The advertising practices were thusly based facial expressions) constitutively belong to not merely on certain consumer versions but the morals and ethics, to the capacities and rather both suggested them and made them qualities, which were expected and demanded possible. of advertisers. They were generated in the The analysis concentrates on the time advertising culture, incorporated, and thereby period between the end of the 19th and the modified and changed. beginning of the 21st century and primarily Emotional dispositions and modes of experi- follows developments in Germany, though ence and behavior were equally inscribed in from a transfer history perspective. The root the circulating consumer versions. These con- sources are comprehensive and multilayered: sumer versions operated in the network-like relevant professional journals, textbooks and handbooks, teaching and education material, guidebooks for advertisers written by advertisers, internet portals, blogs, and other related sources. The analysis of these materials allows for the exploration of the roles and demands placed on advertisers, the institutional arrangements and technolo- gies for the regulation of behavior, as well as different consumer versions. The question of whether and how the discourses, logics, and rationalities in the daily life of the advertisers were translated, and how they were inter- preted, utilized, modified, or even ignored and rejected, was inspected with the help of three case studies (advertising department of ­Kaffee HAG; Frankfurt office of the adver- tising agency J. W. Thompson; advertising agency Scholz & Friends). Project status: The source research is complet- ed; for portions of the job a detailed analysis of the materials still remains. The writing of Figure 44. Gustav Grossmann’s advice manual “Sich the first part of the investigation has begun. selbst rationalisieren” offered advertisers tips on managing their emotions. Source. Book cover from 1927.

178 | Center for the History of Emotions Emotions at Work—Working­ on Emotions, temporarily reached by making the employee Researcher Germany 1870–1970 master ever new and challenging tasks. After Sabine Donauer The research project pursues the question of fulfilling certain goals at work, new “stretch how labor scientists and corporate players goals” must be given to create a new field for conceptualized the connection between work generating positive emotions and self-realiza- The PhD project, performance and work-related emotions in tion (Selbstverwirklichung). supervised by Ute 20th-century Germany. The project looks Fourth, the project argues that, through- Frevert and integrat- at the period around 1900 and explores the out the 20th century gainful employment ed in the Center’s re- cultural, social, and economic reasons why turned from a means of making a living into a search program, was employees’ emotions turned into an object source of transcendent meaning-making. Not part of the Cluster of of labor scientific inquiry. At this time, the only work-related advice literature but also Excellence “Languag- problematization of “class hatred” as well as corporate public relations present work as a es of Emotion” (Freie the seemingly widespread aversion of indus- field in which personal fulfillment and private Universität Berlin). trial workers toward their tasks can be viewed happiness can (and must) be found. as two driving powers for the efforts to turn The fifth claim of the study is that labor scien- monotonous and highly repetitive industrial tific and corporate efforts worked toward an labor into a more likeable experience. This was individualization of the employment relation- the point of departure for the emergence of ship. While around 1900 the key problemati- disciplines like labor physiology, labor peda- zation in dealing with emotions at work were gogy, and psychology, as well as industrial so- “class-based emotions” (such as class hatred ciology, which all aimed at making employees and workers’ solidarity), the ensuing efforts more productive and content. tried to bring about a disaggregated (“post- The study identifies five overarching devel- social”) work personality. This understands opments for the 20th century. First, labor employment not in terms of an irreconcilable scientific sources and corporate practices class antagonism, but as a means to satisfy show a tendency toward desomatization, that personal emotional needs. is, positive and negative emotions at work The thesis was handed in at the Freie Univer- are increasingly less framed as an outcome sität Berlin on 29 August 2013, and succes- of material and bodily working conditions. fully defended on 18 December 2013. Rather, the willingness of the employee to motivate him- or herself (i. e., to generate positive emotions by oneself), irrespective of actual workload or work hours, is expected. The second key development is the tendency toward dematerialization. This means that the financial remuneration for industrial labor is cast as gradually less important while the “immaterial” rewards such as finding personal satisfaction in work contents become more strongly emphasized. Third, the study outlines a trend toward dynamization in dealing with emotions at work. While around 1900 it was taken for granted that a worker had a preexisting amount of joy in work (which could only be troubled by unfavorable working conditions), in the 1970s, the Human Resource paradigm promoted a different conceptualization based on Abraham Maslow’s “pyramid of needs.” It claimed that job satisfaction was an unstable Figure 45. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. psychological state which could only be Source. J. Finkelstein/Wikimedia Commons/CC-BY-SA 3.0.

Center for the History of Emotions | 179 Researcher Urban Emotions: Debates on the City and lications about the impact of city changes on Emotions in Berlin and Cairo, 1860–1910 emotions are to be traced in the second group Joseph Ben Prestel During the second half of the 19th century, of sources, which are made up of police and Berlin and Cairo went through a process of court records. In analyzing the two different Key Reference profound transformation. Dynamics such as groups of sources together, the project aims Prestel, J. B. (2013). Die growth of population, technical innovations, at a combined study of conceptual knowledge Reform der Stadtmän- and social change during this period not only about emotions and emotional practices. ner: Urbaner Wandel und affected their cityscape; contemporaries also Several research stays in archives in Cairo, Körperpolitik in Kairo am Ende des 19. Jahrhun- discussed the impact of these changes on Berlin, and London allowed for the identifica- derts. Body Politics: urban dwellers. The present project traces tion of contemporary debates about the city Zeitschrift für Körperge- the role of emotions in debates about urban and emotions. These debates, which range schichte, 1(2). change in Berlin and Cairo from a compara- from the fostering of rationality through tive perspective. Were changes in these cities newspaper reading to the detrimental effects debated in terms of emotions? How did shift- of excitement in dancehalls, regularly linked ing power relations affect these debates? Was intellectual discussions about feelings to urban change in both cities negotiated in a shifts in things people did in the city. One comparable way? preliminary finding lies in the observation In order to address these questions, the proj- that, while common tropes and topics related ect draws on two different groups of sources. to the impact of urban change on emo- Published writings that offered an “expert” tions can be found in both cities, the terms knowledge about the two cities, such as gov- and concepts in which these debates were ernment publications, medical literature, or embedded are specific to Berlin and Cairo. newspaper articles, constitute the first group Although different in its conceptual framing, of sources. Claims stemming from these pub- the idea of specific “urban emotions,” which were the result of recent changes in the two cities, thus became a common currency in the German and Egyptian capitals. This cur- rency was particularly used by middle classes, who sought to reify their hold on power in the changing urban environments of Berlin and Cairo. One shared aspect between debates in Berlin and Cairo was the claim that certain spaces in the city gave rise to changes in the emotions of urban dwellers. The development of enter- tainment areas downtown and the building of new suburbs far away from the city center, for instance, produced heated arguments about emotions in both cities. In conversation with other research projects at the Center, the project seeks to further investigate the nexus between space, power, and emotions. Drawing on insights from the work of Margrit Pernau and Benno Gammerl, it will pay special atten- tion to the interrelation between particular emotional practices, social distinction, and spaces. The question of whether the creation of seemingly similar spaces, such as dance- halls or suburbs, gave rise to similar debates Figure 46. Illustration in a Cairo magazine. in Berlin and Cairo will be at the forefront of Source. al-Mushir, 1896. further investigation.

180 | Center for the History of Emotions Khwaja Hasan Nizami (1878–1955): Wisconsin-Madison. The paper argues that, Researcher Emotions for the Sufi Shrine, Emotions for against the backdrop of the nationalist move- Maritta Schleyer the Nation, and Emotions for the Muslim ment in late colonial India, Nizami‘s represen- Community tations of the city of Delhi were imbued by an Khwaja Hasan Nizami (1878–1955) was an attitude of compassionate love, a nostalgic Key Reference influential and controversial figure in the longing for the precolonial era, and a memory Schleyer, M. (2012). public life of Delhi and northern India in the of suffering. They offer an alternative vision Ghadr-e Dehli ke Afsane. first half of the 20th century. He became of national unity in the contemporary identity Annual of Urdu Studies, 27, 34–56. famous as a religious teacher, reformer, and discourses and a perspective for the future of missionary. Furthermore, he was a highly the political community based on emotional prolific Urdu journalist and author of books belonging. and pamphlets on historical, religious, and In July 2012, the paper Between “Muslim” and political themes. In his writings and con- “Cultures”: Khwaja Hasan Nizami‘s Nego- versations, Nizami participated in various tiations of Being Sufi was presented at the discourses in the context of anticolonial Berlin Graduate School Muslim Cultures and community formation and was acquainted Societies. By analyzing the nexus of emotions with the political and cultural Indian elite. The and mass mobilization in Nizami‘s rhetoric of historical backdrop of Nizami’s activity was “Islamic love” and a localized civility of Delhi marked by the variegated Indian nationalist in the context of the community politics of movement against the British colonial power. late colonial India, it destabilizes binary cat- During those days, a variety of religious and egories deployed in existing studies of South cultural reform movements flourished and the Asian communalism. tensions between Hindus and Muslims grew. The dissertation will be submitted in 2014. The thriving field of journalism and cheap book print provided a major platform for the multitudinous contemporary debates. This research project looks at the role of emotions in processes of modern community formation. Designed as a biographical case study, the dissertation assumes that the focus on emotions provides crucial insights into constructions of meaning by histori- cal actors. In an analysis of Khwaja Hasan Nizami’s imagination of the Sufi, the Muslim, and the Indian national communities, this study argues that Nizami alloted specific sets of feelings to them as their main identifiers. Thus, he intervened in current negotiations of the identity of the forming Indian nation and of Indian Muslims. Additionally, the ­project sheds light on particular ways in which protagonists of devotional Islam responded to the changing political and religious landscape of early 20th-century India and fashioned a space for themselves in society. In the period under consideration, research results were presented at several academic conferences in the field of South Asian Studies. Among others, in October 2011, a paper entitled City of Love and Pain: Khwaja Hasan Figure 47. Khwaja Hasan Nizami. Nizami‘s Delhi was read at the University of Source. http://www.tahadilam.8k.com/catalog.html.

Center for the History of Emotions | 181 Researcher Minerva Research Focus: To understand this webbed character of emo- Emotions, Violence, and Peace tions, one must compare violence by crowds Dagmar Ellerbrock General Introduction of the Research Focus and by individuals. Are there any differences Violence can be pleasurable, it can give you a between crowd violence and violence com- Key References kick; alternatively, it can be profoundly fright- mitted by an isolated, lonely perpetrator? Weinhauer, K., & ening. Violence may be acted out in blind rage All kinds of violent action have the capacity Ellerbrock, D. (2013). or in cold blood. Obviously, violence can be to change power relations profoundly within Perspektiven auf Gewalt rooted in very different emotional states. a few seconds. This potential fuses power and in europäischen Städten seit dem 19. Jahrhundert. Taking this into account, the research starts emotions in a basic, formative way. At the Informationen zur mo­ with the assumption that emotional stud- same time, power relations may evoke emo- dernen Stadtgeschichte, ies and violence research can be mutually tions which trigger violent behavior. This ac- 2, 5–30. beneficial. Are emotions instrumental in tion may support political power relations or bringing about violent actions or is it the contest them—in any case, violence suffuses experience of violence that triggers these the political space with emotions. emotions? Are emotions always responsible In order to find out how structural, cultural, for the escalation of violence or can they also and social conditions influence the emer- lead to ­deescalation? In other words, how are gence of emotions that are significant in emotions linked to the dynamics of violent violent actions, a close reading of different actions and of peacekeeping/peace-building contexts, as well as a comparative analysis processes? of different historical settings, are placed at Since a great variety of emotions are involved the center of the research. Violent settings in violent actions—from anger and aggression of World War I will be compared with violent to fun and joy, solidarity, and sympathy—it is settings of World War II in order to look for necessary to pay intense attention to histori- differences and similarities in the emotional cal as well as to situational context. Which framing of violence. Societies experienc- feelings are generated by violence and which ing aftermath of extreme violence will be feelings are important regarding these brutal compared from a transnational perspective. practices is always dictated by the specific Specific acts of violence, for example school situations as well as by the historical and shootings, will be analyzed in order to find cultural framework. Therefore, it is important out why they suddenly became of interest and to ask, what are the significant factors in trig- gained emotional qualities never previously gering emotions? What kind of circumstances attributed to them. support violent actions? At the same time, Emotions can be seen as a container, preserv- it is important to comprehend what kind of ing memories of violence; a force that triggers structures can develop emotions that help to action and drives people to unknown places; minimize violence. and a longed-for condition, for which violence Taking the different kinds of affects as well appears the only path. as diverse effects in mind, it becomes obvious In detail the research is concerned with the that emotions can serve to increase violence following areas. Ellerbrock, D. (in as well as potentially function as a tool to de- ­press-c). Old games—new crease violence. Understanding this complex From Shame to Violence? Experiences of meanings? Understand- ing modern gun practices relation in its historical dimensions is one of World War I and the Emotional Aftermath in the light of 19th cen- the main aims of this research. This project focuses on the experiences of tury cultures. Miscel- It is not only the person engaged in violent World War I. It questions the emotional lanea: Anthropologica et Sociologica. acts that has feelings. The victims of violence framing of wartime violence and follows the experience a wide range of emotions—fear emotional effects of its recollection in the Ellerbrock, D. (2011). Generation Browning:­ and shame, helplessness and anger. Even aftermath of the war. Following the theories Überlegungen zu bystanders undergo different feelings. of Thomas Scheff—that shame can lead to einem praxeologischen Emotions are perceived as an interpersonal violence—the historical investigation tests Generationenkonzept. Geschichte im Westen, phenomenon linking people, things, and whether the dishonor felt in some parts of 26, 7–34. memories. Germany due to defeat in World War I trans-

182 | Center for the History of Emotions order to answer these questions, the project discusses the interactions between German and American partners from the perspective of social network theories and tests the thesis that emotions are generated, secured, and legitimized, as well as eroded and obliterated within social networks. Power relations define what are accepted to be legitimate forms of violence and what kind of violence is held to be illegitimate. In this Figure 48. Brawl between members of the prodemo- sense, political power structures are crucial cratic Reichsbanner paramilitary and communists. to the creation and stabilization of emotions, © bpk which likewise determine power relations. lated into the political violence of the Weimar Investigating the connection of emotions era. Thereby, it investigates the relation and violence in times of political change and between the violence of war, emotions, and reorientation will also offer insights into the political protest in the aftermath of war. connections between power and emotions. This project is in collaboration with colleagues from the Goethe University Frankfurt a. M. The Trigger-Happy Germans first results of the research were presented at German youth was regularly portrayed as an international conference at the Institute in trigger-happy in the headlines of the early June 2013. 20th century. The indignation underlying Key Reference this reading is rather remarkable considering Ellerbrock, D. (2011). Don’t Trust the Perpetrators: Networks and that German fathers and teachers as well as “Don’t bring guns to Interactions After the Experience of Extreme politicians hugely promoted young Germans’ school”: Revolverknaben und deutsche Waffen- Violence and Genocide in World War II. interest in shooting. The project asks when kultur. In S. Rusch (Ed.), The second project concentrates on the period and why the public emotional framing of once Waffen an Schulen: after World War II, when emotions were con- highly respected gunmanship changed and Ein Ratgeber für Eltern, Lehrerinnen und Lehrer nected with experiences of extreme violence turned negative. (pp. 51–56). Bremen: and even genocide, but were translated into It also follows the emotional experience of Niebank-Rusch-Fach- democracy and peace. Using the example of this trigger-happiness and asks what feelings verlag. the interactions between representatives of were associated with these practices. Why did the American Rockefeller Foundation and (especially young) men enjoy shooting and their new German partners, it investigates the emotional setting of the path that lead from violence to peace. The project scrutinizes the decision-making processes within the Rockefeller Foundation. What kind of information did the Rockefeller Foundation staff gather? Who did the trustees talk to and by which criteria did they evalu- ate their German colleagues? Clearly, it was not only hard facts that political decisions were based on, but also emotional credibil- ity, sympathy, and empathy. How did these emotions grow in daily interaction? What role did the recent violence have on future emotional evaluation and how did the preced- Figure 49. End of term: Boys fire off their pistols in ing violence impact the Germans’ credibility? front of the rectory (1938). What was the correlation between individual © LWL-Medienzentrum für Westfalen/Photo: Ignaz credibility and collective assessment? In Böckenhoff

Center for the History of Emotions | 183 Key Reference what kind of affective state were they longing American societies as well as two centuries, it Ellerbrock, D. (in for when shooting? will analyze the similarities and differences of press-b). Gun-rights as Since the emotional perception of shooting emotional explanations and appraisals within privileges of free men: practices and shooting desires changed within the debates about school shootings. It exam- Chronology of a powerful political myth of the 19th the analyzed time frame (1900–1979), the ines which emotions were regarded as the and 20th century. In K. project inquires into civil shooting practices cause of killing sprees and which emotional Starck & B. Sauer (Eds.), and as to whose emotions were able to inform reactions were generated by those chaotic in- Political masculinities. Newcastle upon Tyne: political structures and systems. cidents. The second stage of analysis is that of Cambridge Scholars. political reaction. These differ fundamentally School Rampages within the various countries. Is this because School shootings are lonely acts. They are of emotional differences? Were school kill- perpetrated in complete social and emotional ings rated differently in terms of emotional isolation. At the same time, a school shooting impact in different countries or is it the actual is a fundamentally social event occurring at a measures which were perceived in different highly emotional intensity. School rampages emotional ways? are among the most terrible and feared catas- A third level of analysis concentrates on the trophes. They shake society to the uttermost. role of the media. Has media coverage of They provoke emotional despair, anger, sor- school shootings changed during the last two row, and helplessness. They provoke intense centuries? Did newspapers—and later televi- emotional debate and link communities, na- sion and internet—discuss different emotions tions, and even global societies by common— in relation to school rampages? Is it media or at least perceived common—emotions. images that translate into social action and Every school shooting provokes an intense ultimately provoke school shootings? If so, media debate and sometimes triggers political what role do emotions play in this process of action. This project follows both paths: It translation? Is it the desire to make headlines investigates the media coverage in order to that provokes the desire to kill? In order to map the emotional culture of society. Since answer these questions, it is vital to under- the project compares different European and stand the link between violence and emotions.

Figure 50. Effects of gun violence: Evoking despair, horror, fascination, hate, and grief. Source. Shutterstock.

184 | Center for the History of Emotions Publications 2011–2013 (last update: January 2014)

AHR conversation: The historical Bänziger, P.-P., Beljan, M., feel: Children‘s literature and the Boddice, R. (2013b). Four stages study of emotions. Partici- Eder, F. X., & Eitler, P. (Eds.). (in history of emotional socializa- of cruelty? Institutionalizing pants: Nicole Eustace, Eugenia press). Sexuelle Revolution? Zur tion, 1870–1970. ­Oxford: Oxford humanity to animals in the Lean, Julie Livingston, Jan Geschichte der Sexualität im University Press. English media, c.1750–1840. Plamper,­ William M. Reddy, and deutschsprachigen Raum seit In W. Behringer, M. Halvelka, Barbara H. Rosenwein. (2012). den 1960er Jahren (1800|2000 Berghoff, H., Jensen, U., & K. Reinhold (Eds.), Mediale American Historical Review, Kulturgeschichten der Moderne). ­Lubinski, C., & Weisbrod, B. Konstruktionen in der Frühen 117, 1487–1531. doi:10.1093/ Bielefeld: transcript. (Eds.). (2013a). History by gen- Neuzeit (Studien zur Medienge- ahr/117.5.1487 erations: Generational dynamics schichte No. 1) (pp. 181–196). Beljan, M. (in press-a). Frühe in modern history (Göttinger Affalterbach: Didymos-Verlag. Arndt, A., Häberlen, J. C., & Erklärungsversuche deutscher Studien zur Generations- Reinecke, C. (2011). Europäische Historiker (3rd. rev. ed.). In T. forschung No. 11). Göttingen: Boddice, R. (2012a). The histori- Geschichtsschreibung zwischen Fischer & M. N. Lorenz (Eds.), Wallstein. cal animal mind: “Sagacity“ in Theorie und Praxis. In A. Arndt, J. Lexikon der “Vergangenheits- nineteenth-century Britain. In C. Häberlen, & C. Reinecke (Eds.), bewältigung“ in Deutschland. Berghoff, H., Jensen, U., J. A. Smith & R. W. Mitchell (Eds.), Vergleichen, verflechten, verwir- Bielefeld: transcript. ­Lubinski, C., & Weisbrod, B. Experiencing animal minds: An ren? Europäische Geschichts­ (2013b). Introduction. In H. anthology of animal-human en- schreibung zwischen Theorie und Beljan, M. (in press-b). Rosa Berghoff, U. Jensen, C. Lubinski, counters (pp. 65–78). New York: Praxis (pp. 11–30). Göttingen: Zeiten? Eine kleine Geschichte zur & B. Weisbrod (Eds.), History Columbia University Press. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Normalisierung und Subjektivie­ by generations: Generational rung von männlicher Homosexu- dynamics in modern his- Boddice, R. (2012b). Species Arndt, A., Häberlen, J. C., & alität. Bielefeld: transcript. tory (Göttinger­ Studien zur of compassion: Aesthetics, Reinecke, C. (Eds.). (2011). Generationsforschung No. 11) anaesthetics, and pain in the Vergleichen, verflechten, verwir- Beljan, M. (in press-c). “Unlust (pp. 7–12). Göttingen: Wallstein. physiological laboratory. 19: ren? Europäische Geschichts­ bei der Lust?“: Aids, HIV & Interdisciplinary Studies in the schreibung zwischen Theorie und Sexualität­ in der BRD. In P.-P. Boddice, R. (in press-a). The Long Nineteenth Century, 15. Praxis. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck Bänziger, M. Beljan, F. X. Eder, affective turn: Historicising Revolution? Zur Geschichte der & J. Byford (Eds.), Psychology (December 11, 2013) Assmann, A., & Brauer, J. (2011). Sexualität im deutschsprachigen and history: Interdisciplinary Bilder, Gefühle, Erwartungen: Raum seit den 1960er Jahren explorations. Cambridge, UK: Boddice, R. (Ed.). (2011a). An- Über die emotionale Dimension (1800|2000 Kulturgeschich- Cambridge University Press. thropocentrism: Humans, animals, von Gedenkstätten und den ten der Moderne). Bielefeld: environments (Human–Animal Umgang von Jugendlichen mit transcript. Boddice, R. (in press-b). German Studies No. 12). Leiden: Brill. dem Holocaust. Geschichte und methods, English morals: Physi- Gesellschaft, 37, 72–103. Beljan, M. (2013). “AIDS ological networks and the ques- Boddice, R. (2011b). Introduc- concerns us all!“: Rita Süss- tion of callousness, c.1870–81. tion: The end of anthropo- Bailey, C. (2014). Social emo- muth‘s self-help book “AIDS. In H. Ellis & U. Kirchberger centrism. In R. Boddice (Ed.), tions. In U. Frevert, M. Scheer, Ways out of Fear“ (1987). (Eds.), Anglo-German scholarly Anthropocentrism: Humans, A. Schmidt, P. Eitler, B. Hitzer, N. History of emotions­—Insights networks in the long nineteenth animals, environments (Hu- Verheyen, B. Gammerl, C. Bailey, into research. sentimentalists versus the système et l‘économicisation University Press. (December 3, 2013) (German sufferers in America c.1900. His- de l‘enseignement en France au translation: “AIDS geht alle an!“ tory of emotions—Insights into début des années 1950: La fonc- Bailey, C. (2011a). From an Rita Süssmuths Ratgeber “AIDS. research. 99–113. de/de/texte/aids-geht-alle-an- (December 3, 2013) (German Brauer, J. (in press-a). Heidi‘s rita-suessmuths-ratgeber-aids- translation: Gleichmut im La- homesickness. In U. Frevert, P. Bailey, C. (2011b). Zusammen- wege-aus-der-angst-1987>) bor? “Gefühlsmenschen“ versus Eitler, S. Olsen, U. Jensen, M. fühlen—zusammen fühlen? In U. “Leidende“ in Amerika um 1900. Pernau, D. Brückenhaus, M. Frevert, M. Scheer, A. Schmidt, P. Beljan, M., & Gammerl, B. (in Geschichte der Gefühle—Ein- Beljan, B. Gammerl, A. Laukötter, Eitler, B. Hitzer, N. Verheyen, B. press). Wendy‘s love. In U. Frevert,­ blicke in die For­schung. ) University Press.

Center for the History of Emotions | 185 Brauer, J. (in press-b). “Mit für Historische Bildungsfor­ haus, M. Beljan, B. Gammerl, A. Kulturgeschichten der Moderne). neuem Fühlen und neuem schung No. 18) (pp. 126–145). Laukötter, B. Hitzer, J. Plamper, Bielefeld: transcript. Geist“: Heimatliebe und Patrio- Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. J. Brauer, & J. C. Häberlen, tismus in Kinder- und Jugend- Learning how to feel: Children‘s Eitler, P. (2014). The “origin“ liedern der frühen DDR. In D. Brauer, J. (2012e). Das “Moor­ literature and the history of emo- of emotions: Sensitive humans, Eugster & S. Marti (Eds.), Kultur soldatenlied“: Dokument un- tional socialization, 1870–1970. sensitive animals. In U. Frevert, des kalten Krieges in Europa. menschlichen Leidens und Zeug- Oxford: Oxford University Press. M. Scheer, A. Schmidt, P. Essen: Klartext-Verlag. nis menschlichen Lebenswillens. Eitler, B. Hitzer, N. Verheyen, B. In A. Kruke & M. Woyke (Eds.), Caruso, M., & Frevert, U. ­Gammerl, C. Bailey, & M. Pernau, Brauer, J. (2013a). Empathie Deutsche Sozialdemokratie in (2012a). Einleitung in den Emotional lexicons: Continuity und historische Alteritätserfah- Bewegung: 1848–1863–2013 Schwerpunkt. In M. Caruso & U. and change in the vocabulary of rungen. In J. Brauer & M. Lücke (pp. 194–199). Bonn: Dietz. Frevert (Eds.), Emotionen in der feeling 1700–2000 (pp. 91–117). (Eds.), Emotionen, Geschichte und Bildungsgeschichte (Jahrbuch Oxford: Oxford University Press. historisches Lernen: Geschichts- Brauer, J. (2012f). Musikalische für Historische Bildungsfor­ didaktische und geschichtskul- Gewalt: Kulturelle Ausprägun- schung No. 18) (pp. 9–10). Bad Eitler, P. (2013a). Einführung: turelle Perspektiven (Eckert: gen absoluter Macht im Konzen- Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. Gewaltverhältnisse—eine kör- Die Schriftenreihe. Studien trationslager Sachsenhausen. In pergeschichtliche Perspektive. des Georg-Eckert-Instituts zur P. Moormann, A. Riethmüller, & Body Politics: Zeitschrift für Internationalen Bildungsmedien- R. Wolf (Eds.), Paradestück Mili­ Körpergeschichte, 1(2). forschung No. 133) (pp. 75–92). tärmusik: Beiträge zum Wandel Göttingen: V&R unipress. staatlicher Repräsentation durch Eitler, P. (2013b). Fear is a lie: Musik (pp. 299–315). Bielefeld: Emotion and religion in the Brauer, J. (2013b). “… so transcript. “New Age.“ History of emotions— machtvoll ist der Heimatlieder Insights into research. (December 3, 2013) bis heute. Bonn: Bundeszentrale tie in Bewegung: 1848–1863– (German translation: “Angst ist für politische Bildung. 2013 (pp. 104–109). Bonn: Dietz. eine Lüge“: Emotion und Reli- gion im “New Age.“ Geschichte Brauer, J. (2012a). “Ein Brauer, J. (2012h). “With power der Gefühle—Einblicke in die begeisterndes und begeistertes and aggression, and a great sad- Forschung. ) Sozialdemokratie in Bewegung: Century Communism, 4, 76–101. für Historische Bildungsfor­ 1848–1863–2013 (pp. 54–58). schung No. 18). 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Perspektiven auf Gewalt die Geschichte des Politischen Professionalisierung (pp. 157– di Bologna. Bologna: Società in europäischen Städten seit im 20. Jahrhundert. In M. 175). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Editrice Il Mulino. dem 19. Jahrhundert. Informa- Tändler & U. Jensen (Eds.), Das Sozialwissenschaften. tionen zur modernen Stadt­ Selbst zwischen Anpassung Wassmann, C. (in press). Emo- geschichte, 2, 5–30. und Befreiung: Psychowis- Vidor, G. M. (in press-a). tion past and future: Trans- sen und Politik im 20. Jahr­ Bologne: Ville avant-garde des disciplinary perspectives on hundert (Veröffent­lichungen réformes funéraires en Italie. explaining emotion. In F. Meltzer des Zeitgeschicht­lichen In A. Carol & R. Bertrand (Eds.), (Ed.), Cahiers Parisiens/Parisian Arbeits­kreises Niedersachsen Aux origines des cimetières Notebooks (Vol. 6). Chicago: No. 27) (pp. 9–35). Göttingen: contemporains: Antécédents et University of Chicago Press. Wallstein. postérité du Décret du 23 Prairial an XII (12 juin 1804). Aix-en- Wassmann, C. (2014). Pictur- Tändler, M., & Jensen, U. (Eds.). Provence: Presses Universitaires esque incisiveness: Explaining (2012b). Das Selbst zwischen de Provence. the celebrity of James‘ theory of

Center for the History of Emotions | 193

Center for Lifespan Psychology The Center for Lifespan Psychology

The Center for Lifespan Psychology (LIP) (Director: Ulman Lindenberger) has helped to establish lifespan psychology as a distinct conceptual approach within developmental psychology. Work at the Center is guided by three propositions: (1) to study lifespan changes in behavior as interactions among maturation, learning, and senescence; (2) to develop theories and methods that integrate empirical evidence across domains of functioning, timescales, as well as behavioral and neural levels of analysis; and (3) to identify mechanisms of development by exploring age-graded differences in plasticity.

Research Team 2011–2013

Nils C. Bodammer, Andreas M. Brandmaier, Yvonne Brehmer, Julia A. M. Delius, Sandra Düzel, Douglas D. Garrett, ­Franziska Kopp, Lothar Krappmann, Imke Kruse, Simone Kühn, Shu-Chen Li (as of 09/2012: Technische Universität ­Dresden, Germany), ­Ulman Lindenberger, Viktor Müller, Katrin Schaar, Sabine Schaefer, Michael Schellenbach (as of 05/2013: University of Applied ­Sciences Ruhr West, Germany), Yee Lee Shing, Julius Verrel, Manuel C. Voelkle, Markus Werkle-Bergner

Postdoctoral Fellows Karen Bartling (as of 01/2012: Stiftung Haus der kleinen Forscher, Berlin, Germany), Timothy R. Brick, Annette Brose (as of 07/2013: University of Leuven [KU Leuven], Belgium), Agnieszka Zofia Burzynska (as of 09/2012: University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA), Ben Eppinger (as of 08/2012: Technische Universität Dresden, Germany), Yana ­Fandakova, Elisa Filevich, Roman Freunberger (as of 05/2011: BIFIE [Federal Institute for Educational Research], Salzburg, Austria), Dorothea Hämmerer (as of 10/2012: Technische Universität Dresden, Germany), Tian Liu, Johan ­Mårtensson, Ana Sofia Morais (MaxNetAging Research School), Hannes Noack (as of 04/2013: University of ­Tübingen, Germany), Goran ­Papenberg (as of 10/2013: Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden), Dionysios Perdikis, John J. Prindle, Myriam C. Sander, Nicolas W. Schuck (as of 09/2013: Princeton University, USA)

Predoctoral Fellows Janne Adolf (LIFE), Cathleen Bache (LIFE), Nina Becker, Garvin Brod (LIFE), Charles Driver (LIFE), Thomas H. Grandy, Dominik Jednoralski (as of 01/2013: TI&M AG, Zurich, Switzerland), Julian David Karch, Maike Kleemeyer (LIFE), Nina Lisofsky (LIFE), Susanne Passow (MaxNetAging Research School; as of 12/2011: University of Bergen, Norway), ­Laurel Raffington (Berlin School of Mind & Brain, Germany), Johanna Sänger (LIFE; as of 01/2013: Berliner Akademie für ­Psychotherapie, Germany), Viola S. Störmer (LIFE; as of 03/2012: Harvard University, USA), Caroline Szymanski (­Berlin School of Mind & Brain, Germany), Elisabeth Wenger (LIFE), Julia K. Wolff (MaxNetAging Research School; as of 05/2011: ­German Centre of Gerontology, Berlin, Germany)

196 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Adjunct Researchers Hauke R. Heekeren (Freie Universität Berlin, Germany), Shu-Chen Li (Technische Universität Dresden, Germany), ­Martin Lövdén (Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden), Timo von ­Oertzen (University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA), Florian Schmiedek (German Institute for International Educational Research [DIPF], Frankfurt a. M., Germany)

Visiting Researchers Lars Bäckman (Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden), Annette Bohn (Arhus University, Denmark), Steven M. Boker (University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA), Silvia Bunge (University of California, Berkeley, USA), Roberto Cabeza (Duke University, Durham, USA), Ray Dolan (Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, London, UK), Bogdan Draganski (Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland), Adam Gazzaley (University of California, San Francisco, USA), Paolo Ghisletta (University of Geneva, Switzerland), Christopher Hertzog (­Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA), Petr Janata (University of California, Davis, USA), ­Antonio Krüger (Deutsches Forschungszentrum für ­Künstliche Intel- ligenz, Saarbrücken, Germany), Todd D. Little (University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA), Ulrich Mayr (University of ­Oregon, Eugene, USA), John J. McArdle (University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA), A. Randy McIntosh ­(Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest Centre, Toronto, Canada), Eduardo ­Mercado (University at Buffalo, New York, USA), Moshe Naveh-­Benjamin (University of Missouri, Columbia, USA), Noa Ofen (Wayne State University, Detroit, USA), Daphna ­Oyserman (University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA), Denise C. Park (University of Texas, Dallas, USA), Ann Pearman (Georgia State University, Atlanta, USA), Thad Polk (University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA), Carol Prescott (University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA), Nilam Ram (Pennsylvania State University, USA), Roger Ratcliff (Ohio State Uni- versity, USA), ­Naftali Raz (Wayne State University, Detroit, USA), ­Patricia A. Reuter-Lorenz (University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA), Gregory Samanez-Larkin (Yale University, New Haven, USA), Wolfgang Schneider (University of Würzburg, Germany), Norbert Schwarz (University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA), Klaas Enno Stephan (University of Zurich, Swit- zerland), Marjorie Woollacott (University of Oregon, Eugene, USA), ­Johannes Ziegler (Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France)

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 197

“But … its eminent modifiability, and its predisposition to self-initiated action, may it develop little or much, and may it differ in amount between different individuals, is among the immutable features of humankind, which can be found wherever humans exist.” Johann Nicolaus Tetens, 1777, I, p. 766

Introductory Overview

Founded in 1981 by the late Paul B. Baltes, the Center for Lifespan Psychology pursues lifespan J. N. Tetens (1736–1807), psychology as a distinct conceptual approach within developmental psychology. Since 2004, philosopher of the the Center has extended its research program into developmental neuroscience. Work at the Enlightenment Era Center is guided by three propositions: (1) to study lifespan changes in behavior as interactions among maturation, learning, and senescence; (2) to develop theories and methods that inte- grate empirical evidence across domains of functioning, timescales, as well as behavioral and neural levels of analysis; (3) to identify mechanisms of development by exploring age-graded differences in plasticity. The Center continues to pay special attention to the age periods of late adulthood and old age, which offer unique opportunities for innovation, both in theory and practice. At the same time, it has continuously increased its research on behavioral develop- ment during earlier periods of life.

Three Guiding Propositions ents’ affect attunement, teachers’ classroom Key References The Center’s research agenda can be sum- behavior, or a state’s retirement policies, Baltes, P. B., Linden­ marized by three interrelated theoretical need to be mapped onto mechanisms and berger, U., & Staudinger, propositions (Lindenberger, Li, Lövdén, & organizational laws that operate and evolve U. M. (2006). Life span theory in developmen- Schmiedek, 2007). In line with general tenets within the developing person. Hence, as John tal psychology. In W. of lifespan psychology, these propositions Nesselroade, Peter Molenaar, and others have Damon & R. M. Lerner emphasize conceptual and methodologi- emphasized, developing individuals, rather (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theo- cal issues in the study of lifespan behavioral than groups of individuals or domains of func- retical models of human development, and thereby provide a general tioning within individuals, form the privileged development (6th ed., script for formulating research questions in system of analysis and explanation. pp. 569–664). New York: Wiley. more specific domains of interest. Individuals organize their exchange with the physical and social environment through Lindenberger, U., Li, S.-C., Lövdén, M., & Proposition 1: Lifespan Changes in the behavior (see Figure 1). On the one hand, the Schmiedek, F. (2007). Individual’s Behavior as Interactions Among changing brain and the changing physical and The Center for Lifespan Maturation, Learning, and Senescence cultural environment shape behavioral devel- Psychology at the Max Planck Institute for The general goal of developmental psychol- opment. On the other hand, behavior alters Human Development: ogy is to identify mechanisms that generate both the brain and the environment. Hence, Overview of conceptual invariance and variability, constancy and environment and brain act as antecedents but agenda and illustration of research activities. change, in behavioral repertoires from infancy also as consequents of moment-to-moment International Journal of to old age. By identifying the commonalities, variability and long-term changes in pat- Psychology, 42, 229–242. differences, and interrelations in the ontog- terns of behavior. The components of this doi:10.1080/ 00207590701396591 eny of sensation, motor control, cognition, system, brain, behavior, and environment, are affect, and motivation, both within and across constantly coupled and cannot be reduced individuals, developmental psychologists and onto each other, as they jointly condition an developmentally oriented neuroscientists at- individual’s life trajectory through recursive tempt to arrive at more or less comprehensive self-regulation. theories of behavioral development. To provide In attempts to explain the age-graded evolution explanations that qualify as psychological and of this system, maturation and senescence developmental, the effects of agents external denote the operation of age-graded brain to the developing individual, such as par- mechanisms and their effects on changes in

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 199 Key References Lindenberger, U., Li, S.- C., & Bäckman, L. (2006). Delineating brain–be- havior mappings across the lifespan: Substantive and methodological advances in develop- Cultural and mental neuroscience. physical environment Neuroscience & Biobe- havioral Reviews, 30, 713–717. doi:10.1016/j.­ neubiorev.2006.06.006 Raz, N., & Linden­ berger, U. (2013). Life-span plasticity of the brain and cogni- tion: From questions Behavior to evidence and back. Neuroscience & Biobe- havioral Reviews, 37, 2195–2200. doi: 10.1016/j.­ neubiorev.2013.10.003 Momentary

process dynamics Brain

Neuronal function

Neuroanatomy

Neurochemistry

Lifespan differences/change across years

Figure 1. Environment and brain as antecedents and consequents of moment-to-moment variability and long- term changes in patterns of behavior. Lifespan changes in brain–behavior mappings are shaped by interactions among processes related to maturation, learning, and senescence. The identification of key players in the ontog- eny of brain–behavior dynamics requires a coalition between formal tools for synthesis across levels of analysis and timescales as well as empirical methods to study variability and change in brain and behavior (adapted from Lindenberger, Li, & Bäckman, 2006). © MPI for Human ­Development

behavior, which are especially pronounced are not restricted to old and very old age. For early and late in life. In addition, learning, at instance, neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, as any point during ontogeny, denotes changes in expressions of maturation, continue to exist brain states induced by behavior–environment in the adult and aging brain, and declines in interactions. Note, however, that maturation dopaminergic neuromodulation, which indicate cannot take place without learning and that senescence-related changes in brain chemistry, learning cannot take place without maturation. commence in early adulthood. Thus, matura- Similarly, the ways in which senescence takes tion, senescence, and learning mutually enrich its toll on the brains of aging individuals depend and constrain each other throughout the on individuals’ past and present learning and lifespan and must be understood and studied maturational histories. To complicate matters as interacting forces driving the brain–behav- even more, processes commonly associated ior–environment system. Psychologists occupy with maturation are not confined to early a central position in this endeavor because they ontogeny, and processes related to senescence possess a rich and adequate repertoire of exper-

200 | Center for Lifespan Psychology imental and methodological tools to describe whose changes have generally been studied in Key References and modify the organization of behavior. From isolation, such as the ontogeny of social inter- Lövdén, M., Li, S.-C., the perspective of lifespan psychology, direct action and cognition; emotion regulation and Shing, Y. L., & Linden­ comparisons between children and older adults motivational states; or of memory, working berger, U. (2007). With- in-person trial-to-trial help to identify commonalities and differences memory, and attention. variability precedes and in the mechanisms that drive child and adult Second, there is a need to understand the predicts cognitive decline development (e. g., Shing & Lindenberger, 2011). mechanisms that link short-term variations in old and very old age: Longitudinal data from to long-term change. Short-term variations the Berlin Aging Study. Proposition 2: Lifespan Theory and are often reversible and transient, whereas Neuropsychologia, 45, Methodology Need to Integrate Evidence long-term changes are often cumulative, 2827–2838. doi:10.1016/ j.neuropsychologia.­ Across Domains of Functioning, Timescales, progressive, and permanent. Establishing 2007.05.005 and Levels of Analysis links between short-term variations and Garrett, D. D., Samanez- If the lifespan development of behavior is de- long-term changes is of eminent heuristic Larkin, G. R., MacDonald, fined to originate from recursive interactions value, as it helps to identify mechanisms that S. W. S., Lindenberger, among maturation, learning, and senescence, drive development in different directions. For U., ­McIntosh, A. R., & Grady, C. L. (2013). with the developing individual as the privi- instance, aging cognitive systems show an Moment-to-moment leged system of analysis, then developmental increase in maladaptive moment-to-moment brain signal variability: psychology is faced with three challenging in- fluctuations or a decrease in processing ro- A next frontier in human brain mapping? Neuro- tegrative tasks. First, there is the need to inte- bustness, at both behavioral and neural levels science & Biobehavioral grate theorizing and research practice across of analysis. These maladaptive changes may Reviews, 37, 610–624. functional domains to attain a comprehensive signal impending long-term changes in other doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev. 2013.02.015 picture of individual development. For in- characteristics of the system (see Figure 2). In stance, sensorimotor and cognitive function- contrast, other forms of moment-to-moment ing are more interdependent in early child- variability indicate an individual’s ability to hood and old age than during middle portions bring a wide variety of different strategies to of the lifespan, and developmental changes in the task and are positively related to long- either domain are better understood if studied term change in both childhood and old age. in conjunction. Similar observations can be To combine the two propositions, we need made for many other domains of functioning to gather multivariate time-series data that

Person 2 Performance

Person 1

Moment-to-moment variability (seconds) Change (years)

Figure 2. Example for predictions linking moment-to-moment variability to long-term change, and brain changes to behavioral changes. Senescent changes in neuromodulation lead to greater moment-to-moment fluctua- tions in neural signaling, enhance the prominence of background noise, reduce the distinctiveness of processing pathways and representations, and increase variability of cognitive performance. Aging individuals with greater moment-to-moment process fluctuations at a given point in time are expected to show greater subsequent longitudinal decline in mean levels of functioning than individuals who fluctuate less. Recent empirical evidence supports this prediction (Lövdén, Li, Shing, & Lindenberger, 2007; adapted from Lindenberger et al., 2006). © MPI for Human ­Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 201 Key References capture short-term variability and long-term chemical, neuroanatomical, and neurofunc- Hertzog, C., Kramer, changes in across-domain dependencies. tional imaging measures are assessed before, A. F., Wilson, R. S., & Third, to arrive at mechanistic explanations of during, and after training, intervention studies Lindenberger, U. (2009). behavioral change, there is the need to inte- also offer new insights into relations between Enrichment effects on adult cognitive develop- grate behavioral and neural levels of analysis. behavioral and neural levels of plasticity. Thus, ment: Can the functional At any given point in the lifespan, one-to-one by partly taking control over behavior–environ- capacity of older adults mappings between brain states and behavioral ment interactions, mechanisms of learning can be preserved and enhanced? Psychologi- states are the exception rather than the rule, be studied in the context of maturation and cal Science in the Public as the brain generally offers more than one senescence (Lövdén, Bäckman, Lindenberger,­ Interest, 9, 1–65. implementation of an adaptive behavioral Schaefer, & Schmiedek, 2010; Lövdén, Wenger, Lövdén, M., ­Bäckman, outcome. Therefore, ontogenetic changes Mårtensson, Lindenberger, & Bäckman,­ 2013). L., Lindenberger, in behavioral repertoires are accompanied From the larger perspective of societal evolu- U., Schaefer, S., & Schmiedek,­ F. (2010). A by continuous changes in multiple brain–­ tion, cognitive intervention studies explore theoretical framework behavior mappings. Some of these remapping the range of possible development, or what for the study of adult gradients may be relatively universal and age- could be possible in principle if conditions cognitive plasticity. Psy- chological Bulletin, 136, graded, whereas others may be more variable, were different (see Figure 3). The resulting 659–676. doi:10.1037/ reflecting genetic differences, person-specific knowledge about the plasticity of develop- a0020080 learning histories, the path-dependent nature mental trajectories is essential for improving of developmental dynamics, or a combination human welfare. Hence, investigations of age of the three. The resulting picture underscores changes in the plasticity of development carry the diversity and malleability of the organiza- the potential to explain and ameliorate hu- tion of brain and behavior as well as the con- man development. straints on diversity and malleability brought For all of these reasons, age-comparative about by (a) universal age-graded mechanisms intervention studies with a focus on behavioral associated with maturation and senescence, and neural manifestations of plasticity form (b) general laws of neural and behavioral the core component of empirical research at organization, and (c) cultural-social as well as the Center. The Center has carried out several physical regularities of the environment. High Proposition 3: The Exploration of Age- Graded Differences in Plasticity Is a Powerful Tool for Identifying Mechanisms of Development Both from scientific and societal perspec- tives, behavioral plasticity, or the alteration of

developmental trajectories through experience, Cognition is a precious phenomenon (Raz & Lindenberger, 2013). Scientifically, inquiries into the plasticity Functional threshold of human behavior are a rich source of devel- opmental information. Through the assessment Low 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 of “changes in change,” they offer the promise Chronological age to observe the operation and proximal conse- quences of developmental mechanisms. For Figure 3. Hypothetical illustration of the zone of instance, studies in which research participants possible cognitive development for a given individual, along with four developmental curves indicating of different ages are instructed and trained specific possible outcomes. Each possible curve starts to perform one or more cognitive tasks come from the same functional level at age 20, with differ- with important validity benefits, such as (a) an ent trajectories resulting as a function of interactions among behavioral, environmental, and genetic factors increase in experimental control, (b) the iden- that permit movements in the vertical direction within tification of age differences near asymptotic the zone at different points in the lifespan (adapted performance levels, and (c) the assessment of from Hertzog, Kramer, Wilson, & Lindenberger, 2009). transfer and maintenance effects. If neuro- © MPI for Human ­Development

202 | Center for Lifespan Psychology pioneering studies on plastic changes in brain and change (Lövdén et al., 2010; see Figure 4). and behavior in adulthood, such as the ­COGITO In the reporting period, we have launched a study (e. g., Raz, Schmiedek, Rodrigue, ­Kennedy, new generation of experiments that combine Lindenberger, & Lövdén, 2013) and the SPACE behavioral skill training with repeated func- study (e. g., Lövdén, Schaefer, et al., 2012). Re- tional and structural imaging. Going beyond lated conceptual work has aimed at identifying the canonical pretest–posttest design of inter- distinct features of plasticity in relation to vention studies, these studies seek to observe other types of behavioral and neural variability how plastic changes unfold over time.

Dynamic Prolonged Dynamic equilibrium mismatch equilibrium Maximum function Manifestation of plasticity Flexibility: Functional supply supports a range of functioning, but is Negative mismatch: optimized (black line) demand > supply Positive mismatch: to a level of demand Functional supply demand < supply that is integrated over some unknown time period

Demand on (use of) functional supply

Time

Figure 4. Schematic model of a mismatch between functional supply and experienced environmental demands caused by primary changes in demand (e. g., altered experience through cognitive training). Functional supply (i. e., the structural constraints imposed by the brain on function and performance) allows for a range of performance and functioning. Flexibility denotes the capacity to optimize the brain’s performance within the limits of the current state of functional supply. Due to the sluggishness of plasticity, structural supply optimizes its support for function to a level of demand (i. e., use of functional supply) that is averaged over some unknown time period. Mis- matches need to be prolonged to overcome the inertia and sluggishness of plasticity, and to push the system away from its dynamic equilibrium. Deviations in demand that are within the current range of functional supply induce the mismatch that constitutes the impetus for plastic change (adapted from Lövdén et al., 2010). © MPI for Human ­Development

Figure 5. The MR tomograph (3 Tesla field strength) was installed in December 2011. See also pp. 245–247. © MPI for Human ­Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 203 Key References The installation of a 3 Tesla Siemens TIM a central proposition of lifespan theory: that Freund, J., Brandmaier, Trio magnetic resonance tomograph in 2011, development itself contributes to differ- A. M., Lewejohann, L., located next to the Institute building, has ences in adult behavior (for more details, see Kirste, I., Kritzler, M., … provided the Center with the imaging infra- pp. 251–252). N., Lindenberger, U., & Kempermann, G. (2013). structure that is needed to run studies of this In several empirical and conceptual papers, Emergence of individuali- sort (see Figure 5; see also pp. 245–247). researchers at the Center have promoted the ty in genetically identical view that the preservation and maintenance mice. Science, 340 (6133), 756–759. doi:10.1126/­ Methodological Innovation of “youth-like” structural and functional science.1235294 Since its foundation in 1981, the Center has properties of the brain is a key component of sought to promote conceptual and method- successful cognitive aging (Burzynska et al., Lindenberger, U., Burzynska, A. Z., & ological innovation within developmental 2013; Lindenberger, Burzynska, & Nagel, Nagel, I. E. (2013). psychology and in interdisciplinary context. 2013; Nagel et al., 2011; Nyberg et al., 2012). Heterogeneity in frontal Special attention is paid to methods and Together with Ulrich Mayr from the University lobe aging. In D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight (Eds.), research designs apt to integrate (a) multiple of Oregon, Ulman Lindenberger took up a Principles of frontal domains of functioning, (b) multiple time­ longstanding observation in cognitive aging lobe functions (2nd ed., scales, and (c) multiple levels of analysis. research that was originally formulated by pp. 609–627). New York: Oxford University Press. Random coefficient modeling, latent growth Gus Craik in 1983. According to this observa- curve modeling, and related statistical tion, memory deficits in old age relative to Lindenberger, U., & Mayr, U. (2014). Cogni- techniques have served as versatile tools for early adulthood increase when self-initiated tive aging: Is there a the analysis of multivariate data with nested processing is required and decrease when the dark side to environ- time structures, such as trials, blocks of trials, environment provides task-appropriate cues. mental support? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, days, weeks, and years. Neurocomputational Lindenberger and Mayr (2014) propose that 18, 7–15. doi:10.1016/j. modeling, such as the neurocomputational this observation is not confined to memory, tics.2013.10.006 theory on the effects of age-related dopa- but can be subsumed under a more general minergic decline on behavior proposed by developmental trend: In perception, learning Shu-Chen Li and colleagues, has facilitated or memory, and action management, older conceptual integration. Recently, time-delay adults often rely more on external informa- embedding and clustering methods for tion than younger adults, probably both as a time-series data, continuous time structural direct reflection and indirect adaptation to equation modeling, as well as combina- difficulties in internally triggering and main- tions of classifier and structural equation taining cognitive representations. According modeling techniques have been added to to Lindenberger and Mayr, cognitive aging the repertoire (see Formal Methods project, research would benefit from paying closer pp. 248–253). Finally, in collaboration with attention to the developmental dynamics Gerd Kempermann from the Dresden site of and practical implications of this age-graded the German Center for Neurodegenerative shift from internal to external control. Ulrich Diseases as well as other colleagues from Mayr has been awarded the Alexander von Dresden, Münster, and Saarbrücken, the Humboldt Research Award 2014 and will visit Center has introduced an animal model to the Center in coming years to collaborate on explore epigenetic contributions to individual this and related topics. development (Freund et al., 2013). Forty Some members of the Center have also genetically identical mice were kept in one worked on developmental issues in applied large enclosure offering various activity and settings. For instance, Ulman Lindenberger exploration options. Though the animals followed Jürgen Baumert as a member of the shared the same life space, they increasingly Board of Trustees of the Jacobs Foundation, differed in activity levels. These individual one of the world’s leading charitable founda- differences in behavioral development were tions dedicated to facilitating innovations for associated with differences in the genera- children and youth. Also, Lothar Krappmann, tion of new neurons in the hippocampus, a who is a member of the United Nations region of the brain that supports learning and Committee on the Rights of the Child, has memory. The results of this study underline continued his research on measures that help

204 | Center for Lifespan Psychology prevent violence against children by strength- tions: (a) Does playing a commercially avail- ening protection programs, systems, services, able computer game result in structural brain research, monitoring, evaluation, and report- changes? (b) Is there a dark side to providing ing (e. g., Svevo-Cianci, Herczog, Krappmann, and using environmental support in old age? & Cook, 2011). (c) Do affective states contribute to trait reports of affective well-being? (d) Why do Overview of Research Projects at the older adults, with great confidence, remember Center for Lifespan Psychology episodes that have not occurred? Currently, in January 2014, empirical and During the reporting period, research at conceptual work at the Center is structured the Center has profited from the Gottfried into eight research projects (see Table 1). Wilhelm Leibniz Award 2010 of the German The activities pursued in these projects cover Research Foundation (DFG) given to Ulman a wide array of research areas in human Lindenberger and from continued support behavioral development. For instance, recent from the Innovation Fund of the Max Planck studies have addressed the following ques- Society.

Table 1 The Center for Lifespan Psychology: Current Overview of Research Projects

Name of project Researchers, including postdoctoral fellows Predoctoral fellows

Intra-Person Dynamics Across the Douglas D. Garrett**, Manuel C. Voelkle**; Janne Adolf, Lifespan Annette Brose°, ­Ulman Lindenberger, Charles Driver Martin Lövdén°, Florian Schmiedek° Cognitive and Neuronal ­Dynamics Yee Lee Shing**1, Markus Werkle-Bergner**; Nina Becker, of Memory Across the Lifespan Yvonne Brehmer2, Yana Fandakova*, Garvin Brod, (ConMem) Ulman Lindenberger, Myriam C. Sander* Thomas H. Grandy, Laurel Raffington Mechanisms and Sequential Simone Kühn**; Elisa Filevich*, Ulman Nina Lisofsky, ­Progression of Plasticity Lindenberger, Martin Lövdén° Elisabeth Wenger Sensorimotor-Cognitive Couplings Sabine Schaefer**, Julius Verrel**; Maike Kleemeyer Ulman Lindenberger The Berlin Aging Studies (BASE) Sandra Düzel**, Ulman Lindenberger**; Julia A. M. Delius, Shu-Chen Li°, Tian Liu*, Ana Sofia Morais*, Katrin Schaar Interactive Brains, Social Minds Viktor Müller**; Ulman Lindenberger, Cathleen Bache, ­ Timothy R. Brick*, Dionysios Perdikis* Caroline Szymanski­ Imaging Methods in ­Lifespan Nils C. Bodammer**; Ulman Lindenberger Psychology­ Formal Methods in Lifespan Andreas M. Brandmaier**, Manuel C. Voelkle**; Janne Adolf, Psychology­ ­Timothy R. Brick*, ­Ulman Lindenberger, Charles Driver, John J. Prindle*, Timo von Oertzen° Julian David Karch Max Planck UCL Centre on Ray Dolan°**, Douglas D. Garrett, Ulman ­Computational Psychiatry and ­Lindenberger** (see p. 206) Ageing­ Research

Note. Research manager of the Center: Imke Kruse. The table refers to projects and project members as of January 2014; for updates, visit www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de. The Neuromodulation of Lifespan Cognition project was terminated at the Center in 2013 and is continued by Shu-Chen Li at the Technische Universität Dresden. **principal investigator, *postdoctoral fellow, °adjunct researcher (primary affiliation with another institution). 1 Yee Lee Shing leads a Minerva Research Group. 2 Yvonne Brehmer leads an Otto Hahn Research Group in close colloboration with the Aging Research Center at the Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm.

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 205 The Max Planck UCL Centre on Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research­

The behavioral neurosciences and related disciplines have seen spectacular scientific advances that make them rich in scientific opportunity. The combination of functional neuroimaging with sophisticated computational modeling of cognitive processes has revolutionized our understanding of fixed and variable properties of human mental processes. These advances now make it possible to work toward a mechanistic understanding of behavioral aging and psychopathology, two empirically overlapping fields of great importance to science and society. In both fields, it is of key importance to take a computational, personalized lifespan approach by identifying neural and behavioral parameters that predict more or less favorable trajectories, with the intent to intervene in time when undesirable outcomes are expected.

In 2011, the Max Planck Society and University Understanding and ameliorating psychiatric College London (UCL) launched an Initiative disease and cognitive aging have important on Computational Psychiatry and Ageing commonalities and, in some cases, are as- Research. This initiative, which was jointly sociated with overlapping etiologies. Both financed by the Max-Planck-Förderstiftung, endeavors are of formidable complexity University College London, and the Gottfried and must be approximated by focusing on Wilhelm Leibniz Prize awarded to Ulman key players at the neural level, such as the Lindenberger in 2010, organized a Sympo- neurovascular unit, white matter, dopaminer- sium and Advanced Course at Ringberg Castle gic neurotransmission, variability of neural in summer 2012, and prepared the ground signaling, and striatal-cortical circuits, and on for the establishment of a new collabora- key players in behavior, such as working mem- tive Max Planck UCL center, the Max Planck ory, learning, and decision making. Computa- UCL Centre on Computational Psychiatry and tional methods connect structure to function Ageing Research. The Max Planck Society and and behavior. By applying these methods to University College London have provided initial experimental and, critically, longitudinal data, funding for a period of five years. The Center the Max Planck UCL Center will seek to derive is co-directed by Ray Dolan, director of the testable predictions about key determinants Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging at of psychiatric syndromes and cognitive aging UCL, and Ulman Lindenberger. The Center will and provide a more solid empirical and theo- be located in London and Berlin. The opening retical basis for the attenuation and ameliora- ceremony is scheduled to take place in London tion of psychopathology and cognitive decline at the Royal Society on 1 April 2014. through personalized interventions.

Figure 6. First Symposium and Advanced Course on Computational Psychiatry and Aging at Ringberg Castle, 2012. © MPI for Human Development

206 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 1: Neuromodulation of Lifespan Cognition (Concluding Report) Researchers Shu-Chen Li Conceptual Overview Lars Bäckman The central goal of this project is to understand how maturational and senescent changes in Hauke R. Heekeren neurotransmitter systems influence neural and behavioral development across the lifespan. To Ulman Lindenberger this end, the project has used an integrated array of conceptual tools and empirical paradigms, encompassing neurocomputational studies aimed at theory formation, behavioral studies Agnieszka Zofia informed by genetics that examine the relations between neurally relevant genotypes and cog- Burzynska nitive phenotypes, and genomic and pharmacological imaging studies that explore age-related Ben Eppinger as well as other individual differences in brain–behavior relations. Dorothea Hämmerer Goran Papenberg Neurotransmitters regulate neural process- Dopamine Genotype Effects on Nicolas W. Schuck ­ ing from moment to moment and contribute Performance Variability and Memory Susanne Passow to age-graded changes in the dynam- Dedifferentiation in Old Age Viola S. Störmer ics of neural networks (Li, 2013). A major When assessing individuals’ performance on focus of the project is on the relationship a visual perceptual selection task, we found between dopaminergic neuromodulation that the reaction times of individuals carrying and lifespan changes in brain and behav- a greater number of beneficial alleles of the Key References ior. Formal models and empirical evidence dopamine transporter (the DAT1 gene) and Li, S.-C. (2013). suggest that suboptimal dopamine modula- receptor genes (the dopamine DRD2 and DRD3 Neuromodulation and tion, as observed early and late in ontogeny, genes) fluctuated less than the reaction times developmental contex- tual influences on neural contributes to greater random processing of individuals carrying a lower number of ben- and cognitive plastic- variability in neural and cognitive informa- eficial alleles. This effect was only observed in ity across the lifespan. tion processing (Li, ­Lindenberger, & Sikström, older adults. Moreover, older carriers of fewer Neuroscience & Biobe- havioral Reviews, 37, 2001). This, in turn, has effects on cognition, beneficial alleles also exhibited a greater ten- 2201–2208. doi: 10.1016/j.­ including greater trial-to-trial performance dency to forget memory items encoded 1 week neubiorev.2013.07.019 fluctuations and process dedifferentiation. In ago (Papenberg, Bäckman, et al., 2013). In a Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, particular, the function that relates dopa- related study (Papenberg et al., in press), we in- U., & Sikström, S. (2001). mine signaling to cognitive performance vestigated the effect of a genotype relevant for Aging cognition: From neuromodulation to is generally assumed to follow an inverted prefrontal dopamine signaling on the dediffer- representation. Trends in U-shape. This nonmonotonic relationship entiation of memory processes as a means of Cognitive Sciences, 5 (11), implies that constant amounts of genetic addressing the dedifferentiation hypothesis of 479–486. doi:10.1016/ S1364-6613(00)01769-1 variation in genes relevant for neuromodula- cognitive functioning in old age. The results of tion result in increasingly large differences this study showed that the correlation between Lindenberger, U., Nagel, I. E., Chicherio, C., Li, in performance as normal aging moves working memory and episodic memory factors S.-C., Heekeren, H. R., individuals’ neuromodulatory efficacy away was stronger among older individuals whose & Bäckman, L. (2008). from the apex of the curve. Hence, normal genotype is associated with lower levels of Age-related decline in brain resources modu- aging is expected to magnify the effects of prefrontal dopamine (Val homozygotes of the lates genetic effects on genetic variation on individual differences COMT gene; see Figure 7). Again, these genetic cognitive functioning. in behavior (Lindenberger et al., 2008). effects were only observed in older adults. Frontiers in Neurosci- ence, 2: 1. doi:10.3389/ During the reporting period, the project Taken together, these results indicate that, in neuro.01.039.2008 has continued to test this proposition with line with our theoretical predictions, subop- behavioral and electrophysiological data timal dopaminergic modulation contributes across a wide range of cognition-relevant toward process fluctuations, which may impair genes and cognitive functions. As is true for multiple facets of cognitive functioning in the candidate gene studies in general, the ob- course of normal aging. served genotype effects need to be replicated Several studies revealed additional magni- in independent samples to substantiate the fication effects. Older adults with theDAT1 genotype-phenotype associations that have genotype (DAT1 9/9), associated with higher been observed thus far. levels of extrasynaptic dopamine, and the genotype DRD2 CC, which is associated with

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 207 Key Reference (a) Younger adults (b) Older adults Papenberg, G., Bäckman, L., Nagel, I. E., Nietfeld, Met/Met = Met/Met = .29* W., ... Heekeren, H. R., Met/Val = .35* Met/Val = .29* Lindenberger, U., & Li, Val/Val = Val/Val = .70* S.-C. (in press). COMT polymorphism and mem- ory dedifferentiation in 1 1 1 1 old age. Psychology and Aging. Advance online SWM VEM SWM VEM publication. doi:10.1037/ a0033225

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Figure 7. The correlation between spatial working memory (SWM) and verbal episodic memory (VEM) differs by age group and phenotype. The figure shows the results of a multiple-group latent structural equation model for younger (a) and older (b) adults. The two aspects of memory functions are less differentiated (i. e., more highly correlated) among older Val homozygotes of the COMT gene than in any of the three groups (adapted from Papenberg et al., in press). © MPI for Human Development

higher dopamine D2 receptor density, showed increases from childhood to early adulthood better backward serial recall performance than and decreases from early adulthood to old age older adults who did not carry these beneficial (see Figure 8a). Moreover, in all age groups, alleles (Li, Papenberg, et al., 2013). In a se- individuals who showed lower EEG coherence quence learning task, older adults, in particular (i. e., a greater degree of temporal jitter in those with fewer of the beneficial alleles of EEG signal across trials) also showed greater dopamine relevant genes, had more difficulty trial-by-trial reaction time fluctuations (see in deriving explicit knowledge through learning Figure 8b). Available evidence suggests that than younger adults (Schuck, Doeller, et al., control signals in the medial frontal cortex 2013). In both cases, the corresponding genetic (MFC) are reflected in theta band activity, effects were only observed in older adults. suggesting that distinct brain areas work in coordinated fashion during tasks that demand Lifespan Age Differences in EEG Theta executive control. Together with other findings Coherence and Variability in Inhibitory in this field, our findings suggest that less Control reliable control processes in children and older In a related line of inquiry, we investigated adults may contribute to the greater degree of neural correlates of trial-by-trial performance performance fluctuations in both age groups fluctuations across the lifespan (Papenberg, relative to adolescents and young adults. Hämmerer, et al., 2013). Specifically, we used electroencephalography (EEG) to examine age Lifespan Development of Auditory differences in intertrial EEG coherence during Attention and Dopamine Genotype Effects a task requiring prefrontal cognitive control The efficacy of attentional regulation chang- of inhibition from middle childhood to old es across the lifespan. Attention involves age. We found that theta intertrial coherence frontal-parietal networks that are innervated

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Figure 8. Intertrial phase coherence (ITPC) of the EEG during attentional processing differs by age group. (a) Topographical maps of theta intertrial phase coherence at frontal and central electrodes during the inhibition (NoGo) condition. Children, adolescents, and older adults showed a lesser degree of coherence in comparison to younger adults. (b) Scatterplots of the correlation between peak theta coherence during inhibition and trial-by- trial reaction time fluctuations during Go conditions (adapted from Papenberg, Hämmerer, et al., 2013). © MPI for Human Development by dopaminergic and cholinergic pathways. conflict in younger adults, but not in older Key Reference Hence, the third area of research focused on adults (Passow et al., 2014). Moreover, we Passow, S., Müller, experiments that investigated age-related found that younger adults with the genotype M., Westerhausen, R., differences in perceptual and attentional associated with lower dopamine receptor ­Hugdahl, K., Warten- burger, I., Heekeren, mechanisms. In the domain of auditory function (i. e., G carriers of the PPP1R1B gene) H. R., Lindenberger, attention, we used an intensity-modulated show less flexible attentional regulation of U., & Li, S.-C. (2013). dichotic-listening paradigm to manipulate auditory processing as well as weaker N450 Development of atten- tional control of verbal both top-down attentional control and (Li, Passow, et al., 2013). auditory perception from bottom-up perceptual distinctiveness. This This project came to a close at the Center middle to late childhood: line of research was carried out in collabora- when Shu-Chen Li accepted an offer as full Comparisons to healthy aging. Developmen- tion with Kenneth Hugdahl and René Wester- professor at the Technische Universität Dres- tal Psychology, 49, hausen from the University of Bergen. Our den in August 2012 where the project is being 1982–1993. doi:10.1037/ findings indicate that the top-down control continued and developed further. a0031207 of auditory attention is not fully developed A large sample of younger and older adults in children and severely compromised in recruited by this project has formed the older adults (see Figure 9; Passow et al., backbone of the Berlin Aging Study II, which 2012, 2013). In line with these age-related is carried out at the Center (see pp. 234–238). differences in behavior, a late fronto-central With its emphasis on neurocomputational negativity that peaks around 450 ms after modeling of lifespan changes in cognition, stimulus onset (i. e., the N450 component) the Neuromodulation of Lifespan Cognition reliably discriminates between conditions project has contributed significantly to the of high versus low attention–perception scientific agenda of the Center.

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 209 (a) Younger children, 7 to 8 years of age (b) Older children, 11 to 12 years of age 100 100

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Figure 9. The attentional regulation of auditory processing differs markedly by age. Participants were presented with dichotic pairs of voiced versus unvoiced syllables (e. g., /ba/ vs. /pa/) and were asked to report the syllable heard. Perceptual saliency, shown on the x-axis, was manipulated by decreasing the intensity of either the right- or the left-ear input in 5-dB steps until a maximum difference of 20 dB between ears was reached. Negative values represent conditions in which left-ear stimuli were louder than right-ear stimuli, and positive values represent conditions in which right-ear stimuli were louder than left-ear stimuli. Attentional focus was manipu- lated by instructing participants to focus on the right ear, on the left ear, or on both ears (neutral focus). Reports are quantified by the laterality index, shown on the y-axis, which expresses the amount of right-ear reports in relation to left-ear reports (i. e., [(right ear – left ear) / (right ear + left ear)] x 100). The laterality index ranges from –100 % to +100 %, with positive values indicating a right-ear advantage and negative values a left-ear advantage. When the stimulus for the attended ear is louder, then attention is facilitated by saliency; when the stimulus for the attended ear is softer, then the saliency advantage of the stimuli presented to the unattended ear has to be overcome by top-down attentional control. In contrast to younger adults (c), who were capable of flex- ibly focusing their attention on auditory inputs from either the right or left ear, performance in older adults (d) was driven almost exclusively by perceptual saliency. Children showed rapid development of attentional control from middle to late childhood (adapted from Passow et al., 2013; see also Passow et al., 2012). © MPI for Human Development

210 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 2: Intra-Person Dynamics Across the Lifespan Researchers Douglas D. Garrett The ontogeny of human behavior comprises both short-term variability and long-term change (as of 11/2011) and is embedded into cultural, environmental, and neural contexts. The overarching objective of Manuel C. Voelkle the Intra-Person Dynamics project is to test theories and explore research designs that articu- late human development across different timescales, levels of analysis, and functional domains. Annette Brose The project collaborates closely with the Formal Methods project (pp. 248–253) and with the Ulman Lindenberger newly established Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research Martin Lövdén (p. 206). Currently, the project is structured into two parts, one focusing on neural dynamics Florian Schmiedek and the other on behavioral dynamics. Janne Adolf (as of 10/2013) Neural Dynamics Within a sample of young and older adults, Charles Driver Various subdisciplines within neuroscience we first investigated age differences between (as of 10/2013) have long shown that the brain is inher- younger and older adults in fMRI-based blood ently dynamic and variable across moments oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal vari- at every level of the nervous system. Many ability (i. e., within-region temporal standard researchers have typically conceived of deviation of BOLD signal, or SDBOLD) during Key References variability as either (a) measurement error fixation blocks. Results indicated that older Garrett, D. D., Kovacevic,­ or (b) neural “noise,” a nuisance factor that adults showed a smaller degree of variability N., McIntosh, A. R., & Grady, C. L. (2011). The presumably interferes with the efficiency of than younger adults. The SDBOLD pattern was 2 importance of being neural processes. With respect to aging, the not only highly robust (R = .81) but also variable. The Journal concepts of “noisy” and inefficient process- virtually orthogonal in comparison to that of Neuroscience, 31, ing were initially discussed between the obtained using a typical mean BOLD signal 4496–4503. doi:10.1523/ jneurosci.5641-10.2011 1960s and the 1980s (see Garrett, Samanez- approach, thus revealing a distinctive subset Larkin, et al., 2013). However, it is only com- of age-relevant brain regions that could not Garrett, D. D., Kovacevic, N., McIntosh, A. R., & paratively recently that directly examining have been discovered using mean-based Grady, C. L. (2010). Blood within-subject brain signal variability in vivo measures. In Garrett, Kovacevic, McIntosh, oxygen level-dependent has been employed as a means of testing the and Grady (2011), younger, faster, and more signal variability is more than just noise. The notion of age-related neural noise. Perhaps consistent performers were revealed to Journal of Neuroscience, surprisingly, neural variability may be highly exhibit substantially higher SDBOLD on three 30, 4914–4921. doi: functional for neural systems, indexing im- different tasks (perceptual matching, atten- 10.1523/jneurosci. 5166-09.2010 portant benefits such as increased dynamic tional cueing, and delayed match-to-sample; range and systemic flexibility/adaptability see Figure 10). Thus, signal variability indexes Garrett, D. D., Samanez- Larkin, G. R., MacDonald, (see Garrett, Samanez-Larkin, et al., 2013). individual differences in behavioral efficacy S. W. S., Lindenberger, Viewed from this perspective, it is possible to beyond its relations to adult age. Interest- U., ­McIntosh, A. R., reframe brain aging as a generalized process ingly, younger, better performing adults not & Grady, C. L. (2013). Moment-to-moment of increasing system rigidity and loss of dy- only exhibited greater signal variability within brain signal variability: namic range that manifests itself in reduced regions but also displayed a greater range of A next frontier in human brain signal variability. The project tests variability magnitudes across regions; older, brain mapping? Neuro- science & Biobehavioral this conceptualization by examining EEG/ less effective performers’ variability levels Reviews, 37, 610–624. fMRI brain signal variability and dynamics were far less differentiated from region to doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev. in relation to lifespan development, cogni- region. 2013.02.015 tion, neurochemistry, network dynamics, and Garrett, Kovacevic, McIntosh, and Grady brain structure. A summary of our recent (2013) have recently investigated the rela- findings and research approaches can be tionship between SDBOLD and changing cogni- found below. tive demands. We hypothesized that neural variability may yield adaptability in the pres- Aging, Cognition, and Brain Signal Variability ence of stimulus uncertainty such that signal We began establishing links between adult variability would be greater when there is age and brain signal variability 3 years ago greater stimulus uncertainty (e. g., on task) (Garrett, Kovacevic, McIntosh, & Grady, 2010). compared to conditions in which there is less

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 211 1.00 PMT ATT DMS 0.80

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attentional cueing (ATT), and delayed match-to-sample (DMS) tasks. RT: reaction time; ISDRT: intraindividual standard deviations (SD) of RTs (adapted from Garrett et al., 2011). © MPI for Human Development

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Figure 11. Three dimensions of age-/performance-related group differences in SDBOLD supported by research from the Intra-Person Neural Dy- namics project. (a) Within region, within condition: Brain signals are generally less variable across moments in older, less effective performers.

(b) Within region, across conditions: Older, less effective performers show fewer differences in SDBOLD as the brain transitions from fixation to task. (c) Between region, within task: Older, less effective performers exhibit less region-to-region differentiation in SDBOLD magnitude for any given task (adapted from Grady & Garrett, in press). © MPI for Human Development

212 | Center for Lifespan Psychology stimulus uncertainty (e. g., at fixation, when of SDBOLD ­requires demonstrating whether Key References no stimulus parameters change). Given the such measures can be subtly task-modulated Baltes, P. B., & importance of neural variability for state- within persons in lifespan samples. In an Lindenberger,­ U. (1997). to-state transitions (see Garrett, Samanez- initial sample of young adults (Garrett, Emergence of a powerful connection between Larkin, et al., 2013), and the fact that older McIntosh, & Grady, in press), we showed that sensory and cognitive adults exhibited less signal variability both within-person SDBOLD levels responded to functions across the at fixation and on task in our first two stud- incremental adjustments in task difficulty on adult life span: A new window to the study of ies (Garrett et al., 2010, 2011), we expected a face processing task. Using mixed modeling, cognitive aging? Psychol- that any variability-based transition from we also found that difficulty-related reduc- ogy and Aging, 12, 12–21. fixation to task may be also more subtle in tions in signal variability predicted reduced doi:10.1037/0882- 7974.12.1.12 older adults. Results revealed that signal accuracy and longer reaction times within variability increased broadly on task (using persons. These findings suggest thatSD Garrett, D. D., McIntosh,­ BOLD A. R., & Grady, C. L. (in the same tasks as in Garrett et al., 2011) provides a systematic signal of interest within press). Brain signal compared to fixation, particularly in younger persons that is task-driven and from which an variability is parametri- and faster performing adults. Increases in understanding of the dynamic function of the cally modifiable.Cerebral Cortex. Advance online signal variability on task may thus represent human brain can be gleaned. publication. doi:10.1093/­ both a high-functioning system capable of cercor/bht150 greater dynamic range between brain states Ongoing Work/Future Directions as well as an enhanced ability to efficiently We also continue to examine brain signal process varying and unexpected external variability from a series of other angles, three stimuli. of which are highlighted here. (1) Neuro- It is now becoming apparent that the concept chemistry: Dopamine. We are analyzing of age-related dedifferentiation (postulated independent data sets employing dopamine years previously by LIP scientists; Baltes & agonists and antagonists to test the hy- Lindenberger, 1997) can be conceptually pothesis that known age-related reductions expanded into the realm of age- and perfor- in dopamine may provide a mechanistic mance differences in brain signal variability explanation for lower signal variability levels (Grady & Garrett, in press). Based on the in older adults. (2) Brain Structure: White results outlined above, there are at least three Matter Integrity. We recently established a possible dimensions governing how older, less model to statistically estimate links between well performing adults exhibit reduced BOLD whole brain white matter integrity and BOLD variability (and thus, greater self-similarity in signal (Burzynska et al., 2013). We now plan signal properties) compared to younger, more to link white matter integrity to whole brain effective performers: (a) within region, within signal variability as a means of determin- condition (Figure 11a); (b) within region, ing the various limits that white matter may across conditions (Figure 11b); and (c) be- place on signal dynamics in younger and older tween region, within condition (Figure 11c). adults. (3) Methods: Relationships Between A fourth dimension may involve change in Signal Variance and Entropy. There are no signal variability over time (within and across clear methods for distinguishing between regions and tasks), a direction we hope to variance and “information content/structure” explore further. (or, more formally, entropy) in brain signals, largely because entropy measures typically re- The Importance of Parametric Examinations quire that brain signals be normalized by their When Linking Signal Variability and Task variance. This creates a potential for variance Performance and entropy to show a methodologically un- If signal variability is to form a useful tool desirable forced inverse relation. Along with for the cognitive and developmental neuro­ Thomas Grandy and Markus Werkle-Bergner science communities, we first need to from the ConMem project (pp. 217–222), we establish whether signal variability responds are exploring new approaches to disentangle to precise levels of environmental demand. variance and entropy that may circumvent a Our ability to ask specific cognitive questions host of estimation issues.

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 213 Key References Behavioral Dynamics in 100 daily sessions (see Box 1: COGITO), Brose, A., Lövdén, M., This part of the project is based on the prem- Schmiedek, Lövdén, and Lindenberger (2013) & Schmiedek, F. (2014). ise that a comprehensive understanding of were able to show that the contributions Daily fluctuations in behavioral development across the lifespan made by systematic day-to-day variability to positive affect positively co-vary with working requires a person-oriented, multivariate, and overall observed variability are reliable, but memory performance. longitudinal approach. Only a high density small. What appear to be good versus bad Emotion, 14, 1–6. of observations within individuals allows days can thus largely be put down to fluctua- doi:10.1037/a0035210 researchers to distinguish among different tions at faster timescales. Most interestingly, Schmiedek, F., Lövdén, forms and functions of variability and change, despite lower average levels of performance, M., & Lindenberger, U. (2013). Keeping it with the goal of delineating the dynamic older adults actually showed more consistent steady: Older adults properties of human behavior (e. g., flexibil- levels of performance. The finding that older perform more con- ity, plasticity, fluctuation, and adaptability). adults show fewer performance fluctuations sistently on cognitive tasks than younger The availability of data sets that fulfill these can potentially be explained by a number of adults. Psychological requirements offers great opportunities for factors that were assessed in COGITO. These ­Science, 24, 1747–1754. new insights but also poses new theoretical include the setting of lower goals regarding doi:10.1177/0956797 613479611 and methodological challenges. The project performance levels and less variability in cog- meets these challenges by a strong emphasis nitive strategy use (Shing, Schmiedek, Lövdén, on methodology, understood as the produc- & Lindenberger, 2012), more stable levels tive interplay between substantive research of motivation (Brose, Schmiedek, Lövdén, & questions and method development. During Lindenberger, 2012), as well as lifestyles and the reporting period, the project focused on circumstances that are characterized by fewer three domains of inquiry, which are summa- stressful events (Brose, Scheibe, & Schmiedek, rized below. 2013) and consequently produce a reduced need to engage in cognitively demanding self- Studying Age-Related Differences in regulatory efforts (Brose, Schmiedek, Lövdén, Intraindividual Variability at Different & Lindenberger, 2011). Timescales People often attribute poor cognitive Within-Person Variability as a Means of performance to having “bad days.” As ag- Understanding Functional Relationships ing leads to lower average performance Across Different Psychological Domains and more moment-to-moment behavioral Analyzing within-person variation and variability, one might expect older adults to covariation provides new insights into how also show greater day-to-day variability. As people differ from one another, such as the both researchers and members of the public distributions or persistence of behaviors typically only sample one performance of a across time. These differences cannot be given activity each day, the empirical basis revealed using conventional trait measures for concluding that cognitive performance that capture between-person differences. substantially varies from day to day is actually Furthermore, the study of within-person inadequate. By using data from nine cognitive variability can reveal functional relationships tasks completed by younger and older adults existing within individuals across domains.

In the COGITO study, 101 younger adults (20–31 years of age) and 103 older adults (65–80 years of age) participated in 100 daily sessions, working each day on a set of 12 cognitive tasks measuring perceptual speed, episodic memory, and working memory, as well as various self-report measures. In addition, all participants completed compre- hensive pretests and posttests with baseline measures of cognitive abilities and transfer tasks for the practiced abilities. Brain-related measures were also taken from subsamples of the group, including structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional MRI, and electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings.

Box 1. COGITO.

214 | Center for Lifespan Psychology In searching for the potential causes of experimental approaches. Such approaches within-person variation in cognitive perfor- often revealed increased performance in mance, we focused on volitional components tasks requiring cognitive effort following of task performance, attention, and emo- negative mood inductions and decreased tion, all measured in the COGITO study. We performance following positive ones, poten- found that performance was reduced on days tially because of an analytic versus heuristic when negative affect was above average and processing mode associated with these two improved when motivation, attention, and states. Furthermore, our findings point to the positive affect were above average (Brose importance of volitional constraints on task et al., 2012). This finding challenges previ- performance in a day-to-day context. This ous evidence regarding associations between challenges the view that capacity limita- affect and performance that were based on tions in affectively charged situations may

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Figure 12. Two-dimensional likelihood planes resulting from tests for conditional equivalence of between-person and within-person factor structures. Each dot represents the comparison between the factor structure of a single person across occasions and the factor structure of many individuals at a single occasion. A green dot indicates that the two structures do not differ significantly from one other, whereas a red dot indicates a significant difference (significant likelihood ratio). (a) Group differences in factor variance may result in large degrees of nonequivalence (left side). Controlling for such differences (i. e., establishing conditional equivalence) reduces the number of significant comparisons to the level of chance (right side). (b) Cyclic trends at the within-person level may result in large degrees of nonequivalence (left side), while controlling for them reduces the number of significant comparisons to the level of chance (right side) (adapted from Voelkle et al., in press). © MPI for Human Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 215 Key References hamper cognitive performance. As a whole, This disconnect between research practice, Voelkle, M. C., Brose, the pattern of findings differs from previous applied demands, and psychological theories A., Schmiedek, F., & experimental and correlational research and constitutes a major threat to the concep- Lindenberger, U. (in thus reveals the importance of a within- tual integrity of the field. Based on a newly press). Towards a unified framework for the study person approach. developed approach for testing the equiva- of between-person and lence of within-person and between-person within-person struc- Formalizing the Relationship Between Within- factor structures (Voelkle, Oud, von Oertzen, tures: Building a bridge between two research Person and Between-Person Variation & Lindenberger, 2012), we thus introduced paradigms. Multivariate Most empirical research in psychology is the concept of conditional equivalence. Behavioral Research. based on analyzing between-person varia- Conditional equivalence is a way of studying Voelkle, M. C., Oud, J. tion. In contrast, much of applied psychology the commonalities of between-person and H. L., Oertzen, T. von, & is concerned with analyzing variation within within-person structures in the presence of Lindenberger, U. (2012). Maximum likelihood individuals. In addition, the mechanisms spec- unconditional nonequivalence by controlling dynamic factor modeling ified by psychological theories generally oper- for factors that may only affect the between- for arbitrary N and T ate within, rather than across, individuals. For person or within-person structure (Voelkle, using SEM. Structural Equation Modeling, 19, example, we would like to make statements Brose, Schmiedek, & Lindenberger, in press). 329–350. doi:10.1080/ such as “because she is so intelligent she Figure 12 illustrates this approach. In prin- 10705511.2012.687656 can solve the equation,” that imply that the ciple, the approach allows the causes (such counterfactual statement is also true. Usually, as age-graded changes) and consequences however, there is little empirical evidence for of structural nonequivalence to be identi- such a conclusion because all we are typically fied empirically and may contribute to the observing are other people who are or are not development of better research, theory, and able to solve the equation. interventions in the behavioral sciences.

216 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 3: Cognitive and Neural Dynamics of Memory Across the Researchers Lifespan (ConMem) Yee Lee Shing Markus Werkle- Memory Development as the Interplay of Strategic and Associative Components Across Bergner Multiple Levels Yvonne Brehmer The brain operates and changes with age in a distributed and parallel fashion. Mechanisms (as of 12/2012) related to maturation, learning, and senescence affect different regions of the brain on multiple Ulman Lindenberger levels, dimensions, timescales, and trajectories that also interact with one another. Behavioral and neural evidence suggests that memory functioning requires oscillatory interactions to Yana Fandakova occur within a distributed network whose components include the prefrontal, medio-temporal, Myriam C. Sander and parietal regions. The overarching objective of the Cognitive and Neural Dynamics of Nina Becker Memory Across the Lifespan (ConMem) project is to provide mechanistic and process-oriented (as of 08/2013) explanations for developmental changes in memory function. Our aim is to gain insights into Garvin Brod the dynamic structure–function dependencies that underlie memory processes and related neu- (as of 06/2012) ral mechanisms. Thomas H. Grandy Laurel Raffington The project proceeds on the assumption that function with a high degree of interdepen- (as of 11/2013) lifespan changes in memory functioning can dence, which poses a complicated challenge be mapped onto the interacting contribu- for empirical investigations (e. g., Shing tions of two components, one associative et al., 2010). We assume that the protracted and the other strategic. The associative maturation of prefrontal regions and associ- Key References component of memory refers to those ated neural pathways limits the efficiency of Sander, M. C., Linden­ mechanisms during encoding, consolidation, the strategic component in children relative berger, U., & Werkle- and retrieval that bind different aspects of an to young adults. In contrast, the associa- Bergner, M. (2012). Lifespan age differences event into a cohesive memory representation. tive component, which primarily involves in working memory: This associative component can be linked the medio-temporal lobes, is close to fully A two-component to medio-temporal functions (especially functional by middle childhood. For old age, framework. Neurosci- ence & ­Biobehavioral the hippocampus) and posterior associa- however, the framework postulates deficien- Reviews, 36, 2007–2033. tion areas. It is assumed that synchronized cies in both components relative to early doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.­ activity within and between neural networks adulthood, reflecting senescent alterations 2012.06.004 acts as a binding mechanism in the service of in prefrontal and medio-temporal regions of Shing, Y. L., Werkle- episodic memory. The strategic component, the brain and related circuits. The predicted Bergner, M., Brehmer, Y., Müller, V., Li, on the other hand, refers to control processes lifespan dissociation between the two S.-C., & Lindenberger, that aid and regulate memory functions at components provides a starting point for U. (2010). Episodic encoding and retrieval. These processes may identifying mechanisms of lifespan changes memory across the lifespan: The contribu- include the elaboration and organization of in various forms of memory. tions of associative and memory content at encoding, and the specifi- The brain regions supporting episodic and strategic components. cation, verification, monitoring, and evalua- working-memory functioning strongly Neuroscience & Biobe- havioral Reviews, 34, tion of relevant information at retrieval. The overlap. Hence, we recently extended the 1080–1091. doi:10.1016/ functioning of this strategic component is two-component framework from episodic j.neubiorev.2009.11.002­ closely related to the attentional and control to working memory (Sander, Lindenberger, mechanisms that are mainly supported by & Werkle-Bergner, 2012). The benefits of prefrontal regions. distinguishing between associative and The project further posits that matura- strategic components as a means of under- tional, experience-dependent, and senescent standing lifespan age differences in working forces, as well as their interactions shape memory were empirically validated in a series the relative contributions of associative and of behavioral and electroencephalographic strategic processes during memory encod- (EEG) studies (Sander, Werkle-Bergner, & ing, consolidation, and retrieval. As both ­Lindenberger, 2011a, 2011b, 2012). components rely on partially overlapping and interactive neural circuitries, they each

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 217 Key Reference False Memory and Age Differences in decreased across runs in children, whereas Fandakova, Y., Linden­ Retrieval Processing older adults were increasingly likely to falsely berger, U., & Shing, Y. Episodic memory is not always perfect; for indicate that they had already seen a familiar L. (in press-a). Deficits instance, people sometimes remember epi- pair that was shown for the first time in a in process-specific pre- frontal and hippocampal sodes that they never experienced. In a series given run (Figure 13a). In addition, children activations contribute of experiments (Dissertation Yana Fandakova), demonstrated a more pronounced decrease in to adult age ­differences we described lifespan age differences in the memory errors across runs than older adults, in episodic memory interference. Cerebral likelihood of memory errors being committed suggesting that their functional associative Cortex. Advance online and investigated the behavioral and neural component benefited from repeated presen- publication. doi:10.1093/ mechanisms that underlie the occurrence of tation of the word pairs. cercor/bht034 such false memories. In one study, a sample To gain a better understanding of the neural of children, younger adults, and older adults mechanisms of these age differences in false worked on a repeated continuous recogni- memory, we also used functional neuroim- tion task (Fandakova, Shing, & Lindenberger, aging to test younger and older adults on 2013a). Participants saw the same set of the same task (Fandakova, Lindenberger, & word pairs over three consecutive runs and Shing, in press-a). We showed that there was were instructed to identify any reoccurrences increased activity in the left anterior prefron- of word pairs within each run. We showed tal cortex in younger adults as demands on that the correct detection of pair repetitions memory monitoring processes rose across runs.

(a) Repeated pairs First-occurring pairs Rearranged pairs 100 100 100

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Z = 6 Y = –22 Signal change (in %) rearrange > repeated L APFC R Hippocampus –0.1 –0.1 Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 1 Run 2 Run 3

Children Younger adults Older adults

Figure 13. False memories differ by age. (a) Percentage of correctly recognized pair repetitions and falsely recognized lure and rearranged pairs across the different runs of the repeated continuous recognition task. Children recognized significantly fewer pair repetitions than the other age groups in Run 2 and Run 3 (left panel). Older adults falsely endorsed a significantly higher number of lure pairs than the other age groups in Run 2 and Run 3 (middle panel). Children showed a trend for more pronounced decreases in false recognition of rearranged pairs across runs relative to older adults (right panel). (b) Age differences in task-related activations between younger and older adults. During the correct rec- ognition of lure pairs, activation in the left anterior prefrontal cortex (APFC) increased across runs for younger adults, but not for older adults (left panel). During the correct recognition of rearranged pairs, older adults reliably showed lower levels of hippocampal response relative to younger adults (right panel) (adapted from Fandakova, Lindenberger, & Shing, in press-a; Fandakova, Shing, & Lindenberger, 2013a). © MPI for Human Development

218 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Such an increase was absent in older adults information processing as indicators for the Key Reference (Figure 13b). Older adults also showed a more local representation and controlled process- Sander, M. C., pronounced increase in false memory for lure ing of contents in working memory. Working Werkle-Bergner, M., & pairs across runs than younger adults (see also memory refers to the ability to selectively at- Lindenberger, U. (2012). Amplitude modulations Fandakova, Shing, & Lindenberger, 2013a). tend to and maintain information in mind for and inter-trial phase These findings suggest that memory monitor- a short period of time and undergoes a similar stability of alpha- ing deficits due to impaired involvement of rise and fall across the lifespan as episodic oscillations differentially reflect working memory prefrontal regions contribute to greater levels memory. Inspired by the striking similarity constraints across the of false memory in old age. Older adults also of the neural circuits involved in working lifespan. NeuroImage, 59, demonstrated reduced levels of activation in memory and episodic memory, we extended 646–654. doi:10.1016/j. neuroimage.2011.06.092 the right anterior hippocampus, indicating that our two-component framework to work- the ability to recognize novel associations of ing memory by exploring the contributions familiar information may be reduced in old age of top-down control and binding processes due to neural deficits in hippocampal function- (see the review by Sander, Lindenberger, ing (see also Shing et al., 2011). & Werkle-Bergner, 2012). We conducted a series of EEG studies with lifespan samples Mechanisms and Limits of Working to understand how electrophysiological Memory Across the Lifespan markers of top-down control, thus referring This part of the project focuses on age dif- to the strategic component, are related to ferences in oscillatory neural mechanisms of age-dependent changes in working-memory

(a) Children Younger adults Older adults

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Figure 14. Alpha power during working-memory performance differs by task load and age. (a) Lateralized age differences in posterior alpha power (ipsilateral – contralateral hemifield), indicating differences in inhibiting distracting information during working-memory encoding. (b) For increases from low to medium task load, all age groups modulate hemispheric differences in alpha power. However, under high working-memory load, when individual capacity limits are reached, the alpha power response inverts in children and older adults (adapted from Sander, Werkle-Bergner, & Lindenberger, 2012). © MPI for Human Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 219 Key References performance (Dissertation Myriam C. Sander). association between individual peak frequen- Shing, Y. L., Werkle- In particular, we investigated age-related cy and general intelligence was substantial Bergner, M., Li, S.-C., & changes in rhythmic activity in the alpha and of similar magnitude in both younger and Lindenberger, U. (2008). frequency range (7–13 Hz) as a neural marker older adults. Furthermore, an investigation of Associative and strategic components of episodic for the inhibitory control of working-memory a massive cognitive intervention revealed that memory: A life-span contents (Sander, Werkle-Bergner, & Linden- individual alpha frequency was highly stable dissociation. Journal of berger, 2012). Participants worked on a cued in healthy adults up to 80 years of age and Experimental Psychology: General, 137 (3), 495– change-detection task with age-adapted not easily modifiable by cognitive training 513. doi:10.1037/0096- task difficulty. During the retention interval, alone (Grandy, Werkle-Bergner, Chicherio, 3445.137.3.495 alpha power was higher ipsilateral to the Schmiedek, & Lindenberger, 2013). This find- Werkle-Bergner, M., attended hemifield and increased with the ing qualifies individual alpha frequency as a Müller, V., Li, S.-C., & number of items in all age groups (Figure 14). stable neurophysiological trait marker. Our Lindenberger, U. (2006). Cortical EEG correlates This change in lateralized local alpha power ongoing work seeks to link cognitive process of successful memory indicates that performance-relevant selection models of working-memory functioning to encoding: Implications mechanisms are functional in all age groups. EEG markers of neural activity at the indi- for lifespan comparisons. Neuroscience & Biobe- However, under task conditions that overly vidual level. havioral Reviews, 30 (6), challenged individual working-memory ca- 839–854. doi:10.1016/j. pacity limits, alpha power lateralization broke Age Differences in the Influence of Prior neubiorev.2006.06.009 down in children and older adults, revealing Knowledge on Memory age-related differences in top-down control Knowledge based on experience accumulates processes, as postulated by the two-compo- during the life course. This knowledge, in turn, nent framework (Sander, Werkle-Bergner, & guides future experiences, including the for- Lindenberger, 2012). mation of memories. Initial findings suggest Another line of research in this area explored that knowledge structures are less elaborate adult age differences in large-scale dynam- in children than in adults and that children ics of neural networks during the selection use knowledge differently than adults (for a and maintenance of information in working review, see Brod, Werkle-Bergner, & Shing, memory. Participants saw a series of items 2013). However, little is known about the cog- mixed at random that were either supposed nitive and neural mechanisms that underlie to be maintained in working memory (REM) or age-graded changes in the deliberate use of discarded (NREM) from further processing. In- knowledge for memory. To disentangle knowl- creased oscillatory activity in lower frequency edge usage from knowledge availability, we ranges (~5–15 Hz) was related to the success- recently developed a paradigm that induces ful suppression of NREM items (Figure 15). At new knowledge in both young adults and the same time, increased phase synchroniza- children within an experimental setting (Dis- tion of brain oscillations in response to REM sertation Garvin Brod). The setting comprises items was selectively related to successful a racing game within which participants first working-memory performance in younger acquire an artificial hierarchy of the stimuli adults, but not older adults (Werkle-Bergner to be used before being presented outcomes et al., 2012). of racing events that are either congruent or To increase our understanding of lifespan incongruent with this hierarchy. Age-compar- changes in oscillatory brain dynamics, we ative behavioral and imaging studies with this also explored the reliability and stability of paradigm are underway. neural markers within individuals across In a line of research that started at the end of time, cognitive interventions, and extended 2013, the project has begun to examine as- practice (Dissertation Thomas H. Grandy). sociations between stress, brain maturation, Using structural equation modeling, we found focusing on medio-temporal and prefrontal that peak individual alpha frequency is related regions, and memory in the early school years to intelligence at a general rather than at an (Dissertation Laurel Raffington in collabora- ability-specific level (Grandy, Werkle-Bergner, tion with Christine Heim, Charité Univer- Chicherio, Lövdén, & Lindenberger, 2013). The sitätsmedizin Berlin).

220 | Center for Lifespan Psychology (a) WM accuracy WM reaction time (b) Recogniton performance 1.0 3,500 5 Load 4 Load 6 Load 4 Load 6 REM NREM 4 0.9 * 3 * * 2,500 * 2 *

0.8 Pr-values

Correct (in %) 1 Median RT in ms n.s. n.s. 0.7 1,500 0 Older Younger Older Younger Older Younger adults adults adults adults adults adults

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Cue Stim Late (high) Late (low) Cue Stim Late (high) Late (low)

(d) Younger adults Older adults Cue Stim Cue Stim 8 8 r = 0.24 r = 0.22 r = 0.55* r = 0.25 6 6

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Figure 15. In a sequential visual working-memory (WM) task, participants were cued to remember some scenes (REM) while ignoring others (NREM). (a) WM performance was higher in younger than in older adults. (b) In a subsequent recognition memory test, REM items were remembered in both age groups, while memory of NREM items was at chance levels. (c) Posterior alpha/beta activity was larger in response to NREM compared to REM items, and (d) the difference predicted individual WM performance; * α < 0.05 (adapted from Werkle-Bergner, Freunberger, Sander, Lindenberger, & Klimesch, 2012). © MPI for Human Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 221 Minerva Group (led by Yee Lee Shing) Nature-Nurture in Brain Development: Separating Effects of Maturation Versus Schooling The Minerva Group led by Yee Lee Shing was established in 2012. The group examines the role of maturational versus environmental influences on cognitive development, with a focus on memory. The transition from kindergarten to elementary school is a salient envi- ronmental transition. Nevertheless, little is known about the effects of schooling on brain and behavioral development, including academic outcomes. The ongoing HippoKID study longitudinally examines the cognitive and neural development in a sample of children born close to the cutoff date (i. e., within 4 months) for school entry. Half of them just met the cutoff date and will thus start school 1 year earlier than their age peers who just missed it. The resulting data set will allow the group to investigate the interactive effects of age and experience on neural and cognitive development. Collaborators include Sascha Schroeder (Head of the Max Planck Research Group “REaD”; see pp. 315–339) and Florian Schmiedek (German Institute for International Educational Research [DIPF], Frankfurt a. M.).

Box 2.

Otto Hahn Group (led by Yvonne Brehmer) This group was established in 2012 and is funded by the Otto Hahn Award of the Max Planck Society, which was presented to Yvonne Brehmer for her dissertation on episodic memory plasticity across the lifespan. Nina Becker joined the group in August 2013 as a predoctoral fellow. The group explores mechanisms associated with individual differences in associative binding among older adults. The group’s work is primarily based on data from the Swedish National Study on Aging and Care (SNAC-K), which is coordinated by the Aging Research Center (ARC) at the Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm, Sweden. Ongoing analyses address the following questions: Which cognitive, social, health, and lifestyle factors contribute to individual differences in associative binding? What are the functional and structural brain characteristics of older adults who show well-preserved associative binding skills?

Box 3.

222 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 4: Mechanisms and Sequential Progression of Plasticity Researchers Simone Kühn This project addresses the questions of whether and how plasticity contributes to adult devel- (as of 02/2012) opment. Special attention is given to the relationship between neural and behavioral mani- Ulman Lindenberger festations of plasticity. The project continues the research agenda of the Sofja Kovalevskaja Martin Lövdén Research Group on the Plasticity of Brain and Behavior in Adulthood and Old Age (see Research Report 2009–2010). Simone Kühn joined the project as principal investigator in 2012. Elisa Filevich (as of 06/2012) Current research indicates that the human Imaging Methods project (see pp. 245–247), Johan Mårtensson brain has a significant capacity to adapt to the project carries out methodological work (as of 02/2013) changing demands by altering its function and to better understand, calibrate, and refine Nina Lisofsky structure (see Lövdén, Wenger, ­Mårtensson, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) protocols. (as of 01/2013) Lindenberger, & Bäckman, 2013). The project For instance, in a series of ongoing studies, we Elisabeth Wenger is based on the assumption that plasticity is have been taking measures of brain structure induced by a mismatch between environmen- and function on a day-to-day basis within tal demands and the individuals’ current be- the same individuals to explore whether daily havioral and neural resources (­Lövdén, Bäck- fluctuations in brain imaging parameters are Key References man, Lindenberger, Schaefer, & ­Schmiedek, related to fluctuations in physiological and Lövdén, M., ­Bäckman, 2010; see Figure 4 on p. 203). The project is affective states, such as physical activity, L., Lindenberger, interested in plastic changes induced by mis- blood pressure, sleep, caffeine intake, mood, U., Schaefer, S., & Schmiedek, F. (2010). A matches in either direction. Thus, it examines and so on. In the following, we provide a theoretical framework situations in which current demands exceed selective summary of completed studies and for the study of adult supply (e. g., cognitive interventions) but also ongoing work. cognitive plasticity. Psychological Bulletin, situations in which supply exceeds current 136 (4), 659–676. doi: demands (e. g., immobilization and sensory Spatial Navigation 10.1037/a0020080 deprivation). In a series of studies using a virtual-reality Lövdén, M., Wenger, E., Given that the mechanisms and the sequen- equipped treadmill setup, we found that Mårtensson, J., Linden­ tial progression of plastic changes in adult spatial navigation training protects the berger, U., & Bäckman, L. (2013). Structural humans are largely unknown, the central brain plasticity in adult goals of the project are to delineate the learning and develop- mechanisms and the sequential progression of ment. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, behavioral and neural plasticity in adulthood. 37, 2296–2310. doi: Cognitive interventions involving training 10.1016/j.neubiorev. regimes that target the specific brain regions 2013.02.014 and circuits that hypothetically support particular skills provide a powerful means to this end. Another fruitful approach is studying plasticity as it naturally occurs in environ- ments for which a mismatch between demand and capacity can be assumed. Moreover, Figure 16. Further results from the SPACE study: Spa- examining individuals who are experts in tial navigation training is associated with an increase in cortical thickness. In the study, younger and older particular skills represents a promising avenue adults practiced spatial navigation in a virtual zoo to investigate consequences and correlates of while walking on a treadmill. The practice period in- plasticity. cluded 42 one-hour sessions administered every other day over a period of about 3.5 months. Control groups The project‘s definition of plasticity is fairly walked on a treadmill without navigating for a com- restrictive (Lövdén et al., 2010): Changes are parable amount of time. Training was associated with only considered plastic if they are accompa- attenuated hippocampal shrinkage in both younger and older adults (see Lövdén, Schaefer, et al., 2012) nied by (a) structural changes of the brain and with thickness increases in the left precuneus and and (b) a change in behavioral repertoire. the left paracentral lobule, shown here, in younger In light of this emphasis on brain structure, adults only (adapted from Wenger et al., 2012). and in close collaboration with the Brain © MPI for Human Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 223 Key References hippocampus against age-related shrinkage grey matter increases in the right prefrontal Kühn, S., & Gallinat, J. (­Lövdén, Schaefer, et al., 2012), increases cortex, the right hippocampal formation, and (in press-c). Segregat- cortical thickness in the left precuneus and in both hemispheres of the cerebellum (Kühn, ing cognitive functions the left paracentral lobule (Wenger et al., Gleich, Lorenz, Lindenberger, & Gallinat, 2014; within hippocampal formation: A quantitative 2012; see Figure 16), and is associated with see Figure 17). These results confirm cumula- meta-analysis on spatial increases in a metabolite suggestive of hip- tive evidence that the hippocampal formation navigation and episodic pocampal neuro- or synaptogenesis (i. e., contributes to spatial navigation (Kühn & memory. Human Brain Mapping. Advance online N-acetylaspartate) in Val homozygotes of Gallinat, in press-c). The sort of video game publication. doi:10.1002/ the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene training used in this study might be helpful hbm.22239 (Lövdén et al., 2011). We also reported data in counteracting hippocampal and cortical Wenger, E., Schaefer, showing that frequent video gaming is as- volume losses in posttraumatic stress disorder S., Noack, H., Kühn, sociated with grey matter increases in the and neurodegenerative disease. S., Mårtensson, J., … Lindenberger,­ U., & brain (Kühn & Gallinat, in press-a; Kühn et al., An ongoing study examines a group of Lövden, M. (2012). Cor- 2011). In a recent experimental study continu- scientists who are spending 15 months at the tical thickness changes ing this line of work, we asked adults with no Neumayer Station of the Centre of German following spatial naviga- tion training in adult- prior experience of video games to practice a Research in Antarctica. Before the scientists hood and aging. Neuro- commercially available video game. The game left for their extended stay in an environ- Image, 59, 3389–3397. required navigating an avatar through a 3D ment that is generally devoid of spatial cues, doi:10.1016/j.neuroim- age.2011.11.015 world. The participants practiced the game we invited them to our laboratory in the fall for at least 30 minutes per day over a period of 2012 to assess their spatial abilities and of 2 months. After training, we observed to acquire high-resolution structural images

(a) (b) Right HC

Right DLPFC

Cerebellum

Figure 17. (a) Screenshot of the video game Super Mario 64 with the avatar navigating through a virtual envi- ronment, seen from a realistic perspective at the top, and from a bird‘s eye view at the bottom. (b) Brain map of the significant interaction between group (video gaming group vs. passive control group) and time (before vs. after training interval). Grey matter increases in the experimental group relative to the control groups which are displayed in red. Hippocampus (HC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) (adapted from Kühn et al., 2014). © MPI for Human Development

224 | Center for Lifespan Psychology of the hippocampus. MRI assessment will be We also carried out structural MRI scans on Key Reference repeated after the scientists have returned individuals who were wearing an orthesis that Kühn, S., Werner, A., from Antarctica. During their stay, the par- restrained movement of the dominant right Lindenberger, U., & ticipants are being tested on a monthly basis hand while perceiving graspable objects in Verrel,­ J. (in press). Acute immobilization with a battery of cognitive tests. It will be of the scanner. The visual presentation of objects facilitates premotor interest to find out whether the spatially poor is known to elicit the preparation of cor- preparatory activity for environment in Antarctica is associated with responding grasping movements. We found the non-restrained hand when facing grasp af- declines in spatial abilities and related brain that short-term immobilization of the right fordances. NeuroImage. structures and whether these declines are hand leads to a reduction in right-hand grasp Advance online publica- reversible. Initial results are expected in 2014. preparation relative to a control group with- tion. doi:10.1016/j. neuroimage.2014.02.003 out orthesis and to a concomitant activity in- Skilled Motor Performance crease in brain regions involved in regulating Skilled motor performance provides a rich left-handed grasping (Kühn, Werner, Linden- testing ground for exploring the mechanisms berger, & Verrel, in press; see Figure 18). In the and the progression of plasticity. In one future, we plan to explore whether this form recently completed study, the project aims of instantaneous functional reorganization at delineating the course of plasticity during provides a neural trigger for plastic change. training to write and trace with the left hand in young right-handed adults (Dissertation Hormonal Influences on Brain Plasticity Elisabeth Wenger). The project conducted 20 As an organ of the body, the brain is subject structural MRI scans during a training phase to hormonal influences, which may affect of 7 weeks, in the course of which partici- plasticity. Hence, the project has begun to in- pants learned in daily practice sessions how to vestigate the influence of gonadal hormones, draw and write with their left hand on tablet in particular estrogen and progesterone, on computers. The imaging protocol comprised brain structure and brain function in women both structural MRI (e. g., MPRAGE, diffusion (Dissertation Nina Lisofsky). Our interest tensor imaging) and functional MRI (resting in this topic is also methodological: It is state, writing, finger tapping). Task-related problematic to assess structural changes in functional activation patterns will allow us to response to experience (e. g., cognitive train- focus on brain regions that are activated dur- ing) if natural cyclic fluctuations that occur ing training. Initial results will be presented at at a similar timescale are not ascertained and conferences in 2014. taken into account. In a quantitative sum-

0.18 With restraint Without restraint 0.16 Right premotor cortex 0.14 * 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 BOLD signal change 0.04 * Interaction of Restraint Condition x 0.02 Stimulus Action Side Task vs. baseline in localizer 0.00 Handle left Handle right

Figure 18. Right premotor cortex (depicted in blue) shows rapid functional reorganization when participants wear an orthesis that restrains movement of their right hand. When seeing objects with handles oriented toward the left hand while the right hand is restrained, right premotor cortex activity preparing left-hand grasping is up-regulated (adapted from Kühn, Werner, et al., in press). © MPI for Human Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 225 Further Collaborations In the context of Maxnet Cognition (see p. 368), researchers at the MPI for Cognitive and Brain Sciences at Leipzig, the MPI for Psycholinguistics at Nijmegen, and the MPI for Human Development have agreed on a core imaging protocol that includes func- tional magnetic resonance imaging of the default network as well as structural magnetic Figure 19. Hormone levels change over the course of the female menstrual cycle and influence hippocampal volumes. Hippocampal volume increases during the late resonance imaging of grey matter volume follicular phase when estrogen levels are at their peak, relative to the early follicular and white matter tracts. Together with other phase when estrogen levels are low. researchers from the Center for Lifespan Psy- © MPI for Human Development chology, Simone Kühn and Sandra Düzel have begun to administer an expanded version of mary of functional MRI studies comparing this protocol, which also includes high-resolu- neural activity during the follicular and luteal tion imaging of the hippocampus, to partici- phases of the menstrual cycle, we reported pants in the Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II; see hemispheric differences in the activation pp. 234–238). By January 2014, 200 BASE-II of the amygdala/hippocampal complex. To participants have been scanned. explore the existence of corresponding struc- In collaboration with Torsten Schubert from tural changes, we carried out scans at four Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Jürgen time points distributed over the menstrual Gallinat from Charité Universitätsmedizin cycle. In preliminary analyses, we observed Berlin, the project compares ­simultaneous a bilateral increase in posterior hippocam- interpreters with consecutive ones and with pal volumes during the late follicular phase translators to identify the functional and when estrogen is at its peak, relative to the structural neural correlates of dual-task early follicular phase when estrogen is low performance. (Figure 19). In collaboration with Martin Dresler from the A second study currently in progress explores MPI for Psychiatry, Munich, Dimitris Repantis the effects of pregnancy on brain and behav- from Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, and ior in pregnant women, with an emphasis on Kathrin Ohla from the German Institute of the hippocampus. The study will start with a Human Nutrition, Potsdam, we are directly cross-sectional comparison between women comparing cognitive and neural changes in wanting to become pregnant and women who response to various substances or interven- have just given birth. In the longitudinal part, tions, such as glucose, caffeine, methylphe- we plan to follow women planning to get nidate, modafinil, caffeine pills, and memory pregnant over time and compare those who training. get pregnant with those who do not. Finally, in collaboration with Jürgen Gallinat from Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Brain Structure and Metacognition with Peter Zimmermann and Gerd Willmund In a separate line of research, Elisa Filevich from the Bundeswehr Krankenhaus Berlin, we and colleagues are investigating the asso- have begun a prospective longitudinal study ciation between brain structure and higher on posttraumatic stress disorder. Soldiers order cognitive functions. Here, the project being deployed to areas such as Afghanistan, is particularly interested in metacognition, Mali, and Kosovo are assessed before and or the ability to know what one knows, and after their mission on a range of psychological how this knowledge is related to introspec- and brain imaging measures. A specific aim of tion and interoception. In this context, we the study is to find out whether alterations in examine lucid dreamers as putative experts, the structure or function of the hippocampus as these individuals appear to be aware while are a risk factor for, or a consequence of stress dreaming. and trauma.

226 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 5: Sensorimotor–Cognitive Couplings Across the Lifespan Researchers Sabine Schaefer Everyday life often requires the integration and coordination of perception, action, and Julius Verrel thought. Examples include walking while trying to memorize a shopping list or maintaining Ulman Lindenberger one’s balance on a bus while trying to read an advertisement. Similarly, the successful execu- Michael Schellenbach tion of complex movements requires anticipation of future states and coordination of task-­ specific movements. For instance, safely carrying a glass of water requires predictive temporal Dominik Jednoralski and spatial coordination of body parts. Everyday observations suggest that older adults and (until 01/2013) young children need to invest more attention in sensorimotor aspects of their behavior than Maike Kleemeyer teenagers and young adults and that they have a reduced ability to flexibly adapt their move- (as of 11/2010) ments to external demands. For example, when facing an obstacle on a narrow path, older adults may tend to stop talking and resume their conversations once the obstacle has been overcome, whereas the same obstacle will affect younger adults’ conversation to a lesser ex- tent. How do individuals of different ages or with different levels of expertise adapt to multiple sensorimotor and cognitive demands? How does the interaction between the sensorimotor and cognitive dimensions of behavior develop across the lifespan?

The Sensorimotor–Cognitive Couplings project development in early childhood. Initial studies Key References seeks to provide answers to these questions on this topic, including longitudinal assess- Schaefer, S., & by focusing on motor aspects of behavior, ments, are in preparation. ­Schumacher, V. (2011). both in isolation and in relation to cognition. The interplay between cognitive and motor The project investigates lifespan differences The Movement Lab functioning in healthy in interactions between sensorimotor and The project’s laboratory is equipped with a older adults: Findings cognitive aspects of behavior (e. g., ­Schaefer motion capture system capable of measur- from dual-task studies and suggestions for & Schumacher, 2011) as well as lifespan dif- ing the 3D positions of reflective markers intervention. Geron- ferences in movement organization and coor- attached to a participant’s body with a high tology, 57, 239–246. dination (e. g., Verrel, Lövdén, & Lindenberger, degree of temporal and spatial accuracy doi:10.1159/000322197 2012a). In late 2013, the project has begun (Figure 20). The resulting data are postpro- Verrel, J., Lövdén, M., to expand its research interests to movement cessed according to biomechanical models & Lindenberger, U. (2012a). Normal aging reduces motor synergies in manual pointing. Neurobiology of Aging, 33, 200.e1–200.e10.­ doi:10.1016/j. neurobiolaging.2010.07. 006

Figure 20. A young participant walking on the treadmill through a virtual world. Reflective markers and a system of infrared cameras enable gait characteristics to be analyzed and treadmill speed to be adaptively regulated. © MPI for Human Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 227 Key References to investigate body coordination during The Coordination of Cognitive and Motor Krampe, R. T., Schaefer, movement performance. The motion capture Performance in Dual-Task Situations S., Lindenberger, U., system can also be combined with devices In earlier work, we showed that older adults & Baltes, P. B. (2011). for measuring ground reaction forces, muscle invest more cognitive resources into mo- Lifespan changes in multi-tasking: Concur- activity, or electrical brain activity (Figure 21). tor aspects of behavior than younger adults, rent walking and memory To investigate locomotion under conditions presumably to attenuate the adverse effects search in children, that more closely approximate everyday of sensorimotor decline. Accordingly, older young, and older adults. Gait and Posture, 33, behavior, we developed a virtual environment adults show higher dual-task costs than 401–405. doi:10.1016/j. setup in which computer-generated scenery is younger adults when a cognitive and a motor gaitpost.2010.12.012 projected in front of a treadmill. The tread- task need to be performed concurrently (for a Schaefer, S., & mill and scenery are synchronized to create a review, see Schaefer & Schumacher, 2011). For Lindenberger, U. sense of immersion into virtual reality. Online instance, Krampe, Schaefer, Lindenberger, and (2013). Thinking while walking: Experienced feedback from the motion capture system can Baltes (2011) observed 9- and 11-year-olds as high-heel walkers flex- be used to adjust the speed of the treadmill or well as younger adults (mean age 25 years) ibly adjust their gait. to signal participants to constrain their move- and older adults (mean age 65 years) who Frontiers in Psychology, 4: 316. doi:10.3389/ ments (e. g., to remain within the boundaries had to walk on a narrow track while coming fpsyg.2013.00316 of a narrow virtual track). up with exemplars of a semantic category In 2013, our facilities moved to a larger (e. g., dog for animals). Performance levels in laboratory space, which offers new possi- both domains followed an inverted U-shape bilities for investigating whole-body motor function with age (see Figure 22). Dual-task behavior, such as examining locomotion on costs were computed to express the relative level ground rather than on the treadmill. This decrease in performance from single- to dual- is of particular importance for studies on early task as a percentage of individual single-task motor skills. performance. For walking, these costs also showed a U-shape, with the largest decreases being observed in children and older adults. For fluency, only the 9-year-olds showed reliable dual-task costs, suggesting that they had greater difficulties in retrieving exem- plars from long-term memory under taxing performance conditions than individuals in the other age groups. In addition to developmental influences, indi- vidual differences in task-relevant experience may also influence performance in a cogni- tive–motor dual-task situation. We investi- gated such influences by asking middle-aged women with either a great deal or very little experience in walking in high heels to walk on a treadmill while performing a demanding working-memory task (Schaefer­ & Linden- berger, 2013). Each participant performed the two tasks while wearing either gym shoes or high heels. Surprisingly, neither group Figure 21. A young adult fitted with EEG sensors and reflective motion capture markers participating in an showed any reduction in working-memory experiment investigating the neural correlates of the performance when walking compared with visual stabilization of balance. The red and blue dots sitting, irrespective of shoe type. However, presented on the screen flickered at different frequen- cies to analyze the entrainment of cortical activity in the walking task, high-heel expertise was to central and peripheral visual stimuli under various associated with more flexible adjustments conditions of postural stability. in movement patterns: Experts reduced the © MPI for Human Development variability of time spent in the single-support

228 | Center for Lifespan Psychology 25 160 Single Single Dual Dual 20 140

15 120

10 100 Distance covered (m) N of correct examplars 5 80

0 0 9 years 11 years Younger Older 9 years 11 years Younger Older adults adults adults adults Age group Age group

Figure 22. Mean number of category exemplars retrieved in the semantic fluency task (left) and the average distance covered in the walking task (right) as a function of age group and task context. The error bars represent 95 % between-group confidence intervals (adapted from Krampe, Schaefer, Lindenberger, & Baltes, 2011). © MPI for Human Development phase of the gait cycle under cognitive load using experimental paradigms inducing Key Reference while wearing high heels, resulting in a more automatic action preparation to investigate Verrel, J., Hagura, N., stable gait. mental representations of the body and of Lindenberger, U., & body movements. Haggard, P. (2013). Ef- fect of haptic feedback Cognitive Aspects of Movement Behavior from self-touch on limb The project has also investigated links Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Brain and movement coordination. between cognitive and motor aspects of Behavior Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Per- behavior in actions that involve sensory inte- Physical fitness appears to have beneficial ception and Performance, gration, motor planning, or decision making. effects on cognitive functioning in old age, 39 (6), 1775–1785. In collaboration with Sascha Schroeder (Max but the physiological mechanisms underlying doi:10.1037/a0032735 Planck Research Group “REaD,” pp. 315–339), this effect remain unclear. The project has we investigated lexical decisions in children examined this issue in an exercise interven- and adults (Schroeder & Verrel, in press). tion study (Dissertation Maike Kleemeyer). Spatiotemporal analysis of response move- Fifty-two older adults aged 59–74 years ments allowed for a fine-grained analysis of were randomly assigned to either a high- developmental differences and revealed age- intensity or a low-intensity aerobic training specific dissociations between preresponse regimen. For 6 months, individuals exercised and movement phases. Together with Markus three times a week for 1 hour on stationary Werkle-Bergner (ConMem, pp. 217–222), bicycles. Participants’ fitness was assessed we combined EEG and motion capture to before, immediately after, and 6 months after investigate the influence of postural stabil- termination of training. Assessments at the ity on the use of visual information (Fig- three time points also comprised brain- ure 21). The role of sensory feedback was also related and cognitive measures. For example, investigated in the haptic modality, where we the structural part of the magnetic resonance were able to demonstrate, for the first time in imaging (MRI) protocol included diffusion healthy adults, that self-touch information is tensor imaging and arterial spin labeling, and automatically integrated with motor control the functional MRI protocol included assess- (Verrel, Hagura, Lindenberger, & Haggard, ments of working memory and the passive 2013). In collaboration with Simone Kühn viewing of faces and houses. Data collec- (Mechanisms and Sequential Progression of tion ended in 2013 and initial results will be Plasticity, pp. 223–226), we are currently presented in 2014.

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 229 Key Reference 60 60 Verrel, J., Lövdén, M., & Lindenberger, U. 50 50 (2012b). Older adults show preserved equilib- 40 40 rium but impaired step Decorrelated length control in motor- variability equivalent stabilization 30 Decorrelated 30 of gait. (12): PLoS ONE, 7 SD (mm) variability SD (mm) e52024. doi:10.1371/ 20 20 journal.pone.0052024 10 Empirical 10 Empirical variability variability 0 0 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 Walking speed (km/h) Walking speed (km/h)

50

20 Younger adults Center of mass Older adults 10

5 Covaration

2 Step length

1 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 Walking speed (km/h)

Figure 23. Results from a study on age-related differences in the motor-equivalent stabilization of balance and step patterns during treadmill walking. Stabilization is assessed by comparing the variability of task variables between empirical data and decorrelated data from which the covariation between joint angles has been removed. A covariation index is defined as the quotient of decorrelated variability divided by empirical variability, with larger values indicating a greater degree of motor-equivalent stabilization. In both age groups, stabilization is greater for the center-of-mass position than for step length, but step-length stabilization is reduced in older compared to younger adults. Error bars represent between-subject standard errors (adapted from Verrel, Lövdén, & Lindenberger, 2012b). © MPI for Human Development

Movement Variability and Coordination ies, predicting age-associated reductions in Functional motor behavior requires the motor-equivalent stabilization. In a study on coordination of multiple degrees of freedom manual pointing, older and younger adults of the body (e. g., joint angles) in such a way showed similar performance accuracy (­Verrel, that appropriate task outcomes can still Lövdén, & Lindenberger, 2012a). However, the be ensured in the presence of internal and older adults made less use of task-equivalent external perturbations. An important aspect variability, suggesting that they were relying of this process is motor-equivalent stabiliza- on a compensatory strategy (reduction in ex- tion, that is, organizing movement variability ecution variability) to ensure end point accu- in such a way as to allow for task-equivalent racy. As a more complex motor activity, stable variability while minimizing task-relevant walking requires the continuous stabilization deviations. of multiple task constraints. Using a measure We investigated the organization of move- of motor-equivalent covariation in a study ment variability in age-comparative stud- with young adults, we found evidence for sta-

230 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Key References (a) (b) Expert Novice Verrel, J., Lövdén, M., & 15 15 Lindenberger, U. (2010). Elbow Elbow Motor-equivalent co- ) 2 Wrist Wrist variation stabilizes step Hand Hand parameters and center Bow Bow of mass position during 10 10 treadmill walking. Exper- imental Brain Research, 207, 13–26. doi:10.1007/ s00221-010-2424-y 5 5 Verrel, J., Pologe, S., Manselle, W., Linden­

Normalized acceleration (1/s berger, U., & Woollacott, M. (2013b). Exploiting 0 0 biomechanical degrees –20 –10 0 10 20 –20 –10 0 10 20 of freedom for fast and accurate changes in Samples (s/60) Samples (s/60) movement direction: Coordination underly- ing quick bow reversals Time of peak acceleration during continuous (c) (d) cello bowing. Frontiers Expert Novice in Human Neuroscience, 0.10 0.10 7: 157. doi:10.3389/ fnhum.2013.00157

0.05 0.05

0.00 0.00 Time (s)

–0.05 –0.05 Up-down Up-down Down-up Down-up –0.10 –0.10 Elbow Wrist Hand Bow Elbow Wrist Hand Bow Marker Marker

Figure 24. Example data from a study on movement coordination during cello bowing. Lower panel: Acceleration pattern of right arm and bow at the time of bow reversal for an expert (a) and a novice (b) cello player. The sam- ple data suggest marked differences between experts and novices, in particular in terms of temporal consistency and differentiation of the arm and the bow movement. This is confirmed by the statistical analysis at the group level (lower panel), showing a proximal-to-distal gradient in the timing of acceleration peaks in the experts (c), but not in the novices (d) (adapted from Verrel, Pologe, Manselle, Lindenberger, & Woollacott, 2013b). © MPI for Human Development bilization of both whole-body balance and the Motor-equivalent coordination was also step pattern (Verrel, Lövdén, & Lindenberger, studied during bipedal upright standing. We 2010). Moreover, stability indices were larger demonstrated the differential effects of a for balance- than for step-related measures. proprioceptive perturbation (neck vibration) Results from an age-comparative study indi- on various task-relevant variables (Verrel, cate that high-performing older adults show Cuisinier, Lindenberger, & Vuillerme, 2011). In preserved balance control, but impaired step a study on prolonged standing, we intro- length control (Figure 23), which may reflect duced a novel analysis combining temporal selective prioritization of the functionally and motor-equivalent measures (Verrel, most important task variables (Verrel, Lövdén, ­Pradon, & Vuillerme, 2012). The results con- & Lindenberger, 2012b). firm the prediction, derived from computa-

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 231 Key References tional motor control, that task-equivalent motor tasks requiring the concurrent stabili- Lindenberger, U., fluctuations for specific task variables show zation of multiple motor constraints. Lövdén,­ M., Schellen­ higher amplitude and greater temporal bach, M., Li, S.-C., persistence compared to task-relevant Biophysical Signals for Assistive & Krüger, A. (2008). Psychological principles fluctuations. The project also made some Technologies of successful aging tech- methodological contributions to ascertain- The Sensorimotor-Cognitive Couplings nologies: A mini-review. ing the formal properties of variability-based project also investigates assistive technol- Gerontology, 54, 59–68. doi:10.1159/000116114 measures of motor-equivalent coordination ogy in adulthood and old age (Lindenberger, (Verrel, 2010, 2011). Lövdén, Schellenbach, Li, & Krüger, 2008). Verrel, J. (2010). Distributional properties Two studies investigated task-specific Michael Schellenbach and colleagues sought and variance-stabilizing coordination in expert motor performance. to identify empirical criteria for net resource transformations for By comparing advanced or professional cello release by examining how navigation aids measures of uncon- trolled manifold effects. players to novices (Verrel, Pologe, Manselle, with differing cognitive demands improve Journal of Neurosci- Lindenberger, & Woollacott, 2013a, 2013b), or reduce gait stability in younger and older ence Methods, 191, we found that skilled cello bowing is char- participants trying to find their way through a 166–170. doi:10.1016/j.­ jneumeth.2010.06.016 acterized by the successful stabilization of virtual environment while walking on a tread- bow parameters and the recruitment of distal mill. From April 2009 until September 2012, degrees of freedom during continuous bow the project participated in SmartSenior (www. movements and temporally differentiated smart-senior.de), a large-scale consortium of coordination of the arm at bow reversals research institutions and companies funded (Figure 24). by the German Ministry of Education and Future research will extend our work on Research. Within the consortium framework, adult age-related differences, addressing in the subproject examined how older adults particular the effects of normal aging on the interact with new technologies in general. In temporal and motor-equivalent structure summer 2012, the consortium carried out a of movement variability. In addition, we are real-life intervention study with over 30 older starting to investigate early developmental adults in Potsdam to examine the effective- changes in movement coordination during ness of the assistive prototypes developed in locomotion (e. g., crawling) and other complex the participants’ own households.

232 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 6: The Berlin Aging Studies (BASE) Researchers Sandra Düzel During the 20th century, average life expectancy nearly doubled. More and more individuals in (as of 04/2012) current generations of older individuals experience additional years of life between the ages Ulman Lindenberger of 70 and 100+. What do these added years mean in terms of levels of functional capacity and Julia A. M. Delius quality of life? What are the constraints on mental and physical capacities in the last years Shu-Chen Li of life? Given the heterogeneity of aging trajectories and outcomes, longitudinal studies of Katrin Schaar individual development are crucial in providing answers to these questions (Nyberg, Lövdén, (as of 08/2011) Riklund, Lindenberger, & Bäckman, 2012). For over two decades, members of the Center for Lifespan Psychology have been investigating age- and death-related changes in psychological Tian Liu functioning in the context of the Berlin Aging Study (BASE; Baltes & Mayer, 1999; Linden­ (as of 03/2011) berger, Smith, Mayer, & Baltes, 2010). Recently, the Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II; Bertram Ana Sofia Morais et al., 2013) has been launched to address antecedents of healthy aging. Both BASE and ­BASE-II are collaborative, multidisciplinary studies that involve collaborators from other institutions inside and outside Berlin. In the following, we summarize recent developments in both studies.

The Berlin Aging Study (BASE): Very Old individual differences in cognitive decline in Key References Age and the End of Life old age. A total of 376 participants in the Ber- Baltes, P. B., & Mayer, To date, longitudinal data in BASE are avail- lin Aging Study with a mean age of 84 years K. U. (Eds.). (1999). The able for eight measurement occasions span- at first occasion were assessed longitudinally Berlin Aging Study: Aging from 70 to 100. New York: ning more than 18 years, and mortality-relat- up to 11 times across more than 13 years on Cambridge University ed information is updated at regular intervals. the Digit Letter Test, a marker of perceptual Press. Most of the 516 individuals who participated speed. As shown in Figure 25, Met carriers Bertram, L., ­Böckenhoff, in the 14-session multidisciplinary assess- (n = 123, 34 %) showed steeper linear decline A., Demuth, I., Düzel,­ ment at the first measurement occasion about than Val homozygotes (n = 239, 66 %). This S., Eckardt, R., Li, S.-C., Lindenberger,­ 20 years ago are no longer alive. At the eighth effect was not moderated by sex or socio- U., Pawalec, G., Siedler, (and probably final) measurement occasion economic status and was also observed when T., Wagner, G. G., & in 2008–2009, 22 surviving participants were individuals at risk for dementia were excluded Steinhagen-Thiessen, E. (in press). Cohort profile: reexamined, with a focus on psychological, from the analysis. This finding is in line with The Berlin Aging Study II geriatric, and dental assessments. the hypothesis that normal aging magnifies (BASE-II). International Data from the Berlin Aging Study continue the effects of common genetic variation on Journal of Epidemiology. Advance online publica- to provide the basis for new original publica- cognitive functioning (see also the concluding tion. doi:10.1093/ije/ tions on individual differences in late-life report from the Neuromodulation of Lifespan dyt018 development. Furthermore, DNA specimens, Cognition project, pp. 207–210). Lindenberger, U., Smith, derived from blood collected about 24 years J., Mayer, K. U., & Baltes, ago, have been retrieved and analyzed for Trajectories of Change: Age Versus Time-to- P. B. (Eds.). (2010). Die Berliner Altersstudie (3rd about 380 BASE participants. Adding genetic Death ed.). Berlin: Akademie information to the BASE data set allows Mortality-related processes are known Verlag. researchers to explore and test genetic con- to modulate late-life change in cognitive tributions to individual differences in late-life abilities, but it is an open question whether development.­ precipitous declines with impending death generalize to other domains of functioning. Genetic Contributions to Individual Denis Gerstorf and colleagues used 13-year Differences in Late-Life Cognitive longitudinal data from 439 now-deceased Development BASE participants to compare changes as a The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) function of time since birth (i. e., age mod- promotes activity-dependent synaptic plastic- els) with changes as a function of time to ity and contributes to learning and memory. death (i. e., mortality models; Gerstorf, Ram, Ghisletta et al. (in press) investigated whether Lindenberger, & Smith, 2013). Across a large a common Val66Met missense polymorphism range of functional domains, mortality models (rs6265) of the BDNF gene is associated with revealed reliably steeper average rates of

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 233 Key Reference Ghisletta, P., Bäckman, L., Bertram, L., Brand­ maier, A. M., Gerstorf, 70 D., Liu, T., & Linden­ berger, U. (in press). The Val/Met polymorphism of 60 the Brain-Derived Neuro­ trophic Factor (BDNF) gene predicts decline in 50 perceptual speed in older adults. Psychology and Aging. 40 Cognitive performance 30

20

70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 Age

Figure 25. The Val/Met polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene predicts cognitive decline in older adults. Cognitive performance was assessed with the Digit Letter Test, a measure of perceptual speed. Grey dots are individual measurements, connected by continuous grey lines. Continuous colored lines rep- resent expected sample trajectories for Val-homozygous individuals, whereas dashed lines represent Met carriers. The red lines represent estimated sample trajectories for individuals not diagnosed to be at risk for dementia, while the blue lines are for diagnosed individuals (adapted from Ghisletta et al., in press). © MPI for Human Development

change than age models (see Figures 26 and of different functional domains. Geriatrics and 27). These findings underscore the pervasive internal medicine as well as immunology, psy- presence of processes leading toward death chology, genetics, sociology, and economics in old age. Multivariate analyses with more are among the disciplines involved. The study closely spaced multidomain measurements received financial support from the Federal are needed to identify the temporal dynam- Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF; ics and dimensionality of this end-of-life Förderkenn­zeichen BASE-II 16SV5837). The cascade. recruitment of the BASE-II cohort, which was completed in 2013, resulted in a consolidated The Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II): baseline sample of 1,600 older adults aged 60 Understanding Heterogeneity in Aging to 75 years and of 600 younger adults aged One of the most salient aspects of aging is 20 to 35 years (Bertram et al., 2013). Data its heterogeneity. Some individuals maintain from this baseline sample can be linked to the their health and preserve their cognitive abili- German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP), ties into advanced ages, whereas others show a longitudinal panel survey that is representa- precipitous and early decline. To understand tive of the German population, to estimate the mechanisms that produce this diversity of sample selectivity. outcomes, we need to follow the trajectories After extensive piloting, a comprehensive of aging individuals over time. With this goal battery of cognitive tests and a psychologi- in mind, researchers from Berlin and Tübingen cal questionnaire were added to the baseline initiated the Berlin Aging Study II (Bertram protocol in March 2013. The cognitive test et al., 2013). Like BASE, BASE-II was set up battery is distributed across two testing ses- as a multidisciplinary and multi-institutional sions. It includes various facets of episodic longitudinal study that captures a wide range memory as well as measures of working

234 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Key Reference (a) Digit Letter over age Digit Letter over time-to-death Gerstorf, D., Ram, N., 70 Lindenberger, U., & 65 Smith, J. (2013). Age and time-to-death 60 trajectories of change in 55 indicators of cognitive, 50 sensory, physical, health, social, and self-related 45 functions. Develop- 40 mental Psychology, 49, 1805–1821. doi:10.1037/ Digit Letter (T-score) 35 a0031340 30 On average, On average, 25 0.83+ SD decline per 10 years 1.60+ SD decline per 10 years

70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 –15 –10 –5 0 Chronological age Time-to-death

(b) Close vision over age Close vision over time-to-death 75 70 65 60 55 50 45

Close vision (T-score) 40 35 On average, On average, 30 1.04 SD decline per 10 years 1.60 SD decline per 10 years 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 –15 –10 –5 0 Chronological age Time-to-death

(c) Grip strength over age Grip strength over time-to-death 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 Grip strength (T-score) 40 On average, On average, 35 0.37 SD decline per 10 years 0.90+ SD decline per 10 years 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 –15 –10 –5 0 Chronological age Time-to-death

Figure 26. Across cognitive, sensory, and motor domains, decline is steeper as a function of time-to-death than as a function of chronological age. In each panel, the thin lines represent individual trajectories and the thick lines represent sample estimates. The left-hand panels display the data as a function of chronological age, whereas the right-hand panels show the same data as a function of time-to-death. (a) Cognitive functioning (Digit Letter), (b) Sensory functioning (close visual acuity), (c) Motor functioning (grip strength) (adapted from Gerstorf et al., 2013). © MPI for Human Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 235 (a) Subjective health over age Subjective health over time-to-death

75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Subjective health (T-score) 30 On average, On average, 25 0.54 SD decline per 10 years 0.91 SD decline per 10 years 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 –15 –10 –5 0 Chronological age Time-to-death

Emotional loneliness over age Emotional loneliness over time-to-death (b) 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 Loneliness (T-score) 40 35 On average, On average, 30 0.35 SD decline per 10 years 0.49 SD decline per 10 years 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 –15 –10 –5 0 Chronological age Time-to-death

(c) Perceived control over age Perceived control over time-to-death 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Perceived control (T-score) 30 On average, On average, 25 0.53+ SD decline per 10 years 0.98+ SD decline per 10 years 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 –15 –10 –5 0 Chronological age Time-to-death

Figure 27. Across a range of psychological variables, decline is steeper as a function of time-to-death than as a function of chronological age. In each panel, the thin lines represent individual trajectories and the thick lines represent sample estimates. The left-hand panels display the data as a function of chronological age, whereas the right-hand panels show the same data as a function of time-to-death. (a) Subjective health, (b) Emotional loneli- ness, (c) Perceived control (adapted from Gerstorf et al., 2013). © MPI for Human Development

236 | Center for Lifespan Psychology memory, cognitive control, fluid intelligence, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. It contains reading skills, and decision making. It also measures of self-reported health, well-being, includes a newly developed measure of sub- personality, stress, coping, and of attitudes jective health, the subjective health horizon toward aging (see Figure 28). In January 2014, (SHH), to assess participants’ motivation to about 1,100 of the 2,200 BASE-II participants engage in explorative and novel activities. The had been assessed. We expect that data col- psychological questionnaire was assembled lection for the first wave of measurements in collaboration with Denis Gerstorf from the (T1) will be complete in fall 2014.

Social Well-being Affect aspects

PGCMS1 Hedonic SOEP item (1) Loneliness (8) Confidants (1) PANAS2 (8) subscale (4) motivation (14)

Diener scale (5) Social activities (10) PANAS-X (8)

Stress Personality

Perceived Chronic strain (8) Big Five (15) Optimism (10) stress (10) Perceiving Motivation time and and Life events (20) age control

Future time perspective Subjective age (1) Control Control scale (15) beliefs (14) strivings (7)

Psychological constructs assessed within BASE-II also assessed in BASE also assessed in the COGITO study (see p. 214) and in the Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) (N) = Number of items

1 PGCMS = Philadelphia Geriatric Center Moral Scale 2 PANAS = Positive and Negative Affect Schedule

Figure 28. The psychological questionnaire of BASE-II. Measures marked in red were also assessed in BASE. Measures marked in blue were also assessed in the COGITO study (see p. 214), in the Socio-Economic Panel Study, or in both, to facilitate comparisons across studies and the estimation of sample selectivity. The number of items per construct is in parentheses. © MPI for Human Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 237 www.base-berlin.mpg.de Overview of the Berlin Aging Study (BASE) The multidisciplinary Berlin Aging Study (BASE), initially directed by the late Paul B. Baltes and Karl Ulrich Mayer, was started in 1989 under the sponsorship of the former West Berlin Academy of Sciences and Technology and its Committee on Age and Societal Development. Later, the study came under the auspices of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences. Ulman Lindenberger heads the current BASE core group at the MPI for Human Development. The study involves eight measurement occasions spaced over 18 years. In addition, several subsamples have been recruited for intensive study. The distinguishing features of BASE include (1) a focus on the very old (70 to 100+ years); (2) a locally representative sample, stratified by age and sex; and (3) a broad-based in- terdisciplinarity (originally involving two research units from the Freie Universität Berlin, Internal Medicine and Psychiatry, and two from this Institute, Sociology and Psychology). In addition to discipline-specific topics, four integrative theoretical orientations guide the study: (1) differential aging, (2) continuity versus discontinuity of aging, (3) range and limits of plasticity and reserve capacity, and (4) aging as a systemic phenomenon. The initial focus of BASE (1990–1993) was to obtain a heterogeneous sample, stratified by age and sex, of individuals aged 70 to 100+ years who completed a 14-session Intensive Protocol that involved detailed measures from each of the four participating disciplines. The original sample participating in this initial Intensive Protocol consisted of 258 men and 258 women from the western districts of Berlin. Seven longitu- dinal follow-ups of the survivors from this initial sample involving different depths of assessment have been completed at approximately 2-yearly intervals. A single-session multidisciplinary assessment was collected in 1993–1994 (N = 359), reduced versions of the Intensive Protocol (six sessions) were collected in the periods 1995–1996 (N = 206) and 1997–1998 (N = 132), and a repeat of parts of the Psychology battery to- gether with multidisciplinary outcome variables (e. g., screening for dementia, assessment of well-being) in 2000 (N = 82), 2004 (N = 46), 2005 (N = 37), and 2008–2009 (N = 22; with an additional medical and den- tal focus). In addition, mortality information about the entire BASE sample is updated at regular intervals. The initial sample of 516 individuals formed the basis of the cross-sectional analyses reported in two mono- graphs (in German: Mayer & Baltes, 1996, 1999; cf. Lindenberger, Smith, Mayer, & Baltes, 2010; in English: Baltes & Mayer, 1999, 2000). Current interests of the Psychology Unit of BASE include issues of sample selectivity and representativeness; intraindividual variability and change; terminal decline; cognitive aging; mortality prediction; self-related change, well-being, and antecedents of successful aging; and genetic predictors of individual differences in cognitive and self-related change in old age.

The Berlin Aging Study: International Research Group Julia A. M. Delius MPI for Human Development, Berlin, Germany Alexandra M. Freund University of Zurich, Switzerland Denis Gerstorf Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany Paolo Ghisletta University of Geneva, Switzerland Christiane Hoppmann University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada Anna Kleinspehn-Ammerlahn Hannover Medical School, Germany Dana Kotter-Grühn Duke University, Durham, USA Shu-Chen Li Technische Universität Dresden, Germany Ulman Lindenberger MPI for Human Development, Berlin, Germany (Speaker) Nilam Ram Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA Jacqui Smith University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA (Co-Speaker) Ursula M. Staudinger Columbia University, New York, USA Elisabeth Steinhagen-Thiessen Geriatric Research Group, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany Gert G. Wagner German Institute for Economic Research/MPI for Human Development, Berlin, Germany (Max Planck Fellow)

www.base2.mpg.de The Berlin Aging Study II: Steering Committee

Elisabeth Steinhagen-Thiessen Geriatric Research Group, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany (Speaker) Lars Bertram MPI for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany Ulman Lindenberger MPI for Human Development, Berlin, Germany Graham Pawelec University of Tübingen, Germany Gert G. Wagner German Institute for Economic Research/MPI for Human Development, Berlin, Germany (Max Planck Fellow)

Coordination

Katrin Schaar MPI for Human Development, Berlin, Germany

238 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 7: Interactive Brains, Social Minds Researchers Franziska Kopp In everyday life, people often need to coordinate their actions. Common examples include walk- Viktor Müller ing with someone at a set pace, playing group sports, dancing, playing music in a duet or group, Ulman Lindenberger as well as a wide range of social bonding behaviors, such as gaze coordination between mother and infant or between partners. The developmental and social significance of these interper- Timothy R. Brick sonally coordinated behaviors is undisputed, but little, if anything, is known about the brain (as of 07/2011) mechanisms that regulate their temporal dynamics. The Interactive Brains, Social Minds project Dionysios Perdikis investigates lifespan changes in the behavioral and neural mechanisms that permit individuals (as of 05/2011) to coordinate their behavior in time and space (see Figure 29). During the reporting period, the project was structured into two parts, one specializing on infant development and the other Cathleen Bache seeking to develop experimental paradigms to study neural correlates of interpersonal action Johanna Sänger coordination. Caroline Szymanski (as of 03/2013) Predicted sensory feedback (single and joint actions) Representation Forward Forward Key Reference of shared dynamic output forward model model model Sänger, J., Lindenberger, U., & Müller, V. (2011). Interactive brains, social minds. Communicative Forward Representation Forward C & Integrative Biology, 4, of other‘s dynamic output 655–663. doi:10.4161/ forward model model model cib.4.6.17934

C

Forward Forward Efference copy dynamic output model model Sensory C discrepancy

Motor Motor Sensory command system New state system

Sensory system External influences Figure 29. A forward model of interpersonal action coordination. Drawing on the work of Steven M. Boker, Wolfgang Prinz, Daniel Wolpert, and others, our model assumes that interpersonal action coordination is based on a set of linked representational layers. The single-person layer is shaded in gray. Individuals acting together attempt to synchronize their forward model regarding their own actions with their forward model regarding the other person’s actions. Highly skilled individuals, such as dancers or musicians, may represent jointly performed activities as a unified suprapersonal action with a joint forward model and partially joint sensory feedbacks. The various representational layers of the actors are intertwined by sensorimotor feedback loops (see also Sänger, Lindenberger, & Müller, 2011). © MPI for Human ­Development

The Interactive Brains BabyLab tors of social interaction processes and on the From early on, infants learn from their perceptual and cognitive mechanisms related conspecifics and perceive them as social to these processes, such as memory (Kopp & partners. The research focus of the BabyLab is Lindenberger, 2012) and multisensory integra- on the behavioral and physiological indica- tion (Kopp & Dietrich, 2013).

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 239 Key References Kopp, F., & Dietrich,­ C. (2013). Neural dynamics of audio- visual synchrony and asynchrony perception in 6-month-old infants. TV Frontiers in Psychol- Record TV ogy, 4: 2. doi:10.3389/ DVD/PC fpsyg.2013.00002 r Mirror Mirro Kopp, F., & Linden­ Delayer ECG berger, U. (2012). Social cues at encoding affect memory in 4-month-old infants. Social Neuro- science, 7, 458–472. doi:10.1080/17470919. Figure 30. The double-screen setup used to study infants’ sensitivity to social contingency and audiovisual tem- 2011.631289 poral integration. The setup allows manipulation of the timing of audiovisual responses of one or both interaction partners. © MPI for Human ­Development

The neural dynamics of audiovisual synchrony significantly between synchronously pre- and asynchrony perception were studied in sented and perceptually fused items; N1 and 6-month-old infants using event-related P2 latency delays were not observed for fused brain potentials (ERP; Kopp & Dietrich, 2013). stimuli. The visual recognition components Pb Movies of a woman clapping her hands were and Nc were once again modulated prior to presented to the infants with the visual and sound onset, emphasizing the importance of auditory input synchronized in one condi- anticipatory visual events for predicting audi- tion and with a visual delay of 400 ms in the tory signals. The ERP results point to neural other condition. Behavioral results from an mechanisms that permit young infants to pre- experiment using a habituation-test para- dictively adjust their ongoing neural activity digm indicated that the infants were able to to the temporal synchrony relations between detect the 400-ms asynchrony. ERP revealed the auditory and visual modalities. latency shifts in the auditory components N1 Second, we studied infants’ ability to process and P2 between synchronous and asynchro- auditory and visual signals in a live social nous events despite auditory input having interaction with their mothers in a context in occurred at the same point in time in both which the two sensory modalities are not in experimental conditions. This result suggests perfect temporal alignment. In this experi- that the infant brain processes and represents ment, 3- and 5-month-old infants interacted the temporal relation between visual and with their mothers via a double-screen auditory stimuli. Moreover, neural process- setup (see Figure 30). Critically, the mothers’ ing was already affected prior to the audi- visual presentation was either synchronized tory onset (infant ERP components Pb and or temporally delayed with respect to the Nc), suggesting that the infant anticipates auditory signal. The magnitude of the delay multimodal temporal relations between two was manipulated parametrically (250 ms, 350 sensory events. In a follow-up experiment, ms, 450 ms) to reflect the various different the magnitude of the visual delay was set to perceptual states ranging from simultane- 200 ms, a delay which is known to correspond ity to asynchronous perception as previously to simultaneity perception in infants in the ascertained in infancy research. Ongoing first year of life. In line with this, 6-month-old analyses focus on the behavior and the heart infants indeed failed to show any behavioral rate of the infant and the mother and their signs of being able to detect the 200-ms interrelations as a function of temporal delay. delay, suggesting the presence of perceptual In a third line of research, the BabyLab fusion. Nevertheless, brain activity differed investigates mechanisms of action prediction

240 | Center for Lifespan Psychology and action simulation in infants (Dissertation Key References Cathleen Bache). In a first experiment, we Lindenberger, U., Li, S.- used EEG and eye-tracking to study the neural C., Gruber, W., & Müller, dynamics of human movement versus object V. (2009). Brains swing- ing in concert: Cortical movement processing before, during, and af- phase synchronization ter visual occlusion in 10-month-old infants. while playing guitar. Stimulus predictability was manipulated by BMC Neuroscience, 10: 22. doi:10.1186/1471- presenting continuous versus noncontinu- 2202-10-22 ous movement prior to the occlusion. From Müller, V., Sänger, J., & an internal simulation point of view, the Lindenberger, U. (2013). neural signature of action prediction should Intra- and inter-brain differ between continuous human movement synchronization during Figure 31. To identify the neural correlates of interper- musical improvisation on and all other types of movement. Frequency sonal action coordination, the Interactive Brains, the guitar. PLoS ONE 8 (9): analyses of the EEG data revealed that frontal Social Minds project recorded the EEG of musicians e73852. doi:10.1371/ playing together under a variety of experimental journal.pone.0073852 theta activity was higher for noncontinu- conditions. ous compared to continuous movement both Sänger, J., Müller, V., & © MPI for Human ­Development before and after the occlusion as well as for Lindenberger, U. (2012). Intra- and interbrain syn- object movement compared to human move- chronization and network ment during occlusion, suggesting that atten- within-brain synchrony and between-brain properties when playing tional processes provide support for keeping oscillatory couplings. To further probe the guitar in duets. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, track of the movement being observed. functional significance of these couplings, we 6, 312. doi:10.3389/ Importantly, central alpha power did not refined the experimental paradigm and the fnhum.2012.00312 differ between the experimental conditions, data-analytic tools (e. g., Müller, Sänger, & rendering it unclear as to whether internal Lindenberger, 2013; Sänger, Müller, & Linden­ simulation contributes to the processing of berger, 2012, 2013; Dissertation Johanna occluded movements. Hence, we conducted Sänger). In one study, Sänger et al. (2012) a follow-up experiment to further examine alternated the musical roles of leader and whether 10-month-old infants mentally follower between musicians playing a duet. simulate continuous human movement in real The connection strengths within and between time. The infants were again presented with brains increased at frontal and central elec- short video clips of human movement. This trodes during periods that placed particularly time, movement prior to the occlusion was high demands on musical coordination (e. g., manipulated, but the visual input during and at the onset of playing and during tempo following the occlusion was kept constant. changes). Phase locking was modulated in Relative to the preocclusion phase, the stimuli relation to the musical roles of leader and were continuous, delayed, or shifted forward follower, thus corroborating the functional following occlusion. Analyses of EEG fre- significance of synchronous oscillations in quency patterns and eye-tracking data are dyadic music performance (see Figure 32). In currently underway. further analyses, we observed that directed coupling measures between the two brains The Interactive Brains LifespanLab were associated with the functional roles During the reporting period, the LifespanLab of leader and follower (Sänger et al., 2013). continued to develop experimental paradigms In a further study, we conducted single- that may be suitable for the study of interper- trial analyses of EEG signals recorded from sonal action coordination. A major emphasis eight pairs of guitarists engaged in musical was placed on analyzing the EEG of skilled improvisation (Müller, Sänger, & Lindenberger, musicians playing music together (see Fig- 2013). We found that the intrabrain connec- ure 31). In the initial study with guitar duets, tions primarily involved higher frequencies Lindenberger, Li, Gruber, and Müller (2009) (e. g., beta), whereas interbrain connections had found that interpersonally coordinated primarily operated at lower frequencies (e. g., actions are preceded and accompanied by delta and theta). Taken together, this series

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Figure 32. Time–frequency diagrams of the grand average of the phase-locking index (PLI) reveal differences between leader and follower in two musicians playing a duet. In each plot, time is displayed on the X-axis and frequency on the Y-axis. Colder colors represent lower PLI values and warmer colors higher values. The plots display the grand average PLI across frontal electrodes (Fp1, Fpz, Fp2, F7, F3, Fz, F4, F8) of the leader (plots on the left) and of the follower (plots on the right). The upper two panels focus on the second metronome beat before play onset, whereas the middle and lower panels focus on the first and second play onset, respectively (adapted from Sänger, Lindenberger, & Müller, 2012). © MPI for Human ­Development

242 | Center for Lifespan Psychology (a) Canon with eyes open Canon with eyes closed Canon in unison Participant pairs

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(d)

Figure 33. Phase synchronization patterns, connectivity networks, and modularity effects during different canon- singing conditions. (a) Pair-wise phase synchronization patterns of the entire choir for the three canon-singing conditions: canon singing with eyes open (left column), canon singing with eyes closed (middle column), and canon singing in unison (right column). Each diagram contains 132 lines displaying a synchronization pattern of all possible participant pairs in the choir. In the case of two persons, A and B, a red line indicates that the phase of person A precedes the phase of person B, whereas a blue line indicates that the phase of person B precedes the phase of person A; a green line represents absence of synchronization. (b) Networks for the three conditions based on the Absolute Coupling Index (ACI), an undirected coupling measure. (c) Networks for the three condi- tions based on the Integrative Coupling Index (ICI), a directed coupling measure. ACI and ICI were determined at the low frequency of 0.03 Hz. The circles represent individual singers, except for the circle placed in front, repre- senting the conductor. Colored areas indicate the partition of the networks into modules. Modularity was more pronounced when singing the canon in three different voices than when singing the canon in unison. (d) The ­Institute choir during the experiment. The choir was established in summer 2008 and is directed by Juliane ­Oppelt (see also Müller & Lindenberger, 2011). © MPI for Human ­Development

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 243 Key Reference of studies has replicated and extended the of interpersonal action coordination is not Müller, V., & Linden­ original findings reported by Lindenberger confined to brain activity but also includes berger, U. (2011). Cardiac et al. (2009) and will guide our search for cardiac and respiratory patterns. and respiratory patterns mechanisms that enable individuals to engage Finally, together with colleagues from the synchronize between persons during choir in temporally coordinated joint action. MPI for Biological Cybernetics, Dionysios singing. PLoS ONE, 6 (9): In a related line of research, we used simul- Perdikis, Timothy R. Brick, and other mem- e24893. doi:10.1371/ taneous electrocardiogram and respiration bers of the project have taken a close look at journal.pone.0024893. measures to investigate between-person the neural mechanisms in the perception of synchronization in 11 singers and 1 conductor static and dynamic facial emotional expres- engaged in choir singing (Müller & Linden- sions. We presented three different forms of berger, 2011). We found that phase synchroni- facial emotional expressions: static pictures, zation both in respiration and heart rate vari- videos based on natural dynamics (i. e., short ability increased significantly during singing clips of actors performing angry and happy relative to a rest condition. Synchronization expressions), and videos based on “unnatural” was higher when singing in unison than when dynamics (i. e., clips of shuffled movement singing pieces with multiple voice parts. Di- dynamics). EEG analyses suggest that facial rected coupling measures suggested the pres- emotional expressions based on natural ence of causal effects of the conductor on the movement dynamics are processed differ- singers. Finally, network analyses of cardiac ently than static pictures or videos based on and respiratory activity based on graph theory unnatural dynamics, pointing to potential were able to recover the different voices of validity benefits associated with the use of the choir (see Figure 33). The results of this experimental stimuli with intact natural study suggest that the physiological signature dynamics.

