Fractal Structure of the Horsehead Nebula (B 33)

A&A 401, 193–196 (2003) Astronomy DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361:20021485 & c ESO 2003 Astrophysics

Fractal structure of the Horsehead nebula (B 33)

S. Datta

Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Calcutta, 92 APC Road, Calcutta 700 009, India

Received 6 December 2001 / Accepted 5 September 2002

Abstract. Analysis of the CCD image of the Horsehead nebula (B 33), taken in the H α (6561 Å) using the 2.34 m Vainu Bappu Telescope (VBT) at Kavalur, India, is performed to test its fractal structure. Ten sample readings of the box dimension of this image were taken using a fractal analysis software, giving an average value of 1.6965725. The sample dimensions were found to be different from the topological dimension of one. Importantly, the box dimension of B 33 was not found to be significantly different from that of the Julia set (box dimension 1.679594) with c = −0.745429 + 0.113008i. This provides compelling evidence to show that the structure of the Horsehead nebula is not only fractal, but also that its geometry can be described by the Julia function f (z) = z2 + c, where both z and c are complex numbers.

Key words. ISM: clouds – ISM: general

1. Introduction analyzes the structure of B 33 in order to determine its geometry and estimate its dimension. The details of the observations The Horsehead nebula (B 33) located in the northern Giant carried out using the 2.34 m VBT, Kavalur, are given in Sect. 3, Molecular Cloud (GMC), Orion B, of the Orion cloud com- the software and statistical analysis techniques used are given plex, is arguably one of the most spectacular nebulae. It is about in Sect. 4 and the results and implications for cloud formation 2 square degrees in size at a distance of 450 kpc (Malin et al. theory is discussed in Sect. 5. 1987), centered at RA 5h 40m 59.0s; Dec 5 ◦2729.99(J2000). It is found to be connected to its parental cloud (Orion B) and is a young evolving cloud with a virial mass of 35 M 2. Mathematical background and radius 0.17 pc (Lada et al. 1991) with average density Fractals are self-similar objects with fine structure (Mandelbrot × 4 3 3 10 cm . It is exposed to the destructive influence of the 1982; Falconer 1997; Peitgen et al. 1992). Examples of fractal Trapezium , which lies 30 to the east and ζ Ori which lies objects include the von Koch curve, the Sierpinski gasket, the 30 to the north (Kramer et al. 1996). The recombination re- Cantor set and the Julia set given by the equation gion is IC 434. Kramer et al. (1996) have reported that Herbig f (z) = z2 + c (2) Haro (HH) objects, IR point sources, condensations in NH 3 and 13 13 CO are found within B 33 and that CO maps show the ex- where z and c are both complex quantities. Quantification of istence of a clump in the central part of the Horsehead of virial fractal objects is achieved by measuring their dimensions. To 3 −3 mass 95.4 M, radius 0.22 pc, density 2 × 10 cm , temper- do this, the fractal object is considered as a non-empty com- −1 ature 5.8 K and velocity 10.5 km s . Spectra also show that pact set of a metric space (Falconer 1997). An arbitrarily small there is ongoing star formation inside B 33. number, , is chosen and the number of open balls, N(), of The structure of molecular clouds have been observed to radius covering the set is counted. Then, the Kolmogorov di- follow a power-law relation (Larson 1981; Elmegreen 1999; mension (also known as Minkowski dimension) of the set is Williams 1997). Attempts to determine this relation using var- defined as ious methods (Hetem & Lepine 1993; Stutzki et al. 1998; log N() Kramer et al. 1998) have been made. Kramer et al. (1998) KdimK = lim sup · (3) →0 log(1/) carried out an analysis on the images of the Orion B region, ffi amongst others, using automated software and found that the Since such a method is di cult for practical measurements, an clump mass spectra was consistent with a power-law, alternative dimension, called the grid dimension or box count- ing dimension, is used. In this method, a grid is placed over the −β dN/dM ∝ M (1) object of mesh size , and the number of grid boxes that contain part of the object, N (), is counted. The grid dimension is with β = 1.72 ± 0.09, M being the mass of the clump and N g defined as the number of clumps with mass M. In this paper, the author log Ng() [email protected] griddimK = lim · (4) e-mail: →0 log(1/)

Article published by EDP Sciences and available at http://www.aanda.org or http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20021485 194 S. Datta: Horsehead nebula (B 33)

The grid dimension is equivalent to the Kolmogorov dimension if the set is non-empty. The geometrical shape of the Horsehead can be explained by considering the gas as a fluid. The equations of fluid motion used are the equation of continuity in the general case, the equation of continuity in the incompressible case and the Navier-Stokes equation, respectively, given by δρ + ∇·u = 0 (5) δt ∇·u = 0 (6) δu 1 µ 1 1 + u ·∇u = F − ∇p + ∇2u + [K + µ]∇·u (7) δt ρ ρ ρ 3 where ρ is the density of the fluid , u is the fluid velocity at a point inside it at any particular time t, F is the total surface forces on the fluid, p is the fluid pressure at that point, µ is the viscosity of the fluid and K is a constant (Paterson 1992). Fig. 1. Hα image of the Horsehead nebula (B 33) taken from the 2.34 m Since the Navier-Stokes equation is non-linear in v, the VBT on 2nd April 2000. motion is chaotic and so we apply a non-linear iterative map from v → v + given by (Datta 2001b) t t 1 4. Method v − v = v2 − v + . t+1 t t t c (8) The fractal (box) dimension of B 33 was estimated using an automated dimension analysis software, Benoit 1.3, procured This map is analogous to the Navier-Stokes equation in the in- from Trusoft International Inc., St. Petersburg, USA. Benoit compressible case with the following representation: has been reviewed (Seffens 1999) and its performance has been found to be satisfactory. For the analysis, a grid is overlayed on δv the image and a box is counted if there is a dark cloud in it vt+1 − vt ≡ (9) δ t as well as an edge, where an edge is a boundary between the 2 vt ≡−u ·∇u (10) dark cloud and the HII region. A set of 10 measurements were 2 vt ≡ ν∇ u (11) taken at fixed grid rotation increments of 15 degrees. An aver- − age dimension was calculated and the number of iterations giv- c ