HUMANITIES INSTITUTE EARLY MODERN JAPANESE LITERATURE Paul Clark, Ph.D.

Early Modern Theatre

Overview. In the year 1600, the final battle of the decades-long unification project ended with a victory by Tokugawa Ieyasu and his allies. Tokugawa Ieyasu then took the title of shogun and ushered in a period of peace and stability not seen in Japan for two centuries. This time is called the Tokugawa (or Edo) period and lasted until the year 1868. The military government of Japan under the Tokugawa was authoritarian, but it was also decentralized. As long as the lord of each domain kept the peace in his fiefdom and was not responsible for famine or other events which threatened social or political disruption, he was able to govern more or less as he wished. This allowed for civilian society to carve out a space for itself in the artistic realm even though warrior aesthetics were still the ideal. In the dramatic arts, the theatre thrived, both live action Kabuki and the puppet form Bunraku—particularly in the large cities of Tokyo and Osaka.

Kabuki. In the Edo era, the Genroku years (between 1688 and 1704) are considered by scholars to have produced some of the greatest works of art (visual, dramatic and literary) of the age. Included among the great artists was the dramatist Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1725), who is often compared to Shakespeare. Kabuki theatre was the most popular of the dramatic arts in the Tokugawa period. It is distinguished (even today) by the prohibition of women on the stage, a ban that took effect in 1629.

Bunraku. Bunraku is best described as puppet theatre. It is believed to have originated in Osaka in the 17th century, a city in which it thrived in the Tokugawa period and still thrives today. Chikamatsu also wrote for this genre. Indeed, some of his best known works were written for Bunraku. Bunraku was surprisingly popular and allowed Chikamatsu and other dramatists greater control of the presentation of their works (in addition to the narrative). Like modern anime, Bunraku frees characters from the constraints of the physical human condition and allows for more stylized, fanciful elements of a narrative to find expression. Bunraku requires two or three artists/actors to manipulate the doll. It is accompanied by a chanted narrative, and various instruments such as the samisen and drums.

Chikamatsu Monzaemon. Chikamatsu is well known for bringing Kabuki to the masses. In particular, his narratives were written to appeal to the average man. Stories about the pleasure districts of Tokyo (Yoshiwara) or Osaka (Shinmachi) were particular favorites, as were stories of unrequited love and suicide. Kabuki can be rather bawdy, is colorful, fast moving and sometimes brash. It is always interesting and fun to watch. Chikamatsu is very well known for tragedy, for creating a setting in which duty is set against the extremes of human feelings. It is this conflict that produces such a poignancy and intensity of feeling that Chikamatsu excelled at—and it also appealed to a very broad audience. Chikamatsu’s ability to move an audience was unrivaled for his time. He occasionally ran afoul of the authorities because he had a tendency to address contemporary issues (something the authorities frowned upon) but placed them in historical settings.

Love Suicides at Amijima. Chikamatsu’s masterpiece is Love Suicides at Amijima. It was written (likely) in 1720 and was reportedly based, in part, on a real love suicide which took place at the Amijima Daishō Temple in Osaka. The Bunraku puppet play opened in early 1721 (it also later found success as a Kabuki play) and was an immediate success. Indeed, it was so successful that there were reports of numerous love suicides after it premiered—so many that the authorities later banned any play with the phrase “love suicide” in the title. Different versions of love suicide themes existed before Chikamatsu’s work premiered and other authors wrote works on the same theme in the years after the premier. However, none achieved the success of Chikamatsu’s Love Suicides of Amijima. Love Suicides was an urban story and was designed to appeal to the largest audience possible: the working man and woman. It is a story of forbidden love between Koharu (a prostitute) and Jihei (a family man). It also follows Jihei’s wife, Osan as she tries to navigate her husband’s turbulent affair. In the end, Osan asks Koharu to give up her husband so that he may return to the family and his duty. Of course, reconciliation was not possible.

Readings

Primary Source Reading

The Love Suicide at Amijima: A Study of a Japanese Domestic Tragedy, Donald Shively, trans., Harvard University Press

Secondary Source Reading

“Tragedy and Salvation in the Floating World: Chikamatsu’s Double Suicide Drama as Millenarian Discourse,” Steven Heine, Journal of Asian Studies, Vo. 53. No 2, May 1994, pp. 367-393

Suggested paper topics

Can one compare anime and bunraku? What are some similarities and differences?

Why do you think so many stories were written about prostitutes or set in brothels? Does this seem to be a trend in literature in other parts of the world?