244 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 8: Brain Imaging Methods in Lifespan Psychology Researchers Nils C. ­Bodammer Research on human development seeks to delineate the variable and invariant properties of Ulman Lindenberger age-graded changes in the organization of brain-behavior-environment systems. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) have become indis- pensable tools for the noninvasive assessment of brain function, anatomy, microstructure, and metabolism. The Brain Imaging Methods project seeks to ascertain and improve the measure- ment quality of standard brain imaging protocols and to complement the standard repertoire by additional methods that carry promise for understanding the ways in which brains change as a function of maturation, learning, and senescence.

Central questions in lifespan psychology performance and (b) on arterial spin labeling Key References often are about the range and direction of to assess cerebral blood perfusion. Bodammer, N. C., change and variability, be it longitudinal Kaufmann, J., Kanowski, change observed over years and decades, The Magnetic Resonance Imaging M., & Tempelmann, C. (2009). Monte intervention-induced change over weeks and Laboratory Carlo-based diffusion months, or fluctuations that occur from day The planning phase for the MR Lab started tensor tractography to day and from moment to moment. Random in 2010. Construction work and installation with a geometrically corrected voxel-centre measurement error and systematic drifts took place in the course of 2011. For various connecting method. can compromise the reliable measurement reasons, including the homogeneity of the Physics in Medicine and of change. Hence, the project takes a special magnetic field, we opted for a Siemens TIM Biology, 54, 1009–1033. doi:10.1088/0031- interest in exploring, safeguarding, and im- Trio tomograph, which has a field strength of 9155/54/4/013 proving the precision and temporal stability of 3 Tesla. The MR Lab (see Figure 34) is located Bodammer, N. C., measurement.­ in the basement of a building adjacent to the Kaufmann, J., Kanowski, Structural MRI is particularly important for Institute. To avoid measurable field distor- M., & Tempelmann, C. lifespan research as the structural properties tions, the tomograph was placed more than (2004). Eddy current correction in diffusion- of brains, including their volumes, change 10 meters away from moving masses of iron, weighted imaging using with age and experience. Therefore, struc- such as cars or elevators. The tomograph was pairs of images acquired tural methods occupy a central place in the ramped up in December 2011. After an exten- with opposite diffu- sion gradient polarity. project. Examples include high-resolution sive test phase, the first empirical study was Magnetic Resonance in

T1-weighted imaging to obtain estimates of conducted in April 2012. Medicine, 51, 188–193. volume or thickness of specific substructures The Institute‘s tomograph is equipped for doi:10.1002/mrm.10690 of the brain; diffusion imaging to obtain proton (1H) MRI and MRS with a 32-chan- maps of tissue integrity of white and gray nel receive system, two 12-channel and matter; susceptibility-weighted imaging to two 32-channel head radio frequency coils, obtain maps of mineralization, especially for and a circularly polarized birdcage headcoil. the brain‘s deep gray matter structures; and Instrumentation for phosphorus (31P) MRS, magnetization transfer imaging to map the that is, a dual-tuned circularly polarized exchange of magnetization between water head coil, a dual-tuned surface coil, and an protons and macromolecule protons, which additional high-frequency amplifier working serves as an estimate of cell membrane at the resonance frequency of phosphorus, density. is also available. Additional components Functional MRI is used to provide maps of include a transcranial magnetic stimula- brain activity under various conditions, such tion system with an MR-suited stimulation as during task performance or at rest. Here, coil; an MR-suited EEG system; an audio/ the project takes special interest in high-­ video stimulus presentation system using resolution functional imaging of the hippo- headphones and goggles; a visual presen- campus and is working (a) on the interleaved tation system based on video projection, use of functional MRI and transcranial mag- mirrors, and a screen; an MR-compatible netic stimulation to experimentally test the eye-tracking system; and a variety of hand- contribution of specific brain regions to task held response boxes for children and adults.

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 245 br bq bp 6 bs bo 7 5 bt

8 3 4

bm 9

bl 1 2 bn Floor plan of the MR Lab

1 MR tomograph 7 Waiting room bp Wardrobe 2 Mock scanner 8 Data processing room bq WC 3 Control area (MR) 9 Engineering room (MR) br Entrance 1 4 Control area bl Technical room (cooling) bs Entrance 2 (mock scanner) bm Delivery area bt Terrace 5 Prep room 1 bn Utility room Gray: Windows 6 Prep room 2 (EEG/MRI) bo Changing room and glass partitions

Figure 34. The MR Lab is located in a building adjacent to the Institute that also houses the Movement Lab and rooms for behavioral testing. It consists of the MR tomograph room, the mock (i. e., fake) scanner room, the con- joint operating area, a data processing room, prep rooms, a waiting area, and engineering and utility rooms. © MPI for Human ­Development

The laboratory also houses a mock (i. e., Imaging Methods of Special Interest fake) scanner that looks identical to the The project has begun to explore a range of real scanner. The mock scanner is used to imaging modalities that are of particular familiarize research participants, in general, relevance for lifespan research. Two of these and children, in particular, to the scanning methods are described below. environment. Diffusion Imaging. Diffusion imaging captures As of January 2014, the core MR team the movement of water molecules, termed (see Figure 5 on p. 203) consists of Sonali diffusion. Diffusion in tissue is hindered by Beckmann (head technical assistant), Nils C. cell membranes. Therefore, the orientation- Bodammer (physicist, head scientist), Thomas dependent diffusion profiles provide infor- Feg (technician), Sebastian Schröder (techni- mation about tissue microstructure. For cian, head MR manager), and Nadine Taube instance, when water molecules are observed (technical assistant). The team provides scien- in myelinated neuronal fibers, their diffu- tific and technical support for all MR imaging sion is less hampered along than across fiber activities at the Institute. tracts. Diffusion within a voxel (i. e., a three-

246 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Eigenvalues:

␭1, ␭2, ␭3,

Mean diffusivity (MD)

= = (␭1 + ␭2 + ␭3) / 3

Fractional anisotropy index (FA) ␭ 2 ␭ 2 ␭ 2 Principal diffusion direction ( 1 – ) + ( 2 – ) + ( 3 – ) = 3 (= principal direction of axonal connections) 2 2 2 2 ␭1 + ␭2 + ␭3

Figure 35. Diffusion imaging captures the movement of water molecules, termed diffusion. In biological tissue, diffusion is hindered by cell membranes. Diffusion is often expressed in terms of a tensor or ellipsoid. This yields two primary measures: (1) mean diffusivity, which is defined as the average of all three eigenvalues, and (2) fractional anisotropy, a measure of the relative lengthiness of the ellipsoid. © MPI for Human ­Development dimensional data point) is often captured by protocols will provide a more realistic picture Key References a tensor (i. e., ellipsoid) model. For each voxel, of age changes and age differences in the Lövdén, M., ­Bodammer, a tensor is fitted to the diffusion data. This brain‘s structural connectivity. N. C., Kühn, S., Kauf­ method, termed diffusion tensor imaging 31Phosphorus MRS. The mitochondria are mann, J., ­Schütze, H., … ­Schmiedek, F., (DTI), yields two independent scalar measures, organelles in eukaryotic cells that provide & Lindenberger, U. both derived from the three eigenvalues of energy for the cell‘s metabolism through (2010). Experience- the tensor (see Figure 35): (1) the mean dif- glycolysis (i. e., the releasing of energy stored dependent plasticity of white-matter micro- fusivity, which is defined as the average of all in glucose). Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is structure extends into three eigenvalues; and (2) fractional anisot- generated during glycolysis for high-energy old age. Neuropsycho- ropy, a measure of the relative lengthiness of short-time storage. ATP concentration levels logia, 48, 3878–3883. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsy- the ellipsoid. DTI provides information about are stabilized by the creatine kinase (CK) chologia.2010.08.026 the spatial orientation of the main diffusion reaction, which buffers ATP. This means that, Lövdén, M., ­Schaefer, direction and is sometimes used as the basis even when ATP is metabolized in the brain, S., Noack, H., … for tractography, which seeks to reconstruct the decrease in its concentration is usually Bodammer,­ N. C., Kühn, the fiber connections of the brain based on very small. However, phosphocreatine (PCr) S., … Lindenberger, U., Düzel, E., & Bäckman, local orientation information. However, by and inorganic phosphate (Pi), two other me- L. (2011). Performance- providing only one directional description tabolites connected to ATP concentration via related increases in per voxel, DTI provides an impoverished, and the CK reaction, markedly vary with energy hippocampal N-acetyl­ 31 aspartate (NAA) induced at times inaccurate, picture of histological metabolism. Phosphorus MRS can be used by spatial navigation reality. For instance, the crossing of fibers may to estimate the brain‘s energy metabolism training are restricted to go unnoticed. To enhance the microstructural by simultaneously measuring the concentra- BDNF Val homozygotes. Cerebral Cortex, 21, veridicality of diffusion imaging, the project is tions of ATP, PCr and Pi. In collaboration with 1435–1442. doi:10.1093/ working on methods that combine informa- Naftali Raz and Jeff Stanley from Wayne cercor/bhq230 tion derived from diffusion imaging with State University and Florian Schubert and information derived from two other imaging Ralf Mekle from the Physikalisch-Technische modalities, magnetization transfer saturation Bundesanstalt, the project is working on imaging and short-T2 relaxation-time map- establishing 31phosphorus MRS as a technique ping. The project is also working on Q-ball at the Institute. 31Phosphorus MRS will allow imaging, a method suited to model more researchers at the Center to chart the ranges complex diffusion profiles. The combined use of cerebral energy consumption from child- of these data acquisition and data analysis hood to old age.

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 247 Researchers Research Project 9: Formal Methods in Lifespan Psychology Andreas M. Brand- Since its foundation by the late Paul B. Baltes in 1981, the Center for Lifespan Psychology maier has sought to promote conceptual and methodological innovation within developmental Manuel C. Voelkle psychology and in interdisciplinary context. Over the years, the critical examination of rela- Ulman Lindenberger tions among theory, method, and data has evolved into a distinct feature of the Center. The Timo von Oertzen temporal resolution of data relevant for lifespan research varies widely, from the millisecond Timothy R. Brick range provided by behavioral observations to the small number of occasions spread out over (as of 07/2011) several years provided by longitudinal panel studies. The Formal Methods project is dedicated John J. Prindle to developing multivariate mathematical, statistical, and computational research tools that (as of 01/2013) accommodate complex research designs with multimodal assessments collected over a wide range of timescales. It seeks to provide practical solutions to the methodological challenges of Janne Adolf lifespan research and to other fields of scientific inquiry. Its main goals are to critically examine (as of 10/2013) the link between theory and data and equip researchers with means to improve the efficiency Charles Driver of data acquisition and data analysis. During the reporting period, the project has expanded its (as of 10/2013) substantive and methodological scope and has attracted a new cohort of predoctoral students. Julian David Karch (as of 11/2012) The project is particularly interested in ana- to detect a particular effect, that is, the prob- lyzing and classifying patterns of variability ability that a statistical test will reject a false and change. Hence, the project has further null hypothesis of no effect, intuitively or Key References broadened its interest in Structural Equation explicitly informs the research design of lon- Oertzen, T. von. (2010). Modeling (SEM) methods. SEM integrates a gitudinal panel studies. In the past, compu- Power equivalence in wide range of different multivariate analy- tational tools have been used to approximate structural equation mod- sis techniques by modeling the relationship or simulate the statistical power for a given eling. British Journal of Mathematical and Sta- between latent and observed variables. During effect and research design. However, the full tistical Psychology, 63, the reporting period, project members have spectrum of trade-off relations between the 257–272. doi:10.1348/ shown how SEM as a formal language can parameters of different, potentially imple- 000711009X441021 assist researchers in: (a) finding the optimal mentable research designs has been difficult Oertzen, T. von, & constellation of resource investments when to examine with available statistical theory Brandmaier, A. M. (2013). Optimal study planning a longitudinal study, (b) refining or and tools. It was very tedious for a researcher design with identical modifying prior hypotheses through ex- to find out, for instance, how much he or power: An application ploratory data mining, (c) treating time as a she would need to increase measurement of power equivalence to latent growth curve continuous variable in longitudinal research, reliability to capture individual differences models. Psychology and (d) modeling the emergence of individuality in linear change with the same power, but a Aging, 28, 414–428. and its relationship to brain plasticity, (e) ana- shorter study duration, fewer measurement doi:10.1037/a0031844 lyzing and classifying high-dimensional time occasions, or a combination of both. series. The project members have also worked To overcome this impasse, Timo von ­Oertzen on Onyx, a freely available, new statistical has proposed the general notion of power package for SEM. Below, we provide summa- equivalence in SEM (von Oertzen, 2010). ries of research from each of these areas. The guiding idea behind this notion is to formalize the trade-off relations in statisti- Optimal Study Design cal power between design parameters in Longitudinal panel studies are a key empirical SEM. As a result, researchers can inspect method to chart between-person differences “iso-power contours,” that show, for in- in behavioral and neural development. Such stance, how measurement reliability trades studies often require a large investment of off with the number or with the spacing of resource funds and are often characterized measurement occasions. Inspection of these by a relatively large number of individuals, a iso-power contours allow researchers to range of more or less reliable measurement optimize their study design with respect to a instruments, and a relatively small number of specific outcome, such as monetary cost or measurement occasions. The statistical power participant strain.

248 | Center for Lifespan Psychology 15

14

13

12

Study time span (years) 11

10

9 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 Number of measurement occasions

Figure 36. BASE followed 516 older participants aged 70 to 103 years at the beginning of the study for up to 13 years with 6 occasions of measurement in this period (i. e., one initial in-depth measurement followed by further assessments after approximately 2, 4, 6, 8.5, and 13 years). The graph shows designs that are identical in the power to detect between-person differences in change under the assumption of no attrition. The number of occasions equally distributed over time is shown on the X-axis and the total duration of the study is shown on the Y-axis. Researchers can read from the graph that observing individuals about ten times over 11 years has the same statistical power as observing individuals about three times over 14.5 years (adapted from von Oertzen and Brandmaier, 2013). © MPI for Human ­Development

Von Oertzen and Brandmaier (2013) illus- designs. For a beta version of this program, Key Reference trated this approach to statistical power with see www.powerequivalence.com. Brandmaier, A. M., data from the Berlin Aging Study (BASE; cf. Oertzen, T. von, pp. 233–238). They modeled interindividual Exploratory Data Mining ­McArdle, J. J., & Linden­ berger, U. (2013). differences in cognitive and sensory decline Brandmaier, von Oertzen, McArdle, and Structural equation using a latent growth curve model with a lin- Lindenberger (2013) introduced Structural model trees. Psychologi- ear component of change and then assessed Equation Model Trees as a multivariate sta- cal Methods, 18, 71–86. doi:10.1037/a0030001 the statistical power to detect variance in tistical method that combines the benefits of change as a function of study design param- confirmatory and exploratory approaches to eters (see Figure 36). They also noted that data analysis. SEM Trees are grounded in two longitudinal aging studies are characterized well-established paradigms, SEM as a con- by attrition, which is often mortality-related firmatory method and recursive partitioning and selective, and showed how calculations or decision trees as an exploratory method. of power equivalence can take attrition into SEM Trees add an exploratory dimension to account. SEM by offering a data-driven yet hypothesis- To enable researchers to calculate alternative constrained exploration of the model space. study designs that are power-equivalent using The project addressed a number of method- linear latent growth curve models, the project ological questions in the application of SEM members have written a computer program Trees, such as variable selection bias and with a graphical user interface. The program overfitting. It also extended the paradigm to allows users to change study parameters encompass Hybrid SEM Trees, which allow interactively and obtain alternative study for subgroup differences in model struc-

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 249 Key References ture. Instead of selecting the single “best” been working on developing, adapting, and Voelkle, M. C., & Oud, J. hypothesis for the total sample, Hybrid SEM evaluating new methods to analyze change. H. L. (in press). Relating Trees generate a set of different hypotheses Special attention was paid to the use of latent change score and for subgroups that have been identified by dynamic models that model the mechanisms continuous time models. Structural Equation covariates of interest. In initial applications, of change instead of merely describing them Modeling. we have demonstrated the benefits of SEM (Voelkle & Oud, in press). Voelkle, M. C., Oud, Trees for various data sets, including data Most dynamic models that are currently in J. H. L., Davidov, E., & from the Berlin Aging Study. John J. Prindle use in psychological research, including the Schmidt, P. (2012). An has been working on ways of alleviating the popular autoregressive cross-lagged panel SEM approach to con- tinuous time modeling considerable computational burden that SEM models, assume that measurement occa- of panel data: Relating Trees can impose. He has also joined Andreas sions are equally spaced in time. The failure authoritarianism and M. Brandmaier in developing SEM Trees as to account for unequal spacing of measure- anomia. Psychological Methods, 17, 176–192. a package for the R Project for Statistical ment occasions may seriously bias parameter doi:10.1037/a0027543 Computing. estimates, thereby leading to design-specific At the same time, the project members results that do not generalize across studies continued to work on model-free tree struc- and prevent the generation of cumulative tures for clustering time series. We proposed scientific knowledge. SEM-based continu- Permutation Distribution Clustering as a new ous time modeling ameliorates this problem clustering scheme that encodes dissimilarity because study findings are expressed in con- between time series as dissimilarity between tinuous time, which does not depend upon their permutation distributions and thus as the choice of specific time intervals (Voelkle, differences in the complexity of the observed Oud, Davidov, & Schmidt, 2012). In this process. context, the project has shown that using in- dividually varying time intervals can improve Continuous Time Structural Equation the identification of oscillating processes Modeling when the overall sampling rate is low (see Longitudinal data analysis is an essential Figure 37; Voelkle & Oud, 2013). As demon- task of developmental research. However, strated by Voelkle and Oud (in press), SEM- choosing the most suitable model to address based continuous time models are closely a particular research question is not always related to latent change score models, which easy. Manuel C. Voelkle and colleagues have represent a well-known approach to study- Dependent variable

Time

Figure 37. Damped oscillating process with a frequency of just under 1 Hz. The red dots correspond to discrete time observations with a sampling rate of 2 Hz. Although it would be possible to reconstruct the generating process from the discrete sampling points (according to the so-called Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem), this is often difficult in practice (just as the reader would have difficulty in seeing that the red dots are not located along a straight line). Individuals (represented by blue dots) that deviate from the average sampling points (here at assessment wave 5 and 6) may help to identify the generating process (adapted from Voelkle & Oud, 2013). © MPI for Human ­Development

250 | Center for Lifespan Psychology ing change. However, some of the formal cage. Mice with low roaming entropy typically Key Reference and practical restrictions that exist in latent have local roaming distributions, that is, they Freund, J., Brandmaier, change score SEM are absent in continuous restrict themselves to staying within certain A. M., Lewejohann, L., time SEM. This opens up new possibilities for limited areas of the enclosure. By contrast, Kirste, I., Kritzler, M., … Lindenberger, U., & dynamic models of normal cognitive aging, mice with high roaming entropy make full use Kempermann, G. (2013). which are currently being explored by John of the complex environment and show less Emergence of indi- J. Prindle and colleagues using data from the preference for certain areas of the cage (see viduality in genetically identical mice. Science, ACTIVE study. Figure 38). 340 (6133), 756–759. Together with Han Oud from the University Interindividual differences in how roam- doi:10.1126/science. of Nijmegen, Manuel C. Voelkle and Charles ing entropy changed over time were mod- 1235294 Driver are currently developing CT-SEM, a eled with a latent growth curve model. The user-friendly R package for continuous time observed individual differences in behavioral analyses. Building upon these recent method- trajectories were large and statistically reli- ological advances, in related work, the project able. Even more intriguingly, there was a will further investigate theoretical principles correlation between roaming entropy and and methodological strategies that integrate brain plasticity: Mice that explored their between-person and within-person perspec- habitat more thoroughly also grew a greater tives in psychological research (Dissertation number of new neurons in the hippocampus. Janne Adolf). Thus, with the help of advanced information- theoretic and statistical methods, including Brain-Behavior Relations and the structural equation models, it was possible to Emergence of Individuality show that personal experiences and individual Together with colleagues from the DFG-­ behavior contribute to the individualization Center for Regenerative Therapies ­Dresden— of the brain. Together with Gerd Kempermann Cluster of Excellence at the Technische and members from his group in Dresden, Universität Dresden (CRTD) and the Dresden we will continue working with this animal site of the German Center for Neurodegenera- model to address whether and how epigenetic tive Diseases (DZNE), Andreas M. Brandmaier mechanisms contribute to the emergence of and Ulman Lindenberger examined how individual differences. organisms evolve into individuals that differ from each other (Freund et al., 2013). Specifi- Analysis and Classification of High- cally, the researchers observed 40 genetically Dimensional Time Series identical mice that were kept in an enclosure During the reporting period, Timothy R. Brick offering a great variety of different options has been working on the expansion and for exploration. The mice were equipped with application of a graphical user interface for tiny radio-frequency identification chips that face models. This involved collaborations with emitted electromagnetic signals whenever other research groups at the Institute, the they came across any of the antennas distrib- University of Virginia, and the University of uted throughout the cage. The researchers Zurich. He has also been studying the way in hypothesized that, despite their identical which emotions are perceived and expressed genetic makeup and exposure to a nominally on the face, especially in conversations. identical environment, the mice would end In a related line of research, the project up showing different behaviors, and that members are adapting methods and algo- these differences would increase over time. To rithms from machine learning for use in quantify individual differences in exploration psychology and neuroscience (Dissertation behavior, Andreas M. Brandmaier suggested Julian David Karch). One focus is on ensemble the measure of roaming entropy. Roaming learning, a technique that creates multiple entropy was defined as the Shannon entropy hypotheses about data and applies a voting of the roaming distribution, which is a spatial scheme to create a metahypothesis that, distribution describing the probability of ideally, describes the data best. Julian David finding a mouse at a particular location in the Karch is working on several statistical and

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 251 (a) Cage design (c) Increasing variability in cumulative roaming entropy (cRE)

Nesting box T1 High T2 T3 T4 with antennas 3.0

Connecting tubes Water bottles with antennas with antennas 2.5

2.0 Adult neurogenesis Low 1.5

RFID antenna

Emigration box Cumulative roaming entropy (cRE) 1.0 RFID transponder

20 40 60 80 Time (days)

(b) Enriched living mice vary in roaming entropy (d) Adult neurogenesis correlates with cRE Low roaming entropy (#2, d19) High roaming entropy (#93, d9)

1,200 2 Level 2 Level 1/3 Level 2 Level 1/3 R = 0.22 1,000 800 600 400 Number of BrdU+neurons 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 Probability at place xy Cumulative roaming entropy (cRE)

Ground left Ground right Ground left Ground right

Figure 38. The emergence of individuality in genetically identical mice living in a nominally identical environment. (a) Shows a schematic illustration of the enclosure that housed 40 female mice. (b) Illustrates roaming entropy, which quantifies the coverage of space for a given individual. The heatmaps depict the probability of a mouse being at a specific location in the cage. Low probabilities are shown in blue, me- dium probabilities in green, and high probabilities in beige (see the arrow on the left). The boundaries of the cage, levels, and nesting boxes are indicated in white. The antenna positions are shown in black. The left panel shows a mouse with low roaming entropy (Animal No. 2 at day 19) and the right panel shows a mouse with high roaming entropy (Animal No. 93 at day 9). (c) Measurements of roaming entropy were aggre- gated into four adjacent time periods to obtain an index of cumulative roaming entropy (cRE). Each line displays the cRE for a single mouse. Corresponding levels of neurogenesis are continuously color coded from low (blue) to high (yellow). The mice differed reliably in rates of linear change in roaming entropy. (d) Individual differences in cumulative roaming entropy are associated with individual differences in adult hippo­campal neurogenesis. The number of new neurons correlated significantly with cumulative roaming entropy at T4,r = 0.46 (t = 3.227, P = 0.0026) (adapted from Freund et al., 2013). © MPI for Human ­Development

information-theoretic potential improve- frequency bands, and electrodes in EEG ments to the application of ensemble analysis recordings of working-memory tasks. While to EEG data. In addition, he is working on traditional hypothesis-driven approaches establishing a link back from high-dimen- typically fail because of the sheer quantity of sional, nonlinear models to the sort of simple data and possible hypotheses, machine learn- hypotheses researchers can make sense of. ing may help researchers to identify what is A second line of research focuses on explor- relevant in the context of a specific research ing relevant combinations of time frames, question.

252 | Center for Lifespan Psychology Graphical Modeling With Onyx packages, which currently include OpenMx, Key Reference Onyx is a freely available software environ- lavaan, and Mplus. One major difference be- Oertzen, T. von, & Brick, ment for creating and estimating SEM. It of- tween Onyx and other SEM programs is that it T. R. (in press). Efficient fers a graphical user interface to facilitate the already starts computing solutions while the Hessian computation using sparse matrix generation of models, and includes a powerful user is constructing the model. Furthermore, derivatives in RAM nota- back-end for performing maximum likelihood Onyx employs a multiagent algorithm for esti- tion. Behavior Research parameter estimation. Andreas M. Brandmaier mating parameter values; instead of starting Methods. Advance online publication. doi:10.3758/ and Timo von Oertzen, together with Siny the optimization at a single point in likelihood s13428-013-0384-4 Tsang from the University of Virginia, started space, optimization starts at multiple points developing Onyx in 2012 (see www.onyx. in parallel, which renders the specification of brandmaier.de). starting values obsolete in most cases. Onyx utilizes a graphical approach to model- During the reporting period, Timothy R. Brick ing that offers an easy transition between has continued to be involved in developing matrix- and script-based model definitions OpenMx. The Onyx development team added without introducing yet another algebraic or capabilities to the program, such as joint script-based SEM notation itself. Apart from analysis of continuous and ordinal variables its graphical representation, Onyx also pro- and the ability to parallelize large computa- vides access to RAM-based matrix notation, tions. The testing of other features, such as model-implied correlations, and model-im- Weighted Least Squares fitting and fast ana- plied covariance matrices, as well as script- lytic gradient computation (see von Oertzen & based model definitions for other software Brick, in press), has been completed.

Center for Lifespan Psychology | 253 Publications 2011–2013 (last update: January 2014)

Amengual, J. L., Valero-Cabre, Brod, G., & Opitz, B. (2012). the link between intrusive human sense of agency, and is it A., Veciana de las Heras, M., Does it really matter? Separat- thoughts and negative affect in metacognitive? In S. M. Fleming Rojo, N., Froudist-Walsh, S., … ing the effects of musical reaction to daily stressors. Psy- & C. D. Frith (Eds.), The cognitive Bodammer, N. C., … Rodriguez- training on syntax acquisition. chology and Aging, 26, 488–502. neuroscience of ­metacognition Fornells, A. (2012). Prognostic Frontiers in Psychology, 3: 543. doi:10.1037/a0022287 (pp. 321–342). Heidelberg: value of cortically induced doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00543 Springer. motor evoked activity by TMS Burgess, C., Schuck, N. W., in chronic stroke: Caveats Brod, G., Werkle-Bergner, M., & & Burgess, N. (2011). Tempo- De Baene, W., Kühn, S., & Brass, from a revealing single clinical Shing, Y. L. (2013). The influence ral neuronal oscillations can M. (2012). Challenging a decade case. BMC Neurology, 12: 35. of prior knowledge on memory: A produce spatial phase codes. In of brain research on task switch- doi:10.1186/1471-2377-12-35 developmental cognitive neuro- S. ­Dehaene & E. Brannon (Eds.), ing: Brain activation in the task- science perspective. Frontiers in Space, time and number in the switching paradigm reflects Bertram, L., Böckenhoff,­ A., De- Behavioral Neuroscience, 7: 139. brain: Searching for evolutionary adaptation rather than recon- muth, I., ­Düzel, S., Eckardt, R., Li, doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00139 foundations of mathemati- figuration of task sets.Human S.-C., Lindenberger,­ U., Pawalec, cal thought (pp. 59–69). New Brain Mapping, 33, 639–651. G., Siedler, T., Wagner, G. G., Brose, A. (in press). Stress York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1002/hbm.21234 & Steinhagen-Thiessen, E. (in reactivity. In A. C. Michalos (Ed.), doi:10.1016/B978-0-12- press). Cohort profile: The Berlin Encyclopedia of quality of life 385948-8.00005-0 Delius, J. A. M., Kotter-Grühn, D., Aging Study II (BASE-II). and well-being research. New Kleinspehn-Ammerlahn, A., Röcke, International Journal of Epidemi- York: Springer. Burgmans, S., Gronenschild, C., Smith, J., & Lindenberger, U. ology. Advance online publica- E. H. B. M., Fandakova, Y., (2012). Die Berliner Altersstudie tion. doi:10.1093/ije/dyt018 Brose, A., Lindenberger, U., & Shing, Y. L., Van Boxtel, M. P. (BASE): Kognitive Entwicklung im Schmiedek, F. (2013). Affective J.,­ ­Vuurman, E. F. P. M., … Raz, Alter. News & Science, 31 (2), 4–9. Bodirsky, M., Jonsson, P., & states contribute to trait reports N. (2011). Age differences in Oertzen, T. von. (2012a). Es- of affective well-being. Emo- speed of processing are par- Delius, J. D., & Delius, J. A. M. sential convexity and complexity tion, 13, 940–948. doi:10.1037/ tially mediated by differences in (2012). Intelligences and of semi-algebraic constraints. a003240 axonal integrity. NeuroImage, brains: An evolutionary bird's Logical Methods in Computer 55, 1287–1297. doi:10.1016/j.­ eye view. In T. R. Zentall & E. A. Science, 8 (4): 5. doi:10.2168/ Brose, A., Lövdén, M., & neuroimage.2011.01.002 Wasserman­ (Eds.), The Oxford LMCS-8 (4:5)2012 Schmiedek, F. (2014). Daily handbook of comparative cogni- fluctuations in positive affect Burzynska, A. Z., Garrett, tion (pp. 693–717). New York: Bodirsky, M., Jonsson, P., & positively co-vary with working D. D., Preuschhof, C., Nagel, Oxford University Press. Oertzen,­ T. von. (2012b). Horn memory performance. Emotion, I. E., Li, S.-C., Bäckman, L., versus full first-order: Complex- 14, 1–6. doi:10.1037/a0035210 Heekeren, H. R., & Linden­ Dirk, J., & Schmiedek, F. (2012). ity dichotomies in algebraic berger, U. (2013). A scaffold for Processing speed. In S. K. constraint satisfaction. Journal Brose, A., & Ram, N. (2012). efficiency in the human brain. ­Whitbourne & M. J. Sliwinski­ of Logic and Computation, 22, Within-person factor analysis: The Journal of Neuroscience, (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell 643–660. doi:10.1093/logcom/ Modeling how the individual fluc- 33, 17150–17159. doi:10.1523/ handbook of adulthood and aging exr011 tuates and changes across time. jneurosci.1426-13.2013 (pp. 133–153). New York: Wiley. In M. R. Mehl & T. S. ­Conner (Eds.), Brandmaier, A. M., Oertzen, T. Handbook of research methods for Burzynska, A. Z., Nagel, I. Dresler, M., Sandberg, A., Ohla, von, McArdle, J. J., & Linden­ studying daily life (pp. 459–478). E., Preuschhof, C., Gluth, S., K., Bublitz, C., Trenado, C., berger, U. (2014). Exploratory New York: Guilford Press. Bäckman,­ L., Li, S.-C., Linden­ Mroczko-Wasowicz, A., Kühn, data mining with structural berger, U., & Heekeren, H. R. S., & Repantis, D. (2013). equation model trees. In J. J. Brose, A., Scheibe, S., & (2012). Cortical thickness is Non-pharmacological cognitive McArdle & G. Ritschard (Eds.), Schmiedek, F. (2013). Life linked to executive functioning enhancement. Neuropharmacol- Contemporary issues in explor- contexts make a difference: in adulthood and aging. Human ogy, 64, 529–543. doi:10.1016/j. atory data mining in the behav- Emotional stability in younger Brain Mapping, 33, 1607–1620. neuropharm.2012.07.002 ioral sciences (pp. 96–127). New and older adults. Psychol- doi:10.1002/hbm.21311 York: Routledge. ogy and Aging, 28, 148–159. Eppinger, B., Hämmerer, D., & doi:10.1037/a0030047 Burzynska, A. Z., Nagel, I. Li, S.-C. (2011). Neuromodula- Brandmaier, A. M., Oertzen, T. E., Preuschhof, C., Li, S.-C., tion of reward-based learning von, McArdle, J. J., & Linden­ Brose, A., Schmiedek, F., Lövdén, Lindenberger, U., Bäckman, and decision making in human berger, U. (2013). Structural M., & Lindenberger, U. (2012). L., & Heekeren, H. R. (2011). aging. Annals of the New York equation model trees. 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Max Planck Research Group

Affect Across the Lifespan Max Planck Research Group

The Max Planck Research Group “Affect Across the Lifespan” (Head: Michaela Riediger) investigates age differences in affective experiences and competencies from adolescence to old age. A first research emphasis on affect dynamics involves investigations on age differences in the inner experiences, outward expressions, and physiological processes associated with affective experiences and on their underlying mechanisms. A second research emphasis on affective competencies focuses on age differences in abilities related to understanding and managing emotional aspects of life.

Research Team 2011–2013

Antje Rauers, Michaela Riediger, Cornelia Wrzus (as of 09/2013: Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany)­

Postdoctoral Fellows Gloria Luong, Markus Studtmann (until 06/2012)

Predoctoral Fellows Elisabeth Blanke (MaxNetAging Research School), Kathrin Klipker (LIFE)

Visiting Researcher Michael Boiger (University of Leuven [KU Leuven], Belgium)

266 | MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan Introductory Overview

How do emotional experiences change from adolescence to old age? And how does the ability to understand and deal with affective experiences develop across the lifespan? The Max Planck Research Group “Affect Across the Lifespan” seeks to contribute to a better understanding of these questions. Without the abilities to experience, express, understand, and control affective states—such as anger or joy—we would not succeed in many life tasks, from forming and main- taining social relations to successfully pursuing a career. The purpose of this Research Group is to provide new insights on age-related differences in these various facets and competencies of affective functioning, focusing primarily on the age range from adolescence to old age. Unique features of our research approach are the combination of a mobile-phone-based experience- sampling technology with psychophysiological monitoring and controlled experimental para- digms, and the consideration that affective functioning takes place in, and is influenced by, the individual’s social and ecological context.

Overview of Research Emphases emphasis on affective competencies is Our work is characterized by two interre- characterized by empirical investigations on lated research emphases. A first emphasis on age-related differences in abilities related affect dynamics involves empirical inves- to understanding and managing emotional tigations on age-related differences in the aspects of life. This report gives an overview inner experiences, outward expressions, and of our research activities regarding both physiological processes associated with af- research emphases between 2011 and 2013. fective experiences from adolescence to old We start out with our research on affect dy- age and on the mechanisms underlying these namics and then turn to our second research age-related differences, such as motivational emphasis on age-related differences in affec- and cognitive processes. A second research tive competencies.

Research Emphasis 1: Age-Related Differences in Affect Dynamics

Our investigations of affect dynamics involve various studies, age groups, and methodological approaches. Below, we briefly summarize our core research activities on this topic during the report period from 2011 to 2013.

The Multi-Method Ambulatory Assessment from various age groups. To meet this aim, Core Research Team (MMAA) Project we combine several ambulatory assessment Michaela Riediger This project is a longitudinal research en- methodologies, which allow measurements of Cornelia Wrzus deavor that we have been conducting since experiences, cognitive capacity, and physi- Gloria Luong 2007 in cooperation with Max Planck Re- ological processes in daily-life contexts, with Gert G. Wagner search Fellow Gert G. Wagner and the Center interview techniques and well-controlled for Lifespan Psychology. Five measurement experimental paradigms. Ambulatory assess- phases in a total sample of about 600 partici- ment methods include mobile-phone-based pants ranging in age from adolescence to old experience sampling and ambulatory bio- age have been completed (see Figure 1). Most monitoring of cardiac activity (assessed via participants have completed two or more of 24-hour electrocardiography), physical activ- these measurement waves. The main goal ity (assessed via 24-hour accelerometry), and of this project is to chart various aspects of hormonal processes (assessed via repeated affective functioning and their interrelations ambulatory saliva samples). with motivational and cognitive processes A comprehensive summary of all research ac- over time, as they naturally occur in the daily tivities within the MMAA project during 2011 lives and natural environments of individuals and 2013 is beyond the scope of this report.

MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan | 267 2007/2008 2008 2008/2009 2010/2011 2013

N = 378 N = 92 N = 130 N = 398 N ≈ 360 14–86 years 14–82 years 12–26 years 12–90 years 14–90+ years

Experience Affect as T1 as T1 as T1 as T1 sampling motivations Context & events Location tracking (GPS) Working-memory capacity M = 54 obs., M = 7 obs., M = 54 obs., M = 54 obs., M = 54 obs., 3 weeks 24 hours 3 weeks 3 weeks 3 weeks

Physiological Electrocardio- Testosterone Grip strength monitoring graphy & measure Cortisol Accelerometry (ambulatory: (24 hours 2 days à ambulatory & 3 samples) experimental)

Experimental Social-cognitive Implicit Implicit paradigms stressor association association test tests (Affect-valence, task-switching) Activity prototypes

Figure 1. Overview of the longitudinal MMAA project. Since 2007, five assessment waves have been conducted in a sample ranging in age from adolescence to old adulthood. New participants, and young adolescents in particular, have been regularly recruited to maintain the age composition of the sample. The measurement approach combines various ambulatory assessment techniques, which allow the measurement of affective, physiological, and cognitive functioning in participants’ daily lives and natural environments, with well-controlled experimental paradigms and interviews conducted in the participants’ homes. The ambulatory assessment techniques include mobile-phone-based experi- ence sampling as well as various ambulatory biomonitoring devices. © MPI for Human ­Development

Key Reference In the following sections, we will therefore Seeking Pleasure and Seeking Pain: Age Riediger, M., Wrzus, describe a selection of exemplary findings Differences in Everyday Affect-Regulation C., Klipker, K., Müller, pertaining to age differences in (a) everyday Motivation V., Schmiedek, F., & affect-regulation motivation, (b) associations Evidence is accumulating that day-to-day Wagner, G. G. (in press). Outside of the labora- between sleep quality and emotional well- emotional experiences differ between individ- tory: Associations of being, and (c) affective and physiological re- uals from different age groups. Adolescence, working-memory perfor- sponding to daily hassles and uplifts. Further for example, is typically characterized by rela- mance with psycho- logical and physiological analyses have focused, for example, on age tively more emotional turmoil and a relatively arousal vary with age. differences in associations between affec- higher prevalence of negative emotionality Psychology and Aging. tive and physiological arousal and working- than adulthood. Across adulthood, there are memory capacity (Riediger, Wrzus, Klipker, also general patterns of age-related differ- Müller, Schmiedek, & Wagner, in press) and ences. When repeatedly asked to report their on implications of individual differences in momentary feelings, older adults typically appreciation of negative affective experiences report higher emotional well-being in their for health and well-being. daily lives than younger adult age groups, and

268 | MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan this difference cannot be explained by age- might be intentionally sought and maintained Key References related differences in daily activities and time by the individual. Riediger, M., & Rauers, use (Riediger & Rauers, in press). Why should this be the case? From an A. (in press). Do everyday The psychological mechanisms underlying instrumental-affect perspective, one could affective experiences­ differ throughout these age-related differences in daily-life af- speculate, for example, that age differences adulthood? A review fective experiences are not yet well under- in regulatory orientations arise because af- of ambulatory-assess- stood. Using data from the first assessment fective states differ in how instrumental they ment evidence. In P. ­Verhaeghen & C. Hertzog wave of the MMAA project, we demon- are for dealing with the developmental tasks (Eds.), The Oxford hand- strated in our earlier work that considering of different life phases. For example, seeking book of emotion, social the proactive aspects of affective experience negative mood might help adolescents to es- cognition, and everyday problem solving during provides new insights in this respect (­Riediger, tablish emotional autonomy from parents and adulthood. New York: ­Schmiedek, Wagner, & Lindenberger, 2009). other adults, to develop a sense of identity, Oxford University Press. Among other things, participants had reported, or to train their self-regulatory competences. Riediger, M., Wrzus, C., on average 54 times throughout 3 weeks, Seeking positive mood in old age, in contrast, Schmiedek, F., Wagner, how they momentarily felt and whether they might facilitate the pursuit of affiliative or G. G., & Lindenberger, U. (2011). Is seeking currently wanted to dampen, enhance, or generative interests. A complementary expla- bad mood cognitively maintain each of six positive and negative nation derives from the mixed-affect perspec- demanding? Contra- affect facets (i. e., feeling angry, downcast, tive, namely, the idea that people might oc- hedonic orientation and working-memory anxious, interested, joyful, and content). casionally seek apparently negative affective capacity in everyday life. Participants further completed two trials of experiences because they are accompanied or Emotion, 11, 656–665. a numerical memory-updating task assess- followed by positive experiences (e. g., because doi:10.1037/a0022756 ing momentary working-memory capacity they enjoy feeling sad). Consistent with this on each measurement occasion. Consistent account, we indeed found that the contra- with evidence from prior studies, we found an hedonic motivation of wanting to maintain age-related increase in day-to-day emotional one‘s current negative affect was associated well-being. Interestingly, these age differ- with a higher likelihood of mixed affect, that ences largely corresponded to differences in is, a higher likelihood of a co-occurrence of how people wanted to influence their feelings. positive and negative affect that were both As expected, contra-hedonic orientations did above the individual‘s average. Furthermore, not occur frequently in the daily lives of most the pattern of age-related differences in the participants. Across the entire sample, contra- prevalence of mixed affect mirrored that of hedonic orientations were reported in 15 % of contra-hedonic orientation, whereby both the measurement occasions on average and were most prevalent among adolescents and were thus considerably less prevalent than least prevalent among older adults. prohedonic orientations, which were reported Irrespective of participants’ age, more recent in 92 % of the measurement occasions on analyses regarding within-person associations average. There were, however, pronounced between pro- and contra-hedonic orientations age-related differences: Contra-hedonic and within-person fluctuations in working- orientations to enhance or maintain negative memory capacity were in line with the view affect, or to dampen positive affect, were most that contra-hedonic orientations come at a prevalent among adolescents and decreased cost (Riediger, Wrzus, Schmiedek, Wagner, & with age. Prohedonic orientations, in con- Lindenberger, 2011). We assume that this is the trast, were most prevalent in later adulthood. case because contra-hedonic orientation is the Importantly, the age differences in pro- and exception rather than the rule and requires the contra-hedonic orientations could not be at- effortful overriding of the prevailing prohedon- tributed to age-related differences in daily-life ic orientation. While prohedonic orientation emotional experiences, activities, or social was only weakly associated with within-person partners. Instead, they suggest that part of the fluctuations in working-memory performance, negative emotionality that is characteristic of the association of contra-hedonic orientation adolescence, and part of the positive emotion- and working-memory performance was sub- ality that is characteristic of older adulthood, stantially more pronounced: The more contra-

MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan | 269 35 35

30 30

25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5 Occurrence mixed affect (in %) Occurrence contra-hedonic (in %) 0 0 Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 Affect-valence IAT Affect-valence IAT

Figure 2. Prevalence of contra-hedonic orientation (left panel) and mixed affect (right panel) varies depending on participants’ mental repre- sentations of affect valence. The four groups represent the quarters of the distribution of the affect-valence Implicit Association Test (IAT). Quartile 1 includes the 25 % of the participants with the lowest, and quartile 4, the 25% with the highest, affect-valence IAT scores. Higher scores indicate more distinctive associations of happiness with pleasantness (rather than unpleasantness) and unhappiness with unpleasant- ness (rather than pleasantness). The more distinctively participants associated happiness with pleasantness and unhappiness with unpleasant- ness, the less likely they were to report contra-hedonic motivation and mixed affect in their daily lives. Error bars: +/–1 standard error. © MPI for Human ­Development

hedonic orientation participants reported, ence to the task. Instead, the negative effects the lower their momentary working-memory of contra-hedonic orientation on momentary performance was, and this was independent of working-memory capacity were also evident the participants’ momentary affective experi- when only performance ranges that required ence. This effect of contra-hedonic orientation meticulous effort to solve the task were taken on working-memory performance was about into consideration. The effects of contra-he- ten times larger than that of prohedonic ori- donic orientation on working-memory perfor- entation. These results demonstrated that oc- mance could thus not be attributed to a lack currences of contra-hedonic orientation were of effort or to differences in other individual associated with within-person fluctuations in or situational characteristics. Rather, they are momentary working-memory performance. consistent with the idea that contra-hedonic In addition, participants who reported more orientation is more strongly associated with contra-hedonic orientation on average showed momentary decrements in available working- lower average working-memory performance memory capacity compared to prohedonic across all measurement occasions, which orientation. may partly reflect the aggregated effect of Overall, these analyses demonstrated that tak- momentary occurrences of contra-hedonic ing into account motivational aspects of how orientation. Average prohedonic orienta- people want to influence their feelings con- tion, in contrast, was not significantly related tributes to our understanding of age-related to between-person differences in average differences in affective functioning from ado- working-memory performance. lescence to old age. Up to this point, however, These findings were stable after controlling we had exclusively relied on participants’ self- for participants’ age and perceptual-motor reported affect-regulation motivation, that is, speed, as well as for the time of day, mo- could only assess information that was acces- mentary activity, presence of social partners, sible to participants’ introspection and not rule and for trend-related effects, in addition to out the possibility of response biases. In the momentary positive and negative affect. Fur- fourth assessment wave of the MMAA project, thermore, the reductions in working-memory and guided by the mixed-affect perspective performance accompanying contra-hedonic alluded to above, we therefore additionally orientation were not merely due to nonadher- implemented an experimental approach to as-

270 | MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan sess associations with mental representations positive throughout adulthood, at least into Key References of affect valence using the Implicit Associa- young–old age. We therefore hypothesized Wrzus, C., Brandmaier, tion Test (IAT) paradigm. Again, we found a that, in older age, the association between A. M., Oertzen, T. von, similar pattern of age-related differences, sleep duration and affect should be decoupled; Müller, V., Wagner, G. G., & Riediger, M. with adolescents and older adults standing that is, older adults’ affective well-being (2012a). A new approach out: Compared to adults from various age should be less affected by short sleep. As a first for assessing sleep dura- groups, adolescents paired positive affect least step toward investigating this idea, we used tion and postures from ambulatory accelerom- distinctively with pleasantness (vs. unpleas- data from the 24-hour ambulatory biomoni- etry. PLoS ONE, 7 (10): antness) and unhappiness least distinctively toring phase of the MMAA project where 92 e48089. doi:10.1371/ with unpleasantness (vs. pleasantness). The participants aged 14 to 92 years had worn an journal.pone.0048089 older the participants were, however, the more ambulatory biomonitoring system continuous- Wrzus, C., Wagner, differentiated were their representations of the ly for 24 hours and answered questions on the G. G., & Riediger, M. (in press). Feeling good valence of affective states. Furthermore, the mobile phones during that time. The biomoni- when sleeping in? less differentiated people’s mental representa- toring system continuously recorded, among Day-to-day associations tions of affect valence were, the more likely other things, participants’ physical posture and between sleep duration and affective well-being they were to report mixed-affect and contra- movements via acceleration sensors attached differ from youth to old hedonic motivation in their everyday lives (see to the sternum and right thigh. Participants’ age. Emotion. Figure 2). Although causal conclusions are not momentary reports on six affect adjectives at possible given the correlational nature of these the last assessment in the evening and the first studies, these findings are in line with the assessment in the morning served as indicators mixed-affect perspective. The comparatively for evening and morning affective well-being. higher prevalence of mixed-affective experi- Together with colleagues from the Center for ences in adolescence thus could be among Lifespan Psychology, we used the physical the factors that contribute to a comparatively activity data collected between 8 p.m. in the higher prevalence of self-reported contra-he- evening and 11 a.m. the next morning to de- donic motivation in that age group. This seems termine objective indicators of sleep duration to be associated with relatively more undiffer- and quality in addition to self-reports. Nightly entiated mental representations of the valence activity, body posture, and change in body pos- of affective states in adolescence. ture during the night were determined using a newly developed classification algorithm Feeling Good When Sleeping In? Age based on angular changes of body axes. The Differences in the Association Between Sleep duration of supine posture and objective and Affective Well-Being indicators of sleep quality showed convergent Another area of investigation within the validity with self-reports of sleep duration and MMAA project has addressed age-related dif- quality as well as external validity regarding ferences in the association between sleep and expected age differences (Wrzus et al., 2012a). affect. It is undisputed that sleep fulfills im- We continued this investigation, which had portant functions, such as allowing physical focused on data from just one night in the repair or facilitating memory processes. Less lives of the participants, in a second step us- is known about how sleep relates to affective ing self-report data from an average of nine well-being. So far, the respective knowledge nights from the fourth experience-sampling largely stems from sleep deprivation or clini- wave of the MMAA project (Wrzus, Wagner, cal studies. In contrast to this prior focus on & Riediger, in press). For adolescents, affec- extreme lack of sleep or on associations with tive well-being in the morning was worse the affective processes in mental pathology, our shorter they had slept the previous night. For aim was to investigate how naturally occur- adults aged over 20 years, however, affective ring variations in sleep duration relate to daily well-being was worse following nights with affect in psychologically healthy individuals. much shorter or longer than average sleep Survey studies show that sleep duration duration. This effect was more pronounced and quality decrease with age. In contrast, the older the participants were (see Figure 3). everyday affective well-being becomes more These age differences were not related to age

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Figure 3. Affective well-being the next morning varied with the amount of sleep during the previous night—and differently so for people of different ages. On average on nine mornings, people reported their affective well- being and how long they had slept the previous night. For adolescents, affective well-being in the morning was worse the shorter participants had slept the previous night. For adults aged over 20 years, however, affective well-being was worse following nights with much shorter or longer than average sleep duration. This effect was more pronounced the older the participants were (adapted from Wrzus et al., 2012). © MPI for Human ­Development

differences in waking times or in times of is, to daily hassles and uplifts. People typically assessments in the mornings. Also, the effects respond with an increase in negative affect to were highly similar for weekdays and week- the experience of daily hassles, which is often ends. The mechanisms driving the stronger also accompanied by physiological changes. coupling between longer-than-average sleep Regarding age-related differences in such af- duration and lower affective well-being in the fective responses, there are two prevailing, but morning for older compared to younger adults, opposing, theoretical positions. Some research- and the absence of this effect among adoles- ers argue that emotional responsiveness should cents, remain to be investigated. Exploratory decrease throughout adulthood because life analyses on health and sleep deficits/surplus experience and higher motivation to maximize on previous nights suggest that other factors emotional well-being should contribute to an play a role, for example, sleep quality or ap- improved ability to control affective reactions praisals of sleep. Perhaps older adults are more to hassles. Other researchers, in contrast, claim likely to sleep longer when sleep quality is low, that emotional responsiveness should increase which in turn influences affective well-being across adulthood because age-related declines in the morning; or they appraise longer-than- in fluid-cognitive capacity should diminish average sleep more negatively than younger people’s ability to regulate their affective people and are dissatisfied with the “wasted” experiences when facing hassles. To bridge time. Especially among adolescents, the ob- this disagreement, we derived the overpower- served average sleep durations of slightly more ing hypothesis that older adults react more than 7 hours might be insufficient to satisfy strongly to hassles than younger individuals their sleep need. when the event is highly resource demand- ing and overtaxes older adults’ capacity to Keeping One’s Cool: Affective and Physiological successfully control affective responses. In less Reactivity to Daily Hassles and Uplifts resource-demanding situations, older adults Yet another area of investigation within the should exhibit equal or even lower affective MMAA project has addressed age-related dif- responsiveness compared to younger individu- ferences in how people affectively respond to als, due, for example, to age-related increases unpleasant and pleasant daily-life events, that in the motivation to feel good (Wrzus, Müller,

272 | MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan Wagner, Lindenberger, & Riediger, 2013). We are less resource demanding), however, no age Key Reference tested this hypothesis with the data from differences in psychological responding were Wrzus, C., Müller, V., the first experience-sampling wave and the observed, and cardiovascular responding was Wagner, G. G., Linden­ subsequent 24-hour biomonitoring wave of even less pronounced the older the participants berger, U., & Riediger, M. (2013). Affective and the MMAA project (see Figure 1). During the were. These findings suggest that the ability cardiovascular respond- experience-sampling data collection, 378 to effectively regulate affective and cardio- ing to unpleasant events participants in the age range from adolescence vascular responses to everyday hassles may be from adolescence to old age: Complexity of to old age reported their momentary negative maintained into older adulthood as long as the events matters. Develop- affect and occurrences of hassles on aver- resource demands (i.e., the complexity) of the mental Psychology, 49, age 54 times over 3 weeks. Several months event do not overtax the older adults’ available 384–397. doi:10.1037/ a0028325 later, a subsample of 92 participants wore an resource capacity (Wrzus et al., 2013). ambulatory psychophysiological monitoring Another set of analyses emphasized the tem- system for 24 hours while pursuing their daily poral dimension of affective reactivity. Here, routines and additionally completed an aver- we studied reactivity and recovery processes age of seven mobile-phone-based experience- under controlled experimental conditions sampling reports. Affective responsiveness using data on a stress induction experiment was analyzed by comparing, within persons, during the 24 hour biomonitoring wave. affective states in situations without and with Standardized emotional strain was elicited in preceding hassles. The results supported the 92 participants, 14 to 83 years of age, with overpowering hypothesis (see Figure 4): When an adaptive social-cognitive stress task. Par- dealing with complex hassles that affected ticipants’ negative affect and heart rate were multiple life domains (i. e., situations that are measured throughout the task. The results highly resource demanding), older age was showed no significant age differences in reac- associated with more pronounced psychologi- tivity and recovery regarding activating (e. g., cal and cardiovascular responsiveness. When feeling nervous) and deactivating (e. g., feel- dealing with circumscribed hassles that af- ing downhearted) negative affect. We found, fected only one life domain (i. e., situations that however, that older age was associated with

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Figure 4. Age differences in psychological and physiological reactivity to adverse events depends on the complexity of the situation. Several times a day throughout 3 weeks, participants reported the occurrence of hassles and their momentary negative affect. In a separate assess- ment wave, participants’ heart rate was continuously recorded throughout 24 hours while they pursued their normal daily routines. After experiencing circumscribed hassles that concerned only one life domain (i. e., situations that are less resource demanding), no age differences in psychological responding (increase in negative affect relative to situations without proceeding hassles) were observed (left panel), and cardiovascular responding was even less pronounced the older the participants were (right panel), more negative values indicate stronger car- diovascular responding. However, when dealing with complex hassles that affected multiple life domains (i. e., with situations that are highly resource demanding), older age was associated with more pronounced responding both on the psychological (left panel) and cardiovascular level (right panel) (adapted from Wrzus et al., 2013). © MPI for Human ­Development

MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan | 273 decreased heart-rate reactivity (i. e., smaller uplifts and hassles were reported concurrently. increases in heart rate from baseline to the Multilevel analyses revealed that there were stress task compared to younger individuals) age differences in buffering effects on deac- as well as increased heart-rate recovery time tivating negative affect, but not on activating (i. e., longer time to return to baseline heart negative affect. The interaction shows that rate following the stress task compared to when a hassle was reported in the absence younger individuals). In other words, although of an uplift, there were no age differences in heart rate increased less strongly with age, deactivating negative-affect reactivity (i. e., it took longer to recover, that is, to return to increases in deactivating negative affect in re- baseline. Importantly, heart-rate reactivity sponse to the hassle). In contrast, when an up- and recovery during the stress task were not lift and hassle were reported concurrently, all significantly related to heart-rate reactivity individuals generally showed buffering effects and recovery during a nonemotional physical such that their hassle reactivity was attenu- task, suggesting that the observed age dif- ated compared to hassle situations without a ferences in heart-rate reactivity and recovery co-occurring uplift. This buffering effect was were specific to the social-cognitive stressor. less pronounced, however, with older age. In Affective experiences, however, do not only other words, older adults benefited less (i. e., fluctuate in response to unpleasant experi- exhibited smaller decreases in deactivating ences, thoughts, or events. Uplifts or pleasant negative affect) when experiencing both up- everyday events, such as receiving good news, lifts and hassles within the same assessment also influence affective experiences by pro- period compared to younger individuals. moting greater positive affect and lower nega- Altogether, these findings support the notion tive affect. Although researchers have posited that affective aging consists of a complex that uplifts may buffer or reduce the afore- pattern of gains and losses. Across adulthood, mentioned detrimental effects of hassles on the ability to maintain affective states in the emotional well-being, few studies have tested presence of circumscribed stressors shows this possibility in daily life. Furthermore, buff- stability or even improvements, but older ering effects may vary with age. For example, adulthood is characterized by slower recovery during adolescence, affect variability is greater from physiological arousal associated with than in other periods of the life­span. Thus, stressors, stronger affective and physiological while adolescents may show large decreases reactivity to complex stressors, and by lesser in emotional well-being in response to hassles, capitalization on positive experiences when they may also show large increases in response they coincide with stressors. to uplifts, thereby cancelling out the negative The analyses reported so far focused on cross- effects of co-occurring hassles. In addition, sectional age differences in everyday affective most previous studies on emotion regulation reactivity, which, however, do not necessar- and aging have found that older adults are ily correspond to within-person change in more adept at avoiding negative emotional reactivity over time. The finalization of the experiences relative to younger individuals, fifth longitudinal assessment wave of the but there is limited evidence that older age is MMAA project, which is currently under way, associated with optimizing positive experi- will make it possible to investigate within- ences. We therefore examined age differences person change throughout 6 years in everyday in buffering effects, that is, when uplifts and affective experiences. These longitudinal data hassles occurred concurrently on activating analyses will be among our core research (e. g., feeling angry) and deactivating nega- endeavors in the coming year and accompany tive affect (e. g., feeling downhearted) in the initial analyses on change in hassle reactiv- fourth assessment wave of the MMAA project. ity throughout 3.5 years, which indicated Buffering effects were tested by examining pronounced age-related differences and are age-related differences in the increase in described next. negative affect in response to hassles-only Greater affect reactivity to stressors is situations compared to situations whereby typically believed to signify poorer affect

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Figure 5 . Age-moderated longitudinal change in negative-affect reactivity to hassles. Participants between 12 and 88 years of age reported their momentary emotional experiences and the occurrence of hassles in their daily lives twice, about 3.5 years apart. Bars represent hassle reactivity (i. e., increases in negative affect in response to a hassle, relative to occasions in which no hassles occurred). Adolescents and young-old adults exhibited increases in hassle reactivity, whereas younger and middle-aged adults showed decreases across the two assess- ment waves. In later life, the oldest adults showed stability in hassle reactivity over time. © MPI for Human ­Development regulation, that is, poorer abilities to control cognitive functioning, in late life. Few studies one’s affective reactions. Researchers have to date have been able to test these possibili- predicted that there are two periods in which ties because they primarily relied on cross- emotion regulation drastically changes: (1) as sectional data with limited age ranges. adolescents transition into adulthood and Using longitudinal data from MMAA assess- (2) as individuals move from the third age to ment waves during the time period from 2007 the fourth age (into the eighth decade of life to 2010, we examined possible age differences and beyond). Adolescence represents a period in longitudinal change in affect reactivity to of substantial physiological, cognitive, and hassles throughout a period of about 3.5 years. social changes that are coupled with relative We found that change in affect reactiv- inexperience in coping with hassles. Together, ity to hassles varied with baseline age. Both these components contribute to highly vari- adolescents and young-old adults (third age) able emotional responses in adolescence. As exhibited increases in negative-affect reactiv- individuals transition into adulthood, they ity to hassles across the waves (see Figure 5). gain more experience with emotion regula- Interestingly, however, young and middle-aged tion and greater agentic control, which are adults decreased in their negative-affect believed to help downregulate affective reactivity to hassles across the waves, while reactivity to hassles. In addition, although the oldest-old adults show a pattern of stabil- the third age (encompassing the sixth and ity across the waves. These findings corrobo- seventh decades of life) is associated with rate and extend the current literature. Affect comparatively high levels of emotional con- reactivity to hassles declines during early and trol and stability, it is unclear whether these middle adulthood, but shows increases again gains will outweigh losses, such as declines in in the third age and stability in later life.

MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan | 275 Core Research Team Back in the Laboratory: Emotion Elicitation to disgusting and neutral films—again with Using Film Clips only minor differences across individual films. Antje Rauers One advantage of using experience sampling Importantly, no emotion evinced an age- Markus Studtmann is that it captures emotional events and related decrease in emotional responding. In Michaela Riediger responses to these events as they occur in essence, these findings suggest that controlled people’s natural living environments, which exposure to emotional events involves an age- enhances ecological validity. A natural limita- related increase in emotional responding for tion of this method is, however, that the most emotions. These results seem incompat- events people encounter in their daily lives ible with the theoretical notion that older may differ between age groups (e. g., regard- adults are more adept in general at regulating ing their valence, importance, or frequency). their responses to emotional events. In con- When investigating age differences in affec- trast, the present results provide preliminary tive responding, it is therefore important to support for theoretical positions maintaining consider the type of events that people are that affective responses should increase with exposed to. Following this imperative, we age if a given emotional event is sufficiently have been complementing the data from the intense and cannot be avoided. These findings MMAA project that we obtained in daily life may furthermore imply that it can be adaptive with well-controlled experimental paradigms. to avoid intense emotional stressors in old age, In one of these studies, we conducted an ex- as one’s regulatory capacities in the face of in- periment in which we confronted participants tense events may become increasingly limited. of different age groups with standardized emotional events in the laboratory, namely, That’s Not Funny! Enjoyment of Others’ with emotional film clips. In the following, we Misfortunes Decreases Across the Adult will exemplarily introduce two research foci Lifespan within this comprehensive investigation. The emotions of joy, anger, sadness, disgust, and fear from the research example above are Emotional Reactivity to Controlled among a group of emotions that some psy- Emotional Events chologists have considered the “basic emo- In this research, we preselected 66 emotional tions.” Whereas there is an ongoing debate film clips for their potential to strongly and regarding the criteria that qualify an emotion specifically induce one of the following emo- as “basic,” some researchers use this term to tions: joy, anger, fear, sadness, disgust, and no acknowledge that expressions of these emo- emotion (i. e., emotionally neutral films) as a tions occur very early in ontogeny and have control condition. Different from past research been observed in multiple cultures around that investigated age differences in responses the world. Furthermore, these emotions may to emotional film clips, we did not restrict be understood as responses to a specific ap- our sample to a narrow age range, nor did we praisal (e. g., sadness typically accompanies focus on one or two target emotions or on a one’s realization of a loss without any hope small number of film stimuli, as selectiveness for amendment). In contrast, researchers have regarding these factors may limit the general- emphasized that some affective responses are izability of the findings. Instead, we included a elicited through more heterogeneous path- broad age range from 12 to 80 years in a life­ ways, with one example being amusement. span sample of 99 individuals and considered This emotional response typically involves an various target emotions, each of which were enjoyable tension arising from some form of represented by an average of 11 film clips. cognitive incongruence. However, the types The results can be seen in Figure 6. Affective of incongruences people respond to vary responses increased with age for most emo- considerably across individuals. Past research tions, namely, for joy, fear, sadness, and anger, has related these individual differences to with only minor differences across individual people’s cultural background, their cognitive films for a given target emotion. In contrast, capacities, or the salience of a topic. In this there were no age differences in responses research example, we investigated the role

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Figure 6 . For emotional films eliciting joy, fear, anger, or sadness, subjective-affective responses were stronger with age, whereas responses to disgusting or neutral films were age invariant. Participants aged 12 to 80 years rated their subjective responses to 66 emotional film clips. (Ad- olescents did not rate fear stimuli.) Bars show participants’ mean ratings on the target emotion in four different age groups, averaged across all films for a given target emotion. Error bars show two standard errors from estimated subsample means. Participants’ stronger responses with increasing age, as evident for most emotions, support the theoretical notion that older adults will respond stronger to intense, emotional stimuli if those are held constant across participants. Age differences in affective responses to events in everyday life, in contrast, may diverge from the reported pattern, as individuals differ regarding the events that they are exposed to. © MPI for Human ­Development of values for people’s responses to amusing To investigate this hypothesis, we used data stimuli. We assumed that age differences in from two independent lifespan samples. In a amusement could be understood in terms of first step, we conducted a rating study with age differences in values. Amusement has the aim to obtain a group of film clips that in- been suggested to depend on a delicate bal- volved varying degrees of threat to moral and ance between tension (e. g., incongruence) physical integrity—in short, films that varied and relief (e. g., resolution of the incongru- on the dimension of harm. We used 12 film ence). If people are confronted with threats clips, preselected for their potential to elicit to particularly salient values, this balance amusement, and showed them to a sample of may be shifted toward uncomfortable levels 143 participants aged 10 to 84 years. Directly of tension, which counteracts the experience after having watched each film, participants of amusement. Here, we focused on values responded to five items measuring the extent regarding two assets, namely, moral and phys- to which each film involved threats to moral ical integrity. Moral integrity may become in- values (e. g., “someone acted mean”) or physi- creasingly valued with age as people develop cal integrity (e. g., “someone could have got a growing sense of generativity—a motiva- hurt”), using a scale from zero to six. Averag- tion to give to subsequent generations and ing across all items and rating-study partici- pass on values and morals. Likewise, physical pants, we obtained a measure of perceived integrity may become increasingly valued harm for each film. This measure was then as age-related frailty brings about more used to predict experiences of amusement in serious implications of physical injuries (e. g., a second, independent lifespan sample. resulting from a fall). In sum, older people In a next step, we presented the same 12 film may value moral and physical integrity more clips to the lifespan sample introduced earlier strongly than younger people. We therefore (99 participants aged 12 to 80 years). Directly hypothesized that, with age, stimuli involving after having watched each film, participants threats to moral or physical integrity—that rated the intensity of their amusement on a is, films involving potential psychological or scale from zero to six. Results supported our physiological harm—would be appraised with prediction (see Figure 7): Whereas younger lessened amusement. participants’ amusement was independent of

MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan | 277 Core Research Team the harm involved by the films, older par- Up One Minute, Down the Next: Affective ticipants’ amusement was lower for harmful Variability Across Adolescence Kathrin Klipker films than for harmless films. These results Compared to late childhood and adulthood, Cornelia Wrzus provide support for the notion that individual adolescence is a developmental period of Antje Rauers differences in emotional responding may enhanced affective instability, that is, of Michaela Riediger be best understood when considering both more rapidly changing affective experiences characteristics of the person and character- (Riediger & Klipker, 2014). There is, however, istics of the stimulus or situation. Individual also substantial variation between adoles- Key Reference differences in people’s emotional responses cents regarding their affective instability. Riediger, M., & Klipker,­ were not explained by participants’ age alone, Lay views often attribute these observations K. (2014). Emotion nor by the harm implied by the stimulus to hormonal changes during adolescence. regulation in adoles- alone. Instead, the data pattern derived from Empirical evidence, however, shows that cence. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion an interaction of the two characteristics. Fur- hormonal changes alone cannot explain the regulation (2nd ed., thermore, the study introduces a potential ex- unique emotional lives of adolescents. Indeed, pp. 187–202). New York: planatory mechanism for the observed effect: relatively little is known to date about the Guilford Press. Threats to the people’s values may counteract factors that contribute to the typical increase the experience of amusement. Future research in affective variability in adolescence and needs to investigate if this mechanism is also to interindividual differences therein. We true for additional values that were not in the conducted a longitudinal study to provide focus of the present research example. new insights into this area of research (Dis- sertation Kathrin Klipker). The objective of this 6 project is to investigate the proposition that a temporary increase in affective variability in 5 adolescence results from a transient devel- opmental imbalance between pubertal and 4 cognitive development, rather than from one 3 or the other influence alone. Pubertal development (i. e., the bodily transi- 2 Older person (+1 SD) tion from being a child to being an adult) is M age caused by changes in the concentration of 1 Younger person (–1 SD) steroid hormones. Pronounced increases in

Amusement ratings (main sample, 0–6) 0 the levels of steroid hormone concentrations Less harmful More harmful occur particularly in early puberty and are (Mean –1 SD) (Mean +1 SD) accompanied by the emergence of diurnal Harm implied by film (prestudy sample, ratings 0–6) patterns of steroid hormone concentrations. Figure 7. Participants’ emotional responses to amus- These hormonal changes are thought to have ing films depended on the interplay of participants’ an activating effect on the central nervous age and the harmfulness of a given film clip. A lifespan system, especially in affect-relevant brain sample aged 10 to 84 years watched 12 amusing film clips and rated them regarding their harmfulness—that regions. Individuals, however, are not only is, the degree to which a protagonist in the film was passive recipients of affect-relevant signals exposed to either moral violations, physical harm, or from the brain. Affective experiences can both. A different lifespan sample aged 12 to 80 years then rated their amusement as they watched the same often be moderated and controlled (i. e., regu- films. Estimates from multilevel regression showed lated) to some extent by the individual. Many that harmful films elicited less amusement than harm- affect-regulation strategies (e. g., cognitive less films—but not for everybody: The older the partici- pant, the more his or her amusement was diminished disengagement, behavioral inhibition, or if a film stimulus involved moral violations, physical attentional deployment) draw on cognitive- harm, or both. These results may be understood in control processes, which develop remarkably light of past research suggesting that both moral and physical integrity, which were threatened by some of throughout childhood and adolescence. We the films, become increasingly valued across the adult therefore expected that adolescents who lifespan. show large changes in hormone concentration © MPI for Human ­Development and diurnal rhythms, but have not yet fully

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0.65 Working-memory performance affect ratings over time High (Mean +1 SD) Within-person variations in 0.60 Medium (Mean) Low (Mean –1 SD) 0.00 Decrease No changes Increase (Mean –1 SD) (Mean) (Mean +1 SD) Long-term change in diurnal testosterone variations Figure 8. Change in diurnal testosterone variations predicts affect variability only in adolescents with low working- memory capacity. Male participants aged 10 to 20 years provided eight saliva samples for the analyses of testoster- one concentrations, each on two measurement occasions about 9 months apart. Their working-memory capacity was assessed with an extensive battery during the second occasion. Affect variability was assessed throughout 2 weeks and as participants pursued their normal daily routines, using mobile-phone-based experience sampling. Results indicate that an increase in diurnal testosterone variation predicted higher affective variability only in participants with low working-memory capacity. This finding is consistent with the idea that a temporary increase in affective variability in some adolescents is associated with an imbalance between hormonal and cognitive development. © MPI for Human ­Development developed the cognitive control capacity to with low, but not in adolescents with high regulate their increasing affective responsive- working-memory capacities (see Figure 8). ness, should show high variability in affective This was the case irrespective of participants’ experiences, whereas this should not be the age. Results are robust to controlling for case to the same extent for adolescents with several demographic (e. g. type of school, more developed cognitive control capacities. parents’ socioeconomic status) and social To investigate this prediction, we conducted (e. g. predictability of activities, interaction a longitudinal project with two measurement partners, and locations) control variables. waves, 8 months apart. On both occasions, Taken together, this study not only replicates 148 male participants aged 10 to 20 years the available empirical evidence of a relation provided, among other things, eight saliva between puberty and emotional experiences, samples for the analysis of testosterone con- but further differentiates between several centrations. During the second measurement developmental processes within puberty: The wave, participants also worked on a battery investigation of the joint contribution of an of working-memory tasks and took part in a individual’s hormonal and cognitive develop- mobile-phone-based experience-sampling ment allows addressing the question of large phase. Over a period of 2 weeks, participants individual variations within adolescence. provided on average 46 reports of their momentary affective experiences. Derivative Tune Yourself In: Age Differences in Core Research Team estimates of participants’ affect ratings (i. e., Music Preferences in an Affectively Michaela Riediger slope of change) were used as a measure for Relevant Situation Cornelia Wrzus affect variability. Results from the MMAA study summarized Simon Frisch In line with our predictions, we found that above had shown pronounced age-related (Diploma Student) an increase in diurnal testosterone fluctua- differences in self-reported regulatory tions during the study interval was related to motivations, with older adults reporting higher affective variability only in adolescents more frequently prohedonic motivations and

MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan | 279 adolescents more frequently contra-hedonic affectively relevant situation with regard to motivations than the other age groups. In both the valence and the arousal dimensions these analyses, however, we had exclusively of regulatory preferences, choosing music focused on the valence dimension of affec- listening as an experimental paradigm. Music tive experiences, that is, on how pleasant or listening was well suited for our study aims unpleasant they are. However, the arousal because the affective nature of a given music dimension—how activating or deactivating piece can be characterized with regard to its affective experiences are—may be equally valence and arousal, and it can elicit corre- important for understanding age differences sponding affective experiences in the listener. in affect-regulation motivation because an In a first step of this investigation, we devel- age-related decrease of physiological flexibil- oped an age-fair music-browsing paradigm as ity makes recovery from activated states more a means to observe people’s regulatory prefer- difficult in older adulthood. In addition, our ences in an affectively relevant situation. We reliance on self-reported affect-regulation asked 50 participants aged 12 to 74 years motivation in the MMAA study entails the to rate 471 preselected songs from different possibility of response biases. genres on various dimensions, including va- We addressed these limitations in this study lence and arousal. Based on these ratings, we by observing participants’ behavior in an selected 128 music pieces with unambiguous

100 90 Negative valence Positive valence 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Total browsing time (in %) 10 0 Adolescents Young adults Middle-aged adults Older adults

100 90 High arousal Low arousal 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Total browsing time (in %) 10 0 Adolescents Young adults Middle-aged adults Older adults

Figure 9. Age differences in music preferences in an affectively relevant situation. Individuals from different age groups freely browsed music pieces varying in valence and arousal while expecting to engage soon in a discus- sion of a difference in opinion with a stranger. Middle-aged and older adults listened longer to positively than to negatively valenced music (upper panel). They differed from each other, however, in their arousal preferences (lower panel): Middle-aged adults listened longer to high-arousing music than to low-arousing music. Older adults listened longer to low-arousing music than the other age groups. These findings suggest that shifts in valence preferences may occur earlier throughout the adult lifespan than shifts in arousal preferences. Error bars: +/–1 standard error. © MPI for Human ­Development

280 | MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan and relatively age-homogeneous valence and 10 minutes and we recorded their browsing arousal ratings, making sure that the selection behavior. was comparable across different genres. We Consistent with our prediction, we found a then programed a music browser that allows clear preference for positively valenced music participants to freely browse through this in middle-aged and older adults (see Figure 9, selection of songs, listening to each of them upper panel). The preference pattern, how- for as long or short as they like, and records ever, was different with regard to the arousal their browsing behavior. dimension of music pieces. Adolescents and We expected to find an age-related increase middle-aged adults showed a clear preference in the preference for positively valenced and for high-arousing music, whereas older adults for calm, relaxing music in affectively rel- spent less time listening to high-arousing mu- evant situations. We investigated this predic- sic and more time listening to low-arousing tion in a sample of 73 participants from four music than the other age groups (see Figure 9, age groups: adolescents, young, middle-aged, lower panel). and older adults. We created an affectively Taken together, this study further confirmed relevant situation by making participants that age differences in regulatory preferences believe that they were about to discuss a are not only evident in self-report but also difference in opinion with a stranger. We in what people actually do in an affectively then told participants that their interaction relevant situation, and that it is important partner was not yet ready for the discussion to consider both the valence and the arousal and asked them to participate in an allegedly dimension of regulatory preferences. It also unrelated study on listening preferences to suggests that shifts in valence preferences bridge the time to the discussion. Partici- may occur earlier in the adult lifespan than pants freely browsed our music selection for shifts in arousal preferences.

