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Medicine Climate Science Electronics How to Find the The Last Great Hacking the Best Treatments Global Warming Power Grid Winner of the 2011 National Magazine Award for General Excellence July 2011 ScientificAmerican.com PhysicsTHE IntellıgenceOF Evolution has packed 100 billion neurons into our three-pound brain. CAN WE GET ANY SMARTER? www.diako.ir© 2011 Scientific American www.diako.ir SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN_FP_ Hashim_23april11.indd 1 4/19/11 4:18 PM ON THE COVER Various lines of research suggest that most conceivable ways of improving brainpower would face fundamental limits similar to those that affect computer chips. Has evolution made us nearly as smart as the laws of physics will allow? Brain photographed by Adam Voorhes at the Department of Psychology, Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin. Graphic element by 2FAKE. July 2011 Volume 305, Number 1 46 FEATURES ENGINEERING NEUROSCIENCE 46 Underground Railroad 20 The Limits of Intelligence A peek inside New York City’s subway line of the future. The laws of physics may prevent the human brain from By Anna Kuchment evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine. BIOLOGY By Douglas Fox 48 Evolution of the Eye ASTROPHYSICS Scientists now have a clear view of how our notoriously complex eye came to be. By Trevor D. Lamb 28 The Periodic Table of the Cosmos CYBERSECURITY A simple diagram, which celebrates its centennial this 54 Hacking the Lights Out year, continues to serve as the most essential conceptual A powerful computer virus has taken out well-guarded tool in stellar astrophysics. By Ken Croswell industrial control systems. The electrical power grid HEALTH CARE may be next. By David M. Nicol 34 The Best Medicine DISEASE CONTROL A quiet revolution in how doctors compare the effective- 60 Scent of a Human ness of different treatments just might save us from Decoding how a mosquito sniffs out its human targets soaring medical costs. By Sharon Begley could lead to better ways of curtailing the spread of CLIMATE CHANGE malaria. By John R. Carlson and Allison F. Carey 40 The Last Great Global Warming COSMOLOGY Surprising new evidence suggests that the earth’s 64 Bad Boy of Physics most abrupt prehistoric warm-up was downright Leonard Susskind rebelled as a teen and never stopped. stately compared with the steep rise in temperatures Today he insists that reality may forever be beyond we face today. By Lee R. Kump reach of our understanding. Interview by Peter Byrne Photograph by Floto + Warner July 2011, ScientificAmerican.com 1 www.diako.ir© 2011 Scientific American DEPARTMENTS 3 From the Editor 4 Letters 6 Science Agenda Fair and reasonable ways to cut health care costs. By the Editors 7 Forum 7 The human cost of biofuels. By Timothy Searchinger 8 Advances Rewilding. Dark matter wars. Charlotte’s giant ancestor. Cars 2. Itch doctor. Pretty women and war. Al Qaeda’s failed cyberattacks. French fry science. 16 The Science of Health How poverty, culture and prejudice conspire to increase HIV’s toll in the southern U.S. By Jessica Wapner 19 TechnoFiles Why gadgets flop. By David Pogue 68 Recommended Six hundred species of fungi. The mystery of Easter Island. Many kinds of smiles. By Kate Wong 9 69 Skeptic The believing brain. By Michael Shermer 70 Anti Gravity Car buying and the rules of persuasion. By Steve Mirsky 71 50, 100 & 150 Years Ago 72 Graphic Science Smarter solution to infant deaths: maternal education. By Mark Fischetti ON THE WEB The Science of Fatherhood Just in time for Father’s Day, Scientific American takes a look at research into the paternal bond and how evolution and modern society combine to shape the experience of fatherhood. 68 ) Go to www.ScientificAmerican.com/jul2011/fathers ); cornfield ( Scientific American (ISSN 0036-8733), Volume 305, Number 1, July 2011, published monthly by Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc., 75 Varick Street, 9th Floor, New York, N.Y. 10013-1917. Periodicals postage paid mushroom oyster tropical at New York, N.Y., and at additional mailing offices. Canada Post International Publications Mail (Canadian Distribution) Sales Agreement No. 40012504. Canadian BN No. 127387652RT; QST No. Q1015332537. Publication Mail Agreement #40012504. Return undeliverable mail to Scientific American, P.O. Box 819, Stn Main, Markham, ON L3P 8A2. Individual Subscription rates: 1 year $39.97 (USD), Canada $49.97 (USD), International $61 (USD). Images Getty Institutional Subscription rates: Schools and Public Libraries: 1 year $69 (USD), Canada $74 (USD), International $81 (USD). Businesses and Colleges/Universities: 1 year $299 (USD), Canada $304 (USD), International $311 (USD). Postmaster: Send address changes to Scientific American, Box 3187, Harlan, Iowa 51537.Reprints available: write Reprint Department, Scientific American, 75 Varick Street, 9th Floor, New York, N.Y. 10013-1917; fax: 646-563-7138; [email protected]. Subscription inquiries: U.S. and Canada (800) 333-1199; other (515) 248-7684. Send e-mail to [email protected]. Printed in U.S.A. Copyright © 2011 by Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved. RICHARD PRICE ( LOCKWOOD TAYLOR 2 Scientific American, July 2011 www.diako.ir© 2011 Scientific American From the Editor Mariette DiChristina is editor in chief of Scientific American.Find her on Twitter @SAeditorinchief Honors and Activities agician david copper field experts can identify “The Best Medicine” via waved his hand over the en­ comparative effectiveness research (page 34); velope, which popped open. what lessons “The Last Great Global Warm­ He wiggled his fingers, and ing” 56 million years ago offers today (page the card slid upward. A mo­ 40); and how confounding Mment later we heard the winner’s name: “Sci- The Ellie, the “Scent of a Human” for entific American.” The guests at our tables bestowed by the mosquitoes could com bat American Society roared with approval. malaria (page 60). Round­ of Magazine A group of Scientific Americancolleagues Editors at the ing out the mix is a feature were at the 2011 National Magazine Awards, National Magazine marking the 100th anni­ the Oscars of publishing. The magazine won Awards in New versary of “The Periodic Ta­ for General Excellence in the category of “Fi­ York City. ble of the Cosmos,” which nance, Technology and Lifestyle Magazines.” reveals the patterns behind The award, bestowed by the American Society the stellar bestiary (page 28). of Magazine Editors, was for the September, Last, I want to mention two items. First, November and December 2010 issues. thanks to the Lawrence Hall of Science in The staff worked hard, but we owe special Berkeley, Calif., for inviting me to join them thanks to our readers. You inspire and chal­ at the White House Easter Egg Roll, which lenge the editors, art directors and others with began including family­friendly science ac­ your insights, observations, feedback and sug­ Building a tivities last year. We built bunny­shaped bunny-coptor gestions. You have high expectations, and we copters and kites with the kids. Check out with a friend and aim to meet them. the Lawrence Hall Scientific American’s educational activities at In this month’s cover story, for instance, “The of Science crew. www.ScientificAmerican.com/education. Limits of Intelligence,” author Douglas Fox ex­ Second, in July the Google Science Fair will announce its plains how the laws of physics may well prevent the human brain first contest winners, which invited entries from students ages from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine. Turn 13 to 18. I will be the chief judge and master of ceremonies. Watch to page 20 to find out why. Other articles in the issue explore how us on YouTube and learn more at www.google.com/sciencefair. BOARD OF ADVISERS Leslie C. Aiello David Gross Steven Kyle Carolyn Porco Michael Shermer President, Wenner-Gren Foundation Frederick W. Gluck Professor of Applied Economics and Leader, Cassini Imaging Science Publisher, Skeptic magazine for Anthropological Research Professor of Theoretical Physics, Management, Cornell University Team, and Director, CICLOPS, Michael Snyder University of California, Santa Barbara Space Science Institute Roger Bingham Robert S. Langer Professor of Genetics, Stanford (Nobel Prize in Physics, 2004) Co-Founder and Director, David H. Koch Institute Professor, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran University School of Medicine The Science Network Lene Vestergaard Hau Massachusetts Institute of Technology Director, Center for Mallinckrodt Professor of Brain and Cognition, Michael E. Webber G. Steven Burrill Physics and of Applied Physics, Lawrence Lessig University of California, Associate Director, Center for CEO, Burrill & Company Harvard University Professor, Harvard Law School San Diego International Energy & Environmental Arthur Caplan Policy, University of Texas at Austin Danny Hillis Ernest J. Moniz Lisa Randall Emanuel and Robert Hart Professor Co-chairman, Applied Minds Cecil and Ida Green Professor of Physics, Steven Weinberg of Bioethics, University of Pennsylvania Distinguished Professor, Harvard University Director, Theory Research Group, Daniel M. Kammen George M. Church Massachusetts Institute Department of Physics, Director, Renewable Martin Rees Director, Center for Computational of Technology University of Texas at Austin and Appropriate Energy Professor of Cosmology Genetics, Harvard Medical School (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1979) Laboratory, University John P. Moore and Astrophysics, Rita Colwell of California, Berkeley Professor of
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