What is so compelling about suicide? Why does it seem to find expression in so many works? Censorship

Overview. The government of Japan in the Tokugawa period was authoritarian. Though much of the Japan was governed by daimyō (feudal lords) within semi-autonomous domains, the central government in Edo maintained the right to intervene in any place, at any time. In particular, the Tokugawa authorities sought to control public speech and had a long history of censorship—starting from the earliest days of the 17th century. Criticism (of any sort) of the authorities was strictly prohibited, as were books on other banned topics, such as Christianity. Contemporary or political events were also off limits. Punishment for running afoul of these censorship laws was a real possibility and could result in anything from a fine, to confiscation of property, to imprisonment and in extreme cases, to execution. However, by the 18th century, restrictions were applied less uniformly. In the theatrical arts, dramatists, producers and theatre owners had learned to successfully navigate these rules, and also other sumptuary laws designed to restrict the lifestyle and consumption of the non-samurai, urban elite. Even the depiction of conspicuous consumption on the stage could result in warnings if not outright censorship. And then there were rules restricting depictions of narratives which were considered by the authorities as deleterious to public morals. Nonetheless, artists found a way to obliquely communicate their message, as is always the case in military dictatorships.

Censored Plays. A number of Chikamatsu Monzaemon’s plays were censored. The most well-known example was Love Suicides at Amijima. However, self-censorship was practiced more often than actual censorship. Chikamatsu’s political satire entitled The Sagami Lay Monk and the Thousand Dogs is one such example. This was a dangerous work which criticized the policies of a shogun soon after his death. Nonetheless, the audience seemed to understand that the work was critical of an ordinance issued by the shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (1646-1709) that forbad the killing of any beast. When there was actual censorship, it occurred most often when a dramatist had slightly overstepped the bound of acceptable public speech or when there was a crackdown—usually associated with a change in leadership or when it appeared that society was being inappropriately influenced by a play.

Example. Chūshingura (The Forty-Seven Rōnin) is, without question, the most famous dramatic work of the entire Tokugawa period. It found resonance with the people of Japan in the 18th century and has been rewritten, reworked and revised on numerous occasions— but its popularity has endured. It first appeared as a bunraku play in 1748 and has since found expression as a kabuki play, a movie (many times) and even a television series. It is also well known in the western world. Indeed, a movie staring Keanu Reeves on the topic was released in 2014.

Plot. At its core, Chūshingura is a story about revenge in a society where honor had meaning. It was based on an actual event that occurred in 1702, when an unsophisticated “country” lord did not provide an appropriate bribe to a well-connected urban sophisticate during the planning for an audience with the shogun. In the shogunal palace, where any brandishing of weapons was strictly prohibited, Asano Naganori (the country lord) was provoked into wounding Kira Yoshinaka, the well-connected sophisticate who had insulted him. Though the injury was not life-threatening, the Shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi forced Asano to commit suicide for a “breach of the peace.” This meant that Asano’s lands were confiscated and his retainers became rōnin (masterless samurai). The shogun realized that Asano’s retainers might have a reason to strike back at Kira and had the authorities carefully monitor them for a period of time. It must be said that it was not strictly illegal in Tokugawa Japan to engage in an act of revenge. However, permission had to be obtained by the shogunate before this could take place—and the act could not incite additional riots and the like. And permission was often granted. But Asano’s men realized that asking permission would likely tip off Kira and diminish the chances of a successful strike against him. Thus, they quietly waited and successfully assassinated Kira at his residence one night when surveillance allowed. The shogunate then required the 46 (plus one honorary member) to commit suicide themselves.

Influence on Literature. As might be expected, the public was riveted by this true story and followed it very closely. Within a few months, the first kabuki and bunraku plays were written on the topic. Given the topic, many were censored. Chikamatsu even wrote one in 1706 entitled The Sight-Seeing Carriage of the Priest Kenkō, which is not considered one of his best. In 1748, however, political conditions had changed and Chūshingura (The Forty-Seven Rōnin) written by Takeda Izumo II, Namaki Sōsuke and Miyoshi Shōraku was not censored. It became an instant classic.

Readings

Primary Source Reading

Chūshingura: The Treasury of Loyal Retainers, Donald Keene, trans., Columbia University Press

Secondary Source Reading

“Tokugawa Plays on Forbidden Subjects,” in Chūshingura: Studies in Kabuki and the Puppet Theater, ed. James R. Brandon. University of Hawaii Press.

Suggested paper topics

How difficult is it for authors to thrive in an authoritarian environment? What risks do they run even today when they publish their works?

The concept of honor often plays a role in the dramatic arts—from the works of Shakespeare to Chikamatsu. How do these masters depict honor in their works? How is honor used as a plot device?

True stories are often the most compelling. Why do you think this is the case?