Research Emphasis 2: Age-­Related Differences in Affective Competencies­

The second emphasis of our research is on age-related differences in abilities related to under- standing and managing emotional aspects of life. Between 2011 and 2013, we focused much of our respective work on processes related to affect communication. Here, we are interested in both how affective experiences are expressed by individuals of different age groups and how these expressions are recognized by other people of various ages.

While empirical evidence on age-related differ- methodological shortcomings that we sought Key Reference ences in affect expressions is still rare, several to address in several recent studies. One limita- Riediger, M., Voelkle, investigations are available that suggest that tion is a lacking of age fairness of most studies, M. C., Ebner, N. C., & the ability to read other people’s affective which used expressions of younger or middle- Lindenberger, U. (2011). Beyond “happy, angry, expressions declines with age throughout aged, but not older, adults as stimulus material. or sad?” Age-of-poser adulthood (e. g., Riediger, Voelkle, Ebner, & Lin- The second concern pertains to the fact that and age-of-rater effects denberger, 2011). The reasons for this apparent the traditional paradigm is quite different from on multi-dimensional emotion perception. Cog- age-related decline, however, are not yet well affect-recognition demands in daily-life con- nition and Emotion, 25, understood. Surprisingly, age-related declines texts and thus lacks ecological validity. 968–982. doi:10.1080/ in fluid-cognitive functioning and face percep- Below, we elucidate our recent empirical 02699931.2010.540812 tion could not account for these findings. To attempts to address these concerns. We first date, however, adult age differences in the sketch out a series of studies that attempted ability to identify affective expressions have to enhance ecological validity by investigating most frequently been investigated using photo- age-related differences in identifying different graphs depicting faces of persons posing proto- types of smiles. Subsequently, we describe sev- typical expressions of highly intense emotions. eral studies on different aspects of spontaneous This “traditional” paradigm has two important affective communication in social relationships.

MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan | 281 Core Research Team No Smile Like the Other—Adult Age 0.30 Differences in Reading Smiles Young adults Older adults Markus Studtmann Our first approach toward enhancing ecologi- 0.25 Antje Rauers * * * cal validity involved smiles instead of posed Michaela Riediger expressions of intense basic emotions. Smiles 0.20 Andrea Westphal are facial displays well suited for our purposes (Diploma Student) 0.15 because they are subtle expressions of high ecological relevance that can be accompanied 0.10 Unbiased hit rate by different emotional experiences: People smile when they experience positive emo- 0.05 tions, for example, when they are amused or 0.00 happy. They also smile to conform to social Positive Posed Negative conventions, for example, to be polite, even smile smile smile when not experiencing any particular emo- * p < .05. Error bars: +/–1 SE. tions. People also occasionally smile while Chance probability experiencing negative feelings, for example, Figure 10. Younger adults are better in reading smiles during social conflicts when they want to ap- than older adults. Younger and older adults rated short pease their interaction partner. video clips of smile expressions that were shown while the smiling person either felt amused while watching We were interested in whether younger and a funny videoclip, felt upset while being the target of older adults differ in how well they are able to an unfair accusation, or did not feel any particularly identify different emotional experiences ac- strong emotion while being asked to pose a smile. Younger adults were more accurate than older adults companying smiles. Based on the assumption in identifying emotional experiences accompanying that interpreting different types of smiles is positive, nonemotional, and negative smiles. Error a more ecologically valid task than interpret- bars: +/–1 standard error. ing posed facial expressions in the traditional © MPI for Human ­Development paradigm, and as such allows older adults to draw on their accumulated experiences in Arndt University of Greifswald. These negative understanding other people’s expressions, we smiles had been accompanied by intense anger expected a performance advantage of older as or other negative emotions. compared to younger adults in understanding In a first study, we presented 48 smile videos smile expressions. (16 per category, all of younger adults) to 48 To investigate this prediction, we produced younger (20–30 years of age) and 52 older videos of positive, negative, and nonemotional (70–80 years of age) participants. Participants smiles. Positive and nonemotional smiles were were asked to indicate which emotional ex- elicited from 42 younger (20–30 years of age) perience they thought had accompanied the and 48 older adults (70–80 years of age). Posi- smile (positive feelings, negative feelings, or tive smiles were spontaneously shown while no particularly intense feelings). watching amusing video clips and cartoons. Contrary to our predictions, older adults’ Nonemotional smiles were elicited by asking emotion-recognition accuracy did not profit participants to smile. Together, more than from the more ecologically valid smile para- 2,000 smile episodes were videotaped. Partici- digm. As in the traditional paradigm, younger pants reported their feelings for each of these adults were more accurate in identifying episodes. We selected positive smiles that had emotional experiences accompanying smiles been accompanied by intense amusement and than older adults (see Figure 10). In fact, older no other feelings, and nonemotional smile adults’ recognition accuracy for positive and episodes that had not been accompanied by negative smile videos was not better than particular emotions. In addition, we extracted chance. Furthermore, older adults were less negative smile episodes from video footage of likely to attribute positive emotions to smiles, young adults who were the target of unfair ac- but more likely to assume that a given smile cusations during an experiment conducted by was posed than younger adults. This find- Weber and Wiedig-Allison at the Ernst Moritz ing was unexpected as it is not in line with

282 | MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan theoretical claims that older adults are more project focuses on romantic partnerships as Key References motivated to attend to and process positive a particularly common social context across Rauers, A., Blanke, E., information. adulthood and has two core foci: First, we & Riediger, M. (2013). In a second study, we investigated whether investigated age-related differences in affec- Everyday empathic ac- curacy in younger and older adults’ accuracy in reading smiles profits tive competencies—both in the couples’ daily older couples: Do you when the smiling persons stem from their own lives and during interactions in controlled need to see your partner group as compared to a younger age group. We laboratory contexts. Second, we investigated to know his or her feelings? Psychological presented positive and nonemotional smiles of the implications of such affective competen- Science, 24, 2210–2217. younger and older adults to 48 young (20–30 cies for individual and relationship develop- doi:10.1177/095679761 years of age) and 49 older (70–80 years of ment in early and late adulthood. The project 3490747 age) participants. Results indeed confirmed an includes two multimethodological assessment Rauers, A., Riediger, own-age advantage for older (but not younger) waves. The first wave used dyadic experi- M., Schmiedek, F., & Lindenberger, U. (2011). participants: Older participants could identify ence sampling as a means to assess emotion With a little help from the accompanying emotional states best when understanding and affect-related interper- my spouse: Does spousal the smiling persons were older adults as well. sonal dynamics in younger and older couple’s collaboration compen- sate for the effects of Although this selective gain in recognition ac- daily-life contexts, which we complemented cognitive aging? Ger- curacy attenuated the performance difference by experimental paradigms and self-report ontology, 57, 161–166. between younger and older participants when data. The second wave comprised experimen- doi:10.1159/000317335 reading older adults’ smiles, the overall pattern tal paradigms, observational measures, and of age differences remained. Even when the self-report data. Here, the primary focus was smiling persons were older adults, younger on age differences in the verbal and nonver- adults’ accuracy of identifying emotional expe- bal communication of affective states. In the riences accompanying smiles was higher than following, we describe one research example that of older adults. This replicates the findings from this project in more detail, focusing from our earlier studies. on age differences in the ability to correctly Taken together, this line of research replicated judge how one’s partner is feeling in daily life. that younger adults attribute affective states When judging another person’s current more accurately to emotional expressions than emotions, people do not exclusively rely on older adults, even after enhancing the ecologi- that person’s emotional expressions. People cal validity compared to the previously used also use additional information, such as traditional paradigm. Also, the smiles para- knowledge about a given situation and about digm, however, differs from affect-recognition the particular person. We assumed that this demands that people encounter in their daily knowledge is more robust to aging than the lives. It employs isolated and monosensory ability to read emotional expressions—mean- cues, while emotional information in every- ing that conventional laboratory tasks may day life is often multisensory and embedded have systematically underestimated older in a communicatory context. Based on these adults’ empathic competencies. To investi- considerations, our further attempts toward gate this, we assessed empathic accuracy in enhancing ecological validity pertained to younger and older couples’ daily-life contexts affective competencies as evident in authentic (Rauers, Blanke, & Riediger, 2013). We used interactions and social relationships. the experience-sampling method to compare two everyday scenarios: empathic judg- Everyday Affective Competencies in ments while the partners were spending time Core Research Team Romantic Partnerships together and situations in which the partners Antje Rauers Extending our earlier research on mutual were temporarily apart during their daily rou- Michaela Riediger understanding among dyads of various age tines. In both situations, people can use their Elisabeth Blanke groups (Rauers, Riediger, Schmiedek, & knowledge about the partner to judge his or Linden­berger, 2011; Riediger & Rauers, her current affect (e. g., they may know about 2010), we have been conducting a longitu- the partner’s typical mood at a particular time dinal multimethod investigation of affective of day or the partner’s typical mood while competencies in social relationships. This engaging in a specific activity). We assumed

MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan | 283 0.5 Young men 0.4 Young women OId men 0.3 Old women 0.2

0.1 Empathic accuracy (parameter estimates) 0.0

–0.1 Partner present Partner absent Random dyads

Figure 11. Age differences in empathic accuracy—the ability to correctly judge another person’s current feelings— depend on the presence or absence of the partner. Experience-sampling data were obtained from cohabitating couples’ daily lives. Participants simultaneously rated their own and their partner’s current affect. Bars show multilevel-model estimates of empathic accuracy, separately for younger and older men and women, measured as the correspondence of participants’ ratings of their partners with the partners’ actual self-reports. Higher bars in- dicate higher empathic accuracy across all measurement occasions. Younger adults were more accurate in rating their partner’s current affect when the partner was present. When the partner was absent, however, younger and older adults’ accuracy in rating their partner’s affect was comparable, and both age groups’ ratings were better than chance. Error bars: +/–2 standard errors. © MPI for Human ­Development

that such knowledge would be equally avail- occasions for both partners of a couple were able to younger and older couples. However, scheduled simultaneously. Among other ques- additional sensory cues about the partner’s tions, participants were asked to report their current affect (e. g., facial or verbal informa- own momentary affective experiences (self- tion) are available when the partner is pres- ratings) and to judge their partners’ momen- ent. In these situations, people may thus use tary affective experiences (judgments). Self- sensory cues to adjust their empathic judg- ratings and judgments were made for four ments. In contrast, during a person’s absence, positive and four negative affect facets each empathic judgments needed to rely exclusive- (happy, enthusiastic, balanced, content, angry, ly on knowledge acquired before the time of downcast, disappointed, and anxious). Cor- the judgment. Sensory-information process- respondence between participants’ judgments ing has been shown to decline with age. of their partners’ affect and the respective We therefore hypothesized that, when their partners’ self-rated current affect was used as partners were present, younger adults would an indicator of participants’ insight into their be more accurate than older adults. However, partners’ momentary subjective experience. we expected younger adults’ advantage over That is, we used the partners’ own self-rating older adults to decrease during the partners’ as criterion for empathic accuracy. absence. In short, we expected to find greater Consistent with our assumptions, age differ- age differences when the partner was present ences in empathic accuracy depended on the than when the partner was absent. presence or absence of the partner. During the To investigate these predictions, we used the partner’s presence, younger adults’ empathic mobile-phone-based experience-sampling accuracy was higher than that of older adults. technology developed in the MMAA project. During the partner’s momentary absence, The sample consisted of 50 younger (20– however, there were no age differences (see 30 years of age) and 50 older (70–80 years of Figure 11). Importantly, empathic accuracy age) cohabitating, heterosexual couples (i. e., when the partner was absent was significant- 200 individuals). Participants provided 87 ly better than chance for both age groups— experience samples on average while pursuing both when the partner was present and when their normal daily routines. Measurement he or she was absent.

284 | MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan This is also illustrated by an additional that remains available well into late adult- analysis for which we randomly swapped hood. In daily life, older adults’ empathic partners within age groups, thus creating competencies may thus be better than would artificial age-homogeneous, cross-gender be expected from their performance in most dyads. In these random dyads, there was no conventional laboratory emotion-recogni- empathic accuracy (see Figure 11). This indi- tion tasks. cates that the partners did not just engage in random guessing when their partner was Nice to Meet You—Empathic Accuracy and Core Research Team absent, nor did they merely use stereotypes Social Outcomes in Zero-Acquaintance Elisabeth Blanke about an average person’s fluctuations in Dyads Antje Rauers affective states across the day. Instead, Empathic skills are important for an individ- Michaela Riediger people’s specific knowledge about their ual’s adjustment in everyday life, especially partners served as a valid basis for empathic for the success of his or her social interac- judgments. tions. For example, children who are better In sum, our findings show that people can at knowing the thoughts and feelings of judge a familiar person’s current affect others have been found to have better peer without using any sensory information (such relationships; and adults who are better able as facial emotions or verbal statements) and to read the emotions of others are known to exclusively based on their knowledge about report higher satisfaction in their romantic that person. This important ability contribut- relationships. There is, however, only little ing to understanding others’ feelings should research concerning the association between be considered more thoroughly in future empathic skills and socioemotional adjust- research, which has mostly focused on the ment in older age groups. The purpose of the ability to interpret others’ emotional expres- ongoing dissertation project by Elisabeth sions. Moreover, our results suggest that Blanke, therefore, is to fill in this void by such knowledge is an important resource investigating the role of empathic accuracy

Negative affect Positive affect 0.5 0.5 ns 0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2 Empathic accuracy Empathic accuracy (parameter estimates) (parameter estimates) 0.1 0.1

0.0 0.0 Judge young Judge old Judge young Judge old Partner young Partner old

Figure 12. Younger women were better than older women in judging negative—but not positive—feelings of an unacquainted female interaction partner. Unacquainted younger and older female participants had a videotaped conversation with a partner from either their own or the other age group. Participants watched the videotape afterward and rated their own affect and the assumed affect of the interaction partner during the ­conversation at eight time points. Bars show multilevel-model estimates of empathic accuracy (the ability to judge other people’s feelings) separately for younger and older judges and partners. The left panel represents empathic ac- curacy for negative, the right panel for positive affect. Empathic accuracy is measured as the correspondence of participants’ ratings of their partners with the partners’ actual self-reports. Higher bars indicate higher empathic accuracy across all measurement occasions. Only for negative, but not for positive, affect were younger women more accurate than older women in judging their interaction partners’ affect. The age of their partners did not influence empathic accuracy. Error bars: +/–2 standard errors. © MPI for Human ­Development

MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan | 285 between strangers for social adjustment in Outlook: Ongoing and Future Research young and old adults in an ecologically valid One emphasis in our ongoing and future context. research will be to further analyze, also in We invited 208 young (20–31 years of age) collaboration with other researchers at the and old (69–80 years of age) women to our Institute, the rich longitudinal data set of the laboratory and paired the women, who did MMAA project. These analyses will address a not know each other before, in 104 age- variety of research questions regarding age- homogeneous or age-heterogeneous dyads. related differences in affective processes and Participants engaged in a conversation with their associations with cognitive, motiva- each other in which they discussed recent tional, and physiological processes. A primary personal emotional events, one positive and focus of these analyses will be on analyses one negative. Among other things, both of within-person change over time and on partners evaluated how much they liked the the predictive value of affective experiences conversation. Then, they were asked to review and processes assessed for the later assessed the video twice and to report their own and longer term developmental adaptation (as their partner’s inferred feelings during the indicated, e. g., by changes in health, social conversation at eight time points, respective- integration, or educational or professional ly. By comparing the self- and other-provided adjustment), and of possible age-related dif- emotion ratings, we yielded a measure of ferences therein. empathic accuracy. We also plan to extend our research on music First findings from this study again demon- preferences in different age groups and on strate age differences in the ability to infer the effectiveness of music listening as an the interaction partner’s affect, but only for affect-regulatory strategy. In addition, we are negative and not for positive feelings: Older also currently investigating, in cooperation women were less accurate than younger with the MPI for Empirical Esthetics, pos- women in judging their interaction partners’ sible age-related differences in associations negative affect, but did not differ reliably between objective music characteristics (e. g., from younger women with regard to their regarding mode, tempo, etc.) and subjective empathic accuracy regarding positive affect perceptions and listening preferences by lay (see Figure 12). This might be due to the fact and expert listeners. that positive emotions are highly socially Another ongoing project addresses questions desirable and therefore may be more readily regarding age-related differences in inter- displayed and more easily recognized. It is personal affect dynamics. For example, are also possible that older adults were less mo- romantic partners’ affective responses to daily tivated to infer the negative feelings of their uplifts and hassles interdependent? Are there partners. In addition, empathic accuracy in feedback loops between romantic partners’ af- this study was associated with the perceived fective experiences, and do they play a role in quality of the social interaction. Participants interpersonal affect regulation within couples? reported to have liked the conversation more In cooperation with the University of Leuven the higher their empathic accuracy was, and (KU Leuven) and the Kyoto University, we are this was the case irrespective of participants’ also planning to investigate possible dissimi- age and of the valence of the evaluated af- larities in these phenomena between Germany fect facets. and Japan, two cultures with profound differ- These results support the assumption that ences in desired affective experiences. empathic accuracy in a social interaction Finally, we will also continue our investiga- is associated with perceptions of the social tion on social implications of age-related quality of this interaction. In future analyses, differences in affective competencies and, in we will investigate associations of empathic particular, in empathic accuracy. We will ex- accuracy with self- and other-reported mea- plore, for example, the mechanisms by which sures of socioemotional adjustment. empathic accuracy influences social outcomes in different age groups.

286 | MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan Publications 2011–2013 (last update: January 2014)

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Psychological ­Bulletin, ing, 28, 529–539. doi:10.1037/ (2nd ed., pp. 187–202). New surveys: How valid are time use 139, 53–80. doi:10.1037/ a0032221 York: Guilford Press. questions in surveys? Concor- a0028601 dance of survey and experience Luong, G., Rauers, A., & Riediger, M., & Rauers, A. (in sampling measures (SOEPpapers Wrzus, C., & Lang, F. R. (2012). Fingerman, K. L. (in press). The press). Do everyday affective on Multidisciplinary Panel Data Entwicklung der Persönlichkeit. multi-faceted nature of late-life experiences differ throughout Research No. 390). Berlin: DIW. In F. R. Lang, M. Martin, & M. socialization: Older adults as adulthood? A review of ambu- Pinquart, Entwicklungspsycholo- agents and targets of socializa- latory-assessment evidence. Voelkle, M. C., Ebner, N. C., gie—Erwachsenenalter (pp. 141– tion. In J. Grusec & P. Hastings In P. Verhaeghen & C. Hertzog Lindenberger, U., & Riediger, 159). Göttingen: Hogrefe.

MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan | 287 Wrzus, C., Müller, V., Wagner, Wrzus, C., Wagner, J., Baumert, Wrzus, C., Wagner, J., & Neyer, Wrzus, C., Wagner, G. G., & G. G., Lindenberger, U., & A., Neyer, F. J., & Lang, F. R. F. J. (2012). The interdepen- Riediger, M. (in press). Feeling Riediger, M. (2013). Affective (2011). Adult parent-child dence of horizontal family good when sleeping in? Day- and cardiovascular responding relationships through the lens relationships and friendships to-day associations between to unpleasant events from ado- of social relations analyses: Pro­ relates to higher well-being. sleep duration and affective lescence to old age: Complexity social personality and reciprocity Personal Relationships, 19, well-being differ from youth to of events matters. Developmen- of support. European Journal 465–482. doi:10.1111/j.1475- old age. Emotion. tal Psychology, 49, 384–397. of Personality, 25, 133–145. 6811.2011.01373.x doi:10.1037/a0028325 doi:10.1002/per.802

288 | MPRG Affect Across the Lifespan

Max Planck Research Group

Felt Communities? Emotions in European Music Performances Max Planck Research Group

The Max Planck Research Group “Felt Communities? Emotions in European Music Performances” (Head: Sven ­Oliver Müller) investigates the historical development of the emotions triggered by music in the 19th and 20th cen- turies. Focusing on emotions as a public form of communication, the Research Group aims to decipher the emotional structure of communities: What role did and does music play in the development and cohesion of communities? The focus is less on the physiological effects of music than on how they are appropriated by groups. Musical perfor- mances have the power to connect diverse individuals within a community—or to create social and political enemies. The Research Group aims to analyze the historical patterns and contexts of these effects. The Research Group began its work in 2010.

Research Team 2011–2013

Sven Oliver Müller, Sarah Zalfen

Postdoctoral Fellows Luis-Manuel Garcia, Marie Louise Herzfeld-Schild, Yael Sela-Teichler (as of 09/2013: University of Pennsylvania, USA)

Predoctoral Fellows Tim Biermann, Bodo Mrozek (until 09/2013), Anabelle Spallek, Henning Wellmann

Adjunct Researcher Yael Sela-Teichler (University of Pennsylvania, USA)

292 | MPRG Felt Communities Introductory Overview

Does music create felt communities—and if so, how? This is the basic question of the research group. The Max Planck Research Group “Felt Communities? Emotions in European Music Performances” analyses the historical development of the emotions in musical life in the 19th and 20th centuries. In November 2010, a team of researchers, postdoctoral fellows, and PhD students began its work. This group now consists of 10 historians, musicologists, political scientists, and ethnologists who discussed social and cultural issues from various perspectives. What role music plays as a performative practice for the cohesion of social groups in various historical contexts was analyzed, and examinations focused not only on single musical pieces but on Western music as a performance. Music production, reception, and the social formation of taste were also investigated. No distinction between “serious” and “popular” and “classical” and “modern” music was made. The field of relevant problems and approaches ranges from music-sociological inspired analyses of musical work to social historical research on the audi- ences of so-called classical music to the point of studies about sounds and noise in the most different contexts.

This research group works with the assump- on the history of emotions in musical life by Key Reference tion that emotional communities are not com- analyzing parallel changes and similarities are Müller, S. O. (2013b). munities of their own—but an aspect of every presented. Richard Wagner und social group. Focusing on emotions as a public die Deutschen: Eine Geschichte von Hass und form of communication, the aim is to decipher Reception Hingabe. München: Beck. the emotional structure of communities: We are pursuing a change of perspective, What role did and does music as an emotional moving away from the study of musical works mode play in the development and cohesion to an investigation of actual participant of communities? The concept is a history of practices. An important guiding assumption social and cultural relations in musical life. was that the meaning of music is the result of Instead of defining boundaries between the interpretational processes on the audience’s three categories that are being investigated, part. The same piece of music could evoke the relationship and the interaction between different public reactions at different con- music, emotions, and communities are being certs in relation to different contexts of the examined. In recent years’ research, every performances. The emotions evoked by music single project was guided by the hypotheses cannot be expressed as those felt and vented that emotions vary over time and place and by composers. These phenomena require an are historically, culturally, and socially contin- altered research focus: Not the musical piece gent. Not only emotional expressions, such as itself, but the dispositions of listeners should culturally diverging gestures of grief or happi- be the central object of analysis. History in its ness, are subject to change but also emotional form as a modern social science might be a experiences. promising approach in order to examine the Consequently, the relation between music public handling of musical performances in and emotions is considered as deeply socially different contexts and times. structured and therefore dependent on the We are pursuing a change of perspective, historical and cultural context. Four guid- moving away from the study of musical ing assumptions and fields of this research works to an investigation of actual partici- are presented in the following: (1) reception, pant practices. This research group substi- (2) performances and audiences, (3) negotia- tutes a works-based with an event-based tion by cultural practices, and (4) transfers approach. By utilizing these considerations, in Europe. (5) Subsequently, the conferences, our research is not only an interdisciplinary colloquia, and cooperations demonstrated the approach of explaining the emotional and validity of the research assumptions. (6) Final- community-related dimension of music and ly, promising perspectives about how to write its relation to emotions. It is also a promis-

MPRG Felt Communities | 293 Key References ing perspective on cultural learning and The concept was to analyze the connection Müller, S. O. (in press). human development. It was found that the between different expressions of emotions, on Das Publikum macht behavior of listeners’ and audiences’ actions the one hand, and the coincidence of simul- die Musik: Musikleben sometimes depended on the movement they taneous expressions of two or more emotions in Berlin, London und Wien im 19. Jahrhundert. heard in music. The progress of this motion is at the same time. The point was to examine ­Göttingen: Vandenhoeck experienced as possessing a pattern of ten- the priority of certain emotions to analyze & Ruprecht. sion and relaxation. how one feeling gains or loses importance in audience behavior. Performances and Audiences We assume that the practices of musical per- Negotiations by Cultural Practices formances structured public communication The group regards the public consumption and, in this way, frequently created new rela- of music as a cultural practice that shapes tions in societies. Communication in musical the behavior of a social group. Music should life develops between various actors, and their be therefore reintegrated into history as a relationship could be defined as a chain of cultural practice. There is a significant amount communication where the composer and the of habitualized behavior among concert audi- artist influence the listener and the listener ences that indicates the relevance of debates, decodes the message. Especially public per- fashion and star admiration as cultural prac- Müller, S. O., & Osterhammel, J. (Eds.). formances in musical culture can be regarded tices. Through complex interconnections and (2012b). Musikalische­ as specific patterns of communication. The repetitions of practices, audiences established Kommunikation point is to demonstrate how public perfor- their specific lifestyles. Taste, practically dis- [Themenheft]. Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 38 (1). mances trigger the formation of communities. played, served as a mean of distinction in order Göttingen: Vandenhoeck The performative nature of music makes it a to maintain and sustain borders and distances & Ruprecht. perfect vehicle for music consumers to place within society and in order to label oneself as themselves in an imagined community. The an individual or a social group. musical performance conjures up collective Hence, it is important to connect the social memories with an intensity rarely matched challenges in modern Europe with the feel- by any other social activity. Music’s potential ing rules of musical audiences. Negotiation as a medium of imagining communities is processes of the public’s different taste and twofold, however. It can both induce submer- contrasting emotional preferences were sion into the mainstream or can construct observed. There was a negotiation between spaces of difference. Music performances people in favor of expressing their emotions create elements of exchange and demarca- loudly (e. g., workers) and the educated middle tion simultaneously. If and how performances class and entrepreneurs fighting against reflected, or even created, social, cultural, and audible emotional expressions. The mutual political relations was investigated. To call perception in the auditorium triggered feel- music a performing art is not only to say that ings of pride and honor within one group—in performances are being analyzed, it is to say contrast to the “wrong” or negative emotions that music performs meaning. of other people, such as distress, anger, and As a category, audiences became crucial anxiety. In fact, different social groups started for this research. Up to now, only small to learn habitualized forms of behavior; they case studies shed light upon the question formed around current emotions, around of whether music enhances or decreases certain preferences and dislikes. The history communication between and inside groups. of emotions can be read as an excellent case Audiences were as much social objects as study of an interaction between “elite” and subjects of emotional assessments. Learning “popular” manners. to enjoy a certain musical taste meant, there- Everybody who did not follow the expected fore, observing social, political, and cultural aesthetic parameters of musical communi- ideals of others. This reveals the development cation was easily identified and excluded. of public behavior and actions of social and When people talk about “our music,” they cultural groups. mean that this music is not so much owned

294 | MPRG Felt Communities as shared. “Our music” derives its social national and international scholars, is an Key References power from its ability to instantiate com- important medium for academic communica- Müller, S. O. (2012b). munity, polity, and history. Listeners have tion. The variety of conferences, workshops, Political pleasures with the potential to hear different things in the and cooperation projects reveals the out- old emotions? Perfor- mances of the Berlin same music, but the fact that many of them come of these research activities among the Philharmonic in the do not is an indication of the degree to which disciplines of history, musicology, political Second World War. Inter- groups of listeners share a common environ- sciences, and ethnology. national Review for the Aesthetics and Sociology ment and experience common perceptual The first conference onHegemonic Structures of Music 43, 35–52. learning and adaptation. of Music Politics of Occupation, Emotions Zalfen, S., & Müller,­ and Their Transfer: Europe of Two World Wars, S. O. (Eds.). (2012a). Mobility in Europe 1914–1949 took place in March 2011, and Besatzungsmacht Music-generated emotions meant exchange was organized by Sarah Zalfen and Sven Musik: Zur Musik- und Emotionsgeschichte im and imitation as well as resistance and exclu- Oliver Müller. The purpose was to draw atten- Zeitalter der Weltkriege sion. Participating in musical performances tion to the political dimensions of apparently (1914–1949). Bielefeld: or criticizing them not only reflected existing purely cultural practices. The aim was to show transcript. political and cultural values but also gener- if and how contacts in music constituted a ated them. The rise of the increasing similar- highly contested field of emotional exchange ity of the repertoire of music consumption, during the two World Wars. Cultural interac- and of the aesthetic preferences in European tions and transfers did not run in parallel with musical life since the late 19th century, the military antagonism, but were its “harmo- meant that a supposedly specific national nious” counterpart. Contacts in “popular” and phenomenon could also increasingly be read “serious” music, therefore, fostered processes as a commonly shared European convention. of emotional understanding that helped to This conflict of cultural transfers was not at stabilize politics. all limited to classical music, the impact of A fruitful result of the cooperation between a certain musical genre, or the rise of new this research group and the Leibnizpreis- audiences. Forschungsstelle “Global Processes” in The trend toward cultural convergence Konstanz was the international conference triggered demarcation. It is, therefore, quite Ambiguities of Communication. Musical Life misleading to write about the history of re­ and the Emergence and Fragmentation of lations between societies and cultures along Social Relations in the Twentieth Century, con- the allegedly separate axes of transfer, on ceptualized by Jürgen Osterhammel and Sven the one hand, and antagonism, on the other. Oliver Müller in January 2013. The project The point is, however, to realize that cultural brought together leading scholars in cul- convergence and divergence did not consti- tural history and musicology, including Celia tute antithetical poles of modern European Applegate, Hans-Joachim Hinrichsen, Detlef history. Conflicts and concurrence in musical Siegfried, and William Weber. The assumption culture can also be regarded as specific pat- was that the practices of musical perfor- terns of communication. An important task mances structured public communication and, remains, therefore, to investigate the relation in this way, frequently created new relations of exchange and demarcation, of processes in societies. Musical places and topics that are of Europeanization and Nationalization in so important that they allow for a historical musical life. generalization were investigated, where the focus lies on comparable cultural performanc- Conferences, Colloquia, and Cooperation es at different cultural places. The topics of the group’s conferences demon- Yael Sela-Teichler initiated a project pertain- strate how their research is a result of a fruit- ing to the music and poetics of memory in ful scientific exchange with many colleagues German Jewish experience in modernity. inside and outside the Institute. The weekly This project examines questions about the research group meeting, also giving presenta- mechanisms where music’s emotional im- tions and holding debates with distinguished ports have served to delineate, negotiate, or

MPRG Felt Communities | 295 undermine boundaries of identity, participa- embodied experience intersects with sound tion, and distinction. The first result of this and the urban landscape. Ingrid Monson was project was the international symposium the symposium’s keynote speaker. Although Music, Memory, and Emotions in the German this conference placed a special emphasis on Jewish Experience of Modernity that was co- Berlin’s local music scenes, scholarly presen- organized with Philip V. Bohlman (University tations ranged as widely as devotional music of Chicago) in Berlin-Wannsee in March 2013. in India, indigenous music in Canadian public The symposium—a cooperation between this schools, and European jazz festivals. Using research group and the American Academy in “music,” “affect,” and “the city” as keywords, Berlin; The Center for Jewish Studies at the this conference created and captured reso- University of Chicago; Universität Hildesheim; nances between a diverse, international array and the Hochschule für Musik, Theater und of scholars and music-industry professionals. Medien, Hanover—brought together leading In addition to scholarly presentations, this scholars in cultural history, musicology, and event featured roundtable discussions with Jewish thought, including Paul Mendes-Flohr, professionals from Berlin’s local music scenes. Leora Auslander, Michael P. Steinberg, and The research group became a member of Ruth HaCohen. The speakers addressed the the roundtable Music Research and Educa- role of music as a practice and as a literary tion in Berlin and participated in initiat- figure in the construction and deconstruction ing a new project together with the Berlin of memory and Jewish subjectivities, forms of Music Council: Jugend forscht Musik. This musical commemoration, and the experience invites pupils and teachers to cooperate with of exile in the 20th and 21st centuries. research institutions in the field of music. In 2013, the research group, led by Sarah Professional researchers help the students Zalfen and Iris Törmer, developed the summer to conceptualize and conduct a one-school- school Emotions_Learning_Music. With a year-long research project on a music-relat- faculty of renowned international and inter- ed topic. The research group is the contact disciplinary scholars and practitioners (among partner for projects on music and emotions, them were Ian Cross, Eckart Altenmüller, youth culture, and politics. Additionally, the Adam Ockelford, and Dietmar Wiesner), the group also participates with the Jour fixe summer school provided a framework where Musikwissenschaft­ in order to increase the PhD students from the history of emotions, scientific cooperation between the many musicology and sociology, psychology and researchers and students working on music in neuroscience, as well as young musicians and different Berlin institutions. music educationists worked together on the Since this group was created, close research question of what is exactly learned “through contacts have been established in interna- music.” This question linked themes such as tional research partnerships. The Society the improved processing of information in for the Promotion of Science sponsored a the brain while being “supported” by music to transnational research project with vari- those of the acquisition of values and appre- ous Japanese universities. This project, led ciation via musical practices or to the tracing by Naoko Morita (Tokyo), aims to examine of historical emotional states by interpreting the impact of emotions in modern German music. Hereby, the summer school opened history. External collaborations often resulted new perspectives on the interrelation of in building contacts with important scholars, music, education, and emotions to the young such as the musicologists and psycholo- researchers. gists at the conference Music & Emotion in Luis-Manuel Garcia organized the truly ­Jyväskylä, ­Finland, in June 2013. The sympo- pluralistic and interdisciplinary conference sium In Search for Emotional Orders—Music Resonances: Music, Affect and the City, about and Emotions in History was presented to the feeling of urban life. This collaboration strengthen the historical dimension of the with Harvard’s Sawyer Seminar Hearing Mo- relation between music and emotions. By dernity explored the ways in which emotional, looking at practices and discourses closely

296 | MPRG Felt Communities related to emotions in different historical music played can give guidance. It should be situations of music production and reception queried if these judgments are intersubjec- in the 19th and 20th centuries, the research- tive and not purely personal reflections, even ers as well as the PhD students in this group if they are neither universal nor independent elaborated patterns of different emotional of a familiarity with the musical conven- orders in European music life. tions governing musical receptions. Thus, within the framework of social and cultural Changes and Similarities in History— conventions, it is a promising approach for New Perspectives analyzing common emotional evaluations The research focus lies on the historic devel- of music beyond the differences. It would be opment of emotions in musical life from the too easy to avoid any experiment in future 19th to the 20th centuries. Musical move- research from this observation. An attempt ment and the paradigm of space and times will be made to find the similarities of emo- are crucial for this research. We assume that tions in musical life and observe the common the emotional side of the production and feeling rules present during a dance festival, reception of music has changed over time as a jam session, or a visit to the opera house. much as the music and its practices of perfor- It is possible to concentrate on six or eight mance and perception. By analyzing emotions time slots in musical life in the 19th and as a mode of social communication in differ- 20th centuries. ent music productions, it is helpful to use one This research group has to contemplate the key term: change. Music is about changes: impact of a general perceptual history of It takes place in time. These feelings are not emotions in musical life. The first guiding only transitory per se; they are also transitory assumption comes from the fact that people in the historical sense and there are feelings need time to consume the flow of the music that have nowadays become largely foreign to itself. The search for common emotional us, but which held significance for audiences, styles in music could be made by analyzing for example, in the 1950s. We investigated the perception of harmonic tension, rhythm, the feeling rules of middle-class audiences in melodic process, tonality, and the awareness symphonic concerts in the 1840s and of fans of surplus aesthetic impulses. Discovering of Beat music in the 1960s to explain why and more about the duration of a sound that is how they changed their public behavior. But required for audiences to identify different the other important objective and a fruitful musical styles would be helpful. It might perspective for future research is not only to be interesting to compare the expressive observe the changes and the differences but properties of the performance building of, to investigate the similarities of the audi- and reinterpreting of, a great deal of previ- ences’ feeling rules and the parallels of the ous work that has been carried out within cultural practices. Although different people different conceptual frameworks. We are perceive the same event in different ways, it is happy to welcome two musicologists in our important to question if individual differences group, Marie Louise Herzfeld-Schild and are the specific manifestations of the same general principles of perception. The second key term is similarity. An at- tempt will be made to find the similarities of emotions and feeling rules in musical life. The point of this difficult task is to state the limits of a purely constructivist approach and accept the methodological deficits of focus- ing only at different receptions of emotions in musical life. The assumption that most of the artists and listeners recognize the Figure 1. Fans at a rock concert. possibility of a teleological movement of the © bluefeeling/pixelio.de

MPRG Felt Communities | 297 Lena van der Hoven (as of 03/2014), whose the expressive character of the performance ­experiences in 19th-century music give us a in order to maintain and sustain borders and surplus methodological impulse. to acquire chances within society. The second guiding assumption is to connect the infinite varieties of musical amenities In Search of Musical Politics—Emotions with the characteristic, maybe even unique, in the Reception of Richard Wagner in reception of music in the public sphere. There Modern Germany are similarities not only in structure and Up to the present, Richard Wagner is the only movement of the compositions but also in the German composer still provoking dispute in groups’ and individuals’ communication about Germany’s society. Wagner’s reception is a music. The findings on the impact of this history about his appropriation as a cultural communication process might help to detect mean of German politics. Wagner has been the similarities in the cultural practices and adapted in an interplay between affirma- common patterns of negotiation. The point is tive reenactments and controversial new to investigate how cultural transfers between creations. The Wagner myth could be easily time, places, and people can become social retold and adapted to cultural and political modes and frame conditions for societies. We changes within the alterations of German have to analyze the evolution of the settings society. The numerous publications about of emotions. ­Wagner usually focus on facets of his biogra- Our third guiding assumption is the sensibility phy or his compositions only, but rarely and of the peculiarities of music life in Western less differentiated on his impact on German Europe. In order to write a history of com- society beyond the period of National Social- mon emotional perceptions in musical life in ism. This project opened up new perspectives modern Europe, it is crucial to consider that on the aftermath and myth of Richard Wagner­ the peculiarities of Western music tradition as a part of German history in the “long” (division of musical labor, e. g., specialist 20th century (1883–2013). In the latest book performers, entrepreneurs, and listeners) are promising tools to compare classical and popular music performances, and the choir at wedding ceremonies with the fan chorus in a football stadium. This approach could be tackled empirically by interpreting the emotional reception of music as an integral part of human development. The hypothesis is that, because musical expressiveness depends on such patterns, people from different social contexts and cultural backgrounds might develop common emotional skills to identify

Figure 3. Jupp Wiertz Bayreuth Festival Poster.

Figure 2. Single records from the 1970s. Source. Das Dritte Reich und die Musik, ed. by the Stiftung Schloss Neuhardenberg in cooperation with © Rike/pixelio.de the Cité de la Musique, Berlin 2006, p. 58.

298 | MPRG Felt Communities Richard­ Wagner und die Deutschen the ideals of his admirers and enemies from Impe- rial Germany to the Federal Republic were analyzed. The following topics are especially relevant: the political meaning of Wagner’s music at state and national ceremonies, the representational function of the Bayreuth festival and the Wagner family, the social function of associations and monuments, the commercial function of recordings and fanmerchandise, the meaning of (new) media in textbooks, films and press. The cult of the genius is an indicator of the great importance of music as an emotional practice. Its success is caused by the availabil- ity of the genius as a projection of emotions. Figure 4. Satirical painting “The Boxes” from Thomas Rowlandson. Wagner’s reception happened within a public Source. Victoria and Albert Museum, London, Museum number: S. 4724–2009. space in which contested emotions could be communicated and emotional orders negoti- ated. Wagner’s style of interminable composi- significance of leading musical productions in Key References tions and his silent, dark, ordered conception Berlin, London, and Vienna. In a transnational Müller, S. O. (2013a). of the musical event controlled the emotional perspective, it compared the development Richard Wagner als experiences and expressions of the audience, of common cultural practices and forms of politisches und emo- tionales Problem. Aus which were gradually inscribed into the minds public representation in three major European Politik und Zeitgeschichte and bodies of the bourgeois habitus. capitals of music. The point was to reveal the 63 (21–23), 16–22. One important result was to demonstrate how primarily social and political function of those Müller, S. O. (2012c). the interpretations of his musical works and forms of entertainment by analyzing the Die Politik des Schwei- philosophical concepts changed more than behavior of audiences, rather than by looking gens: Veränderung im Publikumsverhalten in the public presence of Richard ­Wagner in at the music itself. What do the conditions of der Mitte des 19. Jahr- the period between 1883 and 2013, with its participation, for example, dress codes, tell hunderts. Geschichte und huge political, social, cultural, and economi- us about the values of the audience? How did Gesellschaft, 38, 48–85. cal upheavals. The history of Wagner was a more or less inattentive audience turn into Müller, S. O. (2010). a history of emotional controversies and “listeners” during the second quarter of the Analysing musical culture in nineteenth- nationalistic politics. Preparations are under 19th century? century Europe: Towards way for the presentation of this analysis to To answer the question why the behavior of a musical turn? European become a small part of the new exhibition of audiences changed dramatically and people Review of History 17, 833–857. the ­Wahnfried Villa in Bayreuth. disciplined their behavior in the course of the 19th century, one has to look at the The Power of Audiences—Musical Reception emotional habits of listeners. Educated Researcher in Berlin, London, and Vienna in the patrons in concert halls and opera houses Sven Oliver Müller 19th Century started to debate over what is allowed to Concerts of symphonic music and opera feel and what not. The task of educated performances were an integral part of the middle classes was to decide about appropri- leisure time of the European aristocracy and ate ways of expressing emotions in public. the bourgeoisie in 19th-century Europe. Un- One could observe a negotiation between like any other kind of high culture, the opera groups of people in favor of expressing their houses and the great concert halls are the emotions loudly and the educated middle ideal places to analyze the social practices classes and entrepreneurs condemning au- and cultural values of the European elite. This dible expressions of emotions. In fact, differ- research project concentrated on the social ent social groups started to learn habitual- influence, cultural practice, and political ized forms of behavior; they formed around

MPRG Felt Communities | 299 current emotions, around certain preferences try to model feelings during a rehearsal to and distastes. produce, for example, an “ugly” sound in a The emergence of a transnational style of certain passage in which he believed it suited cultural practices and feeling rules can be the expressive meaning of the music. We observed in 19th-century Europe. In Berlin, hope to find out how emotionally charged art London, and Vienna, the productions of opera pieces acquire meaning among musicians, houses, the repertoires of concert halls, and entrepreneurs, and audiences. We finished the first of all the audience behavior became first interviews with Nikolaus Harnoncourt increasingly similar. Despite severe politi- and Christian Thielemann, several others will cal conflicts within and between each of the follow soon. It is our goal to use some of these countries above, it is crucial to state that a interviews as source material for our publica- German bourgeois and an English aristocrat tions and try to reach a broader audience in at the beginning of the 20th century behaved public discussions. similarly during a concert and cultivated similar aesthetic preferences. The transfer of Musical Education in the British Empire— cultural practices and social habits demon- Feeling Rules for the Colonies Around 1900 strates the emergence of a common European The triumphal procession of European music culture of music. and Western aesthetic ideals since the late 19th century coincided with a growing The Infinite Varieties of Feelings— interests of politicians, entrepreneurs, and the Conductors as Producers of Musical middle classes in foreign cultures. The elites in Meaning Britain were eager to detect the cultural and Conductors have to advise the members of habitualized differences between the civilized an orchestra by testing the technical abili- rulers and the noble savages in the colonies. ties of the musicians, on the one hand, and This very recent project shall investigate how by demonstrating the cultural meaning of political and social elites intended to change a composition for a wider public, on the the “premodern” musical culture in the colo- other. Therefore, conductors are interested in nies by establishing a “proper” Western rep- emotions as a cultural practice. We are now ertoire and “good” emotions among the local starting a new project with a focus on the listeners. How certain emotional habits served conveyance of music via emotions incorpo- as cultural strategies of communication, rated in the work of conductors. The aim is integration, and domination will have to be to find out how conductors are familiar with examined/explored. The mission of civilizing employing feelings in order to share their the colonies was by no means in direct rela- visions with the musicians through emotional tion to political power. But it could develop as imagery, gestures and anecdotes. We believe an uneven political exchange with the impe- that conductors especially make emotions rial establishment and the British canons, visible and tangible through music. But what habits, and tastes. The proverbial “burden” of exactly are emotions from the perspective of the white man was indeed a venture which a conductor, and where do they become vital? featured its own soundscape. It is important We are asking, for instance, how conductors to discover the aesthetic ideals and cultural translate music into emotional language dur- practices of white, educated men that went ing practices. It is interesting to discover the into the making of a colonialist society. metaphors, gestures and jokes, through which What was the impact of the protocols of the they manage to captivate not only the musi- colonial offices, articles in musical magazines, cians but also their audience. missionary’s initiatives, and instructions for Our aim is to compare highly controlled military bands? It will be interesting not only forms of behaviors with highly expressive to analyze the rare performances of classical facial gestures and body movements. It will music, but even more the concert reports of be interesting for the impact of emotions military bands and the songs during church in musical life to analyze how conductors service. The goal is to discover how the com-

300 | MPRG Felt Communities munication about appropriate emotional and presentational music, music becomes Key Reference tastes and habits in musical life within the something active and interactive, embedded Brunner, G., & Zalfen, S. British elite became the blueprints of an in social norms and processes. The analy- (Eds.). (2011). Werk- educational program intended to civilize sis parameters shift from aesthetic quality, treue: Was ist Werk, was Treue? (Die Gesellschaft “­ignorant” native people in the colonies. The interpretation, and artist–audience relation to der Oper No. 8). Wien: talk about “good” emotions in musical life bodily practices, performativity, and ritualized Böhlau. and the invention of new repertoires and communication. On the empirical level, music tastes were a superficially humanistic, but is no longer only the orchestral work played nonetheless imperial strategy. The focus lies for the ceremonial opening of a party confer- on the concepts and values of the rulers, ence and singer–songwriter’s performance in artists, and the consumers in London, and on the intermission. It is also the joint singing of the ways they perceived the reception of the the national anthem or a party hymn, the fan- population in the colonies. The “emotional fare and rataplan announcing the appearance imperialism” around 1900 was probably less of a party leader, or hurrah shouting and the brutal, but more coercive than former cultural rhythmic clapping celebrating a great speech strategies. One might ask if an embourgeoise- or a newly elected person. ment of imperialism, if the domestication of Emotions have been frequently seen as the exotic stood forth as a model, not only for individual and strictly internal, whereas new the people in a certain colony, but for Great research encourages focusing more on the Britain itself. collective factors of emotions. Therefore, in this approach, music is not seen as a language Tuning Polities? The Formation of of emotions, but as a social and emotional Researcher Emotional Communities on Party practice. While in the first model—rooting Sarah Zalfen Conferences in 20th-Century Germany in romantic aesthetics (Brunner & Zalfen, While visual and spatial strategies of political 2011)—music is thought of as an expression representation and display were well scruti- of somehow preexisting inner emotions, the nized in recent year’s research, their sounds latter understands music as a mode of “doing remain rather inexplicit. This research project emotions” by addressing specific emotions focuses on the importance of music for the and, at the same time, mobilizing, modulat- consolidation of political communities, show- ing, regulating, and communicating them. ing how these processes are associated with Through the practical engagement with each emotions. It examines party conferences and other through music, shared emotions that their role in music throughout the 20th cen- mark the belonging of the subject to a com- tury and throughout all parts of the political munity can develop into collective emotions spectrum. The study questions, how joint that are created by a group or crowd. This music production and reception are becom- does, however, not mean that everybody is ing features of emotional communities in the feeling exactly the same. Comparisons with political sphere. This hereby sheds new light psychological research findings in similar on the processes of political will-formation, contexts suggest that it is one explicit quality opinion building, and decision making. The of music that it could provide a framework for long investigation period opens the topic to communicative interaction, giving partici- the perspective of a history of emotions, as it pants the sense that their experiences are in reveals the variability of the relation of music alignment—although the individual interpre- and emotion in different historic contexts tation of meaning may diverge widely. (Zalfen, 2013; Zalfen & Müller, 2012). Singing together plays a particular role in this Music in this political context demands a process. The active involvement of the body, different approach than focusing on the the mutual synchronization within a group, autonomous artistic domain divided in piece, and the wide range of meaning accumulated performance, perception, and their politi- in mostly traditional hymns and songs is a cal or emotional “impact.” Applying Turinos widely used means of emotional community differentiation between participatory music building in many political groups and parties.

MPRG Felt Communities | 301 Key References At the same time, singing allows for the pro- like sport or military parades, but something Zalfen, S. (in press-b). duction and representation of community—it to participate and to be physically and emo- Wann sie singen Seit‘ performs belonging and community (Zalfen, tionally involved in, making the Nuremberg an Seit‘: Musik als in press-b). Close collaboration with Juliane Rally an exciting emotional experience for the gemeinschaftsbildende Praxis auf Parteitagen Brauer from the Center fo the History of Emo- majority of participants. The case makes also der SPD. In S. O. Müller, tions helped to build up a broad knowledge on clear that music does not somehow induce J. Osterhammel, & M. repertoires, practices, and political contexts of emotions into people who are exposed to it, Rempe (Eds.), Kommu- nikation im Konzertsaal. collective singing in Germany. but emotional practices were related to the Göttingen: V&R. For example, the National Socialism regime trained knowledge of the participants’ minds Zalfen. S., & Müller,­ was rife with music at almost every level. It and bodies. S. O. (2012b). Eine was an integral part of propaganda, named Further case studies in the monograph that Fortsetzung des Krieges by Goebbels as “the science of the human will result, among other publications from mit musikalischen Mitteln? Hegemoniale soul.” Thus, it is not surprising that the NSDAP this project, include exemplary party confer- Funktionen von Musik im party conventions, developing into the six ences from all historical periods and political Europa der Weltkriege. In propaganda shows of the Nuremberg Rallies systems in 20th-century Germany. S. Zalfen & S. O. Müller (Eds.), Besatzungsmacht between 1933 and 1938, followed a clear mu- The research so far has built up a broad over- Musik: Zur Musik- und sical script. In a similar pattern, the six events view and database of music on party conven- Emotionsgeschichte im presented a dramaturgy, where specific pieces tions throughout the 20th century. Minutes, Zeitalter der Weltkriege (1914–1949) (Historie of music were related not only to certain programs, pictures, recordings, and official or No. 30) (pp. 9–30). procedures (Hitler appearing always with the press reports were scrutinzed to obtain infor- Bielefeld:­ transcript. Badenweiler March, the Song of the Banner mation on the kind of music performed and introducing the public ceremony, the Horst musical repertoires created in certain times Wessel Song as finale) and bodily practices and by diverse political camps to learn about (marching, dancing, singing, saluting, etc.) but the performative styles, including the type of also to emotions. Grief over dead comrades, participants and their individual or collective pride about the victory of “the national move- bodily activity, and to identify how this music ment,” and almost randomly repeated expres- is dealt with in speeches, writings, pictures, sions of joy were among the feelings that and videos. Finally, these sources reveal why were addressed, motivated, and modulated by certain music was performed and on whose specific musical performances. Through the direction at a party conference. music, the rally was not only a show to watch, Among the preliminary results of the study, some confirm other perspectives on aesthetic and affective processes in polities and politics: Democratic parties use less music than auto- cratic parties, although left-wing parties have more diverse repertoires than moderate and right-wing parties. Some emotions addressed or performed through music do change over time, others do not: While dignity and national pride seem to lose their importance, fun and spontaneity but also nostalgia enters the emotional repertoire. Feelings, appropriate to collectively perform in a musical context at a party gathering, were neither the same in 1900 as in 1940 and again different in 1980, nor was their musical form of performance or expression. Yet, community-related feelings, Figure 5. Matthias Platzeck, chairman of Germany’s Social Democrats, center, sings such as solidarity and sociability, reigned su- together with a coal miners’ chorus at the end of the last day of the 3-day party preme in the past as it does today. It becomes congress of Germany’s Social Democrats in Karlsruhe, Germany, 16 November 2005. obvious that music is not “a mere disguise of © AP Photo/Herbert Knosowski reality,” but rather a means to shape and cre-

302 | MPRG Felt Communities ate realities; musical performances of political 1760s, was without precedence in the history communities can hereby create a wide range of central European Jewry and all the more of feelings of belonging and togetherness. extraordinary in light of the deep-rooted But the field of music shows also distinct dif- “music libel” against the Jews—a medieval ferences: Characteristics and rules of modern Christian notion that rendered Judaism and political theatricality, like personalization and the Jews unmusical and thus immoral—that privatization, vicissitude, and the dependency continued to color attitudes to Jews well into on media attention, have been—unlike in the modern period. Excluded from musical the iconic and spatial strategies of politics— professions, on the one hand, and restricted strongly declining in recent years. by traditional rabbinic decrees, on the other, In further research, the collected archive will Jews’ access to musical knowledge, practices, be surveyed to identify specific emotional and spaces essentially demarcated as Christian styles and regimes in particular historical and was anything but straightforward. party contexts as well as critically revise the The project focuses on Berlin, where in the findings in order not only to fully comprehend decades leading up to 1800 music was grad- processes of emotional community building ually becoming an integral part of every­ but also their constraints and failings. day life of a newly emergent Jewish upper class, a social group that had embraced the Minerva Fellowship values of the Aufklärung and the ethics of Researcher Soundscapes of Emancipation: Musical Bildung conspicuously represented by ­Moses Yael Sela-Teichler Negotiations of German Jewish Modernity Mendelssohn. The project seeks to show 1760–1829 how in the specific ideational, religious, and The Minerva Fel- The role of music as cultural and discursive sociocultural formations that marked the lowship Program practice in the formation of Jewish modernity late German Aufklärung and Jewish Enlight- enables German during the decades around 1800 has largely enment (Haskalah), music could become an and Israeli scien- remained unexplored. Scholars of music his- increasingly porous “border zone” that ulti- tists and research- tory have tended to focus on 19th-century mately permitted Jews to enter the ­European ers to spend climactic instances in the lives and works arena as participants in the negotiation long-term research of acknowledged Jewish musicians, such as and coconstitution of the soundscapes of residencies at Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy or Giaccomo­ institutions in the Meyerbeer. The 1829 performance of Johann host country. ­Sebastian Bach’s St. Matthew Passion at Berlin’s Sing-Akademie, a formative event in the rise of German nationalism that was initi- ated and conducted by the Jewish-born Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, has traditionally been treated as a historiographical watershed mark- ing the admission of Jewish musicians into the public sphere of German music. Yet, the key role that Jews (and Jews by birth) played in the 1829 performance as patrons of the Sing- Akademie, as amateur musicians, or as com- mentators—parallel to the appearance of music for the synagogue in the German lands—raises questions about how music had become a mode of cultural participation and negotiation of modern German Jewish self-consciousness in the latter third of the 18th century. The emergence of music as cultural practice and as discourse among Jews in the German Figure 6. Rahel Varnhagen von Ense and Markus Levin. lands, particularly in Prussia, as early as the Source. bpk/Staatsbibliothek in Berlin.

MPRG Felt Communities | 303 modernity. The fervor of the enlightened tional memberships, and patronage. Drawing Jewish bourgeoisie and upper class for on literary and philosophical texts as well as everything aesthetic must be considered letters and personal texts on aesthetics, eth- within a broader context: Jews’ ethical, ics, emotions, and music by Jews, both men educational, and cultural improvement was and women (in German, Jüdisch-Deutsch, tightly linked with the public debate about and Hebrew), including the letters of Rahel Jewish civic emancipation in Prussia at least Levin-Varnhagen and Dorothea Schlegel, the since Christian Wilhelm von Dohm’s 1781 formulation of participatory and inclusive seminal essay Über die bürgerliche Verbesse- aesthetic regimes is analyzed. The first results rung der Juden, which provided a heuristic of this project, which have appeared in peer- basis for the Jewish question well into the reviewed articles and will be expanded in a 19th century. The project explicates the monograph (in preparation), bring to light a intertwinements of musical practices and little-known cantata from 1786 in memory of aesthetic discourses with the debate about Moses Mendelssohn, a singular and fascinat- Jewish civic improvement and the politics of ing piece that encapsulates, as is shown, Jewish emancipation in the decades around the aesthetic, cultural, and political dilem- 1800. By engaging with 18th- and early mas that ultimately shaped modern Jewish 19th-century theories of music, aesthetics, experience, constituting a rare moment of and ethics by Christian and Jewish writers ­Christian-Jewish intertwinement at the out- alike, men as well as women, the central set of German modernity. role ascribed to emotions in these mutually Researcher embedded areas of thought is underscored “Can You Feel It, Too?”: Music, Affect, and in order to highlight the ways in which new Intimacy in Contemporary Urban Electronic Luis-Manuel Garcia concepts of the sentiments (Empfindungen) Dance Music Scenes opened up hitherto unknown possibilities In 1988, as Chicago’s postdisco “house music” for Jewish participation in European culture, was just beginning to reach European audi- especially through music. ences, Larry Heard released a track under the Methodologically, the project draws on moniker Fingers Inc. entitled Can You Feel It? historical snapshots of musical encounters in (Jack Trax JTX-20, vinyl EP). This track features public and private settings, civic and reli- a vocal performance by Robert Owens, using gious institutions, and through aesthetic and the declamatory style of an African-American critical discourses. My notion of encounters preacher to describe house music and its is based on a concept of music both as a corresponding dance floors as a utopia of dividing boundary that demarcates difference universal belonging, mediated through the and distinction and as a permeable border corporeal, affective experience of the music region in which identities and difference can itself. Interspersed with this speech is a be negotiated, challenged, and redefined. This sample of a concert performance of the soul notion is particularly relevant to the ontology group The Jacksons, where someone yells Can of music in mid-18th-century Germany and you feel it? and the crowd answers in roaring, the rise of new aesthetic theories that ren- euphoric cheering. Repeatedly and through dered music more inclusive than ever before. multiple channels, this house-music anthem Through thick description of such musical staged a utopian fantasy of affective belong- encounter—from musical works to public con- ing for an emergent, international audience of certs to discussions in private letters and pub- listener–dancers in the late 1980s. lished essays—I explore how music operated On the dance floors of nightclubs, loft par- as a mode of participation and negotiation ties, and raves, partygoers engage in forms of Jewish subjectivities and Christian-Jewish of stranger intimacy that short-circuit relations in interreligious and cross-regional conventional narratives of intimacy and networks. The primary sources include records transgress normal, “daylight” decorum. This of the textual and material dissemination of stranger intimacy taps into the sort of bond music in Jewish circles, performances, institu- that theorists from Georg Simmel to Gemma

304 | MPRG Felt Communities Seltzer imagine binding mass society; but these worlds to feel imminently possible and Key References the face-to-face and erotic aspects of this provides cover for their underlying contradic- Garcia, L.-M. (2013a). dance floor encounter alter the strangeness tions. By focusing on contemporary dance Crowd solidarity on the of strangerhood, too, finding new meaning in events, this project also brings spatiality and dancefloor in Paris and Berlin. In C. Wrgin & Simmel’s play of distance and proximity. But corporeal copresence to the fore, reconcep- F. Holt (Eds.), Musical how does such intense stranger intimacy arise tualizing stranger intimacy through relays performance and the and endure? In what registers is it felt and between space, affect, and music. It engages changing city: Postindus- trial contexts in Europe articulated? with current research in urban studies and and the United States The project addresses these questions through critical geography that theorize the connec- (pp. 227–255). London: an intertwining of: ethnographic research in tions between stranger sociability, affect, and Routledge. the electronic dance music scenes of Paris, built environment. Garcia, L.-M. (Guest Chicago, and Berlin; the analysis of these Although writing about electronic dance mu- Ed.) (2013b). Doing nightlife and EDMC scenes’ musical aesthetics; and an engage- sic has been growing steadily for the past de- fieldwork [Special Issue]. ment with current scholarship on themes of cade, most scholarly monographs have been Dancecult: Journal of affect, touch, and intimacy. This multisited dedicated to writing the history of its scenes Electronic Dance Music Culture, 5 (1). project is based on ethnographic fieldwork and genres, profiling prominent artists, and conducted across three cities and between analyzing musical practice. Some ethnomusi- the years of 2006 and 2010. cological and anthropological literature—par- The project aims to impact the fields of music ticularly on ritual—has traced the connection and dance studies, anthropology, popular between group musical activity and collective culture/cultural studies, sexuality studies, belonging, but this has largely been studied and critical geography—particularly those in the context of ethnic, national, or kin- subfields that take interest in music scenes ship communities. Recent theoretical work and live events. Publication goals include on nonidentitarian forms of belonging have a monograph (provisional title: Together, primarily been elaborated out of archives of Somehow: Music, Affect, and Intimacy on the cultural texts and political movements. This Dancefloor) as well as two articles drawing project, by contrast, builds upon ethnographic from the monograph’s materials. fieldwork to study the emergence of stranger Most partygoers seem to want fluid and intimacy and musical-affective collectivity capacious forms of belonging that are loosely outside of solid identity forms. Furthermore, it held together by musical affinities and by does so by focusing on the experiences of “or- the dance floor’s affective intensities, but dinary” partygoers and highlighting themes they must contend with the contradictions rarely explored in electronic dance music inherent in embedding such imagined worlds in one that is already striated with exclusions. They want distinction without discrimina- tion—belonging beyond the categorical exclusions of identity—and they sustain the fragile sense of such a utopian world through a sort of socially operative vagueness, routed through aesthetics and affect rather than identity. But these fluid practices of vague belonging are not entirely buoyant: Beneath these utopian fantasies of open belonging, the testimony of participants as well as field- work observations reveal fissures, inequities, and exclusions that often go unexamined. This project is dedicated to exploring how such scenes can support transient but real world- making projects by striking an ambivalent Figure 7. Audience at a music event. bargain with vagueness, which both enables © Luis-Manuel Garcia

MPRG Felt Communities | 305 studies: intimacy, touch, and affect. In the “techno tourism” in Berlin as both a cultural process, it develops new concepts and models and commercial phenomenon as well as its to describe how these themes intertwine on entanglement with various forms of spatial the dance floor. and social mobility. The first year of field- This project aims to produce and publish work has already revealed that many “techno research that traces the links between musical tourists” also make the decision to move to aesthetics and social forms, that seriously Berlin for longer stays, thus expanding this takes the political stakes of “fun,” and that is project’s scope to consider not only tourism alive to the affective dimensions of con- but also migration, which in turn raises issues temporary music, dance, and nightlife. With concerning the economic and working condi- regard to social and cultural theory, it offers a tions of “creative class” industries as well as range of new concepts while contributing to the impact of gentrification on urban music current ethnographic research. For example, scenes. Of particular relevance to this re- the primary focus here is on nonconventional, search group’s theme is the role that feelings primarily tactile forms of stranger intimacy; and emotions play in grounding both tourists’ touch remains under researched in music and migrants’ sense of belonging to their ad- studies (as well as in most other disciplines), opted city; in particular, music plays a central and there is even less research that focuses role in creating affective points of connec- on tactility between strangers. This proj- tion between those invested in these musical ect’s findings on the importance of vaguely genres, which helps them sustain a sense of defined, fluid relationships offer a substantial musical community as well as of belonging to contribution to this scholarship. Results from a local, spatially grounded music scene. this research show that the complexities and Researcher contradictions of modern collective belonging Emotion and Music Reception as Indicators are both lubricated and mystified by an appeal of Change Within Societies: Germany and Tim Biermann to feelings and emotions: For these actors, the Great Britain From 1950–1970 feeling of shared musical experience comes to The 1950s and 1960s brought significant stand in for collectivity—especially when such change to the popular musical landscape. belonging is incoherent or fragile. Furthermore, This project examines the emotional phenom- these utopian fantasies of belonging are often ena in musical communities that coincided indexed affectively both in the aesthetics of with these changes. Outbursts of violence at the music itself as well as in the experience of Rock ‘n’ Roll concerts, the liberating bodily collective dancing. This project is thus one of movements of twist in the early 1960s, the the few that closely traces the connections be- screaming fans at Beatles concerts, and the tween musical aesthetics, affective experience, rise of club culture: when Rock ‘n’ Roll and and the sense of sociability between strangers. Beat music surged into the realm of public Also, the eyewitness accounts of inclusion and attention, they were much more than simply exclusion collected from scene participants new forms of entertainment. Bands and art- provide a detailed and textured model of how a ists like Bill Haley, Elvis Presley, The Beatles, nominally open affinity group (such as Maffe- or the Rolling Stones helped to reshape soli’s “neo-tribe” or Hitzler and Niederbacher’s the musical world. New technologies made “post-traditional community”) actually creates music more accessible, and the emergence obstacles to membership while presenting a of media like music magazines, radio, and TV self-image of diversity and inclusion. distributed knowledge regarding latest trends This project intertwines with a second, amongst readers, listeners, and viewers of a newer research project that is currently in growing mass market. These factors helped to the data-collection/fieldwork stage. This establish a new youth culture that questioned postdoctoral research project, entitled The the paradigms of social order associated with Techno Jetset: Mobility, Tourism, and the Cre- their parent generation. Surprisingly, the ative Class in Berlin’s Electronic Dance Music findings also reveal that seemingly conserva- Scenes, examines the recent emergence of tive music genres like the German Schlager

306 | MPRG Felt Communities were incorporated in this culture. According- ly, new ways of expressing and coping with emotions for both fans and bands alike were developed, creating new musical communi- ties in the process while established practices coexisted without resulting in contradictions in youth identity constructions. These new youth cultures became increasingly influ- ential; their emergence and development coincided with various forms of social change during these times—this is hardly coinciden- tal. The key assumption is that—despite the temporal and cultural duality of new and established emotional and musical practices in the realm of Beat and youth culture—the emergence of Beat- or Rock ‘n’ Roll-based Figure 8. Outside Buckingham Palace when the Beatles received their MBEs, communities with mixed sets of common and ­London, 26 October 1965. new practices pushed the boundaries of what © ullstein bild—Heritage Images/Keystone Archives could be nonetheless said, done, and felt, thus changing society in the process. These they became an important part of commu- practices shaped emotional styles that were nity building, enabling the creation of “felt an important part of these communities and communities.” Emotional styles manifest fostered new forms of identity construction. themselves in various forms in the sources The project aims at the identification of these examined for this project: They can be found emotional styles in musical communities in interviews, recordings, lyrics, and con- in Germany and Great Britain. But, sources certs, but also in newspapers, magazines, also show that the new musical styles were and TV shows about musical phenomena. The subject to change themselves. They were analysis of these sources does not only grant picked up by other artists and fans, chal- insight into the emotional practices of bands lenged by conservatives, and integrated into and listeners but also into how they were the musical mainstream, thus influencing developed and distributed. Emotional styles the very same social formations by which as analytic categories are particularly useful they were coined and influenced themselves. in the context of this project because they These communities enacted emotions like joy, help to acquire a new perspective upon the passion, and “feeling alive,” but also anger youth cultures of the 1950s and 1960s, which in specific ways. This played a vital role in explains the social conflicts and changes of changing processes, and thus this project the period without disregarding or ignor- examines emotions as relevant indicators ing the coexistence of new and established of social change, showing how they were emotional and social practices in the same connected to the specific style of musical cultural space and timeframe. The juxtaposi- communities: Rock ‘n’ Roll made “the whole tion of German and English cultural phenom- mixed up world [seem] to be put right, alive ena and sources allows, on the one hand, for a and new” (New Musical Express, 1956) as one broader image of the 1950s’ and 1960s’ youth fan claimed. culture, outlining to which extent the English Regarding its analytical framework, this and the German varieties of youth culture project draws heavily on the methodological shared common features but, on the other concept of emotional styles that are influ- hand, also enable the project to highlight and enced by and allocated in cultural spaces. reveal national complexities and differences— Findings indicate that these emotional especially with regard to the German Schlager styles are used by fans and bands to express music for which the English music market their identity and social distinction. Thus, lacked a fitting counterpart.

MPRG Felt Communities | 307 Researcher “Lisztomania” in the Musical Life of 19th- by the subjectivity of the musical genius. In Century Europe: Emotions and Community the concert, the audience saw emotions em- Anabelle Spallek in the Reception of Liszt as a Genius bodied in Liszt’s performing style, heard and “Lisztomania”—the enthusiasm for the piano felt emotions listening to him playing, and virtuoso Franz Liszt (1811–1886) was charac- observed emotions expressed in the behavior terized in the 19th century. From 1838 until of the other listeners. Emotions are thus the 1847, Liszt went on his famous concert tours key for understanding the Liszt reception. throughout Europe. The former wunderkind This research has shown how the listener became a well-known star: The audiences became a feeling subject in a Liszt concert. adored him as a genius and the press reported This is analyzed in three levels, informed by excessively about Liszt and the behavior of his a cultural-historical and praxeological ap- admirers. proach: emotional epistemologies, emotional The interest in this project is the connection spaces, emotional practices. Written and between emotions, music, and subject forma- visual sources, such as concert reviews and tion in the historical context of prerevolution- caricatures, are used for the analysis. ary Europe before 1848. This period—called First, the emotional epistemologies are ana- the age of the virtuoso in music history—was lyzed in regard to how emotions, in relation to also a transitional phase for music culture. music and subjectivity, were conceptualized Musical life was transforming into a profes- and how ideas of emotions were negotiated in sionalized and differentiated musical market. the Liszt reception. Second, the Liszt concert Liszt invented the romantic piano virtuoso is analyzed as an emotional space showing and the piano recital in the 1830s and 1840s. how Liszt and the audience produced feelings According to the aesthetics of feeling, devel- in a concert. Third, the emotional practices oped in the age of sensibility and romanti- based on emotional epistemologies are exam- cism, music was understood as an authentic ined on how the listener experienced feelings expression of emotions, created and conveyed in a Liszt concert. Liszt wanted to move the audience emotion- ally. Therefore, he developed his own unique performing style. This analysis has revealed how Liszt produced a new emotional space by reinventing the virtuoso concert. Liszt trans- formed the relationship between the virtuoso and the audience in a concert and thereby transformed the emotional experience of the listener. He accomplished this effect with different means. Liszt made use of the de- velopments in piano construction to produce new sound effects. In order to concentrate the audience’s whole attention entirely on himself, he was the first musician to give solo concerts and positioned the piano in a new way so that the audience could see his face when he played. Liszt called this new type of concert recital. In the concert, the listener had to appropriate Liszt’s new emotional space concept. The impact on the audience while Liszt was playing was described with powerful metaphors in concert reviews and letters. Especially Liszt’s body language and Figure 9. Liszt in the concert hall, 1842. Drawing by Theodor Hosemann. facial expression impressed the spectators. Source. Klassik Stiftung Weimar. In the concert, the audience expressed their

308 | MPRG Felt Communities feelings with applause and bravos. Some even Angry Communities—Emotions and Researcher collected objects that Liszt had touched to Community Building in Recent Music Henning Wellmann keep as devotional items. Liszt’s performing Culture From Punk to Grunge style and his admirers’ behavior were ridiculed With the emergence of punk music and punk in caricatures. culture in the mid-1970s, a new phenomenon Key References These findings show how the listener experi- can be observed in modern popular music Wellmann, H. (in enced the concert as a hierarchical emotional culture: publicly displayed and intensely acted press-a). “Let fury have community. In this community, Liszt was out anger. Indeed, already in the 1960s, some the hour, anger can be power”: Praktiken emo- imagined at the top, controlling the feel- rock group performances exhibited a rather tionalen Erlebens in den ings of the audience. Some imagined Liszt as angry habitus, but with the advent of punk frühen deutschen Punk- a musical high priest leading the audience music a qualitative and quantitative turn took szenen. In B. Mrozek, A. Geisthövel, & J. Danyel through a catharsis, and some imagined him place in the performative expression and the (Eds.), Popgeschichte: as a military leader subduing the piano and musical (re-)presentation of emotions, such Vol. 2. Zeithistorische the audience. Although music critics ac- as anger, rage, or wrath. Fallstudien 1958–1988. Bielefeld: transcript. knowledged Liszt’s playing technique, some From that point on, a whole variety of music criticized his habitus as well as the behavior styles evolved that established an aesthetic Wellmann, H. (in ­press-b). Pop und Emo- of his admirers according to middle-class eth- field centrally organized around the per- tionsgeschichte. In A. ics of gender and nation. formance and the extroverted acting out of Geisthövel, & B. Mrozek Music was an important medium for dismissive, accusatory, or rebellious emotions. (Eds.), Popgeschichte: Vol. 1. Konzepte und emotional socialization: that is becoming Following this, a variety of new communities Methoden. Bielefeld: a feeling subject in the 19th century when came into existence, forming new music- transcript. music became “the language of feeling.” By centered scenes, subcultures, and movements, analyzing and contextualizing the emo- for example, punk, hardcore punk, grunge, and tional epistemologies, emotional spaces, and parts of the heavy metal scenes. The main task emotional practices in the Liszt reception, of this dissertation project is to examine these this approach reveals new insights into the processes of community building, the decisive modern Western history of subjectivity and characteristics of the different scenes, and social groups by focusing on the interface the role that emotions, especially anger, and between the history of the self and cultural music played for their establishment and con- and social history. sistency. Geographically, the main focus is on

Figure 10. Sid Vicious at a concert of the Sex Pistols Figure 11. Henry Rollins at a concert of Black Flag in in 1978. 1981. © Bob Gruen © Glen E. Friedman

MPRG Felt Communities | 309 Germany and the United Kingdom, allowing a society as well as at the self. A more or less comparative approach. self-destructive or auto-aggressive attitude Methodically, the project concentrates on toward the own body, as shown by the cuts identifying and analyzing discourses and and blood in Figure 10, was fairly widespread. social practices circulating among the afore- In contrast, the hardcore punk scenes, as ex- mentioned scenes that suggest, promote, or emplified here in Figure 11, tended to dissolve object to, and thereby shape, certain kinds this tensed relation between the inward and of self-relations and relations to others. The outward directedness of their anger and rage central assumption here is that the scenes in favor of directing it more and more to the develop specific models of subjectivity that outside. This change coincides with the stag- include the promotion of certain understand- ing of the body as a strong, muscular, ready- ings and ways of interpreting and thereby to-fight instrument to be placed as a symbol shape subjective emotions, modes of their of the readiness to struggle for a cause. expression and their experience, as well as Considering the results of this research, varying forms of community building. including an inquiry of the manifold shifts be- The empirical basis for this project is primarily tween punk and hardcore punk, it is possible composed of three different kinds of sources: to interpret these photographs as displays of a (1) texts and materials produced by the com- change in the repertoire of emotional expres- munities/artists themselves (e. g., fanzines, sions and experiences between these two interviews, musical performances, lyrics, music styles. Whereas in the early punk movement or concert reviews), (2) materials produced anger could and should be directed at the to document or describe these communities/ self as well as at the outside world, hardcore artists (e. g., movies, documentaries, pictures, punk established a far more aggressive and concert broadcasts, interviews, popular outward-directed form of anger, considering secondary literature), (3) scientific publica- the whole life as a fight against wrong and tions concerning relevant issues, mainly works unjust circumstances. Further findings sug- on youth or subcultures. Focusing not only on gest that similar transformative and mutually written but also on acoustic and visual materi- influencing processes can also be observed in als, the combination of these sources provide a the interplay of the other scenes researched comprehensive insight into the different emo- here, although the impacts on emotional tional discourses and practices of the scenes. repertoires differ from case to case. As an exemplary illustration, there are two Researcher photographs above that show famous and Riots, Rock, and Moral Panics: Youth influential punk/hardcore punk musicians. and Pop Culture After 1945 From a Bodo Mrozek The first photograph, taken at a concert in Transnational Perspective 1978, shows Sid Vicious, the bassist of The After the World War II, new musical styles, Sex Pistols, one of the most important bands which were predominantly developed in the in the formation phase of the punk scene. The United States and Great Britain, became a glob- second photograph, taken at a concert around al phenomenon. Rooted in African-American 1982, shows Henry Rollins, singer of the band culture and especially jazz, rock and beat music Black Flag, a very influential band since the were adopted by young people worldwide. After first years of hardcore punk. a series of incidents at concerts that became What can be observed here is a change in the notorious as so-called Rock ’n’ Roll riots, an way the body is presented and treated as well intense debate began in which musical styles as in the facial expressions and the bodily became the target of conservative cultural gestures. pessimists from both the political right and left. In the early years of the punk movements, an At the center of these debates were not only image of the body prevailed in which it was sexually explicit song lyrics but emotional and staged as a rather fragile entity that could bodily practices as expressed in new dances, and should embody the rage, anger, and pro- hair and fashion styles, as well as on-stage mu- test directed at the mainstream culture and sical performances—all of which had judicial,

310 | MPRG Felt Communities political, and legislative consequences. Nev- ulus which was in clear conflict with accepted ertheless, an international youth-pop culture forms of established emotional practices in was gradually established which involved new concert halls. The unexpected success of dance media, new spaces, and new practices. music in concerts had already begun with Whilst pop culture is one of the more obvious jazz in the 1920s and continued through the fields of globalization, most of the schol- 1950s. Unable to cope with crowds that de- arly work focuses on national models of sired to dance and otherwise move around in explanation such as “Americanization” or concert halls, ushers as well as managers and the underlying political conflict of the Cold finally the police tried to maintain established War. These explanations do indeed apply to ideas of emotionally controlled crowd behavior German society, but this work focuses on the by using physical force. emergence of a specific German youth culture The emotional expressions during the Beatle- from a transnational perspective. Case studies mania were linked to accusations of mass were examined from Great Britain, France, hysteria that were rooted in older concepts the United States, and both East and West of gendered disease-mongering. The term Germany in the “uneven decade” from 1956 to Beatlemania itself had its origins in other 1966. Bringing together models from cultural manias (most prominently in the “Lisztomania” studies such as the analysis of “moral panics” of the early 19th century) but also referred to (Stanley Cohen) and historiographical source the phenomenon of female “hysteria.” Psy- analysis, this work also uses approaches that chologists, criminologists, and musicologists have been applied in the history of emotions. contributed to the scientific underpinning of Media reports, audio-visual sources, and a phenomenon that was originally coined by documents from the archives such as police mass media. As a consequence, ideas as to reports and records from cultural departments what were suitable emotional practices were and youth authorities were analyzed. During shaped and debated and had transnational tenure at the Institute, concentration was on effects. After disturbances at a Rolling Stones’ the interrelations between “emotional practic- concert in Berlin’s Waldbühne, the GDR placed es” and musical technics. Throughout history, restrictions on and even banned certain guitar performing and listening to music has always bands. By analyzing the underlying values and shaped these specific bodily practices in beliefs that were expressed in these discourses expressing and creating emotions (Figure 12). about the “correct way” of performing and Both emotions and the body are not static consuming music, changes in the ideas of and absolute terms, but products of social accepted emotional and bodily practices discourse, communication, and therefore his- emerge as historically specific in their various torical processes. They can be studied through political and cultural contexts. The work shows the analysis of conflicts that arose from the how “emotional performances” were slowly historical change in emotional practices such established and transnationally spread, also as those that were part of “Beatlemania.” shaping youth into an This catchphrase was coined in 1963 when internationally more new practices again became the target of a coherent group which “moral panic.” Five years after the so-called developed their own Rock ’n’ Roll riots that linked music and the practices in contrast juvenile delinquency of male youths, girls were to the traditional now at the center of the debates. Reports of emotional regimes young girls crying, screaming, and fainting of the older genera- dead away peppered the newspaper headlines tion. The work thereby in that year. Disturbing reports about wet seats integrates concepts after concerts led to a new debate regarding of the history of emo- the correlation between popular music, sexual tions into the history intensity, and public morality. Music like that of a transnational pop Figure 12. Fan mania. of The Beatles was seen as an emotional stim- culture. © ullstein bild—TopFoto

MPRG Felt Communities | 311 Publications 2011–2013 (last update: January 2014)

Berthold, T., & Wellmann, H. Erinnerung No. 52) (pp. 668–682). (Histoire No. 30) (pp. 103–128). tion, und jüdische Aufklärung (2012). Aktive Stadtgestaltung Göttingen: V&R unipress. Bielefeld: transcript. zwischen Berlin und Königsberg von unten: Ultras und Stadt. in den 1780er Jahren. In R. D. Forum Stadt, 39, 193–204. Mrozek, B., Geisthövel, A., Müller, S. O. (2012e). Prima­ Schmidt-Hensel & C. Schulte & Danyel, J. (Eds.). (in press). donnen und Prostituierte: Zur (Eds.), Mendelssohn-Studien: Brunner, G., & Zalfen, S. (Eds.). Popgeschichte: Vol. 2. Zeithisto- Disziplinierung emotional Beiträge zur neueren deutschen (2011). Werktreue: Was ist Werk, rische Fallstudien 1958–1988. motivierter Geschlechterver- Kulturgeschichte (Vol. 18, was Treue? (Die Gesellschaft der Bielefeld: transcript. hältnisse im Musikleben des pp. 105–139). Hannover: Oper No. 8). Wien: Böhlau. 19. Jahrhunderts. In U. Frevert Wehrhahn. Müller, S. O. (in press). Das Pub- & C. Wulf (Eds.), Die Bildung der Garcia, L.-M. (in press). likum macht die Musik: Musik­ Gefühle (Zeitschrift für Erzie- Sela-Teichler, Y. (2012). "My Whose refuge, this house? The leben in Berlin, London und Wien hungswissenschaft: Sonderheft ladye nevells booke": Music, estrangement of queers of color im 19. Jahrhundert. Göttingen: No. 16) (pp. 143–164). Wies- patronage and cultural negotia- in electronic dance music. In Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. baden: Springer VS. doi:10.1007/ tion in late sixteenth-century F. Maus & S. Whiteley (Eds.), The s11618-012-0298-4 England. Renaissance Studies, Oxford handbook of ­queerness Müller, S. O. (2013a). Richard 26, 79–102. doi:10.1111/ and music. Oxford: Oxford Wagner als politisches und Müller, S. O. (2011a). Cultural j.1477-4658.2011.00791.x University Press. emotionales Problem. Aus Politik nationalism and beyond: Musi- und Zeitgeschichte, 63 (21–23), cal performances in ­imperial Torp, C., & Müller, S. O. (2011). Garcia, L.-M. (2013a). Crowd 16–22. Germany. In S. O. Müller & Introduction. In S. O. Müller & solidarity on the dancefloor in C. Torp (Eds.), Imperial Germany C. Torp (Eds.), Imperial Germany Paris and Berlin. In C. Wrgin & Müller, S. O. (2013b). Richard revisited: Continuing debates revisited: Continuing debates F. Holt (Eds.), Musical perfor- Wagner und die Deutschen: and new perspectives (pp. 173– and new perspectives (pp. 1–17). mance and the changing city: Eine Geschichte von Hass und 185). New York: Berghahn. New York: Berghahn. Postindustrial contexts in Europe Hingabe. München: Beck. and the United States (pp. 227– Müller, S. O. (2011b). Richard Wellmann, H. (in press-a). 255). London: Routledge. Müller, S. O. (2012a). Wagner und die Entdeckung “Let the fury have the hour, "Geschmacklos?": Politische des Schweigens in Bayern und anger can be power”: Praktiken Garcia, L.-M. (Guest Ed.) Deutungskämpfe im Londoner in Europa. In P. Wolf, M. Hamm, emotionalen Erlebens in den (2013b). Doing nightlife and Musikleben des 19. Jahrhun- R. Loibl, & E. Brockhoff (Eds.), frühen deutschen Punkszenen. EDMC fieldwork [Special Issue]. derts. In D. Altenburg & R. Götterdämmerung: König In B. Mrozek, A. Geisthövel, & Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Bayreuther (Eds.), Musik und ­Ludwig II. und seine Zeit J. Danyel (Eds.), Popgeschichte: Dance Music Culture, 5 (1). kulturelle Identität: Bericht (pp. 190–194). Augsburg: Vol. 2. Zeithistorische Fall­ über den XIII. Internationalen Primus. studien 1958–1988. Bielefeld: Garcia, L.-M. (2013c). Doing Kongress der Gesellschaft für transcript. nightlife and EDMC fieldwork: Musikforschung, Weimar 2004: Müller, S. O., & Osterhammel, J. Guest editor's introduction. Vol. 2. Symposien B (pp. 28–37). (2012a). Geschichtswissenschaft Wellmann, H. (in press-b). Pop Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Kassel: Bärenreiter. und Musik. Geschichte und und Emotionsgeschichte. In Dance Music Culture, 5, 3–17. Gesellschaft, 38, 5–20. A. Geisthövel & B. Mrozek (Eds.), Müller, S. O. (2012b). Political Popgeschichte: Vol. 1. Kon­ Geisthövel, A., & Mrozek, B. pleasures with old emotions? Müller, S. O., & Osterhammel, zepte und Methoden. Bielefeld: (Eds.). (in press). Popgeschichte: Performances of the Berlin J. (Eds.). (2012b). Musikalische transcript. Vol. 1. Konzepte und Methoden. Philharmonic in the Second Kommunikation [Themenheft]. Bielefeld: transcript. World War. International Review Geschichte und Gesellschaft, Zalfen, S. (in press-a). Listeners of the Aesthetics and Sociology 38 (1). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck in solitude, listeners as collec- Mrozek, B. (2013a). Jugendkul- of Music, 43, 35–52. & Ruprecht. tives: The powerhouse of emo- tur. In N. Colin, C. Defrance, U. tions in the age of mass media. Pfeil, & J. Umlauf (Eds.), Lexikon Müller, S. O. (2012c). Die Politik Müller, S. O., & Torp, C. (Eds.). In C. Thorau & H. Ziemer (Eds.), der deutsch-französischen des Schweigens: Veränderungen (2011). Imperial Germany The art of listening. Oxford: Kulturbeziehungen nach 1945 im Publikumsverhalten in der revisited: Continuing debates Oxford University Press. (Edition Lendemains No. 28) Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts. and new perspectives. New York: (pp. 303–305). Tübingen: Narr. Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 38, Berghahn. Zalfen, S. (in press-b). Wann sie 48–85. singen Seit‘ an Seit‘: Musik als Mrozek, B. (2013b). "Ein sonder- Sela-Teichler, Y. (2013a). Music, gemeinschaftsbildende Praxis barer Haufen!": Jugendbewegte Müller, S. O. (2012d). Poli- acculturation, and Haskalah auf Parteitagen der SPD. In S. O. Prägung als autobiographische tischer Genuss durch erlernte between Berlin and Königsberg Müller, J. Osterhammel, & M. Erzählstrategie in Nicolaus Emotionen? Aufführungen der in the 1780s. Jewish Quar- Rempe (Eds.), Kommunikation im Sombarts "Jugend in Berlin Berliner Philharmoniker im terly Review, 103, 352–384. Konzertsaal. Göttingen: V&R. 1933–1943." In B. Stambolis (Ed.), Zweiten Weltkrieg. In S. Zalfen & doi:10.1353/jqr.2013.0025 Jugendbewegt geprägt: Essays zu S. O. Müller (Eds.), Besatzungs- Zalfen, S. (2013). Gefühlsbil- autobiographischen Texten von macht Musik: Zur Musik- und Sela-Teichler, Y. (2013b). "Dem dungen des Musik-Erlebens. In Werner Heisenberg, Robert Jungk Emotionsgeschichte im Zeitalter verewigten Moses Mendelssohn Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (Ed.), und vielen anderen (Formen der der Weltkriege (1914–1949) zu Ehren": Musik, Akkultura- Jahrbuch 2013. München: MPG.

312 | MPRG Felt Communities Zalfen, S. (2012a). Operatic laire": Der Bau der "Opéra de 20. Jahrhunderts. Geschichte Weltkriege (1914–1949) (Histoire crises? Cultural strategies to la Bastille" als Prozess der und Gesellschaft, 38, 133–157. No. 30). Bielefeld: transcript. deal with a transformation Neuverhandlung des kulturellen of the state. In L. I. Komlósi, Selbstverständ­nisses von Staat Zalfen, S. (2011). Staats-Opern? Zalfen, S., & Müller, S. O. W. Coudenys, & K. Kresenyei und Nation. In Deutsch-Franzö- Der Wandel von Staatlichkeit (2012b). Eine Fortsetzung des (Eds.), Culture in/and crisis: Fifth sisches Institut (dfi) (Ed.),Kultur - und die Opernkrisen in Berlin, Krieges mit musikalischen Mit- Annual Conference of the Uni- nation Frankreich? Die kulturelle London und Paris am Ende teln? Hegemoniale Funktionen versity Network of the European Dimension des gesellschaftlichen des 20. Jahrhunderts (Die von Musik im Europa der Capitals of Culture. Proceedings. Wandels (Frankreich Jahrbuch Gesellschaft der Oper No. 7). Weltkriege. In S. Zalfen & S. Antwerp, Belgium, 27/28 Octo- 2011) (pp. 99–116). Wiesbaden: München: Oldenbourg. O. Müller (Eds.), Besatzungs- ber 2011 (UNEECC Forum Vol. 4). Springer VS. macht Musik: Zur Musik- und Pécs: University of Pécs. Zalfen, S., & Müller, S. O. (Eds.). Emotionsgeschichte im Zeitalter Zalfen, S. (2012c). Zeitmaschine (2012a). Besatzungsmacht der Weltkriege (1914–1949) Zalfen, S. (2012b). "Sera Oper: Die Macht des historischen Musik: Zur Musik- und Emotions­ (Histoire No. 30) (pp. 9–30). un opéra moderne et popu- Erbes der Oper am Ende des geschichte im Zeitalter der Bielefeld: transcript.

MPRG Felt Communities | 313

Max Planck Research Group

Reading Education and Development (REaD) Max Planck Research Group

The Max Planck Research Group “Reading Education and Development” (REaD) (Head: Sascha Schroeder) inves- tigates the underlying structure of reading skills and their development across the lifespan. To this end, the Research Group assesses the component processes of reading longitudinally and analyzes their interactions. This approach will allow the researchers to provide a more detailed description of the various subprocesses of reading and to analyze their conditions and consequences. These insights, in turn, will enable the Research Group to identify the processes that should be targeted by effective remedial programs in reading education. The group started its work in July 2012.

Research Team 2012–2013

Sascha Schroeder, Simon P. Tiffin-Richards

Predoctoral Fellows Tila Tabea Brink (as of 10/2013: Freie Universität Berlin, Germany), Jana Hasenäcker, ­Alexandra Schmitterer, ­Pauline Schröter, Jutta Segbers

316 | MPRG Reading Education and Development Introductory Overview

Reading is one of the most important but also one of the most complex inventions in human history. In our modern, information-oriented society, it is vital to be able to read texts accu- rately and efficiently. People who lack these skills are at serious risk of marginalization: Adults with functional illiteracy often find themselves socially isolated; adolescents who are unable to write a letter of application fail to find a job.

In contrast to learning to talk, children do not (1) In the childLex project, we have estab- Key References learn to read spontaneously but need instruc- lished a linguistic corpus of German-language Schroeder, S. (2011). tional help and support. Yet, many children writing for children. childLex is complemented What readers have and have problems with reading acquisition and by the InLex project (Individual Lexicon in do: Effects of students’ verbal ability and reading remain unable to understand even simple Reading Acquisition), which investigates inter- time components on texts by the end of their compulsory educa- individual differences in the size and quality of comprehension with and tion. How can we help these children? the mental lexicon. Establishing such norms is without text availabil- ity. Journal of Educa- Reading is a cognitive skill that involves a an essential basis for the design of experimen- tional Psychology, 103, number of interacting component processes tal studies and training programs in German. 877–896. doi:10.1037/ located at different levels within a general (2) In the Developmental Lexicon Project a0023731 hierarchy. It is unclear which of these processes (DeveL) we are collecting behavioral data for Schroeder, S., & Tiffin- are important for children’s reading develop- a selected set of words from children at dif- Richards, S. P. (in press). Kognitive Verarbeitung ment and how they interact. Furthermore, it is ferent stages of reading development as well von Leseverständnis­ likely that different groups of struggling read- as from adult samples across the lifespan. items mit und ohne ers have different types of deficits and thus These data are urgently needed to create the Textpräsentation.­ Zeitschrift für Pädago- need different kinds of support. next generation of computational models of gische Psychologie. The Max Planck Research Group “REaD” was visual word recognition. launched in summer 2012 with the aim of (3) The Developmental Eye-Tracking Study investigating the underlying component pro- (DevTrack) investigates reading processes cesses of reading skills and their development using eye-tracking techniques. This approach over childhood and adolescence. This ap- allows us to analyze children’s reading of proach will provide a more detailed descrip- connected text beyond the decoding of single tion of the various subprocesses of reading, words, as well as the associated syntactic and their conditions, and consequences. These semantic processes, and the preprocessing of insights, in turn, will enable us to identify the upcoming words. processes to be targeted by effective remedial (4) Two interconnected longitudinal studies programs in reading education. will investigate interindividual differences A distinctive characteristic of the “REaD” in reading development. The OPeRA project group is that it takes a holistic and integra- (Orthographic Processing in Reading Acquisi- tive approach to the investigation of read- tion) focuses on children’s use of different ing: Theoretically, we combine elements orthographic grain sizes during reading from linguistics, psychology, and education. development in school. The complementary Empirically, we are interested in the reading PLAiT project (Prerequisite Language Abilities process as a whole—from lexical processes on in the Transitional Phase) concentrates on the the word level via syntactic processes on the transition from kindergarten to grade 1 and sentence level up to discourse processes on investigates which precursor abilities predict the text level. Methodologically, we combine children’s later reading achievement. cross-sectional and longitudinal designs as At present, most projects are in the starting well as corpus studies and experiments. In all or data collection phase. In this report, we of our studies, we are interested in connecting therefore demonstrate the general aims of the our data to computational models of reading. projects by providing results from pilot studies The research agenda of the “REaD” group is that are currently being published or from structured around four main projects: preliminary analyses of the main studies.

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 317 childLex: A Corpus of German Read by Children

childLex is a linguistic corpus that has been collected from a large number of children’s books in order to investigate German-language writing for children. The project is being conducted in collaboration with the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and the University of Potsdam and was initiated in summer 2012. The complementary InLex project was launched in fall 2013 and will focus on interindividual differences in the structure of children’s mental lexicon.

Key References Linguistic databases for children are im- European languages (e. g., French, Spanish, Schroeder, S., Richter, T., portant tools for developmental studies of Italian). For German, however, there was McElvany, N., Hachfeld, reading and have a long history in educational previously no electronic database of materi- A., Baumert, J., Schnotz, psychology. They are important for selecting als intended to be read by children. Although W., Horz, H., & Ullrich, M. (2011). Teachers’ beliefs, stimulus materials for experimental studies some frequency counts for children have instructional behaviours and for investigating children’s written and previously been published, they are based on and students’ engage- spoken language skills. For adults, a wide small corpora and outdated materials. In ad- ment in learning from texts with instructional selection of corpora is now available, such as dition, they provide no linguistic information pictures. Learning & the German DWDS corpus (Digital Diction- beyond simple frequency counts and cannot Instruction, 21, ary of the German Language). Unfortunately, be accessed electronically. To close this gap, 403–415. doi:10.1016/j.­ learninstruc.2010.06.001 these databases may not be adequate for we have compiled the childLex corpus to children. investigate German-language writing for Schroeder, S., Würzner, K.-M., & Heister, J. (in In order to account for potential differences children and to establish an online database press). Altersgruppen­ between adult and child print exposure, that gives users access to a wide selection of effekte in childLex. specialized corpora of writing for children linguistic variables. Spek­ ­trum Patholinguistik. have been collected in some languages. In A first version of thechildLex database was English, for example, researchers can draw made available to the scientific community in on The Educator’s Word Frequency Guide or late 2013 (www.childlex.de). At present, we the Children’s Printed Word Database. Similar are working on several analyses investigating databases have been collected for other the differences between writing for children

What Do Children Actually Read? The childLex corpus was compiled from books intended to be read by children by them- selves. As a consequence, it mainly comprises narrative, informal texts but also some expository texts (science books, etc.). Books were selected from several sources: First, we analyzed children’s self-reports (as published in newspapers, etc.) and the 2012 sales figures of online stores (as provided, e. g., by www.amazon.de). Second, a huge public library in Berlin provided us with the loan statistics for children’s books for the years 2010 to 2012. Finally, responses to a teacher questionnaire implemented in a large educational study investigating reading in elementary schools were used to select school textbooks. Three observations are immediately apparent from these materials: First, most of children’s print exposure stems from informal settings outside school. For example, a typical grade 3 textbook comprises only 30,000 words—the approximate equivalent of one book in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series, which children typically read within a week. Second, children like to read series of short books (such as the Three Investigators series). “Classic” children’s books such as Pippi Longstocking or The Neverending Story are underrepresented in their self-directed reading. Third, children’s books vary substantially with regard to content and genre (“horse books,” “vampire books,” etc.) as well as length and complexity (from short, easy books such as the Beast Quest series to elaborated text forms such as poems). Thus, huge differences in children’s actual reading experience can be expected.

Box 1.

318 | MPRG Reading Education and Development and adults and comparing German with other European languages. Further analyses will not only focus on theoretical questions, such as lexical development during childhood, but will also address more applied issues, such as how to assign text difficulty levels to books.

Establishing a Corpus childLex provides separate norms for children aged 6 to 8 (beginning readers, grade 1 to grade 2), 9 to 10 (intermediate read- ers, grade 3 to grade 4), and 11 to 12 years (experienced readers, grade 5 to grade 6). The most recent version of childLex (0.08 January 2014) comprises 500 books that vary widely in terms of length and content (see Box 1). For example, a typical book for beginning readers comprises approximately 5,000 words, a book for intermediate readers 15,000 words, and a book for experienced readers 50,000 words. In order to maximize the number of words in each age group, we oversampled books for Figure 1. childLex comprises 500 children’s books. beginning and intermediate readers. © Mikael Damkier – Fotolia.com Books were scanned manually and converted into text using optical character recogni- tion software. In addition, the corpus was Overall, childLex and the DWDS corpus share processed and annotated using several algo- about 77,000 lemmas. This corresponds to rithms: First, the text was divided into distinct 70 % of childLex, but only 6 % of DWDS. Thus, words and sentences (tokenization). Next, most words found in children’s books are also the base form of each word was determined found in texts for adults, but not vice versa. (lemmatization). Finally, words were assigned Words used only in children’s books include a syntactic category (noun, etc.). verbs such as “pupsen” or “hicksen” (children’s childLex comprises approximately 11 million words meaning “to fart” and “to hiccup,” words (tokens). These are distributed over respectively), while verbs such as “vereidigen” 170,000 different types (distinct word forms) (to swear in) or “charakterisieren” (to charac- and 110,000 lemmas (base forms). childLex terize) are only used in texts for adults. distinguishes between variables from two The distribution of different syntactic cat- levels of analysis: (1) lexical variables (e. g., egories (noun, verb, adjective, etc.) provides frequency, length, and neighborhood size) further insights into the differences between and (2) sublexical variables (e. g., letter and writing for children and adults (Figure 2a). syllable frequencies). Both corpora show the typical distribution across syntactic categories; there are only few Differences Between Children and Adults function words, most words are nouns, etc. One of the most important questions is how However, there are also differences between the language of children’s books differs from the two corpora. For example, verbs are over- that of adult texts. childLex was deliberately represented and nouns are underrepresented designed to be comparable to the DWDS in children’s books. This is a typical indicator corpus, which comprises 120 million words of spoken rather than written language and (distributed over 1.8 million types and 1.3 mil- indicates that the language of the children’s lion lemmas) and is the largest print corpus books represents a mixture of written and for adults in German. spoken language.

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 319 (a) Syntactic categories (b) Lemma frequencies 70 5

60 childLex 4 DWDS 3 50 2 40 1

Percent 30 0 20 –1 log10 frequency childLex

10 –2

0 –3 A F NE NN V –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Syntactic category log10 frequency DWDS

Figure 2. (a) Distribution of syntactic categories in childLex and DWDS (A = adjective, F = function word, NE = proper noun, NN = noun, V = verb); (b) correspondence of lemma frequencies in the two corpora. © MPI for Human ­Development

Finally, we investigated whether the words For example, German is a morphologi- featured in both childLex and DWDS are used cally rich language. Relative to English, its with similar frequencies. Figure 2b shows inflectional system is quite sophisticated. For the correspondence between the frequency example, a regular verb such as “lachen” (“to measures of the two corpora. As can be seen, laugh”) has 13 different inflectional forms there are substantial discrepancies and the depending on the person, tense, and mode overall correlation is rather modest, at r = .63. (“ich lache,” “du lachst,” “er lacht,” etc.). In Moreover, the strength of the ­association English, by contrast, there are only 4 distinct clearly depends on the overall level of word forms (“laugh,” “laughs,” “laughed,” and frequency: For high-frequency words (e. g., “laughing”). The same holds for nouns and “time”), children’s and adults’ frequency mea- adjectives, which are inflected according to sures are well aligned with r = .78; for very number and case in German (resulting in 5 to low-frequency words (e. g., “jerkin”), this value 8 inflectional forms for nouns and 17 to 24 declines to r = .19. Most of the differences be- for adjectives). tween children’s and adults’ vocabularies are Indeed, we have shown that lexical and related to the use of specific words that are morphological diversity is much higher in very infrequent in one corpus and modestly children’s print language in German than in frequent in the other (see Box 2). English, French, or Spanish. Figure 4a plots the number of types against the number Comparing German With Other European of tokens in samples of 50,000 to 5 mil- Languages lion words in four different child corpora. It Cross-linguistic comparisons—that is, studies is evident that the type/token ratio differs that contrast reading development in dif- substantially between languages. English is ferent languages—constitute an emerging the least diverse language and saturates very approach in developmental reading research. early: Once they have read approximately As languages differ substantially in their lin- 1 million words, children are unlikely to guistic properties, it is unclear whether lexical encounter many new words. The type/token norms are comparable across languages and curve in German, by contrast, is rather steep: how materials can be matched. German children have to process a larger

320 | MPRG Reading Education and Development Are “Child” and “Adult” Words Processed Differently by Children and Adults? Do the differences in children’s and adults’ linguistic input affect their behavior in visual word recognition tasks? To investigate this issue, we chose 20 “child” words (that are frequent in childLex but infrequent in the DWDS corpus; e. g., “pirate,” “fairy,” etc.) and 20 “adult” words (that are frequent in the 6 DWDS corpus, but not in childLex, e. g., Adult words “tax,” “culture,” etc.). Four age groups 5 Child words (children, adolescents, younger adults, older adults) with 50 participants each 4 performed a lexical decision task involving 3 these words. Their response accuracies are 2 shown in Figure 3: Children showed a clear Accuracy (logit) processing advantage for “child” words, ad- olescents performed similarly on both types 1 of words, and adults showed a processing 0 advantage for “adult” words. ­Importantly, 6–11 12–23 24–41 42–75 the adults’ processing advantage was Age (years) driven not by decreasing performance on Figure 3. Response accuracy for “child” and “adult” “child” words, but by increased accuracy on words in different age groups. “adult” words. © MPI for Human ­Development

Box 2. number of different word forms when reading of other European languages. As words have new materials and constantly encounter new more inflectional variations in German, each words that have to be decoded. French and word form is used less often, is longer, and Spanish lie in between these two extremes. has more potential neighbors. This makes As Figure 4b shows, the same pattern can be the analysis of a German linguistic corpus observed for adults, but is less pronounced. a particularly challenging task because it is For this reason, it is difficult to compare the necessary to derive frequency counts for the lexical norms of German directly with those base forms of the words.

(a) Children (b) Adults 150,000 German German Spanish Spanish French French 100,000 English English Types

50,000

0 0e+ 1e+ 2e+ 3e+ 4e+ 5e+ 0e+ 1e+ 2e+ 3e+ 4e+ 5e+ 00 06 06 06 06 06 00 06 06 06 06 06 Tokens Tokens

Figure 4. Type/token ratio in different (a) child and (b) adult corpora. © MPI for Human ­Development

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 321 (Person A) (Person B) (Person C)

Orthography Phonology Orthography Phonology Orthography Phonology mete /mi:t/ meat /mi:t/ meat /mi:t/ meat ? meet

Semantics Semantics Semantics ?

Figure 5. Lexical entries for the word “meat” for three different people. © MPI for Human ­Development

InLex: The Individual Lexicon in Reading indicated by different spellings of the word Acquisition (“meet,” “mete”). That is, person A is not sure How many words has a child actually read? how the word “meat” is spelled correctly. And how many are stored in his or her mental Person B, in contrast, has fully specified lexicon? What do these lexical representa- phonological and orthographic knowledge tions contain and how are they connected? of the word “meat,” but his or her semantic Based on the childLex corpus, the InLex knowledge of the word is incomplete; that is, project will address these issues and their person B is not aware of the correct mean- impact on children’s word recognition. The ing of the word. This may cause problems size and structure of the mental lexicon varies in understanding the word when hearing between individuals. However, it is difficult to or reading it. For person C, the entry is fully obtain reliable estimates of a single person’s defined in all three areas; this person has a vocabulary. This is unfortunate because clear idea of the phonology, orthography, and both the quantity of entries in the lexicon semantics of “meat.” and their quality (i. e., their composition and During language development, children build connections) are important factors in reading up word representations, initially consisting acquisition. of mostly phonological and semantic infor- A person’s mental lexicon consists of lexical mation. As they learn to read and write at representations of every word that person school, they add orthographic knowledge as knows. According to the Lexical Quality well. But how do interindividual differences Hypothesis, each representation contains in lexical quality affect word recognition? information about three different aspects The first aim of theInLex project is to mea- of a word: phonological knowledge about sure children’s phonological, orthographic, its pronunciation, orthographic knowledge and semantic knowledge of a specific set of about its spelling, and semantic knowledge words and to assess their performance in about its meaning. The amount and specific- different word recognition tasks. This will ity of the knowledge within these three areas allow us to investigate the impact of lexical varies between individuals. Figure 5 shows quantity and quality on word recognition the lexical entry for the word “meat” for three performance. different people. For person A, the phonologi- Another question is how these interindividual cal and semantic knowledge is fully specified: differences in lexical quality can be explained. He or she knows how to pronounce the word Several internal and external factors may (/mi:t/) and understands its meaning (e. g., impact the individual lexicon. One is chil- “something to eat, flesh of an animal …”). The dren’s print exposure, that is, the time they orthographic domain is underspecified, as spend reading outside school. Previous studies

322 | MPRG Reading Education and Development home riding flat

boat room leather saddle building house horse

chimney

bridle door garden roof

Figure 6. Lexical networks for “saddle” (low diversity) and “house” (high diversity). © MPI for Human ­Development have shown that the amount of reading influ- A word with low contextual diversity such as ences reading ability in children and adults. “saddle” is associated with only a small set of These effects are presumably mediated by other words; its occurrence is generally lim- print-related differences in the quantity and ited to contexts involving horses and riding. quality of lexical entries. Apart from spoken A word with high contextual diversity such as language, reading is an important source for “house,” in contrast, has more links to other children to learn new words and to expand words as it occurs in print in many different their knowledge of familiar words. This is contexts. Higher connectivity is thought to particularly true in later childhood, at which be associated with faster and more robust stage new words are increasingly unlikely to lexical retrieval. This prediction will be tested occur in spoken language. Another aim of this empirically in the InLex project using associa- project is therefore to measure the influence tion tasks and contextual diversity measures of children’s print exposure on their lexical derived from childLex. quantity and quality and thereby its influence In summary, in a series of studies, the InLex on word recognition. project will investigate the interrelation- Investigating children’s exposure to specific ships between the quality and quantity of words in print raises further issues: In which the individual lexicon and its impact on word semantic contexts did a child read a certain recognition performance. Furthermore, it word and does this affect the quality and will explore the impact of children’s print connections of the lexical entry? Contextual exposure and contextual diversity on the diversity is a linguistic variable that has been size and structure of the lexicon. Findings proposed as an important factor for lexicon will inform theories of reading acquisition by development. It has been hypothesized that shedding light on the relationship between words encountered in more contexts and in reading and the mental lexicon and thus more diverse contexts exhibit higher con- help to explain interindividual differences nectivity, especially in the semantic domain in reading. First results will be published in (Figure 6). summer 2014.

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 323 DeveL: The Developmental Lexicon Project

The Developmental Lexicon Project (DeveL) was launched in spring 2013 to provide new data on how visual word recognition processes change during reading development and across the lifespan. These data will be used to extend existing computational models of visual word recognition.

Key References The process of word recognition, in which collected in computerized single sessions. In Schroeder, S. (2013). print is converted into linguistic information, a second phase, which is scheduled for winter Effects of reading skill is fundamental for reading. The impact of 2013/14, younger (20–30 years) and older and CaSe MiXiNg on most word characteristics (length, frequency, adults (65–75 years) will be assessed. Word nonword reading in Ger- man. Journal of Research etc.) on this decoding process is likely to recognition performance was measured using in Reading, 36, 186–201. change over time. However, none of the lexical decision and naming paradigms, which doi:10.1111/j.1467- current models of visual word recognition ex- are commonly used in psycholinguistic re- 9817.2011.01499.x plicitly includes a developmental dimension. search to assess lexical processing. To further Schroeder, S., & Verrel, One reason is that few studies have system- investigate the impact of different reader J. (in press). Cogni- tive processing and atically compared the impact of linguistic variables on processing, we implemented motor execution in the variables on word processing across different measures of reading speed, vocabulary knowl- lexical decision task: A age groups. For example, the English Lexicon edge, and nonverbal intelligence. The study’s developmental study. Psychonomic Bulletin & Project, which was a multi-university effort central questions are (1) which linguistic Review. Advance online to provide a database for the processing of features affect German word recognition, (2) publication. doi:10.3758/ 50,000 English words, investigated only adult how their influence changes over time, and s13423-013-0509-x readers. The aim of the DeveL project is to (3) whether these developmental patterns close this gap by providing first data on word show interindividual differences. recognition in German for the same words To illustrate the aims of the project, in the fol- across the lifespan. lowing we focus on the impact of word length To this end, we selected 1,152 German words (number of letters), which is especially prone according to specific linguistic characteristics to developmental changes. that are considered crucial in developmental According to the Dual-Route Model (see theories of written language acquisition. In a Box 3), length effects vary depending on how cross-sectional study, these words were pre- much the sublexical route, which operates sented to participants of different age groups, serially, is involved in processing. The amount including children at different stages of of sublexical processing, in turn, depends on reading acquisition, younger adults, and older several factors. adults. In a first phase of data collection, data First, the impact of word length can be from 430 students (grade 2, 4, and 6) were expected to vary with the transparency of a

Figure 7. Reading speed and accuracy improve considerably across the lifespan. © MPI for Human ­Development

324 | MPRG Reading Education and Development The Dual-Route Model of Visual Word Recognition A widely accepted computational model of visual word recognition is the Dual-Route Model. It postulates two ways by which print can be converted into meaning (see Figure 8). First, words can be decoded via a sublexical route using grapheme–phoneme rules that are applied serially from left to right, letter by letter. Second, words can be processed via a lexical route. Here, the meaning and pronunciation of a word as a whole are retrieved from the mental lexicon. This process is assumed to happen quickly and in parallel.

Grapheme—phoneme rule system

Sublexical route

Feature Letter Phoneme Print Speech identification identification system

Lexical route Orthographic Phonological Grade 2 input lexicon output lexicon

Semantic Grade 4 system

Grade 6

Figure 8. The Dual-Route Model of visual word recognition, extended to include a developmental trajectory for the transition from sublexical to lexical processing (adapted from Coltheart et al., 2001). © MPI for Human ­Development

Box 3. language. Orthographically transparent lan- Because grapheme–phoneme conversion is guages, such as German, are characterized by more reliable in transparent orthographies, relatively consistent mappings between single German words are more likely to be processed letters and sounds. In contrast, in ortho- sublexically, whereas English words typically graphically intransparent languages, such as require processing via the lexical route. As a English, the same letter usually has multiple consequence, results of studies on English can- pronunciations (see Figure 9). not be directly compared with those of studies on German, and it can be assumed that length effects are generally stronger in German. Grapheme Phoneme Second, the impact of word length can be

a German English expected to vary as a function of lexicality r

Park [pa R k] [pa:( )k] (word vs. nonword). By definition, nonwords c Ball [bal] [b :l] (such as “hurk”) have no entry in the mental Band [bant] [baend] lexicon and thus require serial processing via the sublexical route. Words (especially Figure 9. The correspondence between letters and high-frequency words), in contrast, are likely sounds in orthographically transparent (German) and to be processed lexically and in parallel. As a intransparent (English) languages. consequence, length effects should be more © MPI for Human ­Development pronounced for nonwords than for words.

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 325 sults: In a transparent orthography, such as ­German, length is generally expected to be a strong predictor of reading time. However, length effects should be more pronounced for nonwords than for words. Furthermore, length effects for words should decrease slowly during reading development as words are increasingly processed via the lexical route. In contrast, length effects for nonwords should not benefit from increased reading experience.­ In order to demonstrate how such complex predictions can be investigated, Figure 11 presents some preliminary data from the DeveL project. The plots show lexical decision latencies as a function of stimulus length separately for words and nonwords and for children in grade 2 (beginning readers), Figure 10. A 12-year-old performing the naming task. grade 4 (intermediate readers), and grade 6 © Nina Lüth (experienced readers). Overall, the pattern is in line with the predictions made by the Third, and most importantly, the effect of word Dual-Route Model: In German elementary length can be expected to vary with lexical school children, word length generally had a development. For beginning readers, all words strong and linear impact on word recognition are functionally nonwords and thus have to latency. As expected, nonwords needed more be decoded using the sublexical route. Once time to be processed and revealed a stronger children become acquainted with a specific length effect than words. Ultimately, there word, however, it can be processed via the was a clear developmental pattern: In grade 2, fast-track lexical route as its representation in children showed similar length effects for memory becomes increasingly elaborated and words and nonwords. For words, length ef- accessible. Thus, fading susceptibility to word fects declined gradually across grades (by length is evidence for a gradual shift from 41 % from grade 2 to grade 4 and by an ad- sublexical to lexical processing throughout ditional 18 % from grade 4 to grade 6). Length reading development (see Figure 8). effects for nonwords, in contrast, decreased Taken together, the Dual-Route Model only minimally during reading development predicts a rather complex pattern of re- (28 % overall).

Grade 2 Grade 4 Grade 6 9.0 Nonword Nonword 8.5 Word Word 8.0

log(RT) 7.5 Nonword 7.0 Word 6.5 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 N letters N letters N letters

Figure 11. Length effects for words and nonwords at different grade levels. © MPI for Human ­Development

326 | MPRG Reading Education and Development Similar analyses will be carried out for the effects observed in different age groups can effects of other linguistic variables (e. g., be explained on the basis of a shared mental word frequency, orthographic neighbors). architecture—for example, by changing We will also investigate whether the effects parameter settings. Alternatively, structural observed generalize to paradigms such as changes may be necessary in order to fit the naming. As we assessed large samples of developmental patterns observed. To foster children in each age group, we are able the development of new computational to dissociate the impact of age from the models, we will make data from the DeveL impact of lexical development. Findings such project available to the scientific com- as these not only provide further knowl- munity through an online platform. Future edge on reading development in German research can then be conducted by means of but are needed to expand existing models virtual experiments, enabling international of visual word recognition in general. At scientists to perform investigations directed present, for example, it is unclear whether at refining current models. In the long term, and how computational models such as such explanatory approaches are needed to the Dual-Route Model can accommodate address the problems of beginning readers developmental changes in marker effects. more specifically and to further improve the One particular question is whether various design of reading training programs.

Decomposing the Lexical Decision Task Most tasks used to investigate visual word recognition, such as the lexical decision task, are cognitively complex. Apart from lexical processing, they afford attention, perceptual processing, and some form of motor response. In a separate set of studies, we investigated which processing components are involved in these tasks and whether they develop differentially across the lifespan. In one of the studies, for example, children and adults performed a lexical decision task and a naming task using the same set of words. Their task performance was decomposed using the Diffusion Model. In this model, separate parameters represent different cognitive processes such as speed of information uptake (v), response caution (a),

and time for response execution (Ter ). The results of fitting this model to children’s and adults’ lexical decision data revealed that children had deficits in all processing components (Figure 12a). However, in the naming task (Fig- ure 12b), children showed deficits only in lexical processing, but not in any of the nonlexical processing compo- nents. This indicates that different tasks afford a different mixture of cognitive processes, which develop differen- tially over time. The same deficit observed in overt task behavior might therefore be driven by different cognitive processes in different age groups. (a) Lexical decision task (b) Naming task 1.0 1.0 Children Children 0.8 Adults 0.8 Adults

0.6 0.6 Estimate Estimate 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0 a Ter v Words v Nonwords a Ter v Words v Nonwords Parameter Parameter Figure 12. Diffusion model parameters for children and adults in (a) the lexical decision task and (b) the naming task. © MPI for Human ­Development

Box 4 (continued on next page).

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 327 120 In another study, we investigated children’s and adults’ response Adults Younger children behavior more closely using a motion capture system. Children 100 Older children and adults performed a simple pointing task and a lexical deci- sion task by pressing a response button 30 cm in front of them 80 while their hand movements were recorded. Compared with their performance in the pointing task, children’s movements in the lexical decision task were slower and more hesitant. In addition, 60 they showed substantial attraction effects, that is their move- ments to the correct response were “attracted” by the other

Percent distance y 40 response option (see Figure 13). This indicates that lexical decision and response movement processes might be more intertwined in 20 children than in adults.

0 Figure 13. Attraction effects in lexical decision movements in younger –5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 children, older children, and adults (adapted from Schroeder & Verrel, in press). Attraction effect (mm) © MPI for Human ­Development

Box 4 (continued).

DevTrack: The Developmental Eye-Tracking Study

Reading is more than decoding single words. With the Developmental Eye-Tracking Study (DevTrack), which started in fall 2012, we aim to add depth to our understanding of children’s natural reading processes by tracking their eye movements as they read continuous texts.

Eye movements have long been used to track ing (Box 5). The eye-tracking research of the cognitive processes during complex tasks such early 20th century established much of what as visual search, scene perception, and read- we know today about typical eye movements;

How Do We Know Where Someone Is Looking?­ Modern eye-tracking methods use an infrared light source to shine light off of the reader’s eye. A small camera is used to pick up two areas of the eye: the center of the pupil (in blue) and a reflection off the surface of the eye (the light dot immediately below the pupil). These two points are used to calculate where a participant is looking on the screen. A chin rest helps to steady the participant’s head while reading. The high spatial (1 letter) and temporal (1 ms) resolution of such techniques is critical for this kind of research.

Figure 14. A typical setup for an eye-tracking study. © Nina Lüth

Box 5.

328 | MPRG Reading Education and Development What Do Readers’ Eye Movements Look Like? The eye movements of beginning readers differ markedly from those of skilled adult read- ers. Children typically show shorter saccade lengths and refixate the same word multiple times before moving on to the next word. In contrast to adults’ reading, words are not skipped and there are more saccades back to earlier parts of a text (regressions), which suggest rereading of passages that were not completely understood. Figure 15 illustrates the differences in the typical eye movements of beginning and skilled adult readers. This is an example of This is an example of children‘s eye movements adults‘ eye movements during reading. during reading. Figure 15. Eye movements of a beginning reader (left) and a skilled adult reader (right). © MPI for Human ­Development

Box 6. for instance, that the eyes move in a series of reading has been shown to be strongly related jumps (saccades) and pauses (fixations) and to the skill of the reader. Skilled adult readers that information is processed only during fixa- generally make long saccades, fixate words for tion periods. Reading is a particularly complex short durations, and skip over short, predict- task in which words must be decoded, their able words. For children, however, we find a meaning extracted, and inferences generated different pattern (Box 6). to connect words, phrases, and sentences. We know that the eye movements of skilled During reading, adult eye movements gener- adult readers and beginning readers differ ally consist of saccades of 7 to 9 characters substantially. We also know that individuals and fixations of 200 to 250 milliseconds. The differ in their reading skill. Longitudinal de- characteristics of eye movements are also signs, as employed in DevTrack, are therefore subject to developmental changes, however, vital to capture both individual differences and the efficiency of eye movements during in the reading skill of beginning readers

Foveal Versus Parafoveal Processing­ The center of a reader’s field of vision, the foveal region corresponding to the central 2° of the visual field, is where visual acuity is highest. The acuity of the fovea is essential for the processing of letter features. However, readers can also make use of information in the parafovea, which extends out to about 5° to either side of the point of fixation. Little can be derived from the outermost peripheral region. In writing systems that are read from left to right, the parafoveal and peripheral visual fields develop a skew to the right in the direction of reading. Conversely, in scripts such as Hebrew and Arabic they develop a skew to the left.

2° The detective found the clue behind the sofa. Figure 16. Foveal, parafoveal, and peripheral visual fields during reading. © MPI for Human ­Development

Box 7.

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 329 and the development of reading skill over Foveal Processes in Reading time. DevTrack will be one of the very few DevTrack will investigate the development of longitudinal studies that have attempted to children’s foveal processes by analyzing their tease apart the individual and developmental reading behavior as they read age-appropriate aspects of reading acquisition at the German short stories and sentences that have been elementary school level. developed to create a natural reading setting. Two mechanisms are known to drive the ef- Materials will contain embedded target words ficiency and development of eye movements. that are systematically manipulated on char- Foveal reading processes are involved when a acteristics that are known to reliably affect word is focused directly; parafoveal pro- word recognition time: word length and word cesses are relevant when information about frequency (see Figure 18). Preliminary study letters and words to the right of the fovea results suggest that effects of frequency and is extracted (see Box 7). DevTrack will focus length can be found in the fixation duration on the development of foveal and parafo- measures of elementary school children at the veal processes in reading using eye-tracking end of grade 3. The main study will examine paradigms specifically developed to tap into how these two variables and their interaction these processes. affect children’s eye movements during read-

Comparing Eye Movements Across Orthographies In a separate study, conducted in cooperation with the University of Southampton, UK, and the University of Turku, Finland, we investigate whether children’s eye movements are influenced by the transparency of the orthography in which they are reading. To this end, we have translated 48 sentences from German (which has an intermediate level of transparency) into English (which is very intransparent) and Finnish (which is very transparent).

English The trip to the zoo was funny because the goat had run into the teacher. German Der Ausflug in den Zoo war lustig, denn die Ziege hatte den Lehrer umgerannt. Finnish Retki eläintarhaan oli hauska koska vuohi oli juossut opettajaa päin.

In each sentence, there was one target word that was long or short and either frequent or infrequent. We expected to find that frequent words can be processed in parallel, whereas infrequent words have to be decoded sequentially. However, this pattern was expected to be moderated by reading skill. Indeed, this is the pattern we found in our German data (see Figure 17). We are currently collecting data in the United Kingdom and Finland to test whether this interaction varies with the transparency of the language that children are learning: We expect the observed pattern to be more pronounced for English children, but less pronounced for Finnish children, as the orthographic characteristics of their languages foster more lexical versus sublexical processing, respectively. Children Adults 700 700 Short Short 600 * 600 Long Long 500 500 * n.s. 400 400 ms ms n.s. 300 300 Figure 17. Mean gaze duration for long ver- 200 200 sus short high- versus low-frequency words 100 100 for children and adults reading German. 0 0 High Low High Low © MPI for Human Frequency Frequency Development­

Box 8.

330 | MPRG Reading Education and Development In addition to assessing children’s compre- Frequent: 67/million Infrequent: 10/million hension of the story, we will track their eye Short: 4 letters Short: 4 letters movements to investigate the underlying Der Fischer online processes. Max arbeitet schon lange als Fischer. Er fährt mit seinem Boot am großen Fels vorbei und Parafoveal Processes in Reading wirft sein langes Netzt aus, um Fische zu In a different line of research, the DevTrack fangen. In der Ferne sieht er manchmal am Abend Wale. Das Geheimnis, wo er die Perle project will investigate how children’s process- in einer Muschel gefunden hat, hat er nie ing of information in the parafovea changes erzählt. during reading development. Studies have found that adults extract different types of lin- Long: 7 letters Long: 9 letters guistic information (orthographical, phonologi- Infrequent: 18/million Frequent: 67/million cal, morphological, semantic) from the para- Figure 18. Example story: The fisherman. fovea. This information can then be integrated when the word is fixated foveally, facilitating © MPI for Human ­Development the word recognition process. This facilitation ing and how their influence changes over the has been shown to manifest itself in shorter elementary school years. fixation durations. How much and what kinds In addition, DevTrack will investigate chil- of information can be processed parafoveally dren’s higher level processing of connected by beginning readers remains unclear, however. discourse, which is important in many educa- This question can be addressed using the tional settings. For example, we will analyze boundary paradigm illustrated in Box 9, which how inferences are generated during reading is a technique specifically developed to assess and how relationships between elements of parafoveal processes. the text are processed by the reader. In Fig- In DevTrack, we will concentrate on two ure 18, for instance, the pronoun “er” in the marker effects that are particularly disposed second sentence has to be connected to its to show developmental effects. According antecedent “Max” in the first sentence, who to the Dual-Route Model (see Box 3 above), is also the “Fischer” referred to in the title. words are processed both via a sublexical and Children who do not make these connections a lexical route. During sublexical processing, will have difficulty understanding the story. grapheme—phoneme correspondence rules are

Investigating Parafoveal Processing: The Boundary Paradigm In the boundary paradigm, sentences are presented as a single line of text, each with an embedded target word. These targets are presented as manipulated previews until the reader’s eyes move to bring them into focus. An invisible boundary directly before the tar- get word triggers when the first saccade crosses it. At this point, the preview is exchanged with the target word (see Figure 19). As the display change happens during the saccade onto the target word, the reader never actually sees the preview other than in his or her parafovea. By manipulating the preview, we can assess whether fixation durations on the target word differ, depending on whether the target word or a similar sounding nonword was present in the parafovea. In the example above, the preview “clew” is a phonologically similar nonword (pseudohomophone) to the target word “clue.” The detective found the clew behind the sofa. The detective found the clue behind the sofa. Figure 19. Preview and display change to target word after the reader’s gaze crosses the invisible boundary in the boundary paradigm. © MPI for Human ­Development

Box 9.

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 331 (a) Phonological manipulation (b) Transposition manipulation

500 n.s. * Identity Identity * n.s. Pseudohomophone Translation 400 Control Control

300 n.s. * n.s. *

200 Gaze duration

100

0 Children Adults Children Adults

Figure 20. Findings on the parafoveal preview benefit. © MPI for Human ­Development

used to convert print into sound. This process read single sentences with embedded target may be facilitated by phonological informa- words in three different preview conditions tion extracted from the parafovea, which (identity vs. pseudohomophone/transposi- can be investigated using pseudohomophone tion vs. control). First results indicate that previews. Here, either a nonword that is children, but not adults, showed phonological pronounced similarly to the target word (e. g., preview benefit effects (Figure 20a). This sug- “clew” for the target word “clue”) or an ortho- gests that children rely more on phonological graphically matched control word (e. g., “clon”) decoding processes during parafoveal pro- is shown in the parafovea. If the target word cessing than adults. By contrast, adults, but is processed faster in the pseudohomophone not children, showed transposition preview condition than in the control condition, this benefit effects (Figure 20b). This indicates indicates that phonological information has that children do rely more on the exact been accessed. By a similar logic, transposition position of letters within a word than adults. preview effects can be used to quantify the Taken together, both findings are consistent amount of lexical processing in the parafovea. with a developmental trend from sublexical to As lexical processing becomes more parallel lexical processing during parafoveal preview. during reading development, the encoding In the DevTrack project, we will investigate of the exact position of a letter becomes less how foveal and parafoveal processes develop important, and words with transposed letters by following 100 children from grade 2 (e. g., “bnad”) are frequently mistaken for to grade 4. This will allow us to describe the real target word (e. g., “band”). Again, by developmental changes in eye-movement comparing the parafoveal preview benefit of behavior over the first years of elementary transposed letter primes with orthographically school and their relation to other skills such matched control words (e. g., “bord”), we can as lexical access, phonological ability, and assess the amount of lexical preprocessing in oculormotor efficiency. Combining controlled the parafovea. As an extensive amount of re- experimental manipulations and natural read- search suggests that children are initially more ing of age-appropriate texts, DevTrack will reliant on sublexical processing, we might investigate the interactions between foveal expect greater phonological preview effects and parafoveal processes, which are as yet and weaker transposition benefit effects for largely unexplored in children. The first round children than for skilled adult readers. of data collection will be conducted in spring To test these assumptions, we conducted a 2014; first results from the main study will be pilot experiment in which children and adults published in summer 2014.

332 | MPRG Reading Education and Development Investigating Reading Longitudinally: OPeRA and PLAiT

What are the developmental mechanisms underlying reading acquisition and which precursor abilities are needed? Two interconnected longitudinal studies initiated in 2013 will investigate the preconditions and consequences of children’s initial reading ability.

The OPeRA project (Orthographic Processing investigates which precursor abilities are linked in Reading Acquisition) focuses on children’s to children’s later reading acquisition. By using use of different orthographic grain sizes (see a similar theoretical framework and identical Box 10) during reading development in school outcome measures, OPeRA and PLAiT will be from grade 1 to grade 4. The complementary able to provide a unified picture of the process- PLAiT project (Prerequisite Language Abilities es needed in the initial steps of reading acquisi- in the Transitional Phase) concentrates on the tion and their consequences for children’s later transition from kindergarten to school and development in school (see Figure 21).

S c h o o l PLAiT e n OPeRA t r y Age 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Year 1 2 3 1 2 3 4

Kindergarten School

Figure 21. Time frame and overlap of the PLAiT and OPeRA projects. © MPI for Human ­Development

Fine- and Coarse-Grained Orthographic­ Processing After initial perception of the visual input, readers can process orthographic ­information

by using location-specific coding of

Ω

Ω letters, namely fine-grained processing. book Ω look boot /l k/ /b k/ /b t/

This mode makes information about the neighbors of letters and their sequence Ω b-o b-k b-oo-k /b/ - / / - /k/ necessary. It is thus especially useful for o-o o-k recognizing co-occurring letter combina- Coarse-grained Fine-grained orthography orthography tions. However, it is more demanding with # B O O K # regard to spatial attention. Alternatively, letters can be processed in a coarse- grained mode, independent of specific Visual features letter position information. Due to its Figure 22. A model of reading incorporating two holistic nature, this processing mode is different modes of orthographic coding: coarse- assumed to be faster in accessing whole grained and fine-grained. word representations. © MPI for Human ­Development

Box 10.

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 333 OPeRA: Orthographic Processing in Reading Acquisition Modern theoretical models of reading assume a distinction in the mode of coding relevant orthographic features, namely, between fine- and coarse-grained orthographic processing (Box 10). Fine-grained orthographic processing oper- ates using orthographic units of different sizes, referred to as grain sizes (Box 11). Which grain sizes readers rely on is believed to vary across languages as well as individu- als. In general, it is thought that beginning readers start with smaller grain sizes such as single phonemes and, by means of chunking, proceed to use increasingly bigger units such as syllables or morphemes. Language-specific characteristics impose spe- cial constraints on the units of analysis used Figure 24. Children use different grain sizes in reading in reading. One such specific characteristic of and writing. German is its morphological richness. Many © MPI for Human ­Development German words are composed by systematical- ly concatenating morphemes (e. g., “blau-es,” This is attained by chunking letters into “Fahr-er,” “Krank-heit,” “glück-lich,” “Tee- increasingly larger units such as multiletter tasse”). Thus, using morphemes as a grain size graphemes (e. g., “ch”) or morphemes (e. g., may be especially useful for German readers. plural “-s,” suffix “-er”). Fine-grained process- From a developmental perspective, it is theo- ing, using morphological units as a grain size, rized that, after an initial stage of phonology- allows children with a small lexicon to access based, sequential decoding, readers adopt a complex words more efficiently. The coarse- more parallel, fine-grained decoding strategy. grained lexical route makes fewer demands

Orthographic Grain Sizes in Reading Grain sizes are linguistic units with correspondences in orthography. Various grain sizes are hypothesized to be used in reading, depending on the individual and the language. Fig- ure 23 depicts the word “BOOKS” divided into units of different sizes, namely, morphemes, syllables, onset and rime, nucleus and coda, and phonemes. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning. In this case, “BOOK” refers to the object, while the “S” indicates Morphemes BOOKS S the plural. Syllables divide words into se- quences of sounds. The onset–rime distinc- Syllables BOOKS tion further subdivides a syllable into the consonant at the word beginning and the Onset–Rime B OOKS cluster of vowels and consonants at the end Nucleus–Coda of the syllable. The rime is the element that OO KS is usually similar-sounding when rhyming Phonemes B OO K S (e. g., “BOOKS”­–“LOOKS”). The nucleus is the vowel of a syllable which, together with the Figure 23. The word “BOOKS” divided into units of coda, makes up the rime. Phonemes are the different grain sizes. different sounds that make up a word. © MPI for Human ­Development

Box 11.

334 | MPRG Reading Education and Development (a) Initial reading ability (b) Attention 0.25 0.08

0.20 0.06

0.15 0.04

Density 0.10 Density

0.02 0.05

0.00 0.00 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 10 20 30 40 50 Number of words Number of pictures

Figure 25. Interindividual differences at the beginning of grade 1. © MPI for Human ­Development on spatial attention and may thus benefit beginning of grade 1 were not yet able to reading. Due to the morphological richness decode simple words (Figure 25a), there were of the language, however, it may not be as remarkable interindividual differences in chil- crucial for reading in German. dren’s cognitive abilities at school entrance The OPeRA project aims to track the develop- (Figure 25b). ment of orthographic processing in ­German How will these initial differences in reading and to identify the grain sizes used by skill develop over time? Are they related to children at different developmental stages. To the use of different grain sizes and decoding this end, we recruited 120 grade 1 students strategies? To address these questions, we will from elementary schools in Berlin. Assess- track students’ development through exten- ments of precursor skills such as general sive individualized test sessions implemented motoric and cognitive abilities as well as at the end of each grade. Specifically, we will specific linguistic competencies began in examine the effects of marker variables such October 2013. Although most children at the as length and frequency. Furthermore, effects

Figure 26. Most processes involved in reading are influenced by the amount of children’s reading behavior. © Nina Lüth

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 335 The Masked Priming Paradigm

Phonological processing Orthographic processing

+ cue (500 ms) + Transposed letter Pseudohomophone TEECHER prime (50 ms) TAECHER condition condition ####### mask (100 ms) #######

TEACHER target (1,500 ms) TEACHER

Figure 27. Schematic depiction of the sequence of a trial in the masked priming paradigm with a pseudo- homophone and a transposed letter manipulation. © MPI for Human ­Development

Masked priming is a well-established paradigm for distinguishing fine-grained, phonology- based processing from coarse-grained, holistic processing in visual word recognition. It uses manipulations that comply with either fine- or coarse-grained processing to prime a target word (Figure 27). In the pseudohomophone condition, the prime is phonologically similar to the target, but does not conform to the standard spelling. In the transposed let- ter condition, two letters in the prime are interchanged. Participants are required to decide whether or not the target is a word. The priming benefit relative to a control condition indicates the mode of processing.

Box 12.

of different reading strategies will be inves- tigated to discern fine-grained phonology- based from coarse-grained holistic process- ing. Younger readers are expected to show effects based on fine-grained decoding, as the coarse-grained route is not yet established at this stage of development. With increased reading experience, the pattern is expected to reverse, with children showing less marker effects of phonology-based processing and more marker effects of holistic processing. These questions will be addressed using the masked priming paradigm (Box 12). The same paradigm can be applied to examine the use of other grain sizes such as morphemes. First results from this study are expected to be published in summer 2014.

Figure 28. Masked priming in the lexical decision task. © Nina Lüth

336 | MPRG Reading Education and Development PLAiT: Prerequisite Language Abilities in phy, semantics, phonology, and (although the Transitional Phase not explicitly mentioned) morphosyntax. The longitudinal PLAiT project aims at closing The hypothesis assumes that children with the gap between language acquisition studies detailed representations of words on differ- in early childhood and reading research at ent linguistic dimensions are able to access school age. PLAiT will investigate the cogni- words in the lexicon faster than children with tive development of children in the transition- underspecified or missing representations. In al phase between kindergarten and school. addition, more elaborated lexical representa- This will allow us to relate the development of tions are assumed to foster the acquisition orthographic representations to the general of new words. Thus, children with better and dynamics of language acquisition. The project interconnected representations are expected will track 50 children from the 2nd year to be more successful in the acquisition of of kindergarten until the end of grade 1 of reading and writing. elementary school (4–7 years of age). We will The Lexical Quality Hypothesis was derived closely monitor the children’s linguistic abili- on the basis of studies of participants who ties by testing them in individual sessions at were already able to read and write. The equal time intervals of 6 months. PLAiT project, in contrast, will focus on the The main focus of PLAiT lies on the lexical development of phonological and semantic quality of word representations at different representations that are fundamental for developmental stages. The Lexical Quality later orthographic processes. To this end, the Hypothesis claims that the speed of retrieval project will examine the development and of a lexical entry, that is, the mental repre- interrelations of phonological, semantic, and sentation of a word, depends on the quality morphosyntactic skills in the kindergarten of various linguistic dimensions: orthogra- years. Furthermore, it will explore their impact

Examples of different vowel Orthographic realizations of Vowel heights and lengths vowel examples

low Stahl, Bart, Bad, Saal /a:/ (steel, beard, bath, hall) fahl (pale)

high kühl, schwül, über /y:/ (cool, humid, over)

fühlen (feel)

low kalt, Stall, alt /a/ (cold, barn, old)

Fall (fall)

high Müll, günstig, Tschüss /y/ (trash, convenient, bye)

füllen (fill)

Figure 29. Examples of different vowel length realizations in German. © MPI for Human ­Development

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 337 Figure 30. The acquisition of linguistic abilities before school is important for later reading development. © MPI for Human ­Development

on the orthographic lexicon at school entry with better phonological representations, it and investigate the differential effects of should be easier to distinguish between dif- distinct precursor abilities on children’s read- ferent vowel lengths independently of their ing fluency or comprehension. By combining spectral features. reaction time and accuracy measures, PLAiT Phonology, or more precisely phonological will be able to provide a detailed picture of awareness, has been identified as an impor- children’s lexical retrieval. tant predictor of reading and writing. It can PLAiT will also pay particular attention to be measured using various operationaliza- the language-specific challenges of German, tions. Vowel length discrimination or rhyming such as the perception of vowel lengths in tasks, which are primarily perceptual tasks, phonology and irregularities in morphosyn- are one possibility. Alternative options are tax. To give an example from phonology, one productive tasks (e. g., nonword repetition) way to measure phonological perception is to or transfer tasks (e. g., sound deletion tasks, look at children’s ability to identify differ- which involve perception, transformation, and ent vowel lengths. In German, the correct production of stimuli). However, it is unclear perception of vowel lengths is crucial to whether the nature of the task (e. g., cogni- successfully activate semantic information tively more vs. less demanding) impacts the (Figure 29). A child who cannot differenti- predictive power of these measures. Children, ate between “fahl” (pale) and “Fall” (fall) will as investigated in the initial stages of the misunderstand the meaning of the word and PLAiT project, are not yet proficient language will not be able to identify its function within producers, but proficient language perceivers. a sentence (adjective vs. noun). Furthermore, Against this background, PLAiT will investi- words with the same vowel length can be gate whether the type of task (perceptual, realized using different spellings. Without the productive, transfer) impacts the predictive ability to distinguish between vowel lengths, power of these measures at different stages children will find the decoding and writing of of reading development. similar words difficult. Vowel length percep- In summary, the general aim of PLAiT is to tion is therefore an important prerequisite identify valid predictors of reading acquisi- skill for reading and writing acquisition. tion. Additionally, the project seeks to provide Phonetically, both words in the example information about which types of phonologi- (“fahl” and “Fall”) contain vowels with similar cal tasks are best suited to identify children spectral profiles (low frequency), which at risk of becoming poor readers at an early are perceptually more salient than high-­ stage of development. The project thus fo- frequency vowels (such as the /y/ in “füllen” cuses on the typical development of young and “fühlen”). Vowel length discrimination children, while monitoring potential risk may thus be easier for low than for high vow- factors. PLAiT was launched in August 2013; els. At the same time, there may be substan- data collection will begin in spring 2014. First tial interindividual differences. For children results are expected in summer 2014.

338 | MPRG Reading Education and Development Publications 2012–2013 (last update: January 2014)

Euler, H. A., Lange, B. P., skills, pedagogical beliefs and ständnisitems mit und ohne Schroeder,­ S., & Neumann, K. (in motivation. European Journal Textpräsentation. Zeitschrift für press). The effectiveness of stut- of Psychology of Education, 27, Pädagogische Psychologie. tering treatments in Germany. 403–420. doi:10.1007/s10212- Journal of Fluency Disorders. 011-0078-1 Schroeder, S., & Verrel, J. (in Advance online publicaiton. press). Cognitive processing and doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2014.01.002 Schroeder, S. (2013). Effects of motor execution in the lexical reading skill and CaSe MiXiNg decision task: A developmental Hachfeld, A., Schroeder, S., on nonword reading in German. study. Psychonomic Bulletin & Anders, Y., Hahn, A., & Kunter, Journal of Research in Reading, Review. Advance online publica- M. (2012). Multikulturelle Über- 36, 186–201. doi:10.1111/ tion. doi:10.3758/s13423-013- zeugungen: Herkunft oder Über- j.1467-9817.2011.01499.x 0509-x zeugung? Welche Rolle spielen der Migrationshintergrund und Schroeder, S. (2011). What Schroeder, S., Würzner, K.-M., & multikulturelle Überzeugungen readers have and do: Effects Heister, J. (in press). Altersgrup- für das Unterrichten von Kindern of students‘ verbal ability and peneffekte in childLex. Spektrum mit Migrationshintergrund? reading time components Patholinguistik. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische on comprehension with and Psychologie, 26, 101–120. without text availability. Journal Ullrich, M., Schnotz, W., Horz, doi:10.1024/1010-0652/a000064 of Educational Psychology, 103, H., McElvany, N., ­Schroeder, 877–896. doi:10.1037/a0023731 S., & Baumert, J. (2012). Hochpöchler, U., Schnotz, W., Kognitionspsychologische As- Rasch, T., Ullrich, M., Horz, H., Schroeder, S., Richter, T., pekte eines Kompetenz­modells McElvany, N., & Baumert, J. McElvany, N., Hachfeld, A., zur Text-Bild-Integration. (2013). Dynamics of mental Baumert, J., Schnotz, W., Psychologische Rundschau, 63, model construction from text Horz, H., & ­Ullrich, M. (2011). 11–17. doi:10.1026/0033-3042/ and graphics. European Journal Teachers‘ beliefs, instruc- a000105 of Psychology of Education, 28, tional behaviors, and students‘ 1105–1126. doi:10.1007/s10212- engagement in learning from 012-0156-z texts with instructional pictures. Learning and Instruction, McElvany, N., Schroeder, S., 21, 403–415. doi:10.1016/j.­ Baumert, J., Schnotz, W., Horz, learninstruc.2010.06.001 H., & Ullrich, M. (2012). Cogni- tively demanding learning mate- Schroeder, S., & Tiffin-­ rials with texts and instructional Richards, S. P. (in press). Kogni- pictures: Teachers‘ diagnostic tive Verarbeitung von Lesever­

MPRG Reading Education and Development | 339

Emeriti

Jürgen Baumert and Wolfgang Edelstein Research Programs of the Directors Emeriti

With the support of the President of the Max Planck Society, the Directors emeriti Jürgen Baumert and Wolfgang ­Edelstein continue to pursue their research programs at the MPI for Human Development. Jürgen Baumert’s work focuses on the reform of the Berlin secondary school system, the relationship between students’ educational resources and their life course, the development of teachers’ professional competence, and the potential of bilingual alphabetization in multicultural societies. Wolfgang Edelstein’s work focuses on sociomoral development, democracy education, and democratic school reform. With support from the Jacobs Foundation, a Masters course focusing on these topics for teacher education has been developed at the Freie Universität Berlin.

Jürgen Baumert (Director emeritus), Wolfgang Edelstein (Director emeritus)

Jürgen Baumert’s Research Team 2011–2013

Researchers Swantje Dettmers, Nicole Nagy (until 06/2011)

Predoctoral Fellow Axinja Hachfeld (as of 10/2012: Freie Universität Berlin, Germany)

Visiting Researcher Ulrich Trautwein (University of Tübingen, Germany)

342 | Emeriti Jürgen Baumert’s Research Program

Jürgen Baumert’s work focuses on the reform of the Berlin secondary school system, the relation- ship between students’ educational resources and their life course, the development of teachers’ professional competence, and the potential of bilingual alphabetization in multicultural socie­ ties. These research projects are being conducted in cooperation with the University of Potsdam and the German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF; Kai Maaz), the Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education at the University of Kiel (IPN; Olaf Köller), the Goethe University Frankfurt a. M. (Mareike Kunter), the Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel (Jens Möller), and the Mercator Institute at the University of Cologne (Michael Becker-Mrotzek).

Reform of the Secondary School System comprehensive schools were fused to become Key Reference in Berlin and Its Impact on Academic and integrated secondary schools. Students at Maaz, K., Baumert, J., Vocational Careers (BERLIN Study) this new school type can work toward all Neumann, M., Becker, This study aims to evaluate the recent reform school-leaving qualifications, including the M., & Dumont, H. (Eds.). (2013a). Die Berliner of the Berlin secondary school system and Abitur. The new integrated secondary schools Schulstrukturreform: its long-term effects on students’ individual provide compulsory full-day education, place Bewertung durch die development and career patterns. The study a stronger emphasis on career orientation beteiligten Akteure und Konsequenzen des neuen has a quasi-experimental, longitudinal design. (dual learning in day-release programs), and Übergangsverfahrens von It is being conducted in cooperation between do not implement grade retention. The goals der Grundschule in die the MPI for Human Development, the DIPF, of the structural reforms are primarily to weiterführenden Schulen. Münster: Waxmann. and the IPN, and is jointly funded by the state increase the number of students graduating of Berlin and the Jacobs Foundation. with an intermediate school-leaving certifi- Over the past few years, the secondary school cate or an Abitur and to reduce the number systems of many German federal states have of those leaving school without qualifica- undergone major reforms. The traditional tions. At the same time, the reforms were three-track system consisting of vocational- intended to weaken the link between family track Hauptschule, intermediate-track background and educational outcomes. The Realschule,­ and academic-track Gymnasium procedures for transition from elementary to is currently no longer implemented in any secondary school have also been modified. of the 16 states. Instead, most states have The main change concerns procedures for switched to a two-track system with just admission to individual secondary schools. In one type of secondary school alongside the principle, parents in Berlin have a free choice academic-track Gymnasium. Students at of secondary schools. If demand for places at these new “integrated secondary schools” a school exceeds supply, up to 10 % of places can work toward a basic or an intermediate are allocated to students with special needs. school-leaving certificate. In many states, The school itself selects 60 % of its students integrated secondary schools also offer a on the basis of, for example, their primary direct route to the Abitur, the general higher school grades or entrance examinations. The education entrance qualification that was remaining 30 % of places are allocated by previously accessible only to Gymnasium lottery. These new rules are intended to allow students. The main reasons for the reforms schools to develop stronger profiles; at the were a steady decline in the appeal of the same time, the lottery component is intended Hauptschule track and a marked decline to ensure a minimum level of heterogeneity in in student numbers in many states, which the composition of the student body. necessitated changes in the structure of the secondary system. Design of the BERLIN Study The state of Berlin implemented structural The BERLIN Study was designed to investigate reforms of its secondary system at the start the effects of these structural reforms on of the 2010/11 academic year. Existing students’ learning outcomes and educational vocational-track, intermediate-track, and careers. It investigates a specific group of

Emeriti | 343 Key Reference Level Grade Year of Measurement Baumert, J., Maaz, K., Neumann, M., 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Becker, M., & Dumont, H. (2013). Die Berliner Schulstrukturreform: ELEMENT Hintergründe, Zielstel- 6 control lungen und theoretischer group 1 2 Rahmen. In K. Maaz, J. Elementary Baumert, M. Neumann, 3 M. Becker, & H. Dumont 7 (Eds.), Die Berliner BERLIN Study Schul­strukturreform: Module 1: Bewertung durch die Reform group beteiligten Akteure und 8 Konsequenzen des neuen Übergangsverfahrens von

der Grundschule in die Secondary 4 weiterführenden Schulen PISA-E BISTA (pp. 9–34). Münster: 9 control control 1 Waxmann. group group 1 2 5 2 10

2a 2a 11 BERLIN Study BERLIN Study Module 3: Module 2: Control group Reform group

12 3 3 Upper secondary/ vocational training

Note. BERLIN Study Module 1: Stage 1 of the BERLIN Study, reform cohort; BERLIN Study Module 2: Stage 2 of the BERLIN Study, reform cohort; BERLIN Study Module 3: Stage 2 of the BERLIN Study, control cohort; ELEMENT: ELEMENT Study, will provide control data for the first assessment in Module 1 of the BERLIN Study; PISA-E: Berlin data from PISA Cross-State Comparison, will provide control data for the first assessment in Modules 2 and 3 of the BERLIN Study; BISTA: Educational Standards in Berlin, will provide control data for the first assessment in Modules 2 and 3 of the BERLIN Study. Figure 1. Design of the BERLIN Study. © MPI for Human Development

students: the second cohort to be educated groups overlapping at the end of lower sec- within the new structures and, at the same ondary education (see Figure 1). time, the first to have experienced the new transition procedures. The study will track Initial Findings of the BERLIN Study these students from the end of elemen- The first report on the BERLIN Study’s findings tary school (grade 6) until the transition to focused on three main questions: vocational or upper secondary education. (1) Stakeholders‘ Evaluations of the Re- The study comprises two stages: Stage 1 forms. The move to a two-track system was (­Module 1) focuses on the transition from welcomed by the large majority of teachers elementary school to lower secondary educa- and school principals and by the majority of tion; Stage 2 (­Modules 2 and 3) examines parents. All stakeholders applauded the fact educational outcomes at the end of lower that both tracks now offer the same qualifica- secondary education and the transition to tions (including the Abitur ). The same applied vocational and upper secondary education. to the stronger focus on career orientation Both stages will involve an experimental and and dual learning and to the provision of a control group, with the two experimental full-day education in all integrated secondary

344 |Emeriti schools. Opinions on the abolition of grade schools, with more pronounced differences in Key References ­retention at integrated secondary schools the demand for places at integrated second- Kunter, M., Baumert, J., were mixed, with some respondents voicing ary schools than at Gymnasium schools. Of Blum, W., Klusmann, U., strong disagreement with this aspect of the the integrated secondary schools, those with Krauss, S., & Neubrand, M. (Eds.). (2013a). Cogni- reforms. Overall, respondents’ evaluations an on-site upper secondary center were in tive activation in the of the new transition procedure and most highest demand. There was less demand mathematics classroom of its individual elements were positive. The for places at integrated secondary schools and professional compe- tence of teachers: Results majority of parents were pleased or very that were previously a Hauptschule or had from the COACTIV project pleased with their child’s secondary school. been formed by the fusion of a Hauptschule (Mathematics Teacher Opinions on the allocation of places by lottery and Realschule. Parents of higher achieving Education No. 8). New York: Springer. were very negative, however. This corrective students were particularly likely to choose measure is evidently regarded by all stake- oversubscribed schools. These results indicate holders—with the exception of principals at that the old structures continue to resonate integrated secondary schools—as representing beneath the surface of the newly structured a loss of control and an incalculable risk. secondary system. (2) Social Disparities at the Transition From Elementary to Secondary Education. The Looking Ahead alarming impact of social background at Questions to be addressed in future analyses the transition from elementary to second- include the effects of the Berlin reforms on ary education in Germany has been a topic students‘ achievement levels at the end of of considerable debate. To what extent is the secondary education and on the transition to choice of secondary school type impacted not vocational and upper secondary education. Kunter, M., Baumert, J., only by a student’s academic achievement Blum, W., Klusmann, U., but also by family background characteristics Professional Competence of Teachers and Krauss, S., & Neubrand, M. (Eds.). (2011). Profes- (what Boudon termed “secondary background Cognitive Activation in the Classroom sionelle Kompetenz von effects”)? Our analyses revealed compara- (COACTIV) Lehrkräften: Ergebnisse tively positive results for the state of Berlin. The COACTIV research program was initiated des Forschungspro- gramms COACTIV. In contrast to many other assessments, the in 2002 and was systematically developed Münster: Waxmann. BERLIN Study found that social background within the Institute’s former Center for did not have any effect above and beyond Educational Research. In the period under academic achievement (grades and test review, the program’s work was continued scores) on the secondary school track recom- in cooperation with the Goethe University mendation. Likewise, academic achievement Frankfurt a. M. (Mareike Kunter), where was the decisive factor in the actual choice of COACTIV is now based, the University of secondary track. However, social background Duisburg-Essen ­(Detlef Leutner), and the did have small additional effects here, which University of ­Münster (Ewald Terhart). It has were fully mediated by parents’ educational received funding from the German Research aspirations. Foundation (DFG), the Strategic Innovation (3) The Choice of Individual Secondary School Fund of the President of the Max Planck in the New Transition System. Findings Society, the Federal Ministry for Education showed that 84 % of students were offered and Research (BMBF), and the state of North a place in the school of their choice (92 % of Rhein-Westphalia. those at Gymnasium schools, 79 % of those The research program is dedicated to the at integrated secondary schools). Whether study of the structure, development, and a student was offered a place at the school impact of teachers’ professional competence of his or her choice depended solely on his (see Table 1). The first main study in the or her academic achievement (in terms of program was COACTIV, a research project em- grade point average at elementary school); bedded in the longitudinal extension of PISA family background proved to have no addi- 2003. Within this first main study, we first tional effect. The results also revealed marked developed a theoretical model of teachers’ variations in demand for places at individual professional competence as well as instru-

Emeriti | 345 Key References Table 1 Kleickmann, T., Richter, D., Kunter, M., Elsner, J., Overview of the COACTIV Research Program Besser, M., Krauss, S., & Baumert, J. (2013). Main Teachers’ content knowl- studies Design Focus edge and pedagogical content knowledge: The COACTIV • 194 mathematics teachers • Development of measures role of structural differ- • Embedded in PISA 2003/2004 • Links between teacher competence/ ences in teacher educa- • Repeated measurement (1 year) instruction/students tion. Journal of Teacher Education, 64, 90–106. COACTIV-R • 856 mathematics teacher candidates • Validation of competence model doi:10.1177/ • Repeated measurement (1 year) • Description of development during 0022487112460398 teacher training • Identification of individual and institu- Kunter, M., Klusmann, tional conditions for development U., Baumert, J., Richter, D., Voss, T., & Hachfeld, BilWiss • Approx. 3,500 graduates of university • Analysis of the structure of pedagogical A. (2013). Professional teacher education programs knowledge competence of teachers: • Test of educational knowledge • Comparison of students in different Effects on instructional • Subsample: Repeated measurement (1 year) teacher education programs quality and student development. Journal of Smaller • COACTIV Construct Validation Study Educational Psychol- studies • COACTIV-Students ogy, 105, 805–820. • COACTIV-International (Taiwan) doi:10.1037/a0032583 • BELE (Stress and Burnout in the Teaching Profession) Voss, T., Kunter, M., & Baumert, J. (2011). Assessing teacher candi- ments for its assessment. The opportunity to University Frankfurt a. M., the University dates’ general pedagogi- cal/psychological knowl- link the COACTIV teacher data to longitudinal of Duisburg-Essen, and the University of edge: Test construction data obtained from their students in the PISA ­Münster. This study, which ran from 2009 to and validation. Journal of 2003/04 assessment allowed us to test the 2012, focused on the university-based com- Educational Psychol- ogy, 103, 952–969. practical relevance of this professional com- ponent of teacher training. doi:10.1037/a0025125 petence for the quality of teachers’ instruction During the period under review, our research and for student learning outcomes. focused on three main areas: The second main study in the COACTIV (1) Analyzing the development of teachers’ research program was COACTIV-Referen- professional competence in the classroom- dariat (COACTIV-R), which started in 2007. based induction phase of their teacher educa- COACTIV-R investigated teacher candidates’ tion, the Referendariat (COACTIV-R). The acquisition of professional knowledge during particular focus of this research was on the the obligatory 2-year phase of teaching prac- development of teacher candidates’ peda- tice (i. e., the Referendariat) that is required to gogical/psychological knowledge. The main become a fully licensed teacher in Germany. findings were that pedagogical/psychological COACTIV-R investigated the development of knowledge increased during the Referendariat professional competence during this second and that candidates’ scores in this domain phase of teacher education using a longitudi- of knowledge predicted the quality of their nal study design with two points of measure- instruction—especially in terms of classroom ment and two cohorts of teacher candidates management, teacher feedback, and con- in consecutive years. A focus of the study structive support. was on the development and testing of new (2) Reconstructing, by means of a Delphi instruments to assess the generic pedagogi- study, the normative structure and content cal/psychological knowledge of beginning of the generic pedagogical knowledge that teachers. teacher candidates are expected to acquire The third main study was entitled Acquisition at university and during the Referendariat of Generic Pedagogical Knowledge (BilWiss) (BilWiss). The participants in the Delphi study and was conducted in cooperation between were university faculty members who are the MPI for Human Development, the Goethe responsible for teacher education as well as

346 |Emeriti established teachers who act as trainers and collection took place in 2009/10, when most Key References mentors during the Referendariat. The major participants were 32 years old. The longitudi- Becker, M., Lüdtke, O., finding was a remarkable level of agreement nal study is now being continued in coopera- Trautwein, U., Köller, O., both among university faculty and between tion with the DIPF (Kai Maaz), the IPN (Olaf & Baumert, J. (2012). The differential effects of university faculty and trainers during the Köller), and the University of Michigan at Ann school tracking on psy- Referendariat with respect to the normative Arbor (Kai S. Cortina). The study is funded by chometric intelligence: structure of the curriculum that should be the Strategic Innovation Fund of the President Do academic-track schools make students covered in teacher education. of the Max Planck Society. smarter? Journal of Edu- (3) Developing and validating a multidimen- The BIJU study comprises five components: cational Psychology, 104, sional test assessing the generic pedagogical (1) providing institutional and individual 682–699. doi:10.1037/ a0027608 knowledge of teacher candidates, based on baseline data on the integration of the the findings of the Delphi study. The test has East and West German educational sys- Kunina-Habenicht, O., Schulze-Stocker, F., been implemented in a cohort of candidates tems since 1991; Kunter, M., Baumert, completing the first, university-based phase (2) analyzing domain-specific learning as a J., Leutner, D., Förster, of their teacher education at all universities in function of personal resources and insti- D., Lohse-Bossenz, H., & Terhart, E. (2013). the state of North Rhein-Westphalia. A repre- tutional opportunity structures; Die Bedeutung der sentative sample of this cohort is being tracked (3) analyzing long-term trajectories of Lerngelegenheiten im longitudinally during the Referendariat period. psychosocial development in adolescence Lehramtsstudium und deren individuelle Nut- and young adulthood; zung für den Aufbau des Schooling and Individual Development in (4) analyzing the transition from school to bildungswissenschaftli- Adolescence and Adulthood (BIJU) vocational training or university; chen Wissens. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 59, 1–23. This longitudinal study, which was initially (5) analyzing the transition to the labor mar- entitled Learning Processes, Educational ket and to starting a family. Careers, and Psychosocial Development in Data collection began with a survey of the Adolescence and Young Adulthood, was main cohort (longitudinal cohort 1) in the initiated in 1991. The seventh wave of data 1991/92 school year (see Figure 2), during

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Grade 7 1 2 3

Grade 8

Grade 9

Grade 10 1 1 4

Grade 11/vocational education/job

Grade 12/vocational education/job 2 5

Grade 13/vocational education/job 5a

Vocational education/university/job

Vocational education/university/job 3 6

Vocational education/university/job

Vocational education/university/job

Vocational education/university/job

Vocational education/university/job

Vocational education/university/job Longitudinal cohort 1 Vocational education/university/job Longitudinal cohort 2 Vocational education/university/job Cross-sectional cohort Vocational education/university/job 7

Figure 2. Study design of the BIJU project. © MPI for Human ­Development

Emeriti | 347 Key References which data were gathered from grade 7 Bilingual Alphabetization in Multicultural Baumert, J., Nagy, G., & students at three measurement points. The Societies: Evaluation of Berlin’s State Lehmann, R. (2012). Cu- first point of measurement coincided with Europe Schools (EUROPA Study) mulative advantages and the transformation of the unitary school The key objective of this new study, which the emergence of social and ethnic ­inequality: system of the former East Germany to the was initiated in 2013, is to examine whether Matthew effects in tracked system adopted from West Germany. bilingual alphabetization in so-called two- reading and mathematics The fourth wave of data collection was way immersion is a suitable instrument for development within ele­ mentary schools? Child conducted in spring 1995, when the main reducing the educational disadvantage of Development, 83, 1347– cohort students were in the final grade of immigrant children. Drawing on a longitu- 1367. doi:10.1111/j.1467- lower secondary school. The fifth wave took dinal, extended evaluation of the Berlin’s 8624.2012.01779.x place in spring 1997, when participants State Europe Schools (SESB), we aim to derive Stanat, P., Becker, M., were either in vocational or upper secondary benchmarks for the outcomes of two-way im- Baumert, J., Lüdtke, O., & Eckhardt, A. G. education. The sixth wave of data collection, mersion for children from German-speaking (2012). Improving second conducted in 2001, focused on how students and non-German-speaking families. In addi- language skills of im- had mastered the transition from school to tion, we will test the assumption that positive migrant students: A field trial study evaluating university or from vocational education to transfer occurs from the first to the second the effects of a summer the labor market. A seventh wave of data language as long as a critical threshold of learning program. Learn- collection took place in 2009/10. The sample language proficiency has been reached, and ing and Instruction, 22, 159–170. doi:10.1016/j. of school classes comprises some 8,000 the assumption that children who learn to learninstruc.2011.10.002 students from 212 secondary schools of all read and write in two languages are at a types in the states of Berlin, Mecklenburg- general advantage in terms of the develop- West Pomerania, North Rhine-Westphalia, ment of executive functions. The study has and Saxony-Anhalt. A second longitudinal a quasi-experimental design and includes a cohort and a cross-sectional add-on study longitudinal component at elementary school complement the BIJU data set. Our analyses level. It is being conducted in cooperation are currently focusing on components (3), with the Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu (4), and (5). Kiel (Jens Möller), the IPN (Olaf Köller), and the Mercator Institute for Language Training and German as a Second Language (Michael Becker-Mrotzek). It is funded by the state of Berlin and the Mercator Foundation.

348 |Emeriti Publications 2011–2013 (last update: January 2014)

Jürgen Baumert’s Publications

Baumert, J. (2013). Forum I: Baumert, J., & Kunter, M. U. Klusmann, S. Krauss, & M. theoretischer Rahmen. In K. Demographische Entwicklung, (2013b). The effect of content Neubrand (Eds.), Professionelle Maaz, J. Baumert, M. Neumann, Bildungssystem und Ressour- knowledge and ­pedagogical Kompetenz von Lehrkräften: M. Becker, & H. Dumont (Eds.), cenfrage. Impulsreferat. In H. content knowledge on instruc- Ergebnisse des Forschungspro- Die Berliner Schulstrukturreform: Zehetmair (Ed.), Zukunft durch tional quality and student gramms COACTIV (pp. 163–192). Bewertung durch die beteiligten Bildung—Bildung für die Zukunft: achievement. In M. Kunter, J. Münster: Waxmann. Akteure und Konsequenzen des Ergebnisse des Bildungsforums I Baumert, W. Blum, U. Klusmann, neuen Übergangsverfahrens von (pp. 11–24). München: Hanns- S. Krauss, & M. Neubrand (Eds.), Baumert, J., Kunter, M., Blum, der Grundschule in die weiter- Seidel-Stiftung. Cognitive activation in the W., Klusmann, U., Krauss, S., & führenden Schulen (pp. 9–34). mathematics classroom and pro- Neubrand, M. (2013). Profes- Münster: Waxmann. Baumert, J. (2012). Laudatio. fessional competence of teach- sional competence of teachers, In Erwin-Stein-Stiftung (Ed.), ers: Results from the COACTIV cognitively activating instruc- Baumert, J., Maaz, K., Festschrift für Prof. Dr. Heinz- project (Mathematics Teacher tion, and the development of ­Neumann, M., Becker, M., Elmar Tenorth aus Anlass der Education No. 8) (pp. 175–205). students‘ mathematical literacy Dumont, H., Böse, S., & Kropf, M. Verleihung des Erwin-Stein- New York: Springer. (COACTIV): A research program. (2013). Die Berliner Schulstruk- Preises 2011 (pp. 17–27). Berlin: In M. Kunter, J. Baumert, W. turreform: Zusammenfassung BWV. Baumert, J., & Kunter, M. Blum, U. Klusmann, S. Krauss, & und Ausblick. In K. Maaz, J. (2013c). Professionelle Kom- M. Neubrand (Eds.), Cognitive ­Baumert, M. Neumann, M. Baumert, J., & Füssel, H.-P. petenz von Lehrkräften. In I. activation in the ­mathematics Becker, & H. Dumont (Eds.), Die (2012). Kooperation im Gogolin, H. Kuper, H.-H. Krüger, classroom and professional Berliner Schulstrukturreform: föderalen Bildungssystem: & J. Baumert (Eds.), Stichwort: competence of teachers: Results Bewertung durch die beteiligten Zwischen Wettbewerb und Zeitschrift für Erziehungswis- from the COACTIV project (Math- Akteure und Konsequenzen des Qualitätssicherung. In I. Härtel senschaft (pp. 277–337). ematics Teacher Education No. 8) neuen Übergangsverfahrens von (Ed.), Handbuch Föderalismus: Wiesbaden: Springer VS. (pp. 1–21). New York: Springer. der Grundschule in die weiter- Föderalismus als demokratische führenden Schulen (pp. 263– Rechtsordnung und Rechtskultur Baumert, J., & Kunter, M. Baumert, J., Kunter, M., Blum, 281). Münster: Waxmann. in Deutschland, Europa und der (2011a). Das Kompetenzmodell W., Klusmann, U., Krauss, Welt: Vol. 3. Entfaltungsbereiche von ­COACTIV. In M. Kunter, J. S., & Neubrand, M. (2011). Baumert, J., Masuhr, V., Möller, des Föderalismus (pp. 247–273). Baumert, W. Blum, U. Klusmann, Professionelle Kompetenz von J., Riecke-Baulecke, T., Tenorth, Heidelberg: Springer. S. Krauss, & M. Neubrand (Eds.), Lehrkräften, kognitiv aktivie­ H.-E., & Werning, R. (2013). Professionelle Kompetenz render Unterricht und die Inklusion: Forschungsergebnisse Baumert, J., & Gogolin, I. von Lehrkräften: Ergebnisse mathematische Kompetenz und Perspektiven (Schulmanage­ (2011). Editorial [Schwerpunkt: des Forschungsprogramms von Schülerinnen und Schülern ment-Handbuch No. 146). Bildungsungleichheit in Schule COACTIV (pp. 29–53). Münster: (COACTIV): Ein Forschungs­ München: Oldenbourg. und Ausbildung]. Zeitschrift für Waxmann. programm. In M. Kunter, J. Erziehungswissenschaft, 14, Baumert, W. Blum, U. Klusmann, Baumert, J., Nagy, G., & 363–369. doi:10.1007/ S. Krauss, & M. Neubrand (Eds.), Lehmann, R. (2012). Cumulative s11618-011-0222-3 Professionelle Kompetenz von advantages and the emergence Lehrkräften: Ergebnisse des of social and ethnic inequality: Baumert, J., Köller, O., & Forschungsprogramms COACTIV Matthew effects in reading and ­Lehmann, R. (2012). Lesever- (pp. 7–25). Münster: Waxmann. mathematics development with- ständnis im Englischen und in elementary schools? Child Deutschen und Mathematikleis- Baumert, J., & Maaz, K. Development, 83, 1347–1367. tungen bilingual unterrichteter (2012a). Migration und Bildung doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624. Schülerinnen und Schüler am in Deutschland. Die Deutsche 2012.01779.x Ende der Grundschulzeit. Unter- Schule, 104, 279–302. richtswissenschaft, 40, 290–314. Becker, M., Lüdtke, O., Trautwein, Baumert, J., & Maaz, K. (2012b). U., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. Baumert, J., & Kunter, M. Migration und Bildung in (2012). The differential effects of (2013a). The ­COACTIV model of Deutsch­land. In A. Heinz & U. school tracking on psychometric teachers‘ professional compe- Kluge (Eds.), Einwanderung: intelligence: Do academic-track tence. In M. Kunter, J. Baumert, Bedrohung oder Zukunft? My- schools make students smarter? W. Blum, U. Klusmann, S. Krauss, then und Fakten zur Integration Journal of Educational Psychol- & M. Neubrand (Eds.), Cognitive (pp. 121–155). Frankfurt a. M.: ogy, 104, 682–699. doi:10.1037/ activation in the mathemat- Baumert, J., & Kunter, M. Campus. a0027608 ics classroom and professional (2011b). Das mathematikspezi- competence of teachers: Results fische Wissen von Lehrkräften, Baumert, J., Maaz, K., Becker, M., Neumann, M., from the COACTIV project kognitive Aktivierung im Unter- ­Neumann, M., Becker, M., & Baumert, J., & Maaz, K. (2013). (Mathematics Teacher Education richt und Lern­fort­schritte von Dumont, H. (2013). Die Berliner Kohortenvergleich zwischen No. 8) (pp. 25–48). New York: Schülerinnen und Schülern. In Schulstrukturreform: Hinter- den Jahrgängen 2004/05 und Springer. M. Kunter, J. Baumert, W. Blum, gründe, Zielstellungen und 2010/11 in Berlin. In K. Maaz,

Emeriti | 349 J. Baumert, M. Neumann, M. Sprache und Schrift (BISS).“ ing and Individual Differences, Cultural Beliefs Scale. Teach- Becker, & H. Dumont (Eds.), Die Berlin: BMBF. 22, 225–234. doi:10.1016/j. ing and Teacher Education, Berliner Schulstrukturreform: lindif.2011.04.006 27, 986–996. doi:10.1016/j. Bewertung durch die beteiligten Dettmers, S., Trautwein, U., tate.2011.04.006 Akteure und Konsequenzen des Lüdtke, O., Goetz, T., Frenzel, A. Gogolin, I., Baumert, J., & neuen Übergangsverfahrens von C., & Pekrun, R. (2011). Students’ Scheunpflug, A. (Eds.). (2011a). Hachfeld, A., Lippke, S., der Grundschule in die weiter- emotions during homework in Transforming education: Large- Ziegelmann, J. P., & Freund, führenden Schulen (pp. 75–86). mathematics: Testing a theoreti- scale reform projects in educa- A. M. (2011). Wahrgenom- Münster: Waxmann. cal model of antecedents and tion systems and their effects mene Zielkonflikte zwischen achievement outcomes. Con- [Umbau des Bildungs­wesens: Gesundheitszielen: Ergebnisse Becker, M., Neumann, M., temporary Educational Psychol- Bildungspolitische Großreform­ ­ einer Intervention zur Förderung Kropf, M., Maaz, K., Baumert, ogy, 36, 25–35. doi:10.1016/j. projekte und ihre Effekte] von körperlicher Aktivität und J., ­Dumont, H., … Knoppick, cedpsych.2010.10.001 (Zeitschrift für Erziehungs­ Ernährung. Zeitschrift für me­di­ H. (2013). Durchführung, wissenschaft, Sonderheft zinische Psychologie, 20, 60–71. Datengrundlage, Erhebungs­ Dicke, A. L., Lüdtke, O., Traut- No. 13). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag doi:10.3233/ZMP-20-2014 instrumente und statistische wein, U., Nagy, G., & Nagy, für Sozialwissenschaften. Methoden. In K. Maaz, J. N. (2012). Judging students’ Hachfeld, A., Schroeder, S., ­Baumert, M. Neumann, M. achievement goal orienta- Gogolin, I., Baumert, J., & Anders, Y., Hahn, A., & Kunter, Becker, & H. Dumont (Eds.), Die tions: Are teacher ratings Scheunpflug, A. (2011b). „Trans- M. (2012). Multikulturelle Berliner Schulstrukturreform: accurate? Learning and Indi- forming education“: Large-scale Überzeugungen: Herkunft oder Bewertung durch die beteiligten vidual Differences, 22, 844–849. reform projects and their effects. Überzeugung? Welche Rolle Akteure und Konsequenzen des doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.04.004 German and international expe- spielen der Migrationshinter­ neuen Übergangsverfahrens von rience. In I. Gogolin, J. Baumert, grund und multikulturelle Über- der Grundschule in die weiter- Dumont, H., Neumann, M., & A. Scheunpflug (Eds.),Trans - zeugungen für das Unterrichten führenden Schulen (pp. 49–74). Becker, M., Maaz, K., & Baumert, forming education: Large-scale von Kindern mit Migrations­ Münster: Waxmann. J. (2013). Der Übergangspro­ reform projects in education hintergrund? 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350 |Emeriti Vorerfahrung und professio- den Aufbau des bildungswissen- program (January 2013). In M. petence of teachers: Results from neller Kompetenz. Zeitschrift für schaftlichen Wissens. Zeitschrift Kunter, J. Baumert, W. Blum, the COACTIV project (Mathemat- Pädagogische Psychologie, 26, für Pädagogik, 59, 1–23. U. Klusmann, S. Krauss, & M. ics Teacher Education No. 8) 275–290. doi:10.1024/ Neubrand (Eds.), Cognitive (pp. 79–96). New York: Springer. 1010-0652/a000078 Kunter, M., & Baumert, J. activation in the mathemat- (2013). The COACTIV research ics classroom and professional Löwen, K., Baumert, J., Kunter, Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2012). program on teachers‘ profes- competence of teachers: Results M., Krauss, S., & Brunner, M. Schulische Leistungen und ihre sional competence: Summary from the ­COACTIV project (2011). Methodische Grundlagen Messung. In W. ­Schneider & U. and discussion. In M. Kunter, J. (Mathematics Teacher Education des Forschungsprogramms. 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(2011a). competence of teachers: Results Professionelle Kompetenz von 2011.07.001 Risikoschüler in Deutschland: from the COACTIV project Lehrkräften: Ergebnisse des Teil 1. Identifikation und Be­ (Mathematics Teacher Educa- For­schungs­programms ­COACTIV Kunter, M., Klusmann, U., schreibung.­ Schulverwaltung: tion No. 8) (pp. 147–174). New (pp. 345–366). Münster: Baumert,­ J., Richter, D., Voss, T., NRW, 22 (2), 56–59. York: Springer. Waxmann.­ & Hachfeld, A. (2013). Profes- sional competence of teachers: Maaz, K., & Baumert, J. (2011b). Krauss, S., Blum, W., Brunner, Kunter, M., Baumert, J., Blum, Effects on instructional quality Risikoschüler in Deutschland: M., Neubrand, M., Baumert, J., W., Klusmann, U., Krauss, S., & and student development. Jour- Teil 2. Schulformspezifische Kunter, M., Besser, M., & Elsner, Neubrand, M. (Eds.). (2013a). nal of Educational Psychology, Betrachtung—Ist Hauptschule J. (2011). 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Emeriti | 351 Maaz, K., Baumert, J., ­Neumann, Steuerung: Empirische­ Befunde in learning from texts with und Lehrerbildung. In J. Baumert, M., Becker, M., & ­Dumont, H. und forschungs­methodische instructional pictures. Learning V. Masuhr, J. Möller, T. Riecke- (2013b). Vorwort. In K. Maaz, Implikationen (pp. 277–301). and Instruction, 21, 403–415. Baulecke, H.-E. Tenorth, & R. J. ­Baumert, M. Neumann, M. Wiesbaden: Springer VS. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc. Werning, Inklusion: Forschungs­ Becker, & H. Dumont (Eds.), Die 2010.06.001 ergebnisse und Perspektiven Berliner Schulstrukturreform: Richter, D., Kunter, M., (Schulmanagement-Handbuch Bewertung durch die beteiligten ­Klusmann, U., Lüdtke, O., & Stanat, P., Becker, M., Baumert, No. 146) (pp. 38–55). München: Akteure und Konsequenzen des Baumert, J. (2011). Professional J., Lüdtke, O., & Eckhardt, A. Oldenbourg. neuen Übergangsverfahrens von development across the teach- G. (2012). Improving second der Grundschule in die weiter- ing career: Teachers‘ uptake of language skills of immigrant Wölfer, R., Cortina, K. S., & führenden Schulen (pp. 7–8). formal and informal learning students: A field trial study Baumert, J. (2012). Embed- Münster: Waxmann. opportunities. Teaching and evaluating the effects of a sum- dedness and empathy: How Teacher Education, 27, 116–126. mer learning program. Learning the social network shapes Maaz, K., Baumert, J., Neumann, doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.07.008 and Instruction, 22, 159–170. adolescents‘ social understand- M., Becker, M., Kropf, M., & doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc. ing. Journal of Adolescence, ­Dumont, H. (2013). Anlage Richter, D., Kunter, M., Lüdtke, 2011.10.002 35, 1295–1305. doi:10.1016/j. und Zielsetzung der BERLIN- O., Klusmann, U., Anders, Y., & adolescence.2012.04.015 Studie. In K. Maaz, J. Baumert, Baumert,­ J. (2013). How dif- Terhart, E., Schulze-Stocker, F., M. Neumann, M. Becker, & H. ferent mentoring approaches Kunina-Habenicht, O., Dicke, Zabal, A., Martin, S., Kaukein, A., Dumont (Eds.), Die Berliner affect beginning teachers‘ T., Förster, D., … ­Baumert, J., Rammstedt, B., Baumert, J., & Schulstrukturreform: Bewertung development in the first years & Leutner, D. (2012). Bildungs­ Klieme, E. (2013). Grundlegende durch die beteiligten Akteure of practice. Teaching and wissenschaftliches Wissen und Kompetenzen der erwachsenen und Konsequenzen des neuen Teacher Education, 36, 166–177. der Erwerb professioneller Kom- Bevölkerung in Deutschland im Übergangsverfahrens von der doi:10.1016/j.tate.2013.07.012 petenz in der Lehramtsausbil- internationalen Vergleich. In B. Grundschule in die weiterfüh- dung: Eine Kurzdarstellung des Rammstedt (Ed.), Grundlegende renden Schulen (pp. 35–48). Richter, D., Kunter, M., Lüdtke, BilWiss-Projekts. Lehrerbildung Kompetenzen Erwachsener Münster: Waxmann. O., Klusmann, U., & Baumert, J. auf dem Prüfstand, 5, 96–106. im internationalen Vergleich: (2011). Soziale Unterstützung Ergebnisse von PIAAC 2012 McElvany, N., Schroeder, S., beim Berufseinstieg ins Lehramt: Ullrich, M., Schnotz, W., Horz, (pp. 31–76). Münster: Waxmann. Baumert,­ J., Schnotz, W., Horz, Eine empirische Untersuchung H., McElvany, N., Schroeder, S., & H., & Ullrich, M. (2012). Cogni- zur Bedeutung von Mentoren Baumert, J. (2012). Kogni- tively demanding learning mate- und Mitreferendaren. Zeitschrift tionspsychologische Aspekte rials with texts and instructional für Erziehungswissenschaft, 14, eines Kompetenz­modells zur pictures: Teachers‘ diagnostic 35–59. doi:10.1007/ Text-Bild-Integration. Psy- skills, pedagogical beliefs and s11618-011-0173-8 chologische Rundschau, 63, motivation. European Journal 11–17. doi:10.1026/0033-3042/ of Psychology of Education, 27, Roßbach, H.-G., & Baumert, a000105 403–420. doi:10.1007/ J. (2013). Schwerpunkt: s10212-011-0078-1 Auswirkungen frühpädago- Voss, T., Kunter, M., & Baumert, gischer Institutionen auf die J. (in press). Praxis-Schock Neumann, M., Kropf, M., Becker, kindliche Entwicklung. Editorial. bei beginnenden Lehrkräften: M., Albrecht, R., Maaz, K., & Zeitschrift für Erziehungswis- Ein generelles Phänomen? Baumert,­ J. (2013). Die Wahl senschaft, 16 (2), 233–235.­­ Zeitschrift für Pädagogische der weiterführenden Schule doi:10.1007/s11618-013- Psychologie. im neu geordneten Berliner 0365-5 Übergangsverfahren. In K. Maaz, Voss, T., Kunter, M., & Baumert, J. Baumert, M. Neumann, M. Schnotz, W., Ullrich, M., Hoch- J. (2011). Assessing teacher Becker, & H. Dumont (Eds.), Die pöchler, U., Horz, H., McElvany, candidates‘ general pedagogical/ Berliner Schulstrukturreform: N., Schroeder, S., & Baumert, psychological knowledge: Test Bewertung durch die beteiligten J. (2011). What makes text- construction and validation. 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Teaching and Befunde und steuerungs­ Schroeder, S., Richter, T., Teacher Education, 28, 791–805. relevante Implikationen der McElvany,­ N., Hachfeld, A., doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.03.003 TOSCA Repeat-Studie. In A. Baumert, J., Schnotz, W., Horz, Wacker, U. Maier, & J. Wissinger H., & Ullrich, M. (2011). Teachers‘ Werning, R., & Baumert, J. (Eds.), Schul- und Unterrichts­ beliefs, instructional behaviors, (2013). Inklusion entwickeln: reform durch ergebnis­orientierte and students‘ engagement Leitideen für Schulentwicklung

352 |Emeriti Wolfgang Edelstein’s Publications

Edelstein, W. (in press-a). Bil- [Auseinander­setzung über Edelstein, W. (2012c). Ver­ Edelstein, W., Bendig, R., & dungsgerechtigkeit und Schule. Geschichts­unter­richt und antwortungspädagogik: Eine Enderlein, O. (2011). Schule: In H. Berkessel, W. Beutel, H. Sozial­kunde im Winter 1983/84] reformpädagogische Perspektive. Kindeswohl, Kinderrechte, Faulstich-Wieland, & H. Veith (pp. 195–210). Reykjavik: In T. Fitzner, P. E. Kalb, & E. Risse Kinderschutz. In J. Fischer, T. (Eds.), Jahrbuch Demokratie­ Háskólaútgáfan. (Eds.), Reformpädagogik in der Buchholz, & R. Merten (Eds.), pädagogik: Vol. 2013/14. Neue Schulpraxis (pp. 77–83). Bad Kinderschutz in gemeinsamer Lernkultur Genderdemokratie Edelstein, W. (2013c). Upp­ Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. Verantwortung von Jugend- (pp. 153–166). Schwalbach/Ts.: gangur og afdrif samfélags­ hilfe und Schule (pp. 117–140). Wochenschau Verlag. fraedinnar 1974–1984 [Aufstieg Edelstein, W. (2011a). Education ­Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozial- und Fall der Sozialwissenschaft for democracy: Reasons and wissenschaften. Edelstein, W. (in press-b). für die Schule 1974–1984]. strategies. European Journal Citizenship and democracy in In L. Guttormsson (Ed.), Sögu­ of Education, 46, 127–137. Erckrath, M., Edelstein, W., a diverse Europe (2nd ed.). In kennsluskammdegid [Aus­einan­ doi:10.1111/j.1465-3435. & Kuper, H. (2012). Demokra- L. Nucci, T. Krettenauer, & D. der­setzung über Geschichts­ 2010.01463.x tiepädagogik und Lehrerweiter- Narvaez (Eds.), Handbook of unter­richt und Sozial­­kunde im bildung: Bericht über ein neues moral and character education. Winter 1983/84] (pp. 282–317). Edelstein, W. (2011b). Studienkonzept. Journal für London: Routledge. Reykjavik: Háskólaútgáfan. Verantwortung will gelernt LehrerInnenbildung, 12, 30–33. sein: Wie Schulen Kindern und Edelstein, W. (2013a). Markmid Edelstein, W. (2012a). Dank des Jugendlichen Verantwortung Grundmann, M., Steinhoff, A., og bygging ­samfélagsfraedinnar Preisträgers. In Theodor Heuss übertragen können. Edito- & Edelstein, W. (2011). Social [Ziele und Struktur der Sozial­­ Stiftung (Ed.), “Bildung—Teil- rial. In Auf neuen Wegen: Die class, socialization and capabili- wissenschaften für die Schule]. habe—lebendige Demokratie”: Lernkultur an Ganztagsschulen ties in a modern welfare state: In L. Guttormsson (Ed.), Sögu­ 47. Theodor Heuss Preis (pp. 21– verändern (Themenheft No. 14) Results from the Iceland lon- kennsluskammdegid [Aus­einan­ 25). Stuttgart: Theodor-Heuss- (pp. 97–101). Berlin: Deutsche gitudinal study. In O. ­Leßmann, dersetzung über Geschichts­ Stiftung zur Förderung der Kinder- und Jugendstiftung. H.-U. Otto, & H. Ziegler (Eds.), unterricht und Sozial­kunde im politischen Bildung und Kultur Closing the capabilities gap: Winter 1983/84] (pp. 49–98). in Deutschland und Europa. Edelstein, W. (2011c). Wie Renegotiating social justice Reykjavik: Háskólaútgáfan. geschieht Fortschritt in hoch for the young (pp. 233–252). Edelstein, W. (2012b). Demokra- entwickelten Systemen mit Leverkusen: Budrich. Edelstein, W. (2013b). Um tie als Praxis und Demokratie als starken Beharrungskräften? samfélagsfraedi: Tolf athugas- Wert. In W. Beutel, P. Fauser, & In A. Knoke & A. Durdel (Eds.), Schellhas, B., Grundmann, M., & emdir i tilefni af bladaskrifum H. ­Rademacher (Eds.), Jahrbuch Steuerung im Bildungswesen: Edelstein, W. (2012). Kontroll­ [Über die Sozialkunde: Zwölf Demokratiepädagogik: Vol. 2012. Zur Zusammenarbeit von überzeugungen und Schul- Bemerkungen aus Anlass einer Demokratiepädagogik: Aufgabe Ministerien, Schulaufsicht und leistung im Kontext familialer Kontroverse in Zeitungs­ für Schule und Jugendbildung Schulleitungen (pp. 149–163). Sozialisation. Psychologie in artikeln]. In L. Guttormsson (pp. 39–51). Schwalbach/Ts.: Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozial- Erziehung und Unterricht, 59, (Ed.), Sögu­kennsluskammdegid Wochenschau-Verlag. wissenschaften. 93–108.

Emeriti | 353

International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks

International Max Planck International Max Planck Research School on the Life Course (LIFE) Research School on the Life Course

This graduate program on the life course is one of the Max Planck Society’s International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS). It was established in 2002 as a collaboration between the MPI for Human Development, Berlin, the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, the Freie Universität Berlin, and the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. The University of Virginia, Charlottesville, joined in October 2004 and the University of Zurich followed suit in October 2008. www.imprs-life.mpg.de

Studying the development of human behavior their Master or Diploma, share an interest in Co-Chairs from infancy to old age is at the heart of the human life course, and intend to pursue Ulman Lindenberger, the LIFE graduate program. LIFE takes an a doctorate in one of the disciplines repre- MPI for Human integrative and interdisciplinary approach to sented in LIFE (biology, computer science, Development identifying, understanding, and improving economics, educational science, neuroscience, Clemens Tesch-Römer, the mechanisms and conditions that shape psychology, and sociology). As a collaborative German Centre the human life course. It actively promotes Research School, LIFE offers students a unique of Gerontology, international networking and communication educational experience: academic training Associate­ Co-Chair as an integral part of graduate training. The in their area of specialization and academic Patricia A. Reuter- Berlin-based fellows are recruited from all discipline that is enriched by interdisciplinary Lorenz, over the world (e. g., Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Iran, and international perspectives. University of Michigan Israel, Malaysia, Turkey, etc.) In addition, four The training program comprises seminars at Toni C. ­Antonucci, LIFE sites in three countries (Germany, the the participating institutions, a series of fall University of Michigan, United States, Switzerland) located on either and spring academies, and the supervision Associate Co-Chair side of the Atlantic guarantee a graduate of research training by members of the LIFE Steven M. Boker, education with a strong emphasis on interna- faculty. The program also provides opportuni- ­University of Virginia tional exchange and collaboration. ties for research to be carried out abroad at Angeline S. Lillard, The target groups of the Research School one of the cooperating institutions. Eighteen University of Virginia, are graduate students who have completed fellows (9 from Berlin, 2 from the University Associate Co-Chair Alexandra M. Freund, University of Zurich

Coordinators Imke Kruse, MPI for Human Development­ (10/2011–03/2012 and since 08/2012) Julia A. M. Delius, MPI for Human Development (01/2011–09/2011, 04/2012–07/2012) Linda Durham, University of Michigan Juanita L. Geer, University of Virginia

Figure 1. Participants from all four LIFE sites during the LIFE Spring Academy 2013 at the University of Michigan. © Steven M. Boker

International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks | 357 of Virginia, 2 from the University of Michigan, and 5 from the University of Zurich) made use Table 1 of this international research option in the International LIFE Community 2011–2013 period. (as of December 2013) The key components of the LIFE program are Berlin Michigan Virginia Zurich weeklong academies attended by fellows and faculty from each site. Each year, one Faculty 31 29 17 11 academy takes place in spring and the other Fellows 23 7 11 9 in fall; hence, six such academies took place Alumni 64 32 21 14 during the period of reporting. The LIFE Spring Academy 2011 was organized by the Univer- sity of Michigan, while the Fall Academy 2011 In 2011, LIFE received the APA Board of Edu- took place in the mountain village of Bergün, cational Affairs Award to Advance Interdisci- Switzerland. In 2012, the Spring Academy was plinary Education and Training in Psychology. held at the MPI for Human Development with This award recognizes education and training the Fall Academy taking place at the Univer- programs in psychology that advance inter- sity of Virginia. The 2013 Spring Academy was disciplinary, multidisciplinary, or interprofes- held at the University of Michigan while the sional teaching, research, or practice. Fall Academy was organized by the Univer- In 2012, the IMPRS LIFE received a highly sity of Zurich at Schloss Marbach, Germany, positive evaluation from a board of four near Lake Constance. The next academy is external reviewers appointed by the Max scheduled to take place in Charlottesville in Planck Society. In their report, the review- May 2014. Each fellow participates in four ers particularly highlighted the international academies. Typically, 25–30 fellows attend focus of the program, the breadth of the a given academy, and most of them present interdisciplinary research agenda, the high their dissertation research either as a poster methodological quality of doctoral training or as a paper presentation. Roughly 20 faculty and research, and the sound balance between members from all sites also participate in a more formal academic training structure each academy, in addition to a possible one and less formalized options for exchange and to two guest speakers from other institutions. cooperation. The report provided the basis for During the spring academies, the graduating the Max Planck Society’s decision to continue alumni join the group to celebrate their LIFE to support the LIFE program for a third fund- Commencement. ing period until the end of 2019.

Figure 2. Berlin Fellows at a LIFE Seminar taught by Ulman Lindenberger. © Steven M. Boker

358 | International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks In addition to the academies, each participating site also offers special courses reflecting the specific profile of its graduate program. In Berlin, this comprises weekly seminars at the MPI for Human Development that are taught throughout the academic year by a diverse group of faculty members from the three participat- ing Berlin institutions as well as additional workshops with a particular focus on methods. Several courses take place simultaneously with the other LIFE sites via advanced video-conferencing technology (Access- Grid).

LIFE Seminars and Workshops 2011–2013, Berlin

Semester Topic Lecturer(s)

Winter 2010/11 Lifespan and Plasticity Ulman Lindenberger (MPIB) and guests Winter 2010/11 Academic Presentation Training Steve Weir (FU) Summer 2011 Fellows’ Project Presentations Chaired by Berlin LIFE Alumni Summer 2011 Multilevel Modeling Tanja Lischetzke (FU) Winter 2011/12 Defining, Assessing, and Predicting Hans Anand Pant, Dirk Richter, Petra Educational Achievement Stanat (HU), and guests Winter 2011/12 Dynamical Systems Analysis Steve M. Boker (UVa) via ­AccessGrid Winter 2011/12 Academic Presentation Training Steve Weir (FU) Summer 2012 Foundations of Lifespan Research Berlin Faculty and guests Summer 2012 Equilibrium Dynamics and Latent Steve M. Boker (UVa) Differential­ Equations Summer 2012 Fraud, Integrity, and Responsible Georg W. Kreutzberg (MPI for Neuro­ ­Conduct in Science biology, Martinsried) Summer 2012 Modern Missing Data Handling: Todd D. Little (University of Kansas) Planning for the Unplanned and ­Including the Planned Winter 2012/13 Health Psychology Across the Lifespan Ralf Schwarzer (FU) and guests Winter 2012/13 Academic Presentation Training Steve Weir (FU) Summer 2013 Introductory Workshop “Foundations of Ulman Lindenberger (MPIB) and guests Lifespan Research” Summer 2013 Academic Writing James Murphey (FU) Summer 2013 Fellows’ Project Presentations Chaired by Berlin LIFE Alumni Summer 2013 Introduction to R Jana Mahlke (FU) Summer 2013 Latent Change Score SEM Analysis Jack McArdle (USC) Winter 2013/14 Social and Behavioral Gerontology Clemens Tesch-Römer (DZA) and guests Winter 2013/14 Academic Presentation Training Steve Weir (FU) Winter 2013/14 Introduction to Mplus Andrea Hildebrandt (HU)

Note. Freie Universität Berlin (FU), Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (HU), German Centre of Gerontology (DZA), MPI for Human Development (MPIB), University of Southern California (USC), University of Virginia (UVa).

International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks | 359 LIFE Faculty 2011–2013 (as of January 2014)

MPI for Human Development Shinobu Kitayama, Psychology Jürgen Baumert, Education Daniel Kruger, Psychology & Public Health Gerd Gigerenzer, Psychology Bobbi S. Low, Evolutionary & Behavioral ­Ecology Ralph Hertwig, Psychology (since 01/2012) Cindy Lustig, Psychology Simone Kühn, Neuroscience (since 01/2012) Kevin F. Miller, Psychology & Education Ulman Lindenberger, Psychology Maria Muzik, Psychiatry Martin Lövdén, Psychology Randolph M. Nesse, Psychology & Psychiatry Michaela Riediger, Psychology Sheryl Olson, Psychology Lael S. Schooler, Psychology Thad Polk, Psychology Sascha Schroeder, Psychology & Education (since Patricia A. Reuter-Lorenz, Cognitive Psychology & 04/2012) Neuroscience Yee Lee Shing, Psychology (since 01/2012) Arnold Sameroff, Psychology John Schulenberg, Psychology Freie Universität Berlin Rachael Seidler, Psychology & Kinesiology Martin Brunner, Psychology & Education (since Priti Shah, Psychology 03/2013) Jacqui Smith, Psychology Michael Eid, Psychology Abigail Stewart, Psychology Hauke R. Heekeren, Neuroscience Twila Tardif, Psychology Arthur M. Jacobs, Psychology Henry M. Wellman, Psychology Herbert Scheithauer, Psychology Ralf Schwarzer, Psychology & Health University of Virginia Clemens Tesch-Römer, Psychology & Gerontology Steven M. Boker, Cognitive & Quantitative Psychology­ Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Gerald L. Clore, Social Psychology Jens B. Asendorpf, Psychology James Coan, Clinical Psychology (since 04/2011) Hans Bertram, Sociology Judy DeLoache, Developmental Psychology Peter A. Frensch, Psychology Chad Dodson, Cognitive Psychology Denis Gerstorf, Psychology (since 04/2011) David L. Hill, Psychobiology Peter Hammerstein, Biology Vikram K. Jaswal, Developmental Psychology Oliver Lüdtke, Psychology & Education Angeline S. Lillard, Developmental Psychology (since 06/2011) James P. Morris, Social Neuroscience (since 04/2011) Hans Anand Pant, Education John R. Nesselroade, Quantitative & Developmental Petra Stanat, Education Psychology Arno Villringer, Neuroscience Brian Nosek, Cognitive, Quantitative, & Social Psychology Other Faculty Affiliated With LIFE Berlin Timo von Oertzen, Quantitative Psychology (since Gerd Kempermann, Neuroscience, Center for 02/2012) ­Regenerative Therapies Dresden Robert C. Pianta, Educational Science Shu-Chen Li, Psychology, Technische Universität Timothy Salthouse, Cognitive Psychology Dresden & MPI for Human Development Bethany Teachman, Clinical & Social Psychology Florian Schmiedek, Psychology, Deutsches Institut Eric Turkheimer, Quantitative & Clinical Psychology für Pädagogische Forschung Frankfurt a. M. & James H. Wyckoff, Educational Science MPI for Human Development C. Katharina Spieß, Economics, Deutsches Institut University of Zurich für Wirtschaftsforschung & Freie Universität Moritz Daum, Developmental Psychology (since Berlin 12/2012) Gert G. Wagner, Economics, Deutsches Insti­tut Simon Forstmeier, Psychopathology & Clinical für Wirtschaftsforschung & MPI for Human Intervention Development­ Alexandra M. Freund, Applied Psychology: Life Management University of Michigan Lutz Jäncke, Neuropsychology Toni C. Antonucci, Psychology Andreas Maercker, Psychopathology & Clinical Don Brown, Psychology Intervention Cleopatra Howard Caldwell, Psychology Mike Martin, Gerontopsychology Kai S. Cortina, Psychology & Education Urs Maurer, Cognitive Neuroscience (since 08/2011) Pamela Davis-Kean, Psychology & Education Martin Meyer, Neuropsychology (since 04/2011) Jacquelynne S. Eccles, Psychology & Education Jana Nikitin, Applied Psychology: Life Management Robin S. Edelstein, Psychology (since 04/2011) Richard Gonzalez, Psychology Friedrich Wilkening, General & Developmental L. Rowell Huesmann, Psychology & Communication Psychology Studies Jacqueline Zöllig, Gerontopsychology James S. Jackson, Social Psychology (since 04/2011) Daniel Keating, Psychology

360 | International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks LIFE Doctoral Fellows­ 2011–2013

MPI for Human Development University of Michigan Janne Adolf, Psychology Joshua Carp, Psychology Cathleen Bache, Psychology William J. Chopik, Psychology Garvin Brod, Psychology Alanna D. Epstein, Education & Psychology Yana Fandakova, Psychology Lynn Ossher, Psychology Anika Josef, Psychology Xingyu Pan, Education & Psychology Maike Kleemeyer, Psychology Lauren Reed, Psychology Kathrin Klipker, Psychology Wylie Wan, Psychology Nina Lisofsky, Psychology Johanna Sänger, Psychology University of Virginia Nicolas W. Schuck, Psychology Riana Elyse Anderson, Psychology Viola S. Störmer, Psychology Christopher Beam, Psychology Elisabeth Wenger, Psychology David Dobolyi, Psychology Geneva T. Dodson, Psychology Freie Universität Berlin Laura Marie Getz, Psychology Milena Barz, Psychology Jennifer Green, Psychology Maryam Gholami, Psychology Erin E. Horn, Psychology Judith Mangelsdorf, Psychology Felicity F. Miao, Psychology Anja Schultze-Krumbholz, Psychology Eric D. Smith, Psychology Thomas Talhelm, Psychology Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Siny Tsang, Psychology Johanna Drewelies, Psychology Fidan Gasimova, Mathematics University of Zurich Nicole Haag, Education Rachel Bachem, Psychology Aleksander Kocaj, Education Julia Binder, Psychology Camilla Rjosk, Education Jessica Carolyn Bühler, Psychology Stefan Schipolowski, Education Sarah Hirsiger, Psychology Nina Vogel, Psychology Kathrin Krause, Psychology Andreas Küffer, Psychology Other Institutions Affiliated With LIFE Berlin Katharina Rufener, Psychology Miray Erbey, Neuroscience, Berlin NeuroImaging Kathrin Schaffhuser, Psychology Center, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin Josua Schmeitzky, Psychology Julia Freund, Neuroscience, Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden Fivos Iliopoulos, Neuroscience, Berlin NeuroImaging Center, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin Anita Kottwitz, Sociology, Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung Bettina Sonnenberg, Sociology, Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung

International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks | 361 International Max Planck Research School for Moral Economies of Modern Societies (Moral Economies)

The International Max Planck Research School for Moral Economies of Modern Societies was established in 2013. The research school is a collaboration of the MPI for Human Development with Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Technische Universität Berlin. A close cooperation with the University of Chicago and the University of California, Berkeley, is currently being organized. It will include joint conferences/summer schools and an exchange program for PhD students and faculty.

Spokesperson Research at the IMPRS Moral Economies group and from the close ties between the focuses on values, emotions, and habits that Institute and the universities. Cooperation Ute Frevert, informed and inspired social formations in with international partners promotes intel- MPI for Human Europe, North America, and South Asia from lectual exchange between students and senior Development the 18th to the 20th century. Moral econo- academics. mies are perceived as being dynamic and The research school targets ­outstanding Research contested rather than static and harmonious. international students with a Master’s degree Coordinator­ As a consequence, the term is used in the plu- in History. Candidates from related inter- Monika Freier, ral rather than in the singular. It encompasses disciplinary fields, such as Anthropology, MPI for Human “economy” not only in a literal sense but also Sociology, or Literary and Cultural Studies, Development in a broader sense that positions it within are also encouraged to apply for admission to other societal spheres and systems. Moral the program. Students choose their individual economies are effectuated and practiced by research topics independently in consultation people who embrace them both as individuals with faculty members. This leads to a broad as well as members of larger social, ethnic, spectrum of topics. age, and other groups. The IMPRS Moral Each year, six new doctoral candidates are Economies thus studies the ways in which admitted with a stipend that can be extended values and emotions reinforce or contradict for up to 4 years. The maximum number of each other in modern societies, both on the PhD students studying simultaneously is level of major ideas and concepts as well as limited to 18, thus ensuring close relation- on the level of social interaction and institu- ships between students and faculty advisers. tional settings. The program’s curriculum is the subject of The IMPRS Moral Economies offers an in- continuous evaluations and faculty review. ternational PhD program to a small group of It offers discipline-based training through doctoral students from all over the world. The specialized courses on historical theories students benefit from being part of a cohesive and methodologies as well as tailor-made

Introduction Coursework Evaluation Empirical phase Evaluation Completion advanced seminars archival research/ composition and in theory and fieldwork submission, methodology thesis defence Regular meetings with supervisors, conferences, soft-skill workshops, summer schools

Figure 1. The structured PhD program of the IMPRS Moral Economies runs over a period of 4 years. Seminars on theory and methodology during the coursework phase (semesters 1-3) provide a common context for students from different academic backgrounds. Further seminars and workshops on different aspects of moral econo- mies enable the PhD students to refine their research interests. The empirical phase (semesters 4-5) is primarily devoted to the collection of source material from archives and libraries and/or to fieldwork. PhD students then compose their dissertations during the completion stage (semesters 6-8). Detailed comments by peers and super- visors help them to fine-tune their texts and prepare for the thesis defence. © MPI for Human Development

362 | International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks Figure 2. Research on connections between morality, emotions, and market economies is a key focus of the IMPRS Moral Economies. © MPI for Human Development seminars on moral economies. PhD students Berkeley, regular summer schools, as well as benefit from the close collaboration with exchange with other graduate schools and researchers at the Center for the History of research groups working in similar fields. Emotions at the Institute. At the same time, the topics the students choose to investigate will have an impact on the direction of further research into connections between morality, emotions, and societal systems. The IMPRS Moral Economies was launched in October 2013 with its first cohort of PhD students. The official inauguration of the research school took place on 20 November 2013 with a keynote lecture by Prof. David Nirenberg (University of Chicago) and pre- sentations of the PhD projects by the doctoral fellows. The engagement with moral econo- mies as a theoretical and methodological research approach was also the focal point of the academic retreat in March 2014, attended by the doctoral students, members of the IMPRS Moral Economies’ faculty, as well as researchers from the Center for the History of Emotions. In the coming years, the program of the ­IMPRS Figure 3. The structured program of the IMPRS Moral Moral Economies will be enriched by aca- Economies provides guidance and full financial sup- demic exchange with our partner universities, port to PhD candidates in order to help them climb the conferences in cooperation with the University ladder of academic excellence. of Chicago and the University of California, © David Ausserhofer

International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks | 363 IMPRS Moral Economies Faculty 2011–2013

MPI for Human Development, Center for the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, ­History of Emotions Department of History Ute Frevert Birgit Aschmann Margrit Pernau Alexander Nützenadel

Freie Universität Berlin, Department of ­History Technische Universität Berlin, and Cultural Studies, Friedrich-Meinecke- Center for Research on Anti-Semitism Institut Stefanie Schüler-Springorum Sebastian Conrad Paul Nolte

IMPRS Moral Economies Doctoral Fellows 2011–2013 (Cohort I, as of October 2013)

Yaara Benger (Israel) Thomas Rohringer (Austria) The right to relax: Holiday-making as an expres- Spaces and emotional styles: War victims in sion of work-leisure moral frameworks in 20th Great Britain and Austria in the interwar period century Great Britain Marie Schubenz (Germany) Tobias Bernet (Switzerland) Contested solidarity: Moral economies in the Moral economies of urban dwelling: Non-profit trade union movement of the 1970s and 1980s housing in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland in Fabian Steininger (Germany) the 20th and 21st centuries Community concepts of Turkish nationalist Timon De Groot (Netherlands) networks in the late Ottoman Empire False shame and the civil hierarchies of the 19th and early 20th century

Figure 4. Inauguration of the IMPRS Moral Economies on 20 November 2013. Group picture with the 2013 cohort of doctoral students, IMPRS faculty, scientific coordinator and Prof. Nirenberg (speaker for the keynote lecture). © MPI for Human Development

364 | International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks International Max Planck Research School Adapting Behavior in a Fundamentally Uncertain World

This graduate program is part of the Max Planck Society’s framework of International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS). The school is a collaboration featuring the MPI for Human Development (Berlin), the MPI for Research on Collective Goods (Bonn), the MPI of Economics (Jena), the University of Bonn, the ­Friedrich Schiller University (Jena), the University of Trento, the Hebrew University (Jerusalem), and Indiana University (Bloomington). It was established in 2007 and, based on an external review process, in 2011 the school was extended for an ad- ditional 6 years.

The goal of the school is to provide advanced on teaching condensed courses on state- Spokespersons training in doing research on explaining and of-the-art research areas, by faculty in the Christoph Engel, predicting human decision making under partner institutions and guest faculty from MPI for Research on uncertainty and designing institutions that leading institutions across the world, as well Collective Goods improve this decision making. Research ideas as the initiation of a research project that Oliver Kirchkamp, and methods from various disciplines are includes students from other institutions; Friedrich Schiller used, such as psychology, economics, and law. finally, in the 1-week-long topics workshop, University Jena Students come in with a master’s degree there is a mix between research-based lec- (or equivalent) and are awarded a doctoral tures, roundtable discussions, and hands-on Research degree from one of the partner universities or activities, such as learning a new software for Coordinator from other universities in Berlin. Besides hav- running behavioral experiments. ing access to a thesis advisor, students also Student participation in the program is en- Susanne Buechner, take advantage of three annual events: sured through the use of a system of credit for MPI of Economics In the 1-week-long thesis workshop, students the various activities, courses, and projects. present a research project and receive feed- So far, 27 students have completed the pro- back from other students and faculty; in the gram and graduated with a doctorate degree. 4-week-long summer school, the emphasis is Currently, 30 students are enrolled.

Figure 1. Participants of the 7th IMPRS Uncertainty Summer School 2013 in Jena. © Thomas Brückner

International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks | 365 IMPRS Uncertainty Faculty 2011–2013

MPI for Human Development, Center for Hebrew University, Center for the Study of ­Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Rationality Gerd Gigerenzer Menahem Yaari Mirta Galesic Yaakov Kareev Konstantinos V. Katsikopoulos Henrik Olsson Indiana University, Department of Brain and Lael J. Schooler Psychological Sciences Peter Todd MPI of Economics, Strategic Interaction Group Jerome Busemeyer Werner Gueth Robert Goldstone Federica Alberti Anna Conte University of Jena, School of Economics and Paolo Crosetto Business Administration Astrid Gamba Uwe Cantner Mitesh Kataria Andreas Freytag Rene Levinsky Oliver Kirchkamp Astrid Matthey Hans-Walter Lorenz Natalia Montinari Markus Pasche Tobias Regner Michael Trost Friedrich Schiller University Jena, ­Department of Ori Weisel Social Psychology Thomas Kessler MPI for Research on Collective Goods Peter Noack Christoph Engel Klaus Rothermund Andreas Gloeckner Niels Petersen University of Bonn, Institute of Commercial and Emmanuel Towfigh Economic Law Daniel Zimmer

IMPRS Uncertainty Doctoral Fellows 2011–2013

Gulnaz Anjum (Pakistan) Laura Lyhs (Germany) Daniel Barkoczi (Hungary) Isabel Marcin (Germany) Nadine Blaeser (Germany) Laxmi Natarajan (India) Astrid Buba (Austria) Olexandr Nikolaychuk (Ukraine) Stojan Davidovic (Serbia) Ayu Okvitawanli (Indonesia) Christiane Ehses-Friedrich (Germany) Marian Panganiban (Philippines) Mike Farjam (Germany) Pantelis Pipergias Analytis (Greece) Andre Grimes (USA) Henning Proempers (Germany) Yoan Hermstruewer (Germany) Jolene Tan (Singapore) Jana Jarecki (Germany) Andra Toader (Germany) Lin Jing (China) Stephan Tontrup (Germany) Magdalena Kaczmarek (Poland) Benedikt Werner (Germany) Serhiy Kandul (Ukraine) Lilia Zhurakhovska (Ukraine) Marco Kleine (Germany) Monika Ziolkowska (Poland) Carlos Kurschlingen (Spain)

366 | International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks MaxNetAging Research School

The Max Planck International Research Network on Aging (MaxNetAging) was founded in 2004 by the late Paul B. Baltes. The MaxNetAging Research School (MNARS) was launched by MaxNetAging in October 2007 (Director: James W. Vaupel). This stipend program provides funding for doctoral and postdoctoral students. PhD students can obtain funding for up to a maximum of 3 years, postdocs for up to a maximum of 2 years. The MPI for Human Develop- ment is involved in this training program along with 20 further Max Planck Institutes as well as many other international research institutions.

At the beginning of their term, the PhD PhD students and postdocs continue their students and postdocs spend an initial period PhD education and research projects at the of 6 months at the MPI for Demographic Max Planck Institutes they are affiliated with. Research in Rostock. During this time, they During this period, the students are invited spend 6 hours each week in a course pro- to multifaceted MaxNetAging workshops at- gram designed to introduce them to various tended by MaxNetAging faculty representing aspects of aging research. Thereafter, the many disciplines and institutions.

MaxNetAging Faculty at the MPI for Human Development Jürgen Baumert Ute Frevert Wolfgang Gaissmaier Gerd Gigerenzer Shu-Chen Li Ulman Lindenberger Michaela Riediger Lael J. Schooler

MNARS Fellows at the MPI for Human Development Elisabeth Blanke (PhD student, MNARS: 2012–2014) Hanna Bettine Fechner (PhD student, MNARS: 2011–2014) Anna Sofia Morais (Postdoc, MNARS: 2012–2014) Susanne Passow (PhD student, MNARS: 2007–2011) Julia K. Wolff (PhD student, MNARS: 2008–2011) John Wong (PhD student, MNARS: 2011–2014)

Figure 1. Participants in the MaxNetAging Conference 2012 “Reflections on Living and Dying in Aging Societies” held in Bad Kohlgrub. © MaxNetAging

International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks | 367 Max Planck Research Network on Cognition (Maxnet Cognition): Concluding Report

The Max Planck Research Network on Cognition (Maxnet Cognition) was started in 2009. Its substantive focus is on cognitive neuroscience with an emphasis on human cognitive perfor- mance, structural and functional brain circuitry, and computational algorithms. The strate- COGNITION gic goals of Maxnet Cognition have been to increase cooperation and improve coordination between institutes and to foster cross-disciplinary insights and collaboration. The network’s activities include research coordination and research collaboration. As a result of two initial workshops, Genetics and Cognition as well as Face Perception were identified as two thematic clusters of common research interest. Most of the network’s activities have taken place within these thematic clusters.

Steering Committee Collaborative research within the Face magnetic resonance imaging of grey matter Perception cluster focused on dynamic facial volume and white matter tracts. By agreeing Peter Hagoort , expressions, multisensory integration, and on this protocol, the participating institu- MPI for Psycholin- action prediction. Scientists from the MPI for tions have increased their joint potential for guistics, Nijmegen Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, the MPI for discovery and replication of relations among Ulman Lindenberger, Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, genes, brain, and behavior. Second, the same MPI for Human the MPI for Human Development, Berlin, and three Institutes have agreed on the use and Development,­ Berlin the MPI for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, were installation of XNAT, an open-source imaging Arno Villringer, involved in this work. At the Institute, the software platform for importing, archiving, MPI for Human Interactive Brains, Social Minds project at the processing, and securely distributing imaging Cognitive and Brain Center for Lifespan Psychology (pp. 239–244) and related data (see www.xnat.org). The lat- Sciences, Leipzig participated in the activities of this cluster. ter activity was undertaken in collaboration Collaboration within the Genetics and with the Max Planck Digital Library and finan- Cognition cluster aimed at establishing a cially supported by a grant from the Federal common measurement protocol as well as a Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF; common software platform for imaging data. Förderkennzeichen BASE-II 16SV5837). In the meantime, both of these goals have The Innovation Fund of the Max Planck been attained. First, the MPI for Cognitive Society has supported Maxnet Cognition and Brain Sciences at Leipzig, the MPI for financially from 2009 to 2013. It is likely Psycholinguistics at Nijmegen, and the MPI that the Network will have a lasting positive for Human Development in Berlin have agreed effect on research coordination and collabo- on a core imaging protocol that includes ration among several institutes of the Max functional magnetic resonance imaging of Planck Society, including the MPI for Human the default network as well as structural Development.

368 | International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS) & Networks

Max Planck Fellow

Gert G. Wagner Max Planck Fellow

In June 2008, Gert G. Wagner, was appointed a Max Planck Fellow at the Institute. Gert G. Wagner is professor at the Technische Universität Berlin and since 2011 Member of the Executive Board of the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW Berlin). The Max Planck Society established the Fellow Program to further strengthen research coopera- tion between its institutes and neighboring universities and other research institutions. The cooperation with Gert G. Wagner, one of the leading researchers running the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP), allows researchers at the Institute to link their experimental work, such as cognitive interventions, to longitudinal observations from the SOEP. In addition, innovative survey technologies, such as mobile-phone-based cognitive testing in real-life settings, can be explored and validated. Ulman Lindenberger and Gert G. Wagner are two out of five Co-Principal Investigators of the Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II).

Research Team 2011–2013

Gert G. Wagner, Cornelia Wrzus (as of 09/2013: Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, ­Germany)

Postdoctoral Fellow Gloria Luong

Predoctoral Fellows Anita Kottwitz (LIFE), Bettina Sonnenberg (LIFE; as of 01/2013: University of Tübingen, Germany)

372 | Max Planck Fellow Gert G. Wagner Max Planck Fellow Gert G. Wagner

As a Max Planck Fellow, I bring my experience from the large-scale longitudinal study ­German www.diw.de/soep-is/en Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) into various research groups of the MPI for Human Develop- www.base2.mpg.de/ ment. I am especially interested in the (late) life course (Lang, Baltes, & Wagner, 2007; Headey, Muffels, & Wagner, 2010) and in the analysis of one particular personal trait: risk aversion (an important personal characteristic for an economist; Dohmen et al., 2011; Vischer et al., 2013). In 2013, I began working with Ralph Hertwig, who is interested in the different dimensions of risk aversion. In his department, the analysis of the dynamics of risk aversion is an initial project Key References based on regular SOEP data. We are also planning to develop special survey questions and Bertram, L., Böcken- behavioral experiments for inclusion in the SOEP Innovation Sample. hoff, A., Demuth, I., Düzel, S., ­Eckardt, R., Li, S.-C., Lindenberger,­ I started my collaboration with research- the ecologically valid investigation of this U., Pawelec, G., Siedler, ers in the Institute on a project with Ulman research topic, sleep must be measured within T., Wagner, G. G., & Lindenberger on the terminal decline in life people’s natural living contexts (Wrzus, Steinhagen-Thiessen, E. (in press). Cohort profile: satisfaction (Gerstorf et al., 2008) and am ­Wagner, & Riediger, in press). The Berlin Aging Study II still working on this issue with Denis Gerstorf By means of MMAA, we have gathered evi- (BASE-II). International (Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin) and Nilam dence that our new approach to ambulatory Journal of Epidemiology. Advance online publica- Ram (Pennsylvania State University). This line accelerometry data offers a convenient, reli- tion. doi:10.1093/ije/ of research is embedded in my work for the able, and valid measurement of both sleeping dyt018 Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II; Bertram et al., duration and sleep quality in people’s natural Dohmen, T., Falk, A., in press), which is in collaboration with Ulman sleeping environments. A subsample of 92 Huffmann, D., Sunde, U., Lindenberger, Lars Bertram (MPI for Molecular participants in MMAA (14–83 years of age) Schupp, J., & Wagner, Genetics, Berlin), Graham Pawelec (Immunol- spent a night in their natural environment G. G. (2011). Individual risk attitudes: Measure- ogy, University of Tübingen), and Elisabeth wearing acceleration sensors on the sternum ment, determinants, and Steinhagen-Thiessen (Charité Universitäts- and right thigh (see Figure 1) and following behavioral conse- medizin Berlin) (see Center for Lifespan their normal routine. Physical activity, body quences. Journal of the European Economic Psychology, pp. 233–238). posture, and changes in body posture dur- Association, 9, 522–550. My most intensive involvement with the ing the night were classified using a newly doi:10.1111/j.1542- Institute is my work in Michaela Riediger’s developed classification algorithm based on 4774.2011.01015.x Research Group “Affect Across the Lifespan.” angular changes of body axes. The duration Gerstorf, D., Ram, N., Together, we established a special longitu- of supine posture and objective indicators of Estabrook, R., Schupp, dinal study, the Multi-Method Ambulatory sleep quality showed convergent validity with J., Wagner, G. G., & Lindenberger, U. (2008). Assessment (MMAA) project, which allows self-reports of sleep duration and quality as Life satisfaction shows measurements of experiences, cognitive well as external validity regarding expected terminal decline in old capacity, and physiological processes in daily- age differences. The algorithms for classify- age: Longitudinal evi- dence from the German life contexts. We apply SOEP-like interview ing sleep postures and posture changes very Socio-Economic Panel techniques and well-controlled experimental reliably distinguished postures with 99.7 % Study (SOEP). Develop- paradigms (SOEP = German Socio-Economic accuracy. Thus, our new algorithm based on mental Psychology, 44, 1148–1159. Panel Study). Ambulatory assessment meth- body posture classification using ambulatory ods include mobile-phone-based experience accelerometry data offers a feasible and eco- Headey, B., Muffels, sampling (Sonnenberg, Riediger, Wrzus, & logically valid approach to monitor sleeping R., & Wagner, G. G. (2010). Long-running Wagner, 2012) and ambulatory biomonitor- behavior at home in sizable and heteroge- German panel survey ing of cardiac activity, physical activity, and neous samples. shows that personal hormonal processes (Wrzus, Müller, Wagner, In a recent study that tested the “over- and economic choices, not just genes, matter Lindenberger, & Riediger, 2013). One field of powering hypothesis” (Wrzus et al., 2013), for happiness. Proceed- research is sleep. we combined the full MMAA sample ings of the National Interest in the effects of sleeping behavior (378 participants, 14–86 years of age) with Academy of Sciences of the United States of on health and performance is continuously a subsample of participants who wore the America, 107, 17922– increasing—both in the scientific commu- ambulatory psychophysiological monitor- 17926. doi:10.1073/ nity and with the public at large. To ensure ing system. All participants reported their pnas.1008612107

Max Planck Fellow Gert G. Wagner | 373 Key References Effect of gravity force Lang, F. R., Baltes, P. B., during standing & Wagner, G. G. (2007). Desired lifetime and end-of-life desires across Vertical adulthood from 20 to 90: A dual-source informa- tion model. Journal of Gerontology: Psycho- logical Sciences, 62B, P268–P276.

Sonnenberg, B., Riediger,­ M., Wrzus, C., & Wagner, G. G. 3-D acceleration sensor (2012). Measuring at the sternum time use in surveys: Concordance of survey and experience sampling measures. Social Science Mediolateral Research, 41, 1037– 1052. doi:10.1016/j. ssrsearch.2012.03.013

Vischer, T., Dohmen, T., Antero-posterior Falk, A., Huffman, D., Schupp, J., Sunde, U., & Wagner, G. G. (2013). Validating an ultra-short survey 1-D acceleration sensor measure of patience. at the right thigh Economic Letters, 120, 142–145. doi:10.1016/j.­ econlet.2013.04.007

Wrzus, C., Müller, V., Wagner, G. G., Linden­ berger, U., & Riediger, M. (2013). Affective and cardiovascular respond- ing to unpleasant events from adolescence to old age: Complexity of events matters. Develop- mental Psychology, 49, 384–397. doi:10.1037/ a0028325 Figure 1. Labeling of body axes and placement of acceleration sensors. © MPI for Human Development

momentary negative affect and occurrences circumscribed unpleasant events, however, no of unpleasant events on average 54 times age differences in psychological responding over 3 weeks. Affective responding was were observed, and cardiovascular responding analyzed by comparing—within persons—af- was even less pronounced the older the par- fective states in situations with and without ticipants were. These findings are consistent preceding unpleasant events. Results support with the notion of preserved affect regulation the overpowering hypothesis: When dealing throughout adulthood, as long as the resource with complex unpleasant events that affected demands exerted by an event do not overtax multiple life domains, both psychological the individual’s capacities. We concluded and cardiovascular responses to unpleas- that the overpowering hypothesis can bridge ant events were more pronounced the older previously opposing positions regarding age the participants were. When dealing with differences in affective responding.

374 | Max Planck Fellow Gert G. Wagner Publications 2011–2013 (last update: January 2014)

Bertram, L., Böckenhoff, A., Infurna, F. J., Gerstorf, D., Ram, life. Emotion, 11, 656–665. on Multidisciplinary Panel Data Demuth, I., Düzel, S., ­Eckardt, N., Schupp, J., & Wagner, G. G. doi:10.1037/a0022756 Research No. 390). Berlin: DIW. R., Li, S.-C., Lindenberger,­ U., (2011). Long-term antecedents Pawelec, G., Siedler, T., Wagner, and outcomes of perceived Sassenroth, D., Kroh, M., & Vischer, T., Dohmen, T., Falk, G. G., & Steinhagen-Thiessen, control. Psychology and Aging, Wagner, G. G. (2013). Selectiv- A., Huffman, D., Schupp, E. (in press). Cohort profile: The 26, 559–575. doi:10.1037/ ity processes in and weights for J., Sunde, U., & Wagner, Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II). a0022890 the Berlin Aging Study II (BASE- G. G. (2013). Validating an International Journal of Epidemi- II): German Socio-Economic ultra-short survey measure of ology. Advance online publica- Lang, F. R., John, D., Lüdtke, O., Panel (SOEP) (SOEPpapers on patience. Economic Letters, tion. doi:10.1093/ije/dyt018 Schupp, J., & Wagner, G. G. Multidisciplinary Panel Data 120, 142–145. doi:10.1016/j.­ (2011). Short assessment of the Research No. 608). Berlin: DIW. econlet.2013.04.007 Boeckenhoff, A., Sassenroth, Big Five: Robust across survey D., Kroh, M., Siedler, T., Eibich, methods except telephone Schwarze, R., Schwindt, M., Wrzus, C., Brandmaier, A. M., P., & Wagner, G. G. (2013). The interviewing. Behavior Re- Weck-Hannemann, H., Raschky, Oertzen, T. von, Müller, V., Socio-Economic Module of the search Methods, 43, 548–567. P., Zahn, F., & Wagner, G. G. Wagner, G. G., & Riediger, Berlin Aging Study II (SOEP- doi:10.3758/s13428-011-0066-z (2011). Natural hazard insurance M. (2012a). A new approach BASE): Description, structure, in Europe: Tailored responses for assessing sleep duration and questionnaire (SOEPpapers Lang, F. R., Weiss, D., Gerstorf, D., to climate change are needed. and postures from ambulatory on Multidisciplinary Panel Data & Wagner, G. G. (2013). Fore- Environmental Policy and Gover- accelerometry. PLoS ONE, 7 (10): Research No. 568). Berlin: DIW. casting life satisfaction across nance, 21, 14–30. doi:10.1002/ e48089. doi:10.1371/journal. adulthood: Benefits of seeing a eet.554 pone.0048089 Bruhn, A., Huschka, D., & dark future? Psychology and Ag- ­Wagner, G. G. (2012). Naming ing, 28, 249–261. doi:10.1037/ Siedler, T., Schupp, J., & Wagner, Wrzus, C., Brandmaier, A. M., and war in modern Germany. a0030797 G. G. (2011). Innovative methods Oertzen, T. von, Müller, V., Names: A Journal of Onomastics, within the context of secondary Wagner, G. G., & Riediger, 60, 74–89. doi:10.1179/ Ordoñana, J. R., Bartels, M., data: Examples from house- M. (2012b). A new approach 0027773812Z.00000000011 Boomsma, D. I., Cella, D., … hold panel surveys. In K. H. for assessing sleep duration Wagner, G. G., Sprangers, M. A. Trzesniewski, M. B. Donnellan, and postures from ambulatory Dohmen, T., Falk, A., Huffmann, G., & The GENEQOL Consortium. & R. E. Lucas (Eds.), Secondary accelerometry (SOEPpapers on D., Sunde, U., Schupp, J., & (2013). Biological pathways and data analysis: An introduction Multidisciplinary Panel Data Wagner, G. G. (2011). Individual genetic mechanisms involved for psychologists (pp. 103–118). Research No. 507). Berlin: DIW. risk attitudes: Measurement, in social functioning. Quality of Washington, DC: American (Reprinted from PLoS ONE, 7 (10): determinants, and behavioral Life Research, 22, 1189–1200. Psychological Association. e48089, 2012, doi:10.1371/ consequences. Journal of the doi:10.1007/s11136-012-0277-5 journal.pone. 0048089) European Economic Association, Siegrist, J., Dragano, N., Nyberg, 9, 522–550. doi:10.1111/ Rager, B., Lang, F. R., & Wagner, S., Lunau, T., Alfredsson, L., … Wrzus, C., Müller, V., Wagner, j.1542-4774.2011.01015.x G. G. (2012). Sparmotive von Wagner, G. G., … Kivimäki, M. G. G., Lindenberger, U., & jungen, mittelalten und älteren (in press). Validating abbrevi- Riediger, M. (2013). Affective Drobetz, R., Maercker, A., Spiess, Erwachsenen: Erste Ergebnisse ated measures of effort-reward and cardiovascular responding C. K., Wagner, G. G., & Forstmeier, eines neuen Inventars zur imbalance at work in European to unpleasant events from ado- S. (2012). A household study Erfassung­­ lebenslaufbezoge­ cohort studies: The IPD-work lescence to old age: Complexity of self-regulation in children: ner Sparmotive. Zeitschrift für consortium. International of events matters. Developmen- Intergenerational links and ma- Gerontologie und Geriatrie, 45, Archives of Occupational and tal Psychology, 49, 384–397. ternal antecedents. Swiss Journal 742-747. doi:10.1007/ Environmental Health. Advance doi:10.1037/a0028325 of Psychology, 71, 215–226. s00391-012-0322-6 online publication. doi:10.1007/ doi:10.1024/1421-0185/a000090 s00420-013-0855-z Wrzus, C., Wagner, G. G., & Riediger, M., Wrzus, C., Riediger, M. (in press). Feeling Headey, B., Hoehne, G., & ­Klipker, K., Müller, V., Sonnenberg, B., Riediger, M., good when sleeping in? Day- ­Wagner, G. G. (in press). Does Schmiedek,­ F., & Wagner, G. G. Wrzus, C., & Wagner, G. G. to-day associations between religion make you healthier (in press). Outside of the labora- (2012). Measuring time use in sleep duration and affective and longer lived? Evidence tory: Associations of working- surveys: Concordance of survey well-being differ from youth to for Germany. Social Indica- memory performance with and experience sampling mea- old age. Emotion. tors Research. Advance online psychological and physiological sures. Social Science Research, publication. doi:10.1007/ arousal vary with age. Psychol- 41, 1037–1052. doi:10.1016/j. s11205-013-0546-x ogy and Aging. ssresearch.2012.03.013

Headey, B., Muffels, R., & Riediger, M., Wrzus, C., Sonnenberg, B., Riediger, M., Wagner, G. G. (2013). Choices ­Schmiedek, F., Wagner, G. G., Wrzus, C., & Wagner, G. G. which change life satisfaction: & Lindenberger, U. (2011). Is (2011). Measuring time use in Similar results for Australia, seeking bad mood cognitively surveys: How valid are time use Britain and Germany. Social In- demanding? Contra-hedonic questions in surveys? Concor- dicators Research, 112, 725–748. orientation and working- dance of survey and experience doi:10.1007/s11205-012-0079-8 memory capacity in everyday sampling measures (SOEPpapers

Max Planck Fellow Gert G. Wagner | 375

Scientific Services Professional Staff (2011–2013)

Library and Research Information Unit: Nicole Engelhardt, Ursula Flitner

Central IT Unit: Wolfgang Assmann

378 | Scientific Services Library and Research Information Unit

Rapid access to printed and digital information is a decisive prerequisite for successful studies and for internationally renowned research. The Library and Research Information Unit of the MPI for Human Development aims to antici- pate, determine, and respond to the Institute’s needs for information in the areas of education, history, psychology, sociology, and neighboring disciplines. To support the research, teaching, and publishing activities of the Institute’s researchers, we seek to provide an environment and facilities conducive to the efficient and independent use and dissemination of information.

The Library’s collection currently comprises Collection development was adapted to new around 212,000 printed volumes, 150 printed fields of research. With the appointment of journals, microforms, and an extensive selec- Ralph Hertwig as the Director of the Center tion of electronic resources. Comprehensive of Adaptive Rationality (ARC) in 2012, new intranet services include online access to needs of literature and information were to electronic journals, to major bibliographic and be met. Likewise, the Max Planck Research full text databases, as well as to document Groups “Felt Communities? Emotions in delivery and table of contents services. European Music Performances” and “REaD” From 2011 to 2013, the range of available brought new discerning clients, and provision electronic full texts was extended to include of basic information was additionally built more than 20,000 periodicals from all fields up in anticipation of the International Max of science, thus facilitating interdisciplinary Planck Research School “Moral Economies research. of Modern Societies” who commenced their The cancellation of 380 subscriptions to work in 2013. printed journals in 2012 was both an effective Library users’ demand for consulting services measure against dramatically increased jour- relating to copyright, open access, bibliomet- nal prices that were burdening the stagnating ric impact, e-publishing, use of databases, as Library budget and an overdue step toward well as research assignments have increased providing online-only information wherever noticeably during the period under review. possible. In 2013, the Library added around In 2011 and 2012, the Library and Research 240,000 e-books to its collection from the Information Unit participated in a 2-year National Licenses, a program financed by the project dedicated to the development of German Research Foundation (DFG). research infrastructure, funded by the Max

Figure 1. Periodical room. © David Ausserhofer

Scientific Services | 379 ­Florenz, the MPI for European Legal History in Frankfurt, and the Max Planck Digital Library in Munich, we developed the publi- cation platform Digital Libraries Connected (DLC) for digital works and collections from the MPIs and cooperating institu- tions (http://dlc.mpdl.mpg.de/dlc/). Beyond serving as a portal, DLC offers web-based tools to support the publication and editing of digitized copies on the internet; scans and full text. Data- and collection-spanning search functions and stable citation links facilitate the scientific use of digitized cop- ies. The software is currently undergoing final tests and is scheduled for public launch in spring 2014. Following two retirements and filling one long-standing vacancy, the Library was able to acquire three highly qualified employees who will focus on journals, acquisition/licens- Figure 2. For the bookbinder. es, and electronic service development. © David Ausserhofer The Library staff continually undergo further training to keep abreast of dynamic changes Planck Society’s Strategic Investment Fund. in information management and, last but not Together with the Bibliotheca Hertziana least, also continue to train apprentices in in Rome, the Kunsthistorisches Institut in Library and Information Science.

380 | Scientific Services Central IT Unit

The central facilities of the Central IT Unit support the individual research centers and other service units at the Institute. For variable services, such as internet/intranet, the website, soft- ware, e-mail, etc., central servers with MS Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux operating systems are installed in the Institute.

Several powerful servers build a Citrix server updated via internet—monitors all servers farm. They allow the users to run programs and personal workstations to avoid data (SPSS, SAS, MATLAB, R, etc.) on the server loss caused by viruses and malware. The CPUs from their own workstations (Windows integration of all desktop computers in the or Mac OS) or tablet computers worldwide, Local Area Network (LAN) provides access from any location, at any time. “Server-based to central resources and cluster capacity. In computing” helps to overcome the different 1998, the traditional standard- and thin-wire workstation constraints, such as CPU power Ethernet was replaced with a new network and local storage. based on fiber-optic cables. Since 2007, More and more servers and desktops are desktop systems are directly connected with being virtualized to realize a consolidation a maximum speed of 1 Gbit/s. The network concept that will save resources and provide backbone has been upgraded to 10+ Gbit/s simplified deployment. The decentralized in 2012. A wireless LAN is available for users computing capacity comprises more than with mobile devices throughout the entire 500 personal computers. Apple computers Institute. The Research Network (WIN) of operate with Mac OS X; PCs are operating on German Telekom and the German Research Microsoft Windows or a Linux distribution. Network Association (Deutsches Forschungs­ A wide array of software is available for the netz [DFN]) provide the Institute’s connec- desktop systems. In the storage area network tions to Wide Area Networks (internet, etc.). (SAN), there is more than 700 TByte storage An important component of the new web capacity available to store data. A central presence of the Institute is the CMS Drupal. backup service is provided for all persistent It allows many editors within the Institute data. To provide the necessary security, a to update their web pages at the same time. Cisco ASA firewall system is installed. Central A staging system separates editorial content antivirus software Sophos—continuously from public content.

Figure 1. Server, storage, and network infrastructure. © MPI for Human Development

Scientific Services | 381 The IT Center’s services include: • advice for the Institute’s research centers • operating, optimizing, and developing the and Board; central server and network equipment; • development of new concepts for the Insti- • updating and mending Windows and Mac tute, for example, with WLAN, SAN, Access OS operating systems on workplace com- Grid, video conference, computer and stor- puters; age virtualization, etc. • centralized printing capacity, including high-speed and color printers; • integration of workplace computers in the LAN and WLAN; • making national and international connec- tions (Wide Area Network) available; • Citrix Terminalservices; • internet services; • data storage and backup strategies; • preventive security measures; • management of the central telephone system, including the voice-mail server; • user support and troubleshooting for work- place computers and notebooks; • software acquisition.

The Center offers: • general design and coordination of the Institute’s information technology equip- ment; • documentation of the Institute’s existing computer and network inventory; Figure 2. Optical fiber cabling to the workplace. • an overview of market developments; © MPI for Human ­Development

382 | Scientific Services

Appendix

Last update: January 2014

386 | Appendix 1. Honors and Awards 2011–2013

Baumert, Jürgen Honorary Professor, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, 2011; Carl Friedrich von ­Weiz­säcker Prize, German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, 2012. Blanke, Elisabeth Poster Award (shared), Scientific Meeting for Autism Spectrum Disorders (WTAS), 2012. Brückenhaus, Daniel Frank Turner Prize, Yale University, 2012. Burzynska, Agnieszka Zofia Otto Hahn Medal 2011, Max Planck Society. Düzel, Sandra Aging and Work Award of the Marie-Luise und Ernst Becker Stiftung, 2011. Edelstein, Wolfgang Theodor Heuss Prize, Theodor Heuss Stiftung, 2012. Fandakova, Yana Otto Hahn Medal 2012, Max Planck Society. Fechner, Hanna Bettine Award for Best Final Degree of Graduation Cohort 2011, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 2012. Feufel, Markus A. Human Factors Prize (Runner-up), Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 2011. Frevert, Ute Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2013. Gaissmaier, Wolfgang Fellow of the German Young Academy, Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and ­Humanities & German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, 2012; Rising Star, Association for Psychological Science,­ 2013. Galesic, Mirta Jane Beattie Scientific Recognition Award, European Association for Decision Making, 2013. Gammerl, Benno Wolfgang J. Mommsen Prize, German Historical Institute London, 2012. García-Retamero, Rocio / Cokely, Edward T. Raymond S. Nickerson Best Paper Award, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 2012. Gigerenzer, Gerd Deutscher Psychologie-Preis, 2011; Outstanding Paper Award, International Journal of Forecasting, 2011; Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Risk Management, UK, 2011; Marsilius Medal, Heidel- berg University, 2011; Communicator Award, German Research Foundation & the Donor's Association for the Promotion of Sciences and Humanities, 2011; Fellow of the Cognitive Science Society, 2012; Patten Lecturer, Indiana University, 2013. Gigerenzer, Gerd / Brighton, Henry Featured New Hot Paper, Thomson Reuters ScienceWatch, 2012. Hertwig, Ralph Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science, 2011; Elected Member of the Wilhelm Wundt Society, 2012; Honorary Professor, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 2013. International Max Planck Research School on the Life Course (LIFE) APA Board of Educational Affairs Award to Advance Interdisciplinary Education and Training in Psychology, 2012. Jenny, Mirjam A. Emilie Louise Frey Prize, University of Basel, 2013; Cognitive Science Society Award for the Best Student Paper at the Annual Summer Interdisciplinary Conference, 2012. Lindenberger, Ulman Mentoring Award, German Psychological Society, 2011; Berlin Aging Study (BASE) awarded by the Initiative ”Germany—Land of Longevity,” 2012. Luong, Gloria GSA Dissertation Award, Gerontological Society of America, 2012; 2012–2013 James McKeen Cattell Award for Outstanding Dissertation in Psychology, The New York Academy of Sciences. Moussaïd, Mehdi Prix Le Monde de la Recherche Universitaire, Le Monde, 2011. Olsen, Stephanie Children’s Literature Association Edited Book Award, 2011. Pernau, Margrit Extraordinary Professor, Freie Universität Berlin, 2012. Sander, Myriam C. Margret and Paul Baltes Award for Outstanding Dissertations in Developmental Psychology, German Psychological Society, 2013. Scheer, Monique Walter-de-Gruyter Prize, Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences, 2011. Schroeder, Sascha Poster Prize, European Conference of Eye-Movement Research (ECEM), 2013. Shing, Yee Lee Heinz Maier-Leibnitz Prize, German Research Foundation, 2012. Sela-Teichler, Yael Renaissance Studies Article Prize, The Society for Renaissance Studies, 2013. Suter, Renata S. 2012 Steven Karger Prize of the Faculty of Psychology, Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. Wegwarth, Odette Early Career Investigator Award, Society of Behavioral Medicine, 2013.

Grants and Stipends Artinger, Sabrina Small Research Grant for Project "Group size effects in online cooperation," Saïd Foundation, 2013. Brehmer, Yvonne Research Grant for Study "Associative memory in old age," Stiftelsen för Gamla Tjänarinnor, 2013. Burzynska, Agnieszka Zofia Changing Viewpoints Career Grant, Robert Bosch Stiftung, 2013. Ellerbrock, Dagmar Funding for Conference "Emotions and violence in 20th century Europe," German Founda- tion for Peace Research, 2013. Fechner, Hanna Bettine DAAD Stipend for Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh/PA, German Academic ­Exchange Service, 2013. Gaissmaier, Wolfgang Funding for Project "Effective communication about cancer screening when inviting the general public to participate/EFFEKTIV," Federal Ministry of Health, 2012–2015. Gigerenzer, Gerd Funding for "Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality," Volkswagen Foundation, 2011/2012; Funding of the Harding Center, Winton Capital Management. Gigerenzer, Gerd / Gaissmaier, Wolfgang Funding for Project "Förderung guter medizinischer Entschei­ ­dungen," Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2013–2014.

Appendix | 387 Hämmerer, Dorothea International Research Funding, University College London, German Research Founda- tion, 2012. Hertwig, Ralph Funding for Project "The description-experience gap: Its robustness, its causes and conse- quences," Swiss National Science Foundation, 2010–2013. Hertwig, Ralph / Hills, Thomas Funding for Project "Search in space and minds: Dynamics in structure in recall from long-term memory search," Swiss National Science Foundation, 2010–2014. Hertwig, Ralph / Pachur, Thorsten Funding for Project "Algebraic models of heuristics of risky choice: Irrec- oncilable foes or useful allies?" as part of the DFG Priority Program "New frameworks of rationality," German Research Foundation, 2012–2015. Hertwig, Ralph / Rieskamp, Jörg / De Quervain, Dominique / Papassotiropoulos, Andreas Funding for Project "Biological foundations of risk taking," Swiss National Foundation, 2012–2015. Herzog, Stefan / Hertwig, Ralph Funding for Project "Dialectical bootstrapping: A new paradigm to improve individual judgment," Swiss National Science Foundation, 2011–2014. Kämmer, Juliane E. / Bos, Gerhard / Fiebich, Anika / von Grundherr, Michael Funding for Workshop "Personal and shared intentions," Volkswagen Foundation, 2012. Katsikopoulos, Konstantinos V. Marie Curie International Outgoing Fellowship, European Commission, 2013–2016. Kühn, Simone / Callard, Felicity / Fitzgerald, Des Funding for Workshop "Experimental entanglements in cogni- tive neuroscience," Volkswagen Foundation, 2012. Laukötter, Anja Research Fellowship, German Historical Institute, Washington D.C., 2012. Laukötter, Anja / Bonah, Christian / Cantor, David Funding for Conference "Communicating good health: ­Movies, medicine and the cultures of risk in the twentieth century," Brocher Foundation, 2011. Lindenberger, Ulman Funding for Collaborative Research Project "Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II)," Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2011–2014; Funding for Collaborative Research Project with University College London "Computational psychiatry and ageing research," Max Planck Foundation, 2011–2014. Marewski, Julian N. / Gigerenzer, Gerd / Schooler, Lael J. Funding for Project "Strategy selection," Swiss National Science Foundation, 2013–2016. Meder, Björn British Academy Visiting Scholarship for Queen Mary University London, 2011. Nelson, Jonathan D. / Meder, Björn / Martignon, Laura / Crupi, Vincenzo Funding for Project "Models of in- formation search: A theoretical and empirical synthesis" as part of the DFG Priority Program "New frameworks of rationality," German Research Foundation, 2011–2014. Rajamani, Imke Stipend of the German National Academic Foundation, 2011–2014. Ruggeri, Azzurra Marie Curie International Outgoing Fellowship, European Commission, 2013–2016. Schroeder, Sascha / Hyönä, Jukka / Liversedge, Simon Funding for Symposium "Developmental eye-tracking research in reading," Volkswagen Foundation, 2013. Sela-Teichler, Yael Minerva Fellowship, Minerva Foundation, 2011–2013; Rose and Henry Zifkin Teaching ­Fellowship, The Herbert D. Katz Center, University of Pennsylvania, 2013. Shing, Yee Lee / Brehmer, Yvonne Funding for Project "Neural mechanisms of lifespan age differences in episodic memory formation: Separating associative and strategic components," German Research Foundation, 2011–2014. ¸Sim¸sek, Özgür Funding for Project "Rationality of heuristics in a changing environment" as part of the DFG Priority Program "New frameworks of rationality," German Research Foundation, 2011–2014. Verrel, Julius International Research Funding, University College London, German Research Foundation, 2011–2012; International Research Funding, University of Queensland, German Research Foundation, 2012. Voelkle, Manuel C. / Beauducel, Andre / Klein, Christoph Funding for Project "Development of intraindividual variability of processing speed-basic modul," German Research Foundation, 2012–2015. Wassmann, Claudia Marie Curie Intra-European Fellowship for Career Development, European Commission, 2013–2015. Wong, John DAAD Stipend for Human Development, German Academic Exchange Service, 2011–2014. Zalfen, Sarah / Müller, Sven Oliver Additional Funding for the Publication "Besatzungsmacht Musik: Zur Musik- und Emotionsgeschichte im Zeitalter der Weltkriege," German Research Foundation, 2012. Zalfen, Sarah / Törmer, Iris Funding for Summer School "Lernen—Emotionen—Musik," Ernst Schering Founda- tion & Hertie Foundation, 2013.

Professorship Offers

Blankenburg, Felix Professor of Experimental Functional Imaging in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Germany (declined); Professor of Neurocomputation and Neuroimaging, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany (accepted). Brückenhaus, Daniel Assistant Professor of Modern European History, Beloit College, USA ­(accepted). Eppinger, Ben Assistant Professor of Neurocognitive Development of Motivational Mechanisms, Technische ­Universität Dresden, Germany (accepted). Fific, Mario Assistant Professor of Psychology, Grand Valley State University, USA (accepted). Gaissmaier, Wolfgang Full Professor of Social Psychology, University of Konstanz, Germany (accepted).

388 | Appendix Häberlen, Joachim C. Assistant Professor of Modern Continental European History, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK (accepted). Katsikopoulos, Konstantinos V. Reader (Associate Professor), School of Management and Mathematics, ­University of Southampton, UK (declined). Kia, Mana Assistant Professor of Indo-Persian Studies, Department of Middle Eastern, South Asian, and African Studies, Columbia University, New York, USA (accepted). Li, Shu-Chen Full Professor of Lifespan Developmental Neuroscience, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany (accepted). Marewski, Julian N. Assistant Professor of Organizational Behavior, University of Lausanne, Switzerland (accepted).­ Mata, Rui Assistant Professor of Cognitive and Decision Sciences, University of Basel, Switzerland (accepted). Plamper, Jan Professor of History, Goldsmiths University of London, UK (accepted). Sajjad, Mohammad Assistant Professor of History, Presidency University, Kolkata, India (accepted). Scheer, Monique Assistant Professor of Historical and Cultural Anthropology/Cultures of Knowledge, Univer- sity of Tübingen, Germany (accepted). Schooler, Lael J. Full Professor of Psychology, Syracuse University, USA (accepted). Sela-Teichler, Yael Assistant Professor of Music, The Open University, Tel Aviv, Israel (accepted). Stevens, Jeffrey R. Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA (accepted). Wrzus, Cornelia Assistant Professor of Personality Psychology, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany (accepted).

Appendix | 389 2. Research Colloquia 2011–2013

Abele, Susanne Blom, Amélie Miami University, Oxford, USA Institut d’Etudes de l’Islam et des Sociétés du Social processes in tacit coordination Monde Musulman, Paris, France 26.09.2012 The emotions of re-Islamization amongst the Alfieri, Fernanda Pakistani youth Fondazione Bruno Kessler Istituto Storico Italo- 15.11.2011 Germanico, Trento, Italy Boewe, Sabrina In the devil’s presence? The role of emotions Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany in medical and theological interpretations of Coordination under exogenous uncertainty ­convulsive phenomena (18th–19th centuries) 30.03.2011 05.02.2013 Boiger, Michael Allen, Colin University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Belgium Indiana University, Bloomington, USA The situational affordance of anger and shame in Models, mechanisms, and animal minds four cultures 02.02.2011 23.11.2012 Arkes, Hal Bollen, Kenneth A. Ohio State University, Columbus, USA University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA When is deliberation helpful and when is it ­harmful? A general panel model with random and fixed 06.04.2011 ­effects: A structural equations approach Arkes, Hal 04.09.2012 Ohio State University, Columbus, USA Bonz, Jochen On what kind of tasks does intuition help? University of Bremen, Germany 01.06.2012 Die mimetische Erfahrung der ungekannten Stimme Arkes, Hal in der expressive culture der Popmusik (Autotune Ohio State University, Columbus, USA etc.) Brainstorming: A reply to exasperated 30.04.2013 anesthesiologists­ Born, Jan 13.06.2012 University of Tübingen, Germany Aronowitz, Robert The memory function of sleep University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA 15.11.2011 The social and scientific efficacy of cancer Borteleto, Ana Paula interventions­ University of Sheffield, UK 31.05.2011 Heuristics for waste management Askew, Kelly 01.07.2012 University of Michigan, USA Borteleto, Ana Paula Drivers of emotion, drivers of change: Poetic University of Sheffield, UK ­politicking in Tanzania How can heuristics make a difference in engaging 16.04.2013 people on environmental policies? Barbalet, Jack 31.07.2012 Hong Kong Baptist University, China Bösch, Frank Trust, assurance, face, and gossip: The mechanisms Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung Potsdam, of Guanxi networks Germany 09.07.2013 Disziplinierung der Gefühle? Krieg und Film im Battal, Ceren 20. Jahrhundert Center for Integrative Neuroscience, Tübingen, 12.12.2013 Germany Bossan, Benjamin I guess I know the answer: Neural correlates of Institute of Theoretical Biology, Berlin, Germany ­feeling of knowing in memory-based inferences The evolution of social learning strategies 30.05.2012 22.11.2011 Baucells, Manuel Bourgeois-Gironde, Sacha Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain Université Paris 2 & Institut Jean Nicod, Paris, Probability and time trade-off France 16.03.2011 Lay perceptions of the 2008 financial crisis Bénéï, Véronique 16.10.2012 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, Brand, Matthias France Universität Duisburg-Essen, Germany Toward reconciling anthropologies: Emotions, Decision making from a neuropsychological bodies, languages in India perspective­ 12.11.2013 18.04.2013 Besser-Eichler, Ina Brick, Tim Society of Friends of Bayreuth, Germany University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA Leidenschaft für Richard Wagner: Freunde und In your face: What computer-generated facial Feinde von Bayreuth erzählen avatars can do for psychology 22.11.2012 04.11.2011

390 | Appendix Bröckling, Ulrich Erickson, Kirk I. Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany­ University of Pittsburgh, USA Governing (by) emotions: Zur Gouvernementalität Physical activity, brain plasticity, and aging der Gefühle 01.11.2011 20.01.2011 Erickson, Paul Bromley, Dan Wesleyan University, Middletown, USA University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Mathematics’ loss is psychology’s gain: Game Arriving at settled belief: Volitional pragmatism in theory and postwar behavioral science, or why the service of rules to live choose rational choice? 21.11.2012 07.03.2012 Brophy, James Essbach, Wolfgang University of Delaware, Newark, USA University of Freiburg, Germany Critical distance: Irony in popular political culture in Religiös erforschen: Versuch einer Methodik und nineteenth-century Central Europe Typologie 26.11.2013 17.01.2012 Cooper, Frederick Falk, Ruma and Raphael New York University, USA Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Citizenship and difference in French Africa, 1945–60 Some mathematical, logical, and probabilistic 01.02.2011 challenges Dean, Carolyn J. 07.08.2012 Brown University, Providence, USA Fernandez, Juan Pablo Erasures: Writing history about Holocaust Trauma Dartmouth College, Hanover, USA 07.05.2013 Simple heuristics to discriminate UXO Denrell, Jerker 16.05.2012 University of Oxford, UK Fernández, Guillén Are the best performers the most impressive? Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands 06.09.2011 New vistas on system level consolidation in humans Dolan, Raymond J. 31.01.2013 Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University Fischer, Martin College London, UK University of Potsdam, Germany Multiple decision systems in the human brain Numerical cognition: Grounded, embodied, and 25.10.2011 situated Dörner, Dietrich 01.02.2012 University of Bamberg, Germany Fischinger, Timo Errors in complex domains University of Kassel, Germany 27.05.2013 Kognitionspsychologische Grundlagen musika­lischer Ebbersmeyer, Sabrina Wahrnehmung: Erwartung, Emotion, Antizipation Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Germany und Handlungssteuerung Die (Ohn-)Macht des Geistes über die Gefühle: 10.05.2012 Philosophie und Therapie im 17. Jahrhundert Flam, Helena 13.12.2011 Leipzig University, Germany Eckert, Astrid M. Identity and emotions Emory University, Atlanta, USA & American 30.10.2012 ­Academy in Berlin, Germany Freund, Alexandra Curiosity, anxiety, and the Cold War: The Iron University of Zurich, Switzerland ­Curtain as a tourist attraction Age-related changes in the sensitivity toward losses 03.05.2011 28.02.2013 Egermann, Hauke Friedrich, Sven Technische Universität Berlin, Germany Richard Wagner Nationalarchiv, Bayreuth, Germany Musik und Emotionen in der Musikpsychologie: “Wir müssen Wissende werden durch das Gefühl”: Wirkungsweisen grundlegender Mechanismen und Richard Wagner und die Bayreuther Festspiele ihre empirischen Überprüfungen 24.10.2012 05.12.2013 Friston, Karl J. Egmond, Marieke van Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University Jacobs University Bremen, Germany College London, UK Mind and virtue: A cross-cultural perspective on the The Bayesian brain, surprise, and free-energy meaning of academic learning 09.03.2011 24.01.2012 Fuhrmann, Wolfgang Ehrmann-Hämmerle, Christa Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany University of Vienna, Austria Über die Schönheiten und den Ausdruck der Leiden- Writing (about) love in times of total war schaft: Joseph Haydn und sein Publikum 01.11.2011 14.11.2013 Eldem, Edhem Gazzaley, Adam Boˇgazici¸ University, Istanbul, Turkey University of California, San Francisco, USA Sorrow carved in stone: Expressions of grief and Top-down modulation and the aging brain: The suffering in Ottoman Muslim epitaphs crossroads of attention and memory 18.10.2011 31.05.2011

Appendix | 391 Geyer, Michael Hand, David University of Chicago, USA & American Academy in Imperial College London, UK Berlin, Germany Deconstructing statistical question Rage against empire: Humiliation, victimization and 03.06.2013 the semantics of national liberation Hariskos, Wasilios 22.05.2012 University of Erfurt, Germany Ghetti, Simona The technion prediction competitions University of California, Davis, USA 30.11.2011 Development of episodic memory during childhood Hartmann, Sophie 19.06.2012 Lufthansa, Germany Giloi, Eva Der Umgang mit Fehlern und warum wir sie Rutgers University, Newark, USA ­akzeptieren müssen, um die Zukunft zu erleben Emotional investments in imperial Germany: 12.06.2013 ­Gift-giving as a gauge of political attachment Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard 11.12.2012 European University Institute, Florence, Italy Goldstone, Rob Threat and emotions: Anarchist bombings in Indiana University, Bloomington, USA 19th-century­ Paris Patterns of innovation and imitation in human 07.02.2012 collective­ behavior Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard 28.02.2011 Bielefeld University, Germany & European University Gonzalez, Cleotilde Institute, Florence, Italy Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA Gewalt und Kommunikation: Methodische Emergence of cooperation with increased informa- Über­legungen zur Gewalt in Europa im 19. und tion: Explaining the process with an instance-based 20. Jahrhundert learning mode 10.01.2013 09.04.2013 Heinemann, Elizabeth Gould, Deborah University of Iowa, USA University of California, Santa Cruz, USA Scholarship, historical fiction, and emotion: Becoming coalitional: The strange and miraculous A family history of the Holocaust coalition between queer to the left and the Jesus 04.06.2013 people, USA Helbing, Dirk 02.07.2013 ETH Zurich, Switzerland Gray, Wayne Why humans are social, and how to model their Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, USA behavior Tetris, extreme expertise in Tetris, and eye tracking 29.11.2013 extreme experts in Tetris Hensch, Takao 14.02.2012 Harvard University, Cambridge, USA Gray, Wayne Lifting brakes on brain activities Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, USA 30.05.2013 Contributions of body-bound and brain-bound Herzfeld-Schild, Marie Louise resources, and control processes to cognitive Freie Universität Berlin, Germany workload Gemeinschaftsgefühl durch religiöse Musik: 28.03.2012 ­Diskurse im 19. Jahrhundert Guercini, Simone 25.06.2013 Universitá degli Studi Firenze, Italy Heschel, Susannah Heuristics in the textile industry Dartmouth College, Hanover, USA & Wissenschafts- 02.07.2012 kolleg zu Berlin, Germany Gumbrecht, Hans Ulrich The Aryan Jesus: Affinities between German Protes- Stanford University, USA & Wissenschaftskolleg zu tantism and racial theory during the Third Reich Berlin, Germany 19.06.2012 Presence, Stimmung, latency: About the objectivity Hills, Thomas of past feelings and how to describe them University of Warwick, UK 24.04.2012 Search amplified risk in decisions from experience Halpern-Felsher, Bonnie L. 06.08.2013 University of California, San Francisco, USA Hogarth, Robin M. Adolescent health-related perceptions and decision Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain making: From theory to evidence to intervention What are the chances of winning? Exploring the 20.07.2012 ecology and psychology of competitions Halpern-Felsher, Bonnie L. 17.10.2012 University of California, San Francisco, USA Huber, Mathis Adolescent development: A primer Styriarte, Graz, Austria 24.07.2012 Nikolaus Harnoncourt—Ein Festival der Gefühle? Halpern-Felsher, Bonnie L. 06.12.2012 University of California, San Francisco, USA Hunt, Nancy Rose Adolescents’ tobacco-related decision making University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA 25.07.2012 Colonial nervousness or a nervous state 19.04.2011

392 | Appendix Janata, Petr Kubovy, Michael University of California, Davis, USA University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA Sensorimotor coupling in music and being “in the Episodes groove” 17.07.2012 11.09.2012 Leys, Ruth Jarnebrant, Peter / Myrseth, Kristian Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA European School of Management and Technology, The disappearance of shame? Berlin, Germany 06.12.2012 Morality beliefs distorted: Magnifiying the risk of Lifschitz, Avi dying young University College London, UK 05.06.2013 Between the wild child and the speaking ape: Jarzebowski, Claudia ­Emotions and cognition in Enlightment debates Freie Universität Berlin, Germany on the boundaries of humanity “Will we ever meet again?” Emotions across the 23.04.2013 ocean during the 18th century Lu, Zhong Yi 10.12.2013 East China Normal University, Shanghai, China Jensen, Ole The effect of self-esteem on risky behavior in an Radboud University, Netherlands auction task How the phase of the alpha rhythm might serve to 01.11.2011 prioritize neuronal processing Lui, Chengwei 09.04.2013 University of Warwick, UK Jirsa, Viktor Exceptional performance: Skill or luck? University of Marseille, France 07.09.2011 On the resting state of the human brain: Is it really Lütteken, Laurenz interesting? University of Zurich, Switzerland & Wissenschafts- 06.11.2012 kolleg zu Berlin, Germany Johansen-Berg, Heidi Zum Musikbegriff von Richard Strauss University of Oxford, UK 21.11.2013 Changing brain connections with experience, Mark, Seymour ­learning, and recovery University of Otago, New Zealand 04.05.2011 Feeling Italian? Emotional styles between province Joshi, Sanjay and capital in 1870’s Italy Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, USA 14.06.2011 What makes a community? Emotions, expediency, Martignon, Laura and the politics around overseas travel in early Ludwigsburg University of Education, Germany twentieth-century Kumaon (North India) Fast and frugal: From phronesis to episteme 12.07.2011 03.04.2013 Kaivanto, Kim McConway, Kevin Lancaster University Management School, UK The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK Choice without preference: The asymmetric Statistics as reported in the British mass media ­dominance effect across taxa 14.09.2011 23.11.2011 McIntosh, A. Randy Khader, Patrick Rotman Research Institute, Toronto, Canada Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Germany Thinking about brain and behavior links in aging The neural correlates of cognitive search in 20.08.2013 memory-based decision making Meel, Caspar van 14.03.2013 Musician, Netherlands Kia, Mana Thinking about meaning in musik: A history Harvard University, Cambridge, USA 31.10.2013 Emotions as moral substance and virtuous conduct Mercado, Eduardo in late-Mughal Persianate India University at Buffalo, New York, USA 11.06.2013 Perceptual training and transfer: Why does Koehncke, Arnulf ­progressing from easy to harder tasks help? Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany 14.06.2011 Optimal decision making in ovipository insects Mintzker, Yair 06.12.2011 Princeton University, USA Koschorke, Albrecht Hateful empathy: The curious case of Joseph Suss University of Konstanz, Germany Oppenheimer (“Jew Suss”) Liminalität im Biedermeier: Das Volk und die 15.10.2013 ­Hausmärchen der Brüder Grimm Miron-Shatz, Talya 15.02.2011 University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA Kreutzberg, Georg W. Miscomprehension, false expectations, and MPI for Neurobiology, Martinsried, Germany forgotten risk assessments: The case of medical Fraud, integrity, and responsible conduct in ­science information 05.06.2012 20.04.2012

Appendix | 393 Monson, Jamie Park, Denise C. Macalester College, St Paul, USA University of Texas, Dallas, USA Emotion and memory in a Cold War China-Africa Fragile minds: The scaffolding theory of aging and development project cognition 15.05.2012 14.08.2012 Morrow, William Ross Peters, Ellen Iowa State University, Ames, USA Ohio State University, Columbus, USA Heuristics, product design, and energy policy Multiple numeric competencies in judgment and 22.08.2012 decision making Moscoso, Javier 13.08.2013 Spanish National Research Council, Madrid, Spain Pope, Robin The topics of pain and the historical epistemology University of Bonn, Germany of experience SKAT, the stages of knowledge ahead theory of 03.07.2012 decisions under risk and uncertainty illustrated with Mrozek, Bodo mental health benefits from particular risks University of Potsdam, Germany 27.04.2011 Geschmacksgemeinschaften: Fankulturen als Präger, Ulrike Avantgarden der Internationalisierung Boston University, USA 15.11.2012 Between longing and belonging: Music and emotion Muchlinski, Elke in the expulsion of Germans from the Bohemian Freie Universität Berlin, Germany Lands Central bank policy as a language analogy 17.10.2013 19.01.2012 Pulvermüller, Friedemann Naimark, Norman M. Freie Universität Berlin, Germany Stanford University, USA & American Academy in How neurons make meaning: Brain mechanisms for Berlin, Germany embodied and abstract-symbolic semantics Human emotions in mass killing: How perpetrators 27.08.2013 think about their victims Raaijmakers, Jeroen 17.05.2011 University of Amsterdam, Netherlands Nehring, Holger A critical analysis of the inhibition account of University of Sheffield, UK forgetting German Angst—The West German peace movement 20.09.2012 of the 1980s and the memory of the Second World Rahut, Heiko War ETH Zurich, Switzerland 31.01.2012 How social influence can undermine the wisdom of Newmark, Catherine crowd effect Freie Universität Berlin, Germany 08.02.2012 What passions show: Emotion and expression in Ranganath, Charan premodern affect theory University of California, Davis, USA 10.07.2012 Two cortical systems for memory-guided behavior Nirenberg, David 13.11.2012 University of Chicago, USA Ratcliff, Roger Moral economies: A love story Ohio State University, Columbus, USA 20.11.2013 Introductory lecture to diffusion models for Okan, Yasmina ­perceptual and cognitive decisions University of Granada, Spain 08.08.2013 How people with low and high graph literacy Raykov, Tenko ­understand graphs: An eye tracking study Michigan State University, Lansing, USA 31.01.2012 Introductory and intermediate structural equation Orquin, Jacob L. modeling Aarhus University, Denmark 21.05.2013 Eye movements in decision making: Revealing or Reichmann, Daniel concealing heuristics? Weizmann Institute of Science, Rechovot, Israel 14.05.2013 Complexity: A theoretical analysis with implications Ortmann, Andreas to self-regulation and goal pursuit Australian School of Business, University of 18.04.2012 New South Wales, Sydney, Australia Reyna, Valerie To be prosocial or antisocial (or both)? That’s the Cornell University, Ithaca, USA question … Explaining framing and fallacies in fuzzy-trace 04.12.2012 theory: A different dual-process approach Oyserman, Daphna 16.05.2011 University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA Rojas, Raul Culture as situated cognition Freie Universität Berlin, Germany 11.05.2011 Autonomous driving: State of the art and challenges­ ahead 27.02.2013

394 | Appendix Rora, Constanze Spiliopoulos, Leonidas Hochschule für Musik und Theater, Leipzig, Germany Australian School of Business, Sydney, Australia Aspekte der Zwischenleiblichkeit musikalischer Model comparisons using prediction tournaments: Praxis im Klassenverband Likes and “dislikes” 28.11.2013 12.09.2012 Roth, Camille Stark, Craik Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, University of California, Irvine, USA France Pattern separation in the human hippocampus Sociosemantic networks: A perspective on social 13.09.2011 cognition Stasser, Garold 26.10.2011 Miami University, Oxford, USA Rothermund, Klaus Missing link problems in collective choice Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany 19.09.2012 The automatic basis of self-regulation: Motivational Stearns, Peter N. control over valence George Mason University, Fairfax, USA 25.07.2013 Obedience and emotion: A challenge in the Rubba, Fabiana ­emotional history of childhood Federico II University Hospital, Naples, Italy 29.11.2012 Fast and frugal heuristic to decide diagnosis and to Stenning, Keith consent sepulture University of Edingburgh, UK 16.08.2011 Relations between an interpretative approach to Ruffman, Tedd reasoning and the ecological rationality approach University of Otago, New Zealand to decision making Social understanding in older adults 27.11.2012 17.10.2011 Stephan, Klaas Enno Sabiwalsky, Ralf University of Zurich, ­Switzerland & University​ Freie Universität Berlin, Germany ­College London, UK Overview over the principal agents of financial deci- Neurocomputational models of (mal)adaptive sion making and basic types of financial contracts cognition and psychiatric disease 04.11.2011 09.11.2011 Sarangi, Sudipta Stojic, Hrvoje Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain Perspectives on decision making: The role of aging Strategy selection without feedback and groups 16.07.2012 19.07.2011 Strough, JoNell Scheibehenne, Benjamin West Virginia University, Morgantown, USA University of Basel, Switzerland Aging and decision making: Older and wiser? Bayesian methods of comparing adaptive toolboxes 02.05.2013 against alternative models of cognition Taleb, Nassim N. 17.03.2011 New York University, USA Schröter, Juliane A single heuristic for the distinction of risk and University of Zurich, Switzerland model error Abschied und Affekt: Zur Bekundung von Gefühlen 23.06.2011 bei Verabschiedungen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert Tamir, Maya 08.01.2013 Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel Schürmer, Anna Starting at the beginning: Motives in emotion Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany regulation Klingende Skandale—laute(r) Emotionen und 12.08.2013 Ritual(brüch)e Taylor, Brian 06.06.2013 University of Ulster, Londonderry, UK Schwarz, Norbert Decisions and risk in social work University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA 22.05.2013 Embodiment in judgment and decision making: Timm, Annette Of fishy smells, sticky luck, and balanced minds University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada 10.05.2011 Mothers, whores, or sentimental dupes? Emotion Selart, Marcus and race in historiographical debates about women Norwegian School of Economics, Bergen, Norway in the Third Reich The application of heuristics as social tools in 29.10.2013 ­transformational and transactional leadership Trivellato, Francesca 17.04.2012 Yale University, New Haven, USA Spiliopoulos, Leonidas Early modern European merchants between rational University of Sydney, Australia calculation and anger: Can we trust that we under- Beyond fictitious play beliefs in strategic games stand trust? 12.09.2011 28.05.2013

Appendix | 395 Trivers, Robert L. Werner, Frank Rutgers University, Newark, USA Dewezet, Hameln, Germany The logic of self-deception in human life Krieg, Massenmord und Männlichkeit. Zwischen 22.01.2013 Stolz und Scham: Selbstbilder deutscher Soldaten Trümpi, Fritz im Vernichtungskrieg 1941–1944 Vienna, Austria 11.07.2013 Die Wiener und Berliner Philharmoniker während Wheeler, Gregory des Nationalsozialismus New University of Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal 16.06.2012 Tracking confirmation and association through Vieider, Ferdinand causal structure Social Science Research Center Berlin, Germany 09.02.2011 Risk attitudes, development, and growth Whitmore, Jean Czerlinski 24.10.2012 University of Chicago, USA Vögele, Claus What are simple heuristics? Université du Luxembourg, Luxembourg 13.02.2013 Can one think too much? Cognitions, cognitive Wilke, Andreas style, and health Clarkson University, Potsdam, USA 20.11.2013 Sequential decision making and illusionary pattern Wagner, Kim detection University of London, UK 09.05.2012 “A legacy of fear”: The 1857 uprising and the Wintle, Bonnie colonial­ imagination University of Melborn, Australia 29.11.2011 Improving scientific and geopolitical intelligence Waldmann, Michael judgments with the wisdom of crowds University of Göttingen, Germany 12.09.2013 Agents and causes: Markov violations in causal Wood Uribe, Patrick reasoning Boston University, USA 06.12.2012 Adolph Bernhard Marx und sein Text “Die Sinfonia Walhovd, Kristine B. Eroica und die Idealmusik” University of Oslo, Norway 24.05.2012 Dynamics of brain and cognition through the Zimmer, Hubert ­life­span: Markers of plasticity and change Saarland University, Germany 28.11.2011 Visual working memory capacity is confined by Wallot, Sebastian selection efficiency and representation parsimony Aarhus University, Denmark 14.11.2013 Nonlinear dynamics in reading time data 21.05.2013 Watanabe-O’Kelly, Helen University of Oxford, UK Feeling bad, feeling sad: The representation of ­emotions in the 17th-century picaresque novel 13.11.2012

396 | Appendix 3. Conferences, Workshops, and Seminars 2011–2013

New Approaches to the Study of Religion in Germany and Canada DAAD/PhD student workshop of HoE, jointly organized with University of Toronto 18.02.2011 4th Thesis Workshop Berlin Workshop of IMPRS Uncertainty 21.02.–24.02.2011 Hegemonic Structures of Music Conference of MPRG Felt Communities, jointly organized with the European University Institute Florence 11.03.–13.03.2011 LIFE Fellows’ Project Presentations Seminar (weekly sessions) April–July 2011 LIFE Spring Academy 2011 International conference 18.05.–23.05.2011 Foundations of an Interdisciplinary Decision Theory 10th Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality of ABC 21.06.–28.06.2011 Empathy and the Blocking of Empathy International conference of HoE 01.07.–02.07.2011 Emotionen und historisches Lernen revisited: Geschichtsdidaktische und geschichtskulturelle Perspektiven Conference of HoE, jointly organized with the Arbeitsbereich Didaktik der Geschichte (Freie Universität Berlin) 06.07.–08.07.2011 Multilevel Modeling LIFE workshop 15.07.–16.07.2011 LIFE Fall Academy 2011 International conference 18.09.–22.09.2011 Emotions and Medicine in the 20th Century International conference of HoE 22.09.–24.09.2011 Defining, Assessing, and Predicting Educational Achievement LIFE seminar (weekly sessions) October 2011–February 2012 ABC Finance Reading Group Financial risk tutorial 04.11.2011 Feelings in the City: Emotions and Urban Space Workshop of HoE 04.11.2011 Emotions and the History of Modern Anti-Semitism International conference of HoE, jointly organized with Center for Research on Antisemitism (Technische Universität Berlin) and the Leo Baeck Institute London 16.04.–18.04.2012 LIFE Spring Academy 2012 International conference 09.05.–14.05.2012 Personal and Shared Intentions Interdisciplinary workshop of ABC 03.05.–05.05.2012 Modern Missing-Data Handling LIFE workshop 21.05.2012 Bayesian Models in Cognitive Science Discussion of ABC 05.06.2012 Fraud, Integrity, and Responsible Conduct in Science LIFE lecture 05.06.2012 Emotions and Capitalism International conference of HoE 27.06.–30.06.2012

Appendix | 397 Foundations of Lifespan Research LIFE seminar (weekly sessions) June–July 2012 Decision Making in the Wild 11th Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality of ABC 03.07.–10.07.2012 Testing Theories of Choice Behavior Workshop of ABC, jointly organized with University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and University of Nebraska-Lincoln 18.07.–20.07.2012 Equilibrium Dynamics and Latent Differential Equations LIFE workshop 21.08.–22.08.2012 MPS-UCL Symposium and Advanced Course on Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research Symposium of LIP in cooperation with University College London 16.09.–22.09.2012 4th Midterm Conference of the ESA RN Sociology of Emotions International conference of HoE, jointly organized with the Cluster of Excellence “Languages of Emotion” at Freie Universität Berlin 11.10.–13.10.2012 LIFE Fall Academy 2012 International conference 15.10.–19.10.2012 Experimental Entanglements in Cognitive Neuroscience Workshop of LIP in cooperation with Durham University, UK & Des Fitzgerald, London School of Economics & University of Basel 25.10.–26.10.2012 Stochastik in der Schule Autumn conference of ABC in cooperation with the Arbeitskreis Stochastik 26.10.–28.10.2012 Health Psychology Across the Lifespan LIFE seminar (weekly sessions) November 2012 – February 2013 Kognitive Strategien von Allgemeinärzten Workshop Harding Center & Philipps-Universität Marburg 03.12.2012 Shame and Shaming in Twentieth-Century Europe Conference of HoE, jointly organized with University College London, Department of German 06.12.–07.12.2012 The Center for Adaptive Rationality Introduces Itself Presentation of the Director and 17 snap talks 13.12.2012 Gefühlsräume—Raumgefühle: Zur Verschränkung von emotionalen Praktiken und Topografien der Moderne Conference of HoE, jointly organized with the DFG research group “Kulturen des Wahnsinns” (Charité Univer- sitätsmedizin Berlin) 10.01.–11.01.2013 Fragmentierung sozialer Beziehungen durch Musik im 20. Jahrhundert Conference of MPRG Felt Communities 24.01.–26.01.2013 Schülersymposium zum Thema Risiko Workshop of ABC 22.02.–24.02.2013 Academic Writing LIFE seminar (weekly sessions) April–July 2013 Foundations of Lifespan Research LIFE workshop 09.04.–11.04.2013 Introduction to “R” LIFE workshop 19.04.–20.04.2013 MEMORY Interdisciplinary colloqium of the Institute 07.05.2013 LIFE Spring Academy 2013 International conference 08.05.–14.05.2013

398 | Appendix The Bias-Variance Dilemma Workshop of ABC 15.05.2013 Decision Making in a Social World 12th Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality of ABC & ARC 18.06.–25.06.2013 Wissenschaftliches Bloggen Workshop of MPRG Felt Communities 21.06.2013 Emotions and Violence in the 20th-Century Europe: Historical Perspectives on Violence Prevention and Peace Education International conference of HoE, jointly organized with Goethe University Frankfurt a. M. & Bielefeld University 26.06.–28.06.2013 Latent Change Score SEM Analysis LIFE workshop 20.06.–21.06.2013 Reworking Affect Workshop of HoE, jointly organized with the ICI Berlin & Zentrum für transdisziplinäre Geschlechterforschung 27.06.2013 LIFE Fellows’ Project Presentations Seminar 11.07.–12.07.2013 Summer School LERNEN_EMOTIONEN_MUSIK Workshop of MPRG Felt Communities 01.07.–05.07.2013 6th JDM Workshop for Young Researchers Workshop of ARC 17.07.–19.07.2013 Gefühle in Gewaltprävention und Friedenserziehung Transfer workshop of HoE, jointly organized with Goethe University Frankfurt a. M. & Bielefeld University 07.10.–08.10.2013 50 Years of Research on Human Development Scientific symposium on the occasion of the Institute's anniversary 09.10.2013 LIFE Fall Academy 2013 International conference 12.10.–17.10.2013 Developmental Eye-Tracking Research in Reading International symposium of MPRG REaD 23.10.–26.10.2013 I, the People: Negotiating Individual and Collective Emotions in Democratic Societies International conference of HoE 14.11.–15.11.2013 Finding Foundations for Bounded and Adaptive Rationality Workshop of ARC 22.11.–24.11.2013 Social and Behavioral Gerontology LIFE seminar (weekly sessions) November 2013 – February 2014 Workshop “Concepts of Emotions in South Asia” as Part of EMOPOLIS (Emotions and Political ­Mobilizations in the Indian Subcontinent) International conference of HoE, jointly organized with Centre d‘Etude de l‘Inde et de l‘Asie du Sud (CEIAS, Paris) & IMPRS Moral Economies 06.12.–07.12.2013 Feeling Differently: Emotional Nonconformism in the 20th Century International conference of HoE, jointly organized with Warwick University & Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin & ­University of Tübingen & University of Bayreuth 13.12.–14.12.2013

Appendix | 399 4. Political Delegations and Guests 2011–2013

Bahr, Marianne Press and Information Office of the Federal Government (visit of a delegation of press officers from German universities) November 2011 Gan, Kim Yong Minister for Health of the Republic of Singapore with delegation October 2012 Karaka¸so ˇglu, Yasemin Member of Peer Steinbrück's "competence team" for Education and Science with other members of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) September 2013 Lauer, Christoph Parliamentary Group The Pirate Party of Germany from the Berlin Chamber of Deputies, regular monthly meet- ing with ABC as of January 2013 Nevermann, Knut State Secretary for Science and Research, Berlin Senate, on the occasion of the Institute`s anniversary October 2013

400 | Appendix 5. Visiting Researchers 2011–2013

Abele, Susanne Gazzaley, Adam Miami University, Oxford, USA University of California, San Francisco, USA September–November 2012; September–December May, December 2011; April 2013 2013 Ghisletta, Paolo Alfieri, Fernanda University of Geneva, Switzerland Fondazione Bruno Kessler Istituto Storico Italo- June, November 2011 Germanico, Trento, Italy Giloi, Eva January–March 2013 Rutgers University, Newark, USA Arkes, Hal R. July 2012 – August 2013 Ohio State University, Columbus, USA Gluck, Kevin A. April–December 2011; June–August 2012 Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Bäckman, Lars Force Base, Ohio, USA Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden August 2010 – July 2011 May 2011 Gould, Deborah Barbalet, Jack University of California, Santa Cruz, USA Hong Kong Baptist University, China June–July 2013 June–July 2013 Gray, Wayne Bielby, Clare Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, USA University of Hull, UK January–June 2012 February–August 2013 Grüne-Yanoff, Till Blasco, Marta Gil Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden University of Valencia, Spain July–December 2013 April–June 2013 Guercini, Simone Bohn, Annette Universitá degli Studi Firenze, Italy Aarhus University, Denmark February, June 2011; February–June 2013 January–March 2011 Halpern-Felsher, Bonnie L. Boiger, Michael University of California, San Francisco, USA University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Belgium June–August 2012 October 2013 – December 2014 Hertzog, Christopher Boker, Steven M. Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA June–July 2011 July 2011 Hintze, Arend Bunge, Silvia Michigan State University, USA University of California, Berkeley, USA January–March 2013 September 2011 Hofer, Daniel Cabeza, Roberto University of Basel, Switzerland Duke University, Durham, USA June–July 2013 November 2012 Hogarth, Robin M. Dolan, Ray Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University June 2013 College London, UK Horn, Andreas August 2012 Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Draganski, Bogdan Berlin, Germany Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, February 2012 – July 2013 Switzerland Janata, Petr December 2011 University of California, Davis, USA Ehrmann-Hämmerle, Christa September 2012 University of Vienna, Austria Keitz, Ursula von August 2011 – January 2012 University of Bonn, Germany Feest, Uljana March–July 2012 Technische Universität Berlin, Germany Kellen, David September 2013 – July 2014 University of Freiburg, Germany Feltz, Adam October–December 2013 Schreiner University, Kerrville, USA Keller, Niklas July–August 2011 Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany Flam, Helena July 2013 – June 2014 Leipzig University, Germany Khader, Patrick September 2012 – March 2013 Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Germany Flückiger, Lavinia August–September 2013 University of Basel, Switzerland Kounine, Laura October 2013 – January 2014 University of Cambridge, UK Gama, Fabiene April–September 2013 Institut Interdisciplinaire d’Anthropologie du Contemporain, Paris, France April–May 2013

Appendix | 401 Krüger, Antonio Roper, Timothy James Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Künstliche University of Sussex, UK ­Intelligenz, Saarbrücken, Germany February–December 2013 February 2011 Samanez-Larkin, Gregory Little, Todd D. Yale University, New Haven, USA University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA June 2011 May 2012 Saxer, Daniela Mayr, Ulrich University of Zurich, Switzerland University of Oregon, Eugene, USA January 2011 – December 2012 May–June 2012 Schmidt, Timo Torsten McArdle, John J. Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA Berlin, Germany June–July 2012; June 2013 February 2012 – September 2013 McConway, Kevin Schneider, Wolfgang The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK University of Würzburg, Germany September–December 2011 January 2012 McIntosh, A. Randy Schwarz, Norbert Rotman Research Institute, Toronto, Canada University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA August 2013 May 2011 Mercado, Eduardo Seymour, Mark University at Buffalo, New York, USA University of Otago, New Zealand June 2011 June 2011 Moses, Julia Sydow, Momme von University of Sheffield, UK Heidelberg University, Germany February 2013 – January 2014 August–September 2013 Naveh-Benjamin, Moshe Stasser, Garold University of Missouri, Columbia, USA Miami University, Oxford, USA July 2011 September–November 2012; September– Ofen, Noa December 2013 Wayne State University, Detroit, USA Stephan, Klaas Enno May 2012 University of Zurich, Switzerland Oliver, Sophie Anne November 2011 University of Konstanz, Germany Streck, Danilo January–August 2012 Universidade do Vale do Rios dos Sinos, Olsson, Henrik São Leopoldo, Brasil Berlin, Germany August–December 2012 August 2012 – January 2014 Taylor, Brian Osselaer, Tine van University of Ulster, Londonderry, UK University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Belgium May–June 2013 May–June 2011 Trautwein, Ulrich Oyserman, Daphna University of Tübingen, Germany University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA October 2011 – September 2012 May 2011 Vallgarda, Karen Asta Arnfred Park, Denise C. University of Copenhagen, Denmark University of Texas, Dallas, USA March–May 2012 August 2012 Watanabe-O´Kelly, Helen Pearman, Ann University of Oxford, UK Georgia State University, Atlanta, USA October 2012 – January 2013 June–July 2011; August 2012 Wheeler, Gregory Polk, Thad New University of Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA January–April, August–December 2011 October–December 2011 Woollacott, Marjorie Prescott, Carol University of Oregon, Eugene, USA University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA June–July 2013 July 2012; June 2013 Wrzus, Cornelia Ram, Nilam Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany Pennsylvania State University, USA October 2013 – September 2014 December 2011 Zhu, Wei Ratcliff, Roger Tongji University, Shanghai, China Ohio State University, Columbus, USA September 2010 – August 2012 August 2013 Ziegler, Johannes Raz, Naftali Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France Wayne State University, Detroit, USA January 2011 March, June–August, December 2011 Reuter-Lorenz, Patricia A. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA April–May 2012

402 | Appendix 6. Other Professional Activities 2011–2013

Assmann, Wolfgang – Ausbildungsverbund Fachinformatik Berlin-afib (Coordinator)

Baumert, Jürgen – Association of Berlin Merchants and Industrialists (VBKI): "Bürgernetzwerk Bildung" (Advisory Board) – Baden-Wuerttemberg Ministry of Culture, Youth, and Sports: Expert Committee on Background and Educational Success (Chair) – Baden-Wuerttemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts: Expert Group on the Development of Teacher Education (Member) – Berlin Senate Administration for Education, Youth, and Science: Teacher Educa- tion Committee (Chair) – Carina Foundation, Herford (Board of Trustees) – Dahlem Conferences, Freie Universität Berlin (Advisory Board) – Deutsche Telekom Stiftung: Selection Committee, National Center for Teacher Education (Chair) – Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), “House of Little Scien- tists” Initiative for Preschool Children (Board of Trustees) – German Association for Empirical Educational Research (GEBF) (Vice-President) – German Children and Youth Foundation, Berlin (Board of Trustees) – Institute for Education Progress of the States of the Federal Republic of ­Germany (IQB), Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (Governing Board) – Institute for School Quality in Berlin and Brandenburg (ISQ) (Chair of Advisory Board) – Jacobs Center on Lifelong Learning and Institutional Development, Jacobs University Bremen (Advisory Board) – Jacobs Foundation, Zurich (Board of Trustees) – Knowledge Media Research Centre, Tübingen (Board of Trustees) – “Lebenswelt Schule”—A joint program of the German Children and Youth Foun- dation and the Jacobs Foundation (Advisory Board) – Leibniz Association: German Institute for Adult Education (DIE), Bonn (Evalua- tion Committee) – Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) (Advisory Board) – Ruhr University of Bochum, Professional School of Education (Advisory Board) – Steering Committee of the Joint Commission of the German Federal and Länder Governments on Monitoring the Performance of the German Education System in accordance with Art. 91b (2) of the German Basic Law (Chair of the Advisory Board) – Technische Universität München, Center for International Educational Com- parison Studies (ZIB) (Board of Trustees) – The Research Council of Norway, Oslo: “Norwegian Educational Research Towards 2020” (Panel Member) – Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft (Coeditor) – Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie (Advisory Board) – Zeitschrift für Unterrichtswissenschaft (Coeditor)

Beljan, Magdalena – Body Politics: Zeitschrift für Körpergeschichte (Coeditor)

Bongrand, Philippe – French Scientific Society for the History of Education (ATRHE) (Founding Member)­

Bos, Wouter van den – Journal of Open Psychology Data (Editorial Board)

Brighton, Henry – Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (Program Committee) – Berlin School of Mind and Brain (Faculty Associate) – European Conference on Machine Learning (Program Committee) – Journal "Frontiers in Cognitive Science" (Associate Editor)

Düzel, Sandra – Equal Opportunities Representative of the MPI for Human Development

Appendix | 403 Edelstein, Wolfgang – Buddy e. V. (Advisory Board) – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Demokratiepädagogik (German Association for Democratic Education) (Member) – Institut für angewandte Familien-, Kindheits- und Jugendforschung e. V., ­Potsdam (Scientific Advisory Board) – Journal "New Directions for Youth Development" (Editorial Board)

Eitler, Pascal – Body Politics: Zeitschrift für Körpergeschichte (Chief Editor)

Ellerbrock, Dagmar – Verband Historiker und Historikerinnen Deutschlands (Board Member)

Feufel, Markus A. – Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), “Public Dialogue: High Tech Medicine—What Kind of Health Do We Want?” (Scientific Advisory Board)

Flitner, Ursula – Training Cooperation with the Technische Universität Berlin (Coordinator)

Frevert, Ute – Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Berlin (Advisory Board) – American Academy in Berlin (Selection Committee) – Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (Member) – British Academy for the Humanities and Social Sciences, London (Corresponding­ Fellow) – Centre Marc Bloch, Berlin (Advisory Board) – Dahlem Conferences, Freie Universität Berlin (Advisory Board) – Deutsche Bahn Foundation, "Bildung und Kultur" (Education and Culture) (Board of Trustees) – Einstein Forum, Potsdam (Advisory Board) – European Research Council (Panel Member) – Foundation Deutsches Hygiene Museum, Dresden (Board of Trustees) – German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina (Member) – German Historical Institute, Washington D.C. (Advisory Board) – German History Competition organized by the Kurt-A.-Körber Foundation (Board of Trustees) – German-Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development (GIF) (Member) – Geschichte und Gesellschaft—Journal of Historical Social Sciences (Coeditor/ Managing Director) – Humboldt-Viadrina School of Governance, Berlin (Board of Trustees) – Institute for Human Sciences, Vienna (Advisory Board) – International Max Planck Research School for Moral Economies of Modern Societies (Spokesperson) – Jacobs University Bremen (Board of Governors) – Journal of Contemporary History (Editorial Board) – Journal "European Studies Review" (Advisory Board) – Journal "Genèses: Science Sociales et Histoire" (Advisory Board) – Journal "L'Homme: Zeitschrift für Feministische Gesellschaftswissenschaft" (Advisory Board) – Journal of Modern History (Advisory Board) – Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for the History and Theory of Biography, Vienna (Advisory Board) – Scientific Council of the Max Planck Society (Deputy Chairperson) – Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung, Potsdam (Board of Trustees) – Zukunftskolleg, University of Konstanz (Advisory Board)

Gaissmaier, Wolfgang – Journal "Frontiers in Quantitative Psychology and Measurement" (Review Editor) – Journal "Medical Decision Making" (Editorial Board)

Galesic, Mirta – Journal "Medical Decision Making" (Editorial Board)

Garcia, Luis-Manuel – Special Issue, Dancecult: Journal of Electronic Dance Music Culture, "Doing Nightlife and EDMC Fieldwork" (Guest Editor)

404 | Appendix Gigerenzer, Gerd – American Institute for Behavioral Research and Technology (AIBRT) (Scientific Advisory Board) – Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (Member) – BERLIN.MINDS (Advisory Board) – BfR Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (Advisory Board) – Board of the APS Policies (Advisory Committee of International Scholars) – Deutscher Bundestag, Hearing on the capital requirements of banks ​­(Expert Testimony) – European Society for Philosophy and Psychology (ESPP) (Advisory Board) – Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies Forum (Advisory Board) – German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina (Fellow) – Inspire2Live Foundation, Amsterdam (Member) – International Herbert A. Simon Society (Founding Member) – Journal of Behavioral Decision Making (Editorial Board) – Journal "Decision" (Editorial Board) – Journal "Evolution and Human Behavior" (Editorial Board) – Journal "Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes" (Editorial Board) – Journal "Psychological Inquiry" (Editorial Board) – Journal "Theory and Psychology" (Advisory Editor) – National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina Taskforce “Wissenschaft, ­Öffentlichkeit und Medien” (Member) – Risk and Security, Technische Universität München (Advisory Board) – Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Economics (Codirector)­

Hämmerer, Dorothea – Max Planck PhDNet (Survey Working Group)

Hertwig, Ralph – Association for Psychological Science (Fellow) – German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina (Member of Section 26 "Psychology and Cognitive Sciences") – Journal of Behavioral Decision Making (Editorial Board) – Journal "Experimental Psychology" (Editorial Board) – Journal "Thinking & Reasoning" (Editorial Board) – Max Wertheimer Minerva Center for Cognitive Processes and Human ­Performance, Haifa (Advisory Board) – MobileMed: Mobile Consultation and Learning System (Advisory Board) – Steering Committee of the DFG Priority Program "New Frameworks of Rationality"­ (Member) – Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Economics (Codirector)­ – Wilhelm Wundt Society (Member)

Horn, Andreas – Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Neurology Department, Movement ­Disorders Group (Research Fellow)

Jensen, Uffa – Journal “Culturas Psy/PsyCultures” (Editorial Committee) – Mailing List H-Soz-u-Kult (Review Editor)

Keller, Monika – American Field Service (Board Member) – International Journal of Developmental Science (Editorial Board) – Journal "Erwägen, Wissen, Ethik" (Editorial Board)

Laukötter, Anja – Equal Opportunities Representative of the MPI for Human Development – Internet Portal “History of Emotions: Insights into Research” (Coeditor)

Li, Shu-Chen – APA Journal Developmental Psychology (Associate Editor) – Faculty of Science, Technische Universität Dresden (Faculty Board) – Journal "NeuroImage" (Editorial Board) – Journal "Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews" (Editorial Board)

Appendix | 405 Lindenberger, Ulman – Alexander-von-Humboldt-Stiftung (Member and Selection Committee for Humboldt Research Awards) – American Psychological Association (Fellow) – Association for Psychological Science (Fellow) – Centre for Population Studies (CPS), Umeå University, Sweden (Board of Ageing and Living Conditions Programme, ALC) – European Journal of Developmental Science (Editorial Board) – German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina (Member of Section 26 “Psychology and Cognitive Sciences”) – German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF), Frankfurt a. M. (Scientific Advisory Board) – German Research Foundation (DFG), Review Board 110 “­Psychology,” Sub- Division 110-02 “Developmental Psychology and ­Educational Psychology” (Member) – Gerontological Society of America (Fellow) – GeroPsych: The Journal of Gerontopsychology and Geriatric Psychiatry (Editorial­ Board) – Interdisciplinary Wolfgang Köhler Research Centre on Conflicts in Intelligent Systems, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (Scientific Board) – International Journal of Behavioral Development (Editorial Board) – International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development (ISSBD) (Executive­ Committee) – Jacobs Foundation, Zurich (Board of Trustees) – Jacobs University Bremen (Scientific Board of the Jacobs Center on Lifelong Learning and Institutional Development) – Journal "Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition" (Editorial Board) – Journal "Psychology and Aging" (Editorial Board) – LIVES National Centre of Competence in Research, funded by the Swiss ­National Science Foundation (International Scientific Committee) – Margret M. and Paul B. Baltes Foundation for the Advancement of Research in Developmental Psychology and Gerontology (Member of the Board) – Rotman Research Institute, Toronto (Scientific Advisory Committee) – Wilhelm Wundt Society (Deputy Chair) – Working Group on Aging in Germany, launched by the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina and the acatech-Council for Engineering Sciences at the Union of the German Academies of Science and Humanities (Member) – Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie (Advisory­ Board)

Luan, Shengua – Journal "Frontiers in Cognitive Science" (Review Board) – Journal "Frontiers in Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology" (Review Board)

Marewski, Julian N. – Journal "Judgment and Decision Making" (Guest Editor of Special Issues) – Journal of Organizational Moral Psychology (Editorial Board)

Mata, Jutta – BfR Committee for Risk Research and Risk Perception 2014–2017, elected in 2013 (Member) – Journal of Obesity (Guest Editor) – University of Basel, Dissplus (PhD Mentoring Program) (Mentor) – University of Basel, Step (M.Sc. Mentoring Program) (Mentor)

Müller, Sven Oliver – Interdisciplinary publication series “Die Gesellschaft der Oper: Die Musikkultur europäischer Metropolen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert” (Coeditor) – Special Issue, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, “Musikalische Kommunikation” (Coeditor)

Neth, Hansjörg – International Conference on Cognitive Modeling (ICCM) (Program Committee)

Nielsen, Philipp – Network H-Antisemitism (Review Editor)

Pachur, Thorsten – Journal of Behavioral Decision Making (Editorial Board) – Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition (Consulting­ Editor)

406 | Appendix Pernau, Margrit – Concepta (International Research School in Conceptual History and Political Thought) (Advisory Board) – Faculty of MA Global History, Freie Universität Berlin (Member) – Geschichte und Gesellschaft: Journal of Historical Social Sciences (Editorial Board) – International Max Planck Research School for Moral Economies of Modern Societies (Principal Investigator) – Internet Portal "History of Emotions: Insights into Research" (Coordinator) – Journal "Contributions to the History of Concepts" (Editorial Board)

Riediger, Michaela – Ethics Committee of the MPI for Human Development (Head) – German Institute for Economic Research (Research Affiliate) – Journal "Cognition and Emotion" (Guest Editor of Special Section) – Journal "Emotion" (Consulting Editorial Board) – Journal "Psychology and Aging" (Consulting Editor) – University of Bamberg, feRNet female Researcher Network (Mentoring Pro- gram) (Mentor)

Scheer, Monique – International Society for Ethnology and Folklore (Executive Board) – Body Politics: Zeitschrift für Körpergeschichte (Editorial Board) – Material Religion (Book Reviews Editor) – Tübinger Vereinigung für Volkskunde (Advisory Board, Coeditor of Book Series)

Schooler, Lael J. – Journal "Frontiers in Cognitive Science" (Associate Editor) – Journal "Psychological Review" (Consulting Editor) – Journal "Topics in Cognitive Science" (Senior Editor) – Semantic Web Journal’s forthcoming Special Issue, “Cognitive Science and the Semantic Web” (Guest Editor) – U.S. National Science Foundation, Program on Decision, Risk, and Management Science (Advisory Panel)

Schroeder, Sascha – Berlin Education Interdisciplinary Network (BIEN: Co-Coordinator) – Ethics Committee of the MPI for Human Development (Member)

Schulte-Mecklenbeck, – European Association for Decision Making, Ethics Committee Michael (Steering Committee and Newsletter Editor)

Sela-Teichler, Yeal – International Research Project “Jewish Sacred Musical Spaces," Hebrew ­University of Jerusalem & the Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien, Hannover­ (Coordinator)

¸Sim¸sek, Özgür – International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML) (Program Committee)

Stevens, Jeffrey R. – Journal "Frontiers in Comparative Psychology" (Editor-in-chief)

Tiffin-Richards, Simon P. – College for International Educational Research (CIDER) (Fellow)

Vidor, Gian Marco – Association of Significant Cemeteries in Europe (ASCE) (Scientific Committee)

Wagner, Gert G. – Deutscher Bundestag, Study Commission "Growth, Wealth, Quality of Life" of the German Parliament (Member) – DIW Berlin (Executive Board) – DIW Berlin Graduate Center of Economic and Social Research (Faculty Member) – German Data Forum (RatSWD) (Head) – Journal of Applied Social Science Studies ("Schmollers Jahrbuch") (Editor-in-chief)­ – National Academy of Science and Engineering (acatech) (Elected Member)

Wassmann, Claudia – Swiss Center for Affective Sciences (Associate Member)

Appendix | 407 7. Academic Degrees 2011–2013

Habilitations

Gaissmaier, Wolfgang (2013). Decision making under Pachur, Thorsten (2012). Modeling bounded rational- risk and uncertainty: A cognitive-ecological perspec- ity. University of Basel. tive. Heidelberg University. Riediger, Michaela (2011). Adult development at the Kühn, Simone (2012). The neural basis of ideomotor intersection of motivation, behavior, and subjective action control: Correlates of the link between percep- experience. University of Zurich. tion and action. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Schroeder, Sascha (2011). Modellierung und Erfas- Müller, Sven Oliver (2013). Die Gesellschaft macht sung kognitiver Prozesse beim Textverstehen von die Musik: Das Opern- und Konzertpublikum in Berlin, Schülerinnen und Schülern. Freie Universität Berlin. London und Wien im 19. Jahrhundert. Bielefeld University.

Doctoral Dissertations

Artinger, Florian (2012). Psychological mechanisms Kämmer, Juliane E. (2013). How people make adap- in strategic interaction under uncertainty. Technische tive decisions with (the help of) others: Studies from Universität Berlin. an ecological rationality perspective. Humboldt- Universität zu Berlin. Brandmaier, Andreas M. (2011). Permutation distribu- tion clustering and structural equation model trees. Martin, Shirley Ann (2011). Grounding tools that Saarland University. travel: Ideology, research style, and imagined com- munity in the circulation of inferential statistics, Bodemer, Nicolai (2012). Transparency in information 1918–1966. University of Chicago. about health: Improving medical decision making. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Multmeier, Jan (2012). Representations facilitate Bayesian reasoning: Computational facilitation and Donauer, Sabine (2013). Emotions at work—working ecological design revisited. Freie Universität Berlin. on emotions: Germany, 1870–1970. Freie Universität Berlin. Noack, Hannes (2012). Limits in spatial cognition: Probing behavioral and brain plasticity in aging. Fandakova, Yana (2012). Age and individual differ- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. ences in true and false memory across the lifespan. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Papenberg, Goran (2012). Contributions of intra­ individual variability and dopaminergic modulation to Fleischhut, Nadine (2013). Moral judgment and deci- episodic memory in old age. Freie Universität Berlin. sion making under uncertainty. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Passow, Susanne (2012). Attentional control of audi- tory perception: Age-related differences and genetic Freier, Monika (2013). Cultivating emotions—Hindi modulation. Freie Universität Berlin. advice literature in late Colonial India. Freie Univer- sität Berlin. Ruggeri, Azzurra (2012). Opening up the cuebox: A developmental perspective. Humboldt-Universität zu Frey, Renato (2013). In the twilight of uncertainty: Berlin. Decisions about monetary risks, life, and death. Uni- versity of Basel. Sajjad, Mohammad (2012). Loving the master? The debate on appropriate emotions in North India (ca. Gresch, Cornelia (2011). Der Übergang von der 1750–1830). Freie Universität Berlin. Grundschule in die Sekundarstufe I bei Kindern mit Migrationshintergrund: Schulische Voraussetzungen, Sander, Myriam C. (2011). Lifespan age differences in Bildungsaspiration und die Bildungsentscheidung vor working memory: Insights from behavioral and elec- dem Hintergrund rechtlicher Regelungen. Humboldt- trophysiological markers of capacity and selectivity. Universität zu Berlin. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Hachfeld, Axinja (2012). Cultural beliefs and profes- Sänger, Johanna (2013). Within- and between-brain sional competences of teacher candidates for teaching synchronization phenomena as neural correlates of in culturally diverse classrooms. Freie Universität interpersonal action coordination in guitar duets. Berlin. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Jenny, Mirjam (2013). Modeling how people judge, Schuck, Nicolas W. (2013). Aging and functional choose, and change their mind: The cognitive pro- reorganization of striatum- and medial-temporal lobe- cesses underlying probability judgments and belief dependent memory system. Humboldt-Universität zu revisions. University of Basel. Berlin.

408 | Appendix Sonnenberg, Bettina (2013). Unemployment and Wichert, Frank (2012). Illusion of certainty: Gewiss­ social involvement: Dependencies and mechanisms. heitssuche und kognitive Fehleinschätzungen aus Findings from the Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP). evolutions-psychologischer Perspektive. Freie Univer- Freie Universität Berlin. sität Berlin. Störmer, Viola S. (2011). Adult age differences in Wolff, Julia K. (2011). Social support and subjective visual attention and working memory: Neural and health as within-person processes: Adult age differ- behavioral evidence on early selection and updating. ences in intraindividual variability and in associations Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. between social support measures and physical and emotional well-being. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Suter, Renata (2012). Utilitarian and non-utilitarian models of risky and moral choice. University of Basel. Volstorf, Jenny (2013). Against all noise: On noise- robust strategies in the emergence of cooperation. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin.

Master’s and Diploma Theses

Berwald, Julian (2011). Der Einfluss des Sprachhinter- Josef, Anika (2013). Age-differences in memory-based grundes auf die orthographische Verarbeitung. Freie decisions: A task complexity manipulation. University Universität Berlin. of Basel. Blanke, Elisabeth (2011). Ich weiß, was du fühlst: Karch, Julian David (2012). Combination of classi- Empathische Akkuratheit in Paarbeziehungen junger fiers to increase accuracy of EEG classification. Freie und älterer Erwachsener. Freie Universität Berlin. Universität Berlin. Brünger, Aline Carina (2013). Diffusion MRI of motor Kastner, Hanna S. (2013). Neuronal correlates of plasticity after writing training of the non-preferred symptoms of delusion. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. hand. Freie Universität Berlin. Meyberg, Susann (2011). The microsaccadic lambda Cordi, Maren (2011). Memory belief: Lifespan age response as an attentional probe: A study using differences and its relation to episodic memory perfor- simultaneous ERP and eye-movement recordings. mance. University of Tübingen. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Czienskowski, Paul (2012). Qualitätsgewinne von Müller, Maike (2011). Child development of percep- Quelllokalisation im EEG durch individuelle Hirn- tual and attentional influences on auditory processing modelle in altersvergleichenden Studien. Technische in dichotic listening. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Universität Berlin. Schilling, Florian (2012). Entwurf eines verteilten Delfino, Alexia (2013). Enticed by popularity: Decision Systems für die Klassifikation multivariater Zeitreihen making with social cues in the internet era. Sant' Anna im psychophysiologischen Kontext. Freie Universität School of Advanced Studies of Pisa. Berlin. Divjak, Bojana (2011). Erste Kompetenzen im Umgang Schmidt, Dominique (2011). The effect of temporal mit Information und Informationssuche: Kopf oder outcome delay on the voluntary provision of public Bauch. Ludwigsburg University of Education. goods. Freie Universität Berlin. Frisch, Simon (2013). Instrumentelle Affektregula- Siegler, Sebastian (2013). Sieben Werktage aus dem tion durch Musik über die Lebensspanne. Technische Leben berufstätiger Elternpaare: Eine Untersuchung Universität Dresden. zum Spillover von psychischer Befindlichkeit von der Arbeit in die Freizeit. Freie Universität Berlin. Gaca, Maike (2013). Context-dependency of action perception in infants. Freie Universität Berlin. Sievers, Gianni (2012). Time and place in the Musaddas-e Hali: Romanticism in late 19th c Delhi. Großmann, Julia (2011). Geschlechtsspezifische Dif- Freie Universität Berlin. ferenzen in Gruppeninteraktionen: Ein Vergleich von Diktatorspielen in unterschiedlichen Altersgruppen. Volhard, Jakob A. (2013). Brain synchronization and Freie Universität Berlin. phase locking during perception of static and dynamic facial emotional expressions. Freie Universität Berlin. Hoffmann, Timm (2012). Die Demokratisierung der Schule: Die West-Berliner Schülerproteste zwischen Westphal, Andrea (2011). Mehr als nur ein Lächeln: 1967 und 1971. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Alterseffekte in der Erkennung von Emotionen in Lächelausdrücken. Leipzig University. Jakobs, Perke (2013). A competitive test of heuristics for choice from serially dependent sequences. Tilburg University.

Appendix | 409 8. Research and Professional Staff 2011–2013

Assmann, Wolfgang tory of education; music and torture; emo- Delius, Julia A. M. (Diploma in Business tions and learning history; culture and (Dr. med.,1993, Informatics, 1973, practices of remembrance in European con- Goethe University Freie Universität texts; popular history culture. (HoE) Frankfurt a. M.; Edi- ­Berlin; Diploma in torial Coordinator, Pedagogy, 1978, Brehmer, Yvonne Interim LIFE Program Freie Universität (Diploma in Psychol- Manager; Online- ­Berlin; Head of Cen- ogy, 2003, Saarland Editor BASE, LIFE): tral IT Unit): Service University; Interdisciplinary ger- management in re- Dr. rer. nat., 2006, ontology. (LIP) search institutions; information technology Humboldt-Univer- in the social and behavioral sciences. sität zu Berlin; Otto Dettmers, Swantje Hahn Research (Diploma in Psychol- Bodammer, Nils C. Group Leader): Cog- ogy, 2006, University (Dr. rer. nat. in Phys- nitive plasticity in of ­Münster; Dr. phil. ics, 2005, Otto-von- childhood and old age; memory training in Educational Sci- Guericke-Universität across the lifespan; neural correlates of age- ences, 2010, Freie Magdeburg; Head of related cognitive changes. (LIP) Universität Berlin): MR Physics): Diffu- National and inter- sion imaging and Brighton, Henry national school other quantitative (B.Sc. [Hons.] in Arti- achievement re- MR methods in neu- ficial Intelligence search; quality assurance and quality im- roscience and aging and Computer Sci- provement in the educational system; effects research. (LIP) ence, 1996, Univer- of homework assignment on academic sity of Edinburgh; achievement. (Emeritus Group Baumert) Bos, Wouter van M.Sc. in Cognitive den (M.A. in Philoso- Science, 1997, Uni- Düzel, Sandra phy, 2004, University versity of Edinburgh; (Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- of Amsterdam; M.Sc. PhD in Cognitive Sci- chology, 2010, Otto- in Cognitive Science, ence, 2003, University of Edinburgh): Formal von-Guericke-Uni- 2006, University of and computational models of inference, de- versität Magdeburg; Amsterdam; PhD in cision making and language evolution. (ABC) Diploma in Health Psychology, 2011, Science, 2001, Mag- Leiden University): Conradt, Larissa deburg-Stendal Uni- Development; deci- (Diploma in Biology, versity of Applied sion making; learning; neuroimaging; com- 1993, University of Sciences): Memory putational modeling; connectivity analyses; Tübingen; PhD in and lifestyle in normal and successful aging; social behavior. (ARC) Behavioural Ecology, subjective health; brain structure and cogni- 1998, University of tive aging; structural neuroimaging. (LIP) Brandmaier, Cambridge): Animal Andreas­ M. collective decisions; Eitler, Pascal (M.A. (Diploma in Com- conflict resolution; in History, 2001, puter Science, 2008, evolution of decision Bielefeld University Technische Univer- behaviors. (ARC) and E.H.E.S.S. Paris; sität München; Dr. phil. in Modern Dr. rer. nat., 2012, Czienskowski, Uwe History, 2008, Biele- Saarland­ University): (Diploma in Psychol- feld University): Hu- Brain-behavior rela- ogy, 1990, Freie Uni- man–animal rela- tions across the life­ versität Berlin; tionships in modern span; multivariate developmental methodol- Dr. phil. in Psychol- history; history of ogy; formal models of behavioral change; ogy, 1995, Freie Uni- the body and the emotions of the 19th and machine learning and data mining; statisti- versität Berlin; Di- 20th century; history of religion in West Ger- cal and algorithmic modeling. (LIP) ploma in Computer many. (HoE) Science, 2007, Uni- Brauer, Juliane versity of Applied Ellerbrock, Dagmar (M.A. in History and Sciences, Trier): Software development for (M.A. in History, Pub- Musicology, 2001, scientific research; experimental design and lic Law, English Lit- Humboldt-Univer- analysis; meta-analysis; general statistics; erature and Lan- sität zu Berlin; philosophy and history of science. (ABC) guage, 1993, Univer- Dr. phil. in Politics, sity of Freiburg; Dr. 2007, Freie Univer- phil. in Modern His- sität Berlin): Music tory, 1999, Bielefeld making as an emo- University; Habilita- tional practice; mu- tion in Modern and sic education and singing in Germany; his- Recent History, 2011, Bielefeld University;

410 | Appendix Minerva Research Group Leader): Modern Frevert, Ute Garrett, Douglas D. German and European history; history of Eu- (Dr. phil. in History, (M.A. in Psychology, ropean gun culture; history of violence and 1982, Bielefeld Uni- 2007, University of peace; international relations, German- versity; Habilitation Toronto; PhD in Psy- American relations; history of emotions; in Modern History, chology, 2011, Uni- gender history; history of law and society. 1989, Bielefeld Uni- versity of Toronto; (HoE) versity; Scientific Fellow [MPS-UCL Member of the Max Initiative for Compu- Engelhardt, Nicole Planck Society; Co- tational Psychiatry (M.A. in Cultural An- director of the Insti- and Ageing Re- thropology, 2001, tute; Honorary Professor of History, Freie search]): Brain signal variability in relation to University of Co- Universität Berlin): Modern social, political, lifespan development; cognition; neuro- logne; Information and cultural history; history of emotions, chemistry; network dynamics; brain struc- Specialist, Subject gender history. (HoE) ture. (LIP) Librarian, 2003, Uni- versity of Applied Gaissmaier, Gigerenzer, Gerd Sciences, Potsdam; Wolfgang­ (Diploma (Dr. phil. in Psychol- Research Librarian): in Psychology, 2002, ogy, 1977, Ludwig- Scientific electronic information systems, Freie Universität Ber- Maximilians-Univer- classification, bibliometrics. lin; Dr. phil. in Psy- sität Munich; chology, 2007, Freie ­Habilitation in Psy- Filimon, Flavia (B.A. Universität Berlin; chology, 1982, Lud- [Hons.] in Psychology Habilitation in Psy- wig-Maximilians- and French, 2001, chology, 2013, Hei- Universität Munich; University of Auck- delberg University): Fellow of the Max land; M.Sc. in Cogni- Judgment and decision making; individual Planck ­Society; Co-director of the Institute; tive Science, 2004, differences in decision making; risk percep- Director of the Harding ­Center for Risk Lit- University of Califor- tion and communication; memory-based eracy; Honorary Professor of Psychology, nia, San Diego; PhD decision making; medical decision making; Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Uni- in Cognitive Science, ecological rationality; models of heuristics. versität zu Berlin; Batten Fellow at the 2008, University of (ABC/Harding Center) Darden Business School, University of California, San ­Diego): Functional neuroim- ­Virginia): Bounded rationality and social in- aging, sensorimotor and higher cognitive Galesic, Mirta (PhD telligence; decisions under uncertainty and functions of the human brain; decision mak- in Psychology, 2004, time restrictions; competence in risk and risk ing; uncertainty. (ABC) University of Zagreb; communication; decision-making strategies M.Sc. in Survey of managers, judges, and physicians. (ABC/ Flitner, Ursula (M.A. Methodology, 2005, Harding Center) in American Studies Joint Program in and German Litera- Survey Methodology, Grigull, Britta (M.A. ture, 1991, Freie University of Mary- in Art History, Psy- Universität Berlin; land and University chology, German Lit- State Examination in of Michigan): Judg- erature, 1999, Chris- Library and Informa- ment and decision making; sampling ap- tian-Albrechts-Uni- tion Science, 1995, proaches to cognition; risk communication; versität zu Kiel; Senatsverwaltung survey methodology. (ABC/Harding Center) Dr. phil. in Art His- für Kulturelle Ange- tory, 2004, Christian- legenheiten Berlin/Cologne; Head of the Gammerl, Benno Albrechts-Univer- Library and Research Information Unit): In- (M.A. in Cultural His- sität zu Kiel; Head of formation management; electronic resourc- tory, 2000, University Public Relations Unit). es and networked information systems; digi- of London; M.A. in tal humanities, virtual research environ- History, 2003, Freie Hertwig, Ralph ments. Universität Berlin; (Diploma in Psychol- Dr. phil. in Modern ogy, 1991, University Fox-Kuchenbecker, History, 2008, Freie of Konstanz; Petra (Dr. rer. nat. in Universität Berlin): Dr. rer. soc. in Psy- Biology, 1995, Hum- History of emotions; chology, 1995, Uni- boldt-Universität zu contemporary history of homosexuality in versity of Konstanz; Berlin; Public Rela- Germany; oral history; imperial history; citi- Habilitation in Psy- tions Specialist, zenship and nationality. (HoE) chology, 2003, Freie 2003, PR Kolleg Universität Berlin; Berlin;­ Communica- Co-director of the Institute; Honorary Pro- tion and Social Skills fessor of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität Trainer, 2011, Freie zu Berlin): Bounded and social rationality; Universität Berlin; Head of Public Relations experience-based decision making; method- Unit). ology of the social sciences. (ARC)

Appendix | 411 Herzog, Stefan M. Keller, Monika Kühn, Simone (B. Sc. in Psychology, (Dr. phil. in Psychol- (­Diploma in Psychol- 2003, University of ogy, 1974, Heidel- ogy, 2006, University Basel; M.Sc. in Psy- berg University; Ha- of Potsdam; chology, 2005, Uni- bilitation in Psychol- Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- versity of Basel; ogy, 1996, Freie chology, 2009, Dr. phil. in Psychol- Universität Berlin; Leipzig University; ogy, 2009, University Honorary Professor Habilitation in Psy- of Basel): Judgment of Psychology, Freie chology, 2012, Hum- and decision making; Universität Berlin): boldt-Universität zu bounded rationality and heuristics; wisdom Social rationality; development of perspec- Berlin): Structural and functional neuroim- of crowds, the crowd within and dialectical tive taking and theory of mind; socio-moral aging; brain plasticity across the lifespan; bootstrapping; medical decision making, risk cognition and emotions in cultural context; quantitative meta-analyses. (LIP) communication, and risk perception. (ARC) moral negotiations in experimental games; socio-moral competence in educational con- Laukötter, Anja Hitzer, Bettina text. (ABC) (M.A. in Modern His- (First State Examina- tory, 2001, Hum- tion in History and Kopp, Franziska boldt-Universität zu French, 1999, Freie (­Diploma in Psychol- Berlin; Dr. phil. in Universität Berlin; ogy, 1999, Leipzig Modern History, Dr. phil. in History, University; 2006, Humboldt- 2004, Bielefeld Uni- Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- Universität zu versity): History of chology, 2006, ­Berlin): Cultural his- emotions; history of Leipzig University): tory and the history migration; history of Social and cognitive of knowledge in the 19th and 20th century; religion; history of medicine. (HoE) development in the history of emotions; history of ethnology/ first year of life; EEG anthropology and medicine; history of hu- Horn, Andreas in infancy; timing mechanisms of social in- man experiments; history of (post)colonial- (State Examination teraction processes in infants and adults; ism; media and cultural theories; history of for Medicine, 2011, multisensory perception; memory processes; visualization; history of medical films. (HoE) University of joint attention; action simulation. (LIP) Freiburg; Dr. med., Lejarraga, Tomás 2012, University of Krappmann, Lothar (B.A. in Economics, Freiburg): Cognitive­ (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1999, Washington neuroscience; neuro- 1969, Freie Univer- College; M.Sc. in imaging (fMRI and sität Berlin; Honor- Management, 2003, DTI); connectomics; ary Professor of Soci- Universitat Pompeu movement disorders. (ARC) ology of Education, Fabra, Barcelona; Freie Universität PhD in Management, Jensen, Uffa (M.A. in Berlin): Socialization 2009, Universitat History and Philoso- theory; social and Pompeu Fabra, Bar- phy, 1998, Tech- moral development celona): Individual and group judgment and nische Universität of children in middle childhood; children's decision making under risk and uncertainty; Berlin; Dr. phil. in peer interactions, relationships, and groups; experience-based choice; learning. (ARC) Modern History, links between family and peer relationships; 2003, Technische day-care institutions; child rights and chil- Lindenberger, Universität Berlin): dren's participation; observational research Ulman­ (Dr. phil. in History of emotions; methodology. (LIP) Psychology, 1990, history of knowledge Freie Universität Ber- and human sciences; transnational history; Kruse, Imke (Dr. phil. lin; Habilitation in history of psychoanalysis; history of anti- in Political Science, Psychology, 1998, Semitism. (HoE) 2005, Freie Univer- Freie Universität sität Berlin; Research ­Berlin; Fellow of the Katsikopoulos, Manager, Center for Max Planck Society; Konstantinos­ V. Lifespan Psychology; Co-director of the (PhD in Industrial LIFE Program Man- Institute; Honorary Professor of Psychology, Engineering and Op- ager): Adult develop- Saarland University, Freie Universität Berlin, erations Research, ment and migration. and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin; Chair of 1999, University of (LIP) the Humanities Section of the Max Planck Massachusetts, Am- Society, 2010–2013): Lifespan psychology: herst): Theory: mod- theories and methods; behavioral and neural els of decision mak- manifestations of plasticity from childhood ing (prescriptive and to old age; sensorimotor and cognitive de- ­descriptive); applications: economics, man- velopment; multivariate measurement of agement, health and safety. (ABC) change and variability. (LIP)

412 | Appendix Luan, Shenghua Müller, Viktor Neth, Hansjörg (PhD (B.A. in Psychology, (Dr. rer. soc. in Psy- in Psychology, 2004, 1999, Peking Univer- chology, 1996, Uni- Cardiff University, sity; M.Sc. in Cogni- versity of Tübingen): UK): Heuristic deci- tive Psychology, Lifespan psychology sion making, ecologi- 2002, University of and aging mecha- cal rationality, ratio- Florida; PhD in Cog- nisms; psychophysi- nal analysis; judg- nitive Psychology, ology of social inter- ment under risk and 2004, University of actions; complexity uncertainty, risk per- Florida): Heuristics in and brain dynamics; ception; multitask- judgment and decision making; group deci- cortical synchronization: local and global ing, cognitive foraging, memory search; im- sion processes; organizational and manage- networks; graph-theoretical approach. (LIP) mediate interactive behavior, embodied and rial decision making; behavioral economics; embedded cognition. (ABC) moral decisions; applied signal detection Müller, Sven Oliver theory. (ABC) (M.A. in Modern and Olsson, Henrik (PhD Ancient History, in Psychology, 2000, Mata, Jutta 1994, Bielefeld Uni- Uppsala University): (­Diploma in Psychol- versity; Dr. phil. in Computational mod- ogy, 2004, Hum- History, 2001, Biele- eling; judgment and boldt-Universität zu feld University; Ha- decision making; Berlin; Dr. rer nat. in bilitation in History, categorization, esti- Psychology, 2008, 2014, Bielefeld Uni- mation, and causal Humboldt-Univer- versity): History of learning; adaptive- sität zu Berlin): Deci- emotions; comparative history in Europe; ness of cognitive sion making; health; cultural history of the 19th and 20th centu- mechanisms to environmental structures; affect; behavior ries; behavior of the audience in musical life; working-memory capacity. (ABC) change. (ARC) history and theories of the nationalism; war of extermination of the Wehrmacht in East- Ostwald, Dirk Mata, Rui (Licencia- ern Europe, field post letters as communica- (First State Examina- tura in Psychology, tion media. (MPRG Felt Communities) tion for Medicine, 2002, University of 2003, Universität Lisbon; Dr. phil. in Nagy, Nicole (Di- Hamburg; M.Sc. in Psychology, 2006, ploma in Psychology, Neural and Behav- Freie Universität Ber- 2004, Bielefeld Uni- ioral Sciences, 2006, lin): Lifespan devel- versity; Dr. phil. in University of opment of decision Psychology, 2007, ­Tübingen; PhD in making; individual Freie Universität Ber- Psychology, 2010, differences in risky lin): Development of University of Birmingham; B.Sc. in Math- choice under risk and uncertainty. (ARC) life goals and self- ematics, 2012, FernUniversität in Hagen): concepts in educa- Neurocognition. (ARC) Meder, Björn tional systems; na- (­Diploma in Psychol- tional and international school achievement Pachur, Thorsten ogy, 2003, University research. (Emeritus Group Baumert) (M.Sc. in Health Psy- of Göttingen; chology, 2002, Uni- Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- Nelson, Jonathan D. versity of Sussex; Di- chology, 2006, Uni- (M.Sc. in Cognitive ploma in Psychology, versity of Göttingen): Science, 2002, Uni- 2002, Freie Univer- Causality and causal versity of California, sität Berlin;­ Dr. phil. in cognition; informa- San Diego; PhD in Psychology, 2006, tion search; catego- Cognitive Science, Freie Universität rization; inductive learning; judgment and 2005, University of ­Berlin; Habilitation in decision making; bounded rationality; heu- California,­ San Psychology, 2012, University of Basel): Deci- ristics. (ABC) ­Diego): Human infor- sion making; heuristics; computational mod- mation search and eling; memory; risky decision making; indi- Moussaïd, Mehdi learning; philosophy of science and artificial vidual differences; information search. (ARC) (M.A. in Behavioral intelligence approaches to experiment selec- and Cognitive Sci- tion; judgment and decision making; rela- Pernau, Margrit ence, 2007, University tionship of perception and cognition. (ABC) (Dr. phil. in Modern of Toulouse; PhD in History, 1991, Heidel­ Ethology, 2010, Uni- berg University; Ha- versity of Toulouse/ bilitation in Modern ETH Zurich): Crowds; History, 2007, Biele- collective behaviors; feld University; Ex- self-organization; traordinary Professor complex systems; wisdom of crowds; group of History, Freie Uni- decision making; social influence; imitation; versität ­Berlin): Mod- herding; pedestrians. (ABC/ARC) ern Indian history (18th–20th century); history

Appendix | 413 of emotions; history of modern Islam; trans- Schaar, Katrin (Di- Schooler, Lael J. national history; history of entanglement; his- ploma in Pedagogy, (M.Sc. in Cognitive torical semantics; comparative studies; trans- 1992, Technische Psychology, 1989, lation studies; conceptual history. (HoE) Universität Berlin; Dr. Carnegie Mellon phil. in Education, University; PhD in Plamper, Jan (B.A. in 1997, Freie Univer- Cognitive Psychol- History, 1992, sität Berlin; Coordi- ogy, 1993, Carnegie Brandeis University; nator BASE-II; On- Mellon University): PhD in History, 2001, line-Editor BASE-II Adaptation of human University of Califor- website): Interdisci- memory to the sta- nia, Berkeley; Dilthey plinary gerontology; website design. (LIP) tistical structure of past and present envi- Fellow [Fritz Thyssen ronments; computational models of human Foundation]): Rus- Schaefer, Sabine memory; memory’s role in judgment and pre- sian history (19th– (Diploma in Psychol- diction tasks. (ABC) 20th century); ogy, 2001, Freie Uni- ­history of emotions. (HoE) versität Berlin; Dr. phil. Schroeder, Sascha in Psychology, 2005, (M.A. in Musicology, Quesada, José (M.A. Freie Universität 2002, University of in Psychology, 1997, ­Berlin): Cognitive- Cologne; Diploma in University of Grana- sensorimotor coordi- Psychology, 2006, da; PhD in Cognitive nation across the University of Co- Science, 2003, Uni- lifespan; behavioral logne; PhD in Psy- versity of Colorado, and neural plasticity; ontogenetic changes in chology, 2008, Uni- Boulder/University of behavior regulation; spatial navigation. (LIP) versity of Cologne; Granada): Judgment Habilitation in Psy- and decision making; Scheer, Monique chology, 2011, Freie Universität Berlin): Cog- statistical semantics; (B.A. in History, 1989, nitive processes in language and text com- predictive modeling; customer lifetime value Stanford University; prehension; reading literacy: assessment of (CLV); conversion optimization; AB testing; M.A. in Historical micro- and macrostructual reading skills; database marketing. (ABC) and Cultural Anthro- research in instruction and learning; quanti- pology, 2000, Uni- tative and qualitative methods in empirical Rauers, Antje versity of Tübingen; research. (MPRG REaD) (­Diploma in Psychol- Dr. rer. soc. in Histori- ogy, 2005, Freie Uni- cal and Cultural An- Shing, Yee Lee (M.A. versität Berlin; thropology, 2006, in Educational Psy- Dr. phil. in Psychol- University of Tübingen): Historical ethnogra- chology, 2003, Uni- ogy, 2008, Freie Uni- phies of religious groups; emotions and prac- versity of Georgia, versität ­Berlin): Af- tice theory; visual and material cultures in Athens; Dr. rer. nat. in fective competencies religious contexts; history of the human sci- Psychology, 2008, across adulthood; ences, esp. of ethnic diversity. (HoE) Humboldt-Univer- affective dynamics sität zu Berlin; Min- between social interaction partners; collab- Schellenbach, verva Research orative cognition. (MPRG Affect) Michae­ l (Diploma in Group Leader): Life­ Computer Science, span and developmental psychology theo- Riediger, Michaela 2004, Saarland Uni- ries; development and plasticity of cognitive (Diploma in Psychol- versity): Ambient mechanisms over the lifespan; multivariate ogy, 1997, Hum- assisted living; spa- analyses of change and variability; neural boldt-Universität zu tial cognition; ambu- correlates of cognitive developmental and Berlin; Dr. phil. in latory assessment. aging processes. (LIP) Psychology, 2001, (LIP) Freie Universität ¸Sim¸sek, Özgür (M.Sc. Berlin;­ Habilitation in Industrial Engi- in Psychology, 2011, Schmidt, Anne (First neering and Opera- University of Zurich): State Examination in tions Research, 1997, Lifespan changes in the interplay of affect, History and German University of Mas- motivation, and cognition; development of Language and Litera- sachusetts, Amherst; affective experiences and competencies; so- ture Studies, 1998, M.Sc. in Computer cial aspects of motivational and affective Freie Universität Science, 2004, Uni- processes. (MPRG Affect) ­Berlin; Dr. phil. in versity of Massachu- Modern History, setts, Amherst; PhD 2004, Bielefeld Uni- in Computer Science, 2008, University of versity): Cultural, Massachusetts, Amherst): Machine learning; economic, and political history; media stud- artificial intelligence; decision heuristics; ies; history of emotions; public history. (HoE) complex networks. (ABC)

414 | Appendix Skork, Kerstin (M.A. Voelkle, Manuel C. Woike, Jan K. in German Literature, (Dr. rer. soc., 2008, (Diploma in Psychol- Psychology, and So- University of ogy, 2001, Ruhr-Uni- ciology, 2005, Mannheim): Longi- versität Bochum; Dr. Goethe University tudinal research phil. in Psychology, Frankfurt a. M.; Act- methods; structural 2008, Ruhr-Univer- ing Head of Public equation models; sität Bochum): Eco- Relations Unit): Inte- learning and skill logical rationality; grated communica- acquisition; various human cognition and tions; scientific com- aspects of differen- heuristics; behavioral munication; corporate publishing; event tial psychology; evaluation research. (LIP) economics; development of online applica- management. tions for interactive group research; destruc- Wegwarth, Odette tive competition; distributive fairness; deci- Tiffin-Richards, (Diploma in Psychol- sion making in economic contexts; personal Simon­ (B.Sc. in Psy- ogy, 2003, University identity; philosophy of biology. (ARC) chology, 2006, Uni- of Potsdam; versity of Reading; Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- Wrzus, Cornelia M.Sc. in Methods in chology, 2007, Hum- (Diploma­ in Psychol- Psychology, 2007, boldt-Universität zu ogy, 2005, University University of Read- Berlin): Medical de- of Potsdam; Dr. phil. ing; Dr. phil. in Psy- cision making; risk in Psychology, 2008, chology, 2011, Freie communication in University of Pots- Universität Berlin):­ medicine; patients’ and doctors’ understand- dam): Development Reading acquisition and comprehension; eye ing of risk; influence of transparent medical and individual differ- movements during reading; English as a for- statistics on patients’ and doctors’ decision. ences in affect and eign language; validity issues in educational (ABC/Harding Center) affect regulation; research. (MPRG REaD) physiological correlates of affective experi- Werkle-Bergner, ences; assessment and analysis of intraindi- Verrel, Julius (DEA Markus (Diploma in vidual variability. (MPRG Affect/Max Planck in Mathematics, Psychology, 2004, Fellow) 2001, Jussieu, Paris; Saarland University; M.Sc. in Cognitive Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- Zalfen, Sarah Neuroscience, 2006, chology, 2009, (Diploma in Politics, Radboud University, Humboldt-Univer- 2004, Freie Universi­ Nijmegen; Dr. rer. nat. sität zu Berlin): tät Berlin; Dr. phil. in in Psychology, 2011, Lifespan develop- Politics, 2010, Freie Humboldt-Univer- ment of memory and Universität Berlin): sität zu Berlin): Mo- cognitive control functions; neuronal cor- Music and emotions tor development and aging; movement vari- relates of life­span plasticity and change; EEG in community build- ability and coordination; cognitive aspects of methods in lifespan research; multivariate ing processes in the motor behavior; neural representation of statistical models of variability and change. 20th century; Ger- body and action. (LIP) (LIP) man political parties; new developments in music education; challenges and new strate- gies of cultural policy in Europe. (MPRG Felt Communities)

Appendix | 415 Emeritus Members of the Max Planck Society

Baumert, Jürgen Edelstein, Wolfgang Roeder, Peter M. (†) (State Examination (Dr. phil. in Medieval (Dr. phil., 1960, for Teachers, 1968, Studies, 1962, Hei- Philipps-Universität Universität Hamburg; delberg University; Marburg; Habilita- Dr. phil., 1968, Uni- Fellow of the Max tion in Educational versity of Tübingen; Planck Society; until Science, 1966, Habilitation in Edu- 1997 Co-director of Philipps-Universität cational Sciences, the Institute; Dr. h. c. Marburg; Fellow of 1982, Freie Univer- in Social Science, the Max Planck sität Berlin; Fellow of University of Iceland; ­Society; until 1995 the Max Planck Society; until 2010 Co-direc- Honorary Professor of Educational Science, Co-director of the Institute; Special Profes- tor of the Institute; Honorary Professor of Freie Universität Berlin and University of sor of Educational Sciences, Freie Universität Educational Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin Potsdam): Development and socialization; Berlin): Educational sciences; school re- and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin; Vice social-cognitive and moral development and search; history of educational science. President of the Max Planck Society, 2006– education; democratic competences and ​ 2008): Research in learning and instruction; ­citizenship learning; conditions of successful development of cognition and motivation school transformation; developmental and during adolescence and young adulthood; school-related conditions of successful teachers’ professional competence; large- learning. scale assessment and international compari- son; dynamics of institutional change.

Max Planck Fellow

Wagner, Gert G. (Diploma in Econom- ics, 1978, Goethe University Frankfurt a. M.; Dr. rer. oec. in Economics, 1984, Technische Univer- sität Berlin; Habilita- tion in Economics, 1992, Technische Universität Berlin): Behavioral economics; survey methodology; aging; welfare state.

416 | Appendix Adjunct Researchers

Artinger, Florian tions in health, finance, and education (e. g., Lövdén, Martin (B.A. [Hons.] in Poli- decision support, risk literacy, consumer pro- (B.Sc. in Psychology, tics and Economics, tection, usability, training). (ABC) 1998, Lund Univer- 2002, University of sity; PhD in Psychol- Newcastle; M.Sc. in Feufel, Markus A. ogy, 2002, Stockholm Economics and Man- (Diploma in Engi- University): Cogni- agement, 2006, neering [FH] in Au- tive neuroscience; Humboldt-Univer- diovisual Media, brain and cognition sität zu Berlin; PhD 2003, Stuttgart Me- in adulthood and in Economics, 2012, dia University; M.Sc. aging; plasticity; Technische Universität Berlin): Valuation un- in Human Factors cognitive neuroscience; brain and cognition der uncertainty; interaction of decision and Psychology, plasticity in adulthood and aging; interven- strategy and environment. (ABC) 2006, Wright State tion studies of interactions among behavior, University, Dayton; brain, and cognition. (LIP) Blankenburg, Felix PhD in Human Factors and Psychology, 2009, (Medical Degree ​[Ap- Wright State University, Dayton): Bounded Marewski, Julian N. probation], 1998, rationality; influence of technology on cog- (Diploma in Psychol- Charité/Humboldt- nitive and social functions; transparent ogy, 2005, Freie Uni- Universität zu Berlin; communication practices and informed versität Berlin; Dr. med., 2001, Freie (medical) decision making. (ABC/Harding Dr. phil. in Psychol- Universität Berlin): Center) ogy [Decision Sci- Cognitive neurosci- ences], 2009, Freie ence; neuroimaging; García-Retamero, Universität Berlin): neurocomputation. Rocio (B.A. in Psy- Decision making, (ARC) chology, 2000, Uni- memory, and quanti- versity of Jaén; PhD tative methods in business and beyond; deci- Boddice, Rob (B.A. in Psychology, 2005, sion making, memory, the environment, and [Hons.] in History, University of Grana- other aspects of cognition; quantitative (e. g., 1999, University of da): Risk perception ACT-R) modeling. (ABC) York; M.A. [Dist.] in and communication; Modern History, shared decision mak- Martignon, Laura 2003, University of ing; physician trust; (Licenciatura en York; PhD in History, medical decision making; group decision Matematica, 1971, 2006, University of making; learning. (ABC) Universidad Nacional York): History of sci- de Colombia; Di- ence and medicine; Heekeren, Hauke R. ploma in Mathemat- Darwin and evolution; gender history; history (Dr. med., 2000, ics, 1975, University of masculinities; history of human–animal Humboldt-Univer- of Tübingen; relations; history of emotions; modern Brit- sität zu Berlin; Li- Dr. rer. nat., 1978, ish history. (HoE) cense for the prac- University of Tübin- tice of medicine, gen; Habilitation in Neural Information Pro- Bortoleto, Ana 2000): Neuro-biolo- cessing, 1998, Ulm University): Mathematics Paula­ (M.Eng., 2006, gy of perceptual de- education; decision making; neuroinformat- University of Tokyo; cision making; moti- ics. (ABC) PhD in Engineering, vation and affect in 2009, University of decision making; cognitive and affective Mousavi, Shabnam Tokyo): Life cycle components in normal and disturbed social (PhD in Economics, assessment; munici- cognition; multimodal neuroimaging. (LIP) 2002, Virginia Poly- pal solid waste man- technic Institute; agement; waste pre- Li, Shu-Chen (B.Sc. PhD in Statistics, vention; environ- in Psychology, 1990, 2006, Virginia Poly- mental urban issues; environmental behavior Oklahoma City Uni- technic Institute): modeling; behavioral change policies. (ABC) versity; M.Sc. in Cog- Managerial and mar- nitive Psychology, ket irrationalities; Cokely, Edward T. 1991, University of behavioral decision (PhD in Cognitive Oklahoma; PhD in theory; axiomatization of bounded rational- Psychology, 2007, Cognitive Psychol- ity; alternative solution concepts; statistical Florida State Univer- ogy, 1994, University process control; nature of uncertainty; wis- sity): Psychology of of Oklahoma; Habili- dom as a heuristic; characterizing known superior decision tation in Psychology, 2006, Freie Universität and unknown; less-is-more phenomena. making; specializing ­Berlin): Neuromodulation of perception, cog- (ABC) in assessment and nition, and motivation; behavioral and brain modeling of indi- plasticity; computational neuroscience; vidual differences stress, brain, and cognition; biocultural co- (e. g., cognition, abilities, biases); applica- construction of development. (LIP)

Appendix | 417 Multmeier, Jan (Di- Schmiedek, Florian Taleb, Nassim N.­ ploma in Psychology, (Diploma in Psychol- (MBA, University of 2008, Bielefeld Uni- ogy, 2000, University Pennsylvania; PhD in versity; Dr. phil. in of Mannheim; Dr. Management Sci- Psychology, 2011, phil. in Psychology, ence, University of Freie Universität Ber- 2003, Freie Univer- Paris): Decision mak- lin): Delivery science; sität Berlin): Cogni- ing under opacity; judgment and deci- tive lifespan psychol- epistemology of sion making; risk lit- ogy; intraindividual probability; math- eracy. (ABC/Harding variability and plas- ematical expressions Center)­ ticity of cognitive performance; models for of model errors and metaprobability; ancient response times; multivariate models for de- heuristics and Mediterranean systems of Oertzen, Timo von velopmental processes; structural equation ethics. (ABC) (Diploma in Com- modeling, multilevel modeling, time series puter Science, 1999, analysis. (LIP) Todd, Peter M. (B.A. Saarland University; in Mathematics, B.A. in Psychology, Schuurman, Jan 1985, Oberlin Col- 2001, Saarland Uni- Gerrit (M.A. in Psy- lege; M.Phil. in Com- versity; PhD in Com- chology, University puter Speech and puter Science, 2003, of Groningen; PhD in Language Processing, Saarland University; Educational Technol- 1986, Cambridge Habilitation in Psy- ogy, Technical Uni- University; M.A. in chology, 2013, Humboldt-Universität zu Ber- versity of Twente): Psychology, 1987, UC lin): Optimization of the translation of re- decision making in San Diego; PhD in sources into scientific information by (1) de- health care. (ABC) Psychology, 1992, Stanford University): Sim- veloping methods to optimize study designs, ple heuristics for decision making; evolution and (2) extracting a maximum of informa- of behavior; food choice; mate choice; tion from existing data. (LIP) Stevens, Jeffrey R. search behavior and cognition. (ABC) (B.Sc. in Biology, Pope, Robin (B.A. 1996, Baylor Univer- Wheeler, Gregory [Hons.] in Economics, sity; PhD in Ecology, (M.A. in Philosophy, 1961, University of Evolution, and Be- 1995, Colorado State New England; M.A. havior, 2002, Univer- University; PhD in in Economics, 1969, sity of Minnesota): Philosophy and Com- Monash University; Animal cognition; puter Science, 2002, M.A. in Economet- cooperation; evolu- University of Roch- rics, 1972, Ohio State tion of decision mak- ester): Probability University; PhD in ing; intertemporal choice, social networks. theory (foundations, Economics, 1987, (ABC) causal and statistical University in New South Wales): Projects in reasoning); logic (philosophical, computa- economics, finance, botany, zoology, physics, Sela-Teichler, Yael tional, applied); cognitive science (judgment psychology, mental health; Stages of Knowl- (B.Mus. in Music, and decision making, bounded rationality. edge Ahead Theory. (ABC) 1999, Hebrew Uni- (ABC) versity of Jerusalem; M.St. in Historical Musicology, 2003, University of Oxford; Dr. phil. in Historical Musicology, 2010, University of Oxford): Sociocultural history of music (16th–19th century); German-Jewish history; emotions in aesthetic theories of the Enlightenment; cultural memory; theories of performativity; music as discursive practice. (MPRG Felt Communities)

418 | Appendix Postdoctoral Fellows

Artinger, Sabrina Bongrand, Philippe Burzynska, (M.Sc. in Economics (B.A. in Sociology, Agnieszka­ Zofia and Management 2001, ­Université Par- (B.Sc. in Biotechnol- Sciences [Dist.], 2007, is 5; M.A. in Political ogy, 2005, University Humboldt-Univer- Science, 2001, Uni- of Perugia/University sität zu Berlin; PhD in versité Paris 1; M.A. of Gdansk; M.Sc. in Economics, 2011, in Social Sciences, Neuroscience, 2007, Humboldt-Univer- 2002, Université Par- University of Göttin- sität zu Berlin): Judg- is 5; PhD in Political gen; LIFE Fellow: ment and decision Science, 2009, Uni- Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- making; behavioral economics; social ratio- versité de Picardie/CNRS, CURAPP): Emotions chology, 2010, Humboldt-Universität zu Ber- nality; entrepreneurship; leadership. (ABC) in the schooling process; educational sys- lin): Effects of physical exercise on the brain; tems; public policies; governmentality; af- neural mechanisms of brain aging and plas- Bartling, Karen (Drs. firmative action policies. (HoE) ticity; diffusion tensor imaging; resting state in Psychology, 2006, and structural MRI. (LIP) Maastricht University; Brick, Timothy R. Dr. rer. nat. in Psychol- (M.Sc. in Computer Eppinger, Ben (Dr. ogy, 2010, Humboldt- Science and Engi- phil. in Psychology, Universität­ zu Berlin): neering, 2007, Uni- 2008, Saarland Uni- Social and cognitive versity of Notre versity): Lifespan development in in- Dame; PhD in Psy- development; goal- fancy; physiological chology, 2011, Uni- directed learning and correlates of early versity of Virginia): decision making; social interaction (ECG, EEG). (LIP) Synchronization and neural and computa- nonverbal communi- tional systems of Beljan, Magdalena cation in conversation; affect and facial ex- motivation and con- (M.A. in Literature pression; sensory integration; structural trol. (LIP) Studies, History, and equation modeling; multilevel modeling; Text Technology, machine learning and data mining. (LIP) Erol, Merih (B.Sc. 2006, Bielefeld Uni- in Electric and Elec- versity; PhD in Litera- Brose, Annette tronics Engineering, ture, 2010, University (­Diploma in Psychol- 1997, Boˇgaziçi of Luxemburg): His- ogy, 2006, Freie Uni- ­University; M.A. in tory of emotions and versität Berlin; Sociology, 2001, of the body; gender Dr. rer. nat in Psy- Boˇgaziçi University; and literary theory; media history. (HoE) chology, 2009, Hum- PhD in History, 2009, boldt-Universität zu Boˇgaziçi University): Bergert, Bryan Berlin): Intraindi- The modern Middle (PhD in Psychology, vidual variability and East and the Balkans; empire and national- 2008, Indiana Univer- intraindividual ism studies; history of Southeastern Europe; sity): Empirical and change; linkages between emotion, motiva- Ottoman cultural history; history of emo- theoretical studies of tion, and cognition; stress reactivity and af- tions in late Ottoman Empire. (HoE) classification and fective dynamics. (LIP) decision making; im- Fandakova, Yana provement of math- Brückenhaus, Daniel (Diploma in Psychol- ematical modeling (M.A. in History and ogy, 2008, Hum- techniques. (ABC) Sociology, 2004, boldt-Universität zu Bielefeld University; Berlin; LIFE Fellow: Bodemer, Nicolai PhD in History, 2011, Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- (Diploma in Psychol- Yale University): His- chology, 2012, Hum- ogy, 2009, University tory of the European boldt-Universität zu of Mannheim; colonial empires; Berlin): Memory de- Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- history of govern- velopment and its chology, 2012, Hum- ment surveillance; neuronal correlates; age differences in epi- boldt-Universität zu history and social theory; history of emo- sodic memory; episodic memory develop- Berlin): Risk percep- tions. (HoE) ment across the lifespan; multivariate mod- tion/risk communi- eling of variability and change; functional cation; risk literacy; and structural neuroimaging. (LIP) medical decision making; consumer behav- ior; meta-analysis. (ABC/Harding Center)

Appendix | 419 Fific, Mario (Joint reinforcement/temporal-difference learning; Herzfeld-Schild, PhD in Cognitive medical decision making, e. g., surrogate de- Marie Louise (M.A. Psychology and Cog- cision making. (ARC) in Musicology, Phi- nitive Science, with losophy, and Law, Certificate in Math- Garcia, Luis-Manuel 2007, Heidelberg ematical Modeling, (B.Mus. in Music His- University; Dr. phil. in 2005, Indiana Uni- tory and Culture, Musicology, 2013, versity): Develop- 2002, University of Freie Universität Ber- ment of a general Toronto; M.A. in Mu- lin): Music and emo- information process- sic, 2004, University tion; sacred music; ing model of human cognition; process trac- of Toronto; Dr. phil. ancient, 19th- and 20th-century music, mu- ing techniques; selection of decision strate- in Music, 2011, Uni- sic theory and aestetics; music and math- gies; visual and memory search and percep- versity of Chicago): ematics, philosophy and psychology; film tual categorization. (ABC) Electronic dance music. (MPRG Felt Communities) music; urban music scenes and tourism; af- Filevich, Elisa fect, touch, and intimacy in music and Horn, Sebastian S. (M.Sc., Licenciada in dance; stranger-sociality in crowds/audi- (­Diploma in Psychol- Biological Sciences, ences; sexuality and queer theory. (MPRG ogy, 2007, University 2008, University of Felt Communities) of Freiburg; Buenos Aires; PhD in Dr. rer. nat. in Math- Neuroscience, 2013, Häberlen, Joachim ematical and Cogni- University College C. (M.A. in History, tive Psychology, London): Metacogni- 2006, University of 2012, Heinrich Heine tion across percep- Chicago; PhD in His- University Düssel- tual and cognitive tory, 2011, University dorf): Development domains; individual differences; links be- of Chicago): History of decision making and memory across the tween brain structure and high order meta- of emotions in 20th- lifespan; modeling of elementary psychologi- cognitive functions. (LIP) century European cal processes (multinomial models, diffusion protest movements. models); cognitive aging. (ARC) Fleischhut, Nadine (HoE) (M.A. in Analytical Jenny, Mirjam A. Philosophy, 2006, Hämmerer, (M.Sc. in Psychology, Freie Universität Dorothea­ (Diploma 2009, University of ­Berlin; Dr. rer. nat. in in Psychology, 2005, Basel; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2013, University of Psychology, 2013, Humboldt-Universi­ Freiburg; Dr. rer. nat. University of Basel): tät zu Berlin): Social in Psychology, 2009, Judgment and deci- judgment and deci- Humboldt-Univer- sion making; subjec- sion making; model- sität zu Berlin): tive probability judg- ing decision making in social interaction; Lifespan age differ- ment; decision aids social and ecological rationality; moral judg- ences in performance in medical decision making; computational ment and decision making. (ABC/ARC) monitoring and cognitive control; lifespan cognitive modeling; scientific publication age difference in reinforcement learning; processes. (ARC) Freunberger, Roman behavioral plasticity following noninvasive (Diploma in Psychol- brain stimulation; comparability of EEG Kämmer, Juliane E. ogy, 2006, University measures in different age groups. (LIP) (Diploma in Psychol- of Salzburg; ogy, 2009, Hum- Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- Hariskos, Wasilios boldt-Universität zu chology, 2009, Uni- (B.A. in Philosophy Berlin; Dr. rer. nat. in versity of Salzburg): and Economics, Psychology, 2013, Cognitive neurosci- 2005, University of Humboldt-Univer- ence; functional Bayreuth; M.A. in sität zu Berlin): Heu- meaning of brain Philosophy and Eco- ristics in group deci- oscillatory behavior for memory processes; nomics, 2009, Uni- sion making; social psychometrics. (LIP) versity of Bayreuth; and ecological rationality; determinants of PhD in Economics, the perception of expertise. (ABC/ARC) Frey, Renato (M.Sc. 2013, University of in Psychology, 2008, Erfurt): Heuristics; learning from experience; Kia, Mana (B.A. in University of Basel; stochastic game theory; social preferences. International Stud- Dr. phil. in Psychol- (ABC) ies, 1997, Vassar ogy, 2013, University College; M.A. in Near of Basel): Decision Eastern Studies, making under risk 2001, New York Uni- and uncertainty; versity; PhD in His- computational tory and Middle model­ing of cogni- Eastern Studies, tion; experienced-based decisions making; 2011, Harvard Uni-

420 | Appendix versity): Social and cultural history; Iran; Mårtensson, Johan Olsen, Stephanie India; emotions; gender; early modern his- (M.A. in Social Sci- (B.A. [Hons.] in Inter- tory; modern history; literary studies; Indian ence, 2007, Lund national Studies, Ocean; transregional mobility; ethics; intel- University; PhD in 2001, York Univer- lectual history. (HoE) Psychology, 2012, sity; M.A. in History, Lund University): 2003, University of Kothiyal, Amit (M.A. Experienced-depen- British Columbia; in Statistics, 2005, dent brain plasticity; PhD in History, 2009, Indian Statistical language learning. McGill University): Institute, Kolkata; (LIP) Modern social and PhD in Economics, cultural history of Britain and Empire; history 2012, Erasmus Uni- McDowell, Michelle of emotions; gender and family history; his- versity, Rotterdam): (B.A. in Psychology, tory of childhood and youth; history of edu- Decision making un- 2005, Griffith Uni- cation and religion. (HoE) der risk and uncer- versity, Brisbane; Dr. tainty. (ABC) phil. in Philosophy/ Papenberg, Goran Psychology, 2011, (Diploma in Psychol- Kounine, Laura (B.A. Griffith University, ogy, 2009, Hum- [Hons.] in History, Brisbane): Risk per- boldt-Universität zu 2006, University of ception; decision Berlin; Dr. phil. in Exeter; M.Phil. in making; judgment; Psychology, 2012, Early Modern History, heuristics; rationality. (ABC/Harding Center) Freie Universität Ber- 2007, University of lin): Neuromodula- Cambridge; PhD in Morais, Ana Sofia tion of episodic History, 2013, Uni- (M.Sc. in Psychology, memory; intraindi- versity of Cam- 2004, University of vidual variability; interindividual variability bridge): Personhood, Lisbon; Dr. rer. nat. in in cognitive aging; functional and structural identity, self-narratives, and emotions in Psychology, 2010, neuroimaging. (LIP) early modern Europe; history of law; gender Humboldt-Univer- history; religion. (HoE) sität zu Berlin): In- Pedersen, Arthur formation search in Paul (B.A. in Philoso- Liu, Tian (B.Sc. in internal and external phy, 2005, University Applied Mathemat- environments; judg- of Wisconsin-Madi- ics, 2001, Fudan Uni- ment and decision making under uncertainty; son; B.A. in Math- versity, Shanghai; lifespan development of cognitive abilities; ematics, 2005, Uni- M.Sc. in Statistics, computational modeling in cognition. (LIP) versity of Wisconsin- 2004, University of Madison; M.Sc. in Florida; PhD in Sta- Nielsen, Philipp Logic, Computation, tistics, 2007, Univer- (B.Sc. [First Class and Methodology, sity of Florida): Ge- Hons.] in Interna- 2009, Carnegie Mellon University; PhD in nome-wide associa- tional Relations and Logic, Computation, and Methodology, 2012, tion studies (GWAS); assessment of History, 2005, School Carnegie Mellon University): Epistemology; gene-gene and gene-environment interac- of Economics and normative and behavioral decision theory; tions; longitudinal and cross-sectional data Political Science, game theory; cognitive heuristics; probabil- analysis; applications of Bayesian modeling London; M.Sc. [Dist.] ity theory. (ARC) in statistical genetics. (LIP) in History of Interna- tional Relations, Perdikis, Dionysios Luong, Gloria (B.A. 2006, School of Economics and Political Sci- (Diploma in Electrical in Psychology, 2006, ence, London; PhD in History; 2012, Yale and Computer Engi- University of Califor- University): Political and cultural history; neering, 2006, Aris- nia, Riverside; M.A. politics and emotions, constitutional theory totle University of in Social Ecology, and law; history of architecture and design; Thessaloniki; PhD in 2008, University of Jewish history; gender studies. (HoE) Theoretical Neuro- California, Irvine; science, 2011, Uni- PhD in Psychology Noack, Hannes versity of Mediter- and Social Behavior, (­Diploma in Psychol- raneans Marseille): 2012, University of ogy, 2007, University Theoretical and cognitive neuroscience; so- California, Irvine): Emotion regulation; social of Potsdam; PhD in cial and affective neuroscience; cognitive relationships; health and well-being; aging. Psychology, 2012, science; nonlinear dynamics; complex sys- (MPRG Affect/Max Planck Fellow) Humboldt-Univer- tems (brain, cognitive, social). (LIP) sität zu Berlin): Be- havioral and brain plasticity; lifespan development of spa- tial cognition. (LIP)

Appendix | 421 Prindle, John J. (B.A. Schulte-Mecklen­ Vagharchakian, in Economics, 2006, beck, Michael (M.A. Laurianne (PhD in University of Califor- in Psychology, 1998, Physics, 2003, Uni- nia, San Diego; B.Sc. University of Salz- versité Paris 6): Cog- in Psychology, 2006, burg; PhD in Psy- nitive sciences; neu- University of Califor- chology, 2005, Uni- roimages (fMRI); so- nia, San Diego; M.A. versity of Fribourg): cial heuristics and in Psychology, 2008, Process tracing; food decision making. University of South- choice; heuristics; (ABC) ern California; PhD in decision processes; Psychology, 2012, University of Southern Cali- information acquisition. (ARC) fornia): IRT response time modeling; CART Vidor, Gian Marco analyses with SEM; continuous time modeling Sharma, Yuthika (Joint PhD in Modern with change scores; diffusion modeling. (LIP) (MLA, 2002, Univer- History and Anthro- sity of Illinois, Urba- pology, 2008, Uni- Ruggeri, Azzurra na-Champaign; versité de Versailles/ (B.A. in Philosophy, DDes in Landscape Saint-Quentin-en- 2008, University of Studies, 2005, Yvelines/Scuola In- Pisa; M.A. in Philoso- ­Harvard University; ternazionale in Sci- phy, 2008, University ­M.Phil., 2006, enze della Cultura, of Pisa; Dr. rer. nat. in ­Columbia University; FSCO, Modena): His- Psychology, 2012, PhD in Art History, tory of emotions; history and anthropology Humboldt-Univer- 2013, Columbia University): Entertainment of dying, death, and grief; history of child- sität zu Berlin): De- and pleasure in visual culture; nostalgia and hood; history of the body; social history; his- velopment of search the souvenir; vision in early modern and tory of law; history of religions. (HoE) for information and inquiry strategies across modern painting, music, and iconography. the lifespan; children's decision making; pro- (HoE) Wassmann, Claudia cesses of hypothesis generation, evaluation, (Dr. med., 1990, and testing. (ABC) Studtmann, Markus Heinrich Heine Uni- (Diploma in Psychol- versity Düsseldorf; Sander, Myriam C. ogy, 2003, Bielefeld PhD in History, 2005, (Diploma in Psychol- University; Dr. phil. in University of Chi- ogy, 2007, Humboldt- Psychology, 2009, cago): Scientific Universität zu ­Berlin; Ernst Moritz Arndt concepts of emotion Dr. rer. nat. in Psychol- University of Greifs­ in experimental psy- ogy, 2011, Humboldt- wald): Facial expres- chology and medi- Universität zu Berlin): sions of emotions; cine (19th and 20th century). (HoE) Development of per- emotional develop- ception and memory ment across the adult lifespan; perceived across the lifespan; versus actual emotional behavior; emotion neural correlates of developmental change recognition. (MPRG Affect) and brain plasticity; EEG methods. (LIP) Suter, Renata S. Schuck, Nicolas W. (M.Sc. in Psychology, (Diploma in Psychol- 2008, University of ogy, 2010, Hum- Basel; Dr. phil. in boldt-Universität zu Psychology, 2012, Berlin; LIFE Fellow: University of Basel): Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- Computational mod- chology, 2013, Hum- eling of cognition; boldt-Universität zu theory integration; Berlin): Learning; decision making un- memory; cognitive der risk and uncertainty; intertemporal control; dopamine; aging. (LIP) choice; moral decision making. (ARC)

422 | Appendix Predoctoral Fellows

Adolf, Janne Bernet, Tobias (M.A. Buchner, Moritz (Diploma in Psychol- in Cultural Anthro- (M.A. in History, Ital- ogy, 2013, Hum- pology and History, ian Philology, and boldt-Universität zu 2011, University of Political Science, Berlin): Theoretical Zurich): 19th-/20th- 2008, Freie Univer- and methodological century European sität Berlin): Cultural approaches to inte- and German history; history of death, grate the intra- and history of urban grief, and mourning; the interindividual planning, housing, nationalism and na- perspective on psy- and social move- tional movements in chological phenomena; measurement invari- ments; anthropological theories and meth- Europe; modern history of Germany and Italy. ance. (LIFE/LIP) ods in historical research. (IMPRS Moral (HoE) Economies/HoE) Bache, Cathleen Davidovic, Stojan (Diploma in Psychol- Biermann, Tim (M.A. (B.Sc. in Economics, ogy, 2008, Hum- in History, 2010, 2007, Belgrade Uni- boldt-Universität zu Bielefeld University): versity; M.Sc. in Op- Berlin): Sociocogni- History of music and erational Research, tive development in emotions; cultural 2011, Belgrade Uni- infancy; physiologi- studies; theory of versity): Economics cal correlates of ear- history. (MPRG Felt as a complex system ly social interaction Communities) science; resilience (EEG, ECG); joint ac- concepts and their tion in infants and adults. (LIFE/LIP) application to economic system; economic crisis; decision making; different rationality Barkoczi, Daniel Blanke, Elisabeth concepts. (ABC) (B.A. [Hons.] in Psy- (Diploma in Psychol- chology and Sociol- ogy, 2011, Freie Uni- Donauer, Sabine ogy, 2010, University versität Berlin): Em- (B.A. in European of Westminster; pathic processes Cultural History, M.Sc. in Cognitive across the lifespan 2006, University of and Decision Sci- (with a focus on em- Augsburg; M.A. in ences, 2011, Univer- pathic accuracy); (dy- European History sity College London): adic) social interac- and Civilization, Social learning; in- tion. (MPRG Affect)­ 2007, Leiden Univer- formation sampling; ecological rationality; sity; M.A. in Higher evolution and cognition. (ABC) Brink, Tila Tabea Education, 2009, (Diploma in Psychol- Harvard University): History of science; cul- Becker, Nina ogy, 2011, Freie Uni- tural history (19th and 20th century); history (­Diploma in Psychol- versität Berlin): of emotions; history of capitalism. (HoE) ogy, 2012, Freie Uni- Reading develop- versität Berlin): In- ment; reading disor- Driver, Charles (B.A. terindividual differ- ders; morphology in in Psychological Sci- ences in memory reading. (MPRG ence [Hons.], 2012, functioning in adult- REaD) University of hood and old age; Queensland): Time- neural correlates of series; continuous age-related memory Brod, Garvin time modeling; changes. (LIP) (­Diploma in Psychol- cross-lagged panel ogy, 2012, Saarland design; structural Benger, Yaara (B.A. University): Develop- equation modeling; in Jewish Studies ment of learning and causality; longitudinal data analysis; panel and International memory; effects of design; inter- and intraindividual differenc- Relations, 2011, He- prior knowledge; es; intraindividual changes. (LIFE/LIP) brew University of brain and learning. Jerusalem; M.A. in (LIFE/LIP) Fechner, Hanna Sociology, 2013, He- Bettine (Diploma in brew University of Social and Economic Jerusalem): Produc- Communication, tion and commodifi- 2005, Universität der cation of relaxation in tourism; history and Künste Berlin; Di- sociology of emotional capitalism; history of ploma in Psychology, tourism. (IMPRS Moral Economies/HoE) 2011, Humbold-Uni- versität zu Berlin): Memory and deci-

Appendix | 423 sions; computational models of cognition; liefs; educational equality; home learning Karch, Julian David connections to neural correlates; individual environment; educational aspirations. (Diploma in Infor- and age-associated differences. (ABC) (Emeritus Group Baumert) matics, 2012, Freie Universität Berlin): Freier, Monika (M.A. Hasenäcker, Jana Artificial intelli- in German Literature (M.A. in Linguistics, gence; machine and South Asian 2013, Humboldt- learning; knowledge Studies, 2005, Uni- Universität zu Ber- discovery; pattern versität Hamburg; lin): Processes in ear- classification; multi- Coordinator IMPRS ly reading develop- variate statistics; Moral Economies; ment; visual word neuroimaging; lifespan psychology. (LIP) Research Coordina- recognition. (MPRG tor): History of emo- REaD) Kause, Astrid (M.Sc. tions; moral econo- in Psychology, 2012, mies; advice literature in Hindi; modern University of Klagen- South Asian history; languages and litera- Jacobs, Perke (B.Sc. furt): Environmental tures. (HoE) in Economics, 2011, uncertainty and hu- Maastricht Univer- man behavior; risk Gerlach, Philipp sity; M.Sc. in Behav- communication; so- (B.Sc. in Social Sci- ioral Science, 2013, cial heuristics and ences and Psychol- Tilburg University): fairness. (ABC/Hard- ogy, 2011, University Heuristics for se- ing Center) of Cologne; M.Phil. in quential choice; Social and Develop- meta-analysis.­ (ABC) Keller, Niklas (B.Sc. mental Psychology, in Psychology, 2003, 2012, University of Goldsmiths Univer- Cambridge): Heuris- Jarecki, Jana (B.Sc. sity of London; M.A. tics in social interac- in Economics, 2012, in International Re- tion; social rationality; collective outcomes Ludwig-Maximilians-­ lations and Diplo- of individual choices; framing effects; social Universität Munich;­ macy, 2004,Univer- norms; behavioral game theory. (ARC/ABC) M.Sc. in Psychology, sity of London): 2012, Ludwig- Medical decision Grandy, Thomas H.­ Maximilians-­ making; military de- (Diploma in Psychol- Universität Munich):­ cision making. (ABC) ogy, 2006, Freie Uni- Classification learn- versität Berlin): Os- ing; evolutionary Kleemeyer, Maike cillatory networks in psychology; philosophy of science. (ABC) (B.Sc. in Cognitive the human EEG Science, 2007, Os- across the lifespan; Jednoralski, nabrück University; EEG methods; neuro- Dominik­ (M.Sc. in M.Sc. in Neurosci- nal correlates of Computer Science, ences, 2010, Univer- lifespan plasticity 2010, Saarland Uni- sity of Bremen): In- and change; identification of cognitive and versity): Lifespan teraction of cogni- neural processes at the individual level. (LIP) technologies; ubiqui- tive and motor skills tous and pervasive across the lifespan; Groot, Timon de computing; artificial neuroplasticity; successful aging. (LIFE/LIP) (M.A. in Philosophy, intelligence. (LIP) 2012, University of Klipker, Kathrin Amsterdam; M.A. in (­Diploma in Psychol- History, 2013, Uni- Josef, Anika (B.Sc. in ogy, 2010, Ruhr-Uni- versity of Amster- Psychology, 2011, versität Bochum): dam): History of University of Basel; Dynamic interplay of emotions; history of M.Sc. in Psychology, affect and cognition the self; false shame; 2013, University of over the lifespan; de- ethics and practical Basel): Lifespan de- velopmental differ- philosophy. (IMPRS ­Moral Economies/HoE) velopment of deci- ences in attention sion making; memo- and appraisal pro- Hachfeld, Axinja ry-based decisions; cesses and their relation to the dynamics of (Diploma in Psychol- risky decision mak- affective experiences; individual differences ogy, 2006, Freie Uni- ing; neuronal correlates of age differences in in affective processing as a risk factor for versität Berlin; Dr. decision making. (LIFE/ARC) affective disorders. (LIFE/MPRG Affect) phil. in Educational Science, 2012, Freie Universität Berlin): Early childhood edu- cation; professional competences of ped- agogical staff; professional and cultural be-

424 | Appendix Kottwitz, Anita (B.A. Phillips, Nathaniel Rajamani, Imke in Social Sciences, (B.A. in Mathematics, (M.A. in German Lan- 2007, Humboldt- 2005, Grinnell Col- guage, Literature, Universität zu Berlin; lege; M.Sc. in Psy- and Media, 2011, M.A. in Social Sci- chology, 2010, Ohio Universität Ham- ences, 2010, Hum- University, Athens): burg): History of an- boldt-Universität zu Information search; ger and compassion Berlin): Empirical decisions under un- in popular Indian social research; soci- certainty; mind as a cinema; emotions ology of health; soci- naive statistician. and multimedia; the- ology of the life course; educational re- (ARC) orizing emotions in conceptual history. (HoE) search. (LIFE/Max Planck Fellow) Pipergias Analytis, Rohringer, Thomas Lisofsky, Nina (B.Sc. Pantelis (M.A. in (Mag. phil. in History, in Psychology, 2010, Cognitive Science, 2013, University of Freie Universität 2009, EHESS Paris): Vienna): Gender his- ­Berlin; M.Sc. in Psy- Preference learning; tory; history of emo- chology, 2012, Freie stopping rules; tions; British and Universität Berlin): search problems; Austrian history Structural plasticity signaling; metacog- (19th and 20th cen- of the brain across nition; social influ- turies). (IMPRS Moral the lifespan; influ- ence. (ABC) Economies/HoE) ence of hormones on brain structure; structural plasticity and Prestel, Joseph Ben Rosenauer, Martin connectivity of the hippocampus; quantita- (B.A. in History and (Diploma in Business tive meta-analyses of neuroimaging studies. Political Science, Administration, (LIFE/LIP) 2008, Freie Univer- 2003, Duale Hoch- sität Berlin; M.A. in schule Baden-Würt- Mrozek, Bodo (M.A. Modern History, temberg Stuttgart; in History, 2007, 2010, Freie Univer- Diploma in Psychol- Freie Universität Ber- sität Berlin): History ogy, 2009, Freie Uni- lin): History of youth; of emotions; urban versität Berlin): Deci- history of pop cul- studies; global his- sion making, process ture; cultural history tory; cities in the 19th century. (HoE) models, and ecological rationality in the of the Cold War; ur- wild; medical and economic decision mak- ban history; transna- Prinz, Roman (B.Sc. ing; history of finance and money; embodied tional history. (MPRG in Cognitive Psychol- cognition and the role of sensorimotor learn- Felt Communities) ogy and Neurosci- ing in numerical cognition. (ABC) ence, 2011, Maas- Passow, Susanne tricht University; Sajjad, Mohammad (Diploma in Psychol- M.Sc. in Psychology, (B.A. in Indian His- ogy, 2007, Hum- 2013, Leiden Univer- tory, 2000, Jamia boldt-Universität zu sity): Risk perception Millia Islamia, New Berlin; Dr. phil. in and literacy; emo- Delhi; M.A. in History Psychology, 2012, tional parameters in of Medieval India, Freie Universität patient–physician interactions; decision 2002, Jamia Millia ­Berlin): Age and indi- making and judgment (risky environments); Islamia, New Delhi; vidual differences in economic behavior. (ABC/Harding Center) M.Phil. in History, auditory processing 2006, Jamia Millia and attentional processes; neuromodulation Raffington, Laurel Islamia, New Delhi; PhD in History, 2012, of attention and perception; behavioral mea- (B.Sc. in Experimen- Freie Universität Berlin): Medieval and early sures, EEG, and fMRI. (LIP) tal Psychology, 2010, modern Indian history; history of emotions University of Bristol; and conceptual history; Sufi ideas and prac- Petersen, Malte M.Sc. in Social, Cog- tices; history of Islam. (HoE) (Diploma in Psychol- nitive, Affective ogy, 2009, Freie Uni- Neuroscience, 2013, Sänger, Johanna versität Berlin; Mas- Freie Universität Ber- (Diploma in Psychol- ter of European lin): Developmental ogy, 2009, University Studies [M.E.S.], association between of Konstanz; LIFE 2011, Humboldt- stress and cognition in childhood using fMRI. Fellow: Dr. rer. nat. in Universität zu Ber- (LIP) Psychology, 2013, lin): Prosocial behav- Humboldt-Univer- ior; fairness; moral sität zu Berlin): Syn- decisions; game theory; socialization. (ABC) chronization phe- nomena in interper- sonal action coordination. (LIP)

Appendix | 425 Schleyer, Maritta Sinodoru, Hagen Szymanski, Caroline (M.A. in South Asian (Diploma in Business (B.Sc. in Neurosci- Studies, 2006, Hei- Administration [FH], ence, 2008, Univer- delberg University): 1990, Berlin School sity of Cologne; History of Sufism in of Economics; MBA M.Sc. in Medical South Asia; history in General Manage- Neuroscience, 2010, of Muslims in South ment, 1995, Anglia Charité/Humboldt- Asia; history of Urdu Ruskin University, Universität zu Ber- and Hindi literature; Cambridge): Decision lin): Interpersonal Indian nationalism; making of institu- (action) coordina- history of emotions. (HoE) tional investors and heuristic sales strate- tion; EEG hyperscanning. (LIP) gies. (ABC) Schmitterer, Tan, Jolene H. Alexandra­ (B.A. in Sonnenberg, (­Diploma in Mass Psychology, 2011, Bettina­ (B.A. in So- Communication, University of Erfurt; cial Sciences, 2006, 2004, Ngee Ann M.Sc. in Experimen- Humboldt-Univer- Polytechnic; B.A. in tal Linguistics, 2013, sität zu Berlin; M.A. Business Manage- University of Pots- in Social Sciences, ment with double dam): Language ac- 2009, Humboldt- major in Marketing quisition (mono- and Universität zu Berlin; and Psychology, multilingual); read- LIFE Fellow: Dr. phil. 2009, Singapore ing acquisition; cognitive development. in Sociology, 2013, Management University): Social rationality (MPRG REaD) Freie Universität Ber- in the moral domain. (ABC) lin): Social inequality, social stratification, Schröter, Pauline empirical education research, applied panel Wellmann, Henning (B.A. in Psychology, analyses. (Max Planck Fellow) (Diploma in Political English and Ameri- Sciences and Cul- can Studies, 2008, Spallek, Anabelle tural Sciences, 2009, TU Dortmund Uni- (M.A. in History, University of versity/University of 2009, Universität ­Bremen): Music and Newcastle; M.Ed. in Hamburg): Modern emotions; cultural Psychology and Eng- European cultural studies; poststruc- lish Education, 2011, and political history; turalist theory. TU Dortmund Uni- Western music his- (MPRG Felt Commu- versity; Certificate for Teaching German as a tory. (MPRG Felt nities) Foreign Language, 2011, TU Dortmund Uni- Communities) versity): German reading acquisition in L2 Wenger, Elisabeth speakers; visual word recognition and cross- (Diploma in Psychol- language effects in bilinguals. (MPRG REaD) Steininger, Fabian ogy, 2010, Freie Uni- (M.Ed. in Social Sci- versität Berlin): Brain Schubenz, Marie ences and History, plasticity across the (M.A. in Modern His- 2013, Freie Univer- lifespan; timing and tory, 2012, Tech- sität Berlin): Theories functional nature of nische Universität of nationalism; his- anatomical brain Berlin; M.A. in Phi- toriology; late Otto- changes; structural losophy, 2012, Freie man history. (IMPRS neuroimaging. (LIFE/ Universität Berlin): Moral Economies/ LIP) History of emotions; HoE) history of social Wolff, Julia K. movements; human- Störmer, Viola S. (­Diploma in Psychol- ist philosophy. (IMPRS Moral Economies/HoE) (Diploma in Psychol- ogy, 2007, Friedrich ogy, 2008, Hum- Schiller University Segbers, Jutta (B.Sc. boldt-Universität zu Jena; Dr. rer. nat. in in Clinical Linguis- Berlin; LIFE Fellow: Psychology, 2011, tics, 2011, Bielefeld Dr. rer. nat. in Psy- Humboldt-Univer- University; M.Sc. in chology/Cognitive sität zu Berlin): In- Clinical Linguistics, Neuroscience, 2012, traindividual change 2013, Bielefeld Uni- Humboldt-Univer- and variability; adult versity): Input and sität zu Berlin): At- development; changes in the interplay of language acquisi- tention; visual attention; visual memory; social support and health as well as well- tion; reading devel- working memory; multisensory integration; being over the lifespan. (LIP) opment, vocabulary, age-related differences in attention and ear- and the mental lexicon; print exposure in ly perceptual processes. (LIP) reading development. (MPRG REaD)

426 | Appendix Wong, John (B.A. in Cognitive Science, 1999, University of Hong Kong; M.A. in Psychology, 2004, University of Hong Kong; M.Sc. in Cog- nitive Psychology and Neuroscience, 2009, University of Pittsburgh): Stopping behavior in informa- tion search; eye tracking. (ABC)

Wulff, Dirk U. (­Diploma in Psychol- ogy, 2010, Philipps- Universität Mar- burg): Information search; decisions under uncertainty; cognitive modeling; memory. (ARC)

Appendix | 427 9. Where Have Our Researchers Gone? New Positions 2011–2013

Researchers Blankenburg, Felix 2013, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany, Professor Li, Shu-Chen 2012, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany, Professor Marewski, Julian N. 2011, University of Lausanne, Switzerland, Assistant Professor Nagy, Nicole 2011, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Germany, Researcher Plamper, Jan 2012, Goldsmiths University of London, UK, Professor Scheer, Monique 2011, University of Tübingen, Germany, Assistant Professor Schellenbach, Michael 2013, University of Applied Sciences Ruhr West, Germany, Researcher Stevens, Jeffrey R. 2011, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA, Assistant Professor Wrzus, Cornelia 2013, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany, Assistant Professor

Postdoctoral Fellows Artinger, Florian 2013, University of Warwick, UK, Research Fellow Bartling, Karen 2012, Stiftung Haus der kleinen Forscher, Berlin, Germany, Consultant for Research and Development­ Bongrand, Philippe 2011, Université de Cergy-Pontoise, France, Assistant Professor Brose, Annette 2013, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Belgium, Postdoctoral Fellow Brückenhaus, Daniel 2012, Beloit College, Wisconsin, USA, Assistant Professor Burzynska, Agnieszka Zofia 2012, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA, Postdoctoral Fellow Eppinger, Ben 2012, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany, Assistant Professor Erol, Merih 2011, Princeton University, USA, Postdoctoral Fellow Feufel, Markus A. 2012, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany, Researcher Fific, Mario 2011, Grand Valley State University, Michigan, USA, Assistant Professor Freunberger, Roman 2011, BIFIE (Federal Institute for Educational Research), Salzburg, ­Austria, Researcher Häberlen, Joachim C. 2013, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK, Assistant Professor Hämmerer, Dorothea 2012, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany, Researcher Kia, Mana 2013, Columbia University, New York, USA, Assistant Professor Noack, Hannes 2013, University of Tübingen, Germany, Postdoctoral Fellow Papenberg, Goran 2013, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, Postdoctoral Fellow Schuck, Nicolas W. 2013, Princeton University, USA, Postdoctoral Fellow Sela-Teichler, Yael 2013, University of Pennsylvania, USA, Teaching Fellow Sharma, Yuthika 2013, Goethe University Frankfurt a. M., Germany, International Research Visitor Wassmann, Claudia 2013, University of Navarra, Spain, Researcher

Predoctoral Fellows Brink, Tila Tabea 2013, Freie Universität Berlin, Ocunostics, Germany, Assistant Donauer, Sabine 2013, Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Bonn, Germany, Consultant Hachfeld, Axinja 2012, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany, Researcher Jednoralski, Dominik 2013, TI&M AG, Zurich, Switzerland, Software Engineer Keller, Niklas 2013, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany, Researcher Multmeier, Jan 2012, National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians, Berlin, Germany, ­​ Statistical Analyst Passow, Susanne 2011, University of Bergen, Norway, Postdoctoral Fellow Sajjad, Mohammad 2013, Presidency University, Kolkata, India, Assistant Professor Sänger, Johanna 2013, Berliner Akademie für Psychotherapie, Germany, Psychotherapy Training Schleyer, Maritta 2013, University of Bonn, Germany, Lecturer Sonnenberg, Bettina 2013, University of Tübingen, Germany, Researcher Störmer, Viola S. 2012, Harvard University, USA, Postdoctoral Fellow Wolff, Julia K. 2011, German Centre of Gerontology, Berlin, Germany, Researcher

428 | Appendix The Max Planck Institute for Human Develop- Since the 1980s and with the appointment of a ment, founded in 1963, is a multidisciplinary third generation of senior fellows and scientific research establishment dedicated to the study directors (Paul B. Baltes, 1980; Karl Ulrich of human development and education. Its Mayer, 1983; Jürgen Baumert, 1996; Gerd inquiries are broadly defined, encompassing Gigerenzer, 1997), research at the Institute has evolutionary, historical, social, and institutional concentrated more and more on questions of contexts of individual human development from basic research associated with the nature of infancy to old age. The disciplines of psychology, human development, education, and work in history, and education, which reflect the current a changing society. At the same time, lifespan directors’ backgrounds, are enriched by the developmental and life-course research were

work of colleagues from behavioral and added as a signature profile of the Institute’s 2011-2013Research Report developmental neuroscience, evolutionary research program. biology, economics, mathematics, computer science, sociology, and the humanities. Latest developments in the succession of generations were marked by the appointment The Institute is one of about 80 research facili- of Ulman Lindenberger as new director of the ties financed by the Max Planck Society for the Center for Lifespan Psychology (2004), adding Advancement of Science (Max-Planck-Gesell- an emphasis on neural correlates of human schaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften e.V.), behavior and cognitive plasticity, and by the the core support for which is provided by the appointment of Ute Frevert as director of the Federal Republic of Germany and its 16 states. newly established Center for the History of Emotions (2007), adding perspectives from The Institute was founded in 1963 by Hellmut cultural history to the Institute‘s research Becker, who was joined subsequently by agenda on human development. Friedrich Edding (1964), Dietrich Goldschmidt (1964), and Saul B. Robinsohn (1964) as the The appointment of Ralph Hertwig (2012) has first generation of scientific directors. In the further enriched the Institute’s research on first decade of its existence, the development human decision-making processes, with a of educational research and educational policy special focus on the social environment and was emphasized. changes across the lifespan.

The appointment of a second generation of directors (Wolfgang Edelstein, 1973, and Peter M. Roeder, 1973) added to this framework a commitment to basic research in human development and educational processes. Max Planck Institute for Human Development Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung Research Report 2 011 – 2 013

Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung Max Planck Institute for Human Development

Lentzeallee 94 · 14195 Berlin, Germany Fon: +49 30 82406-0 · Fax: +49 30 8249939 www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de

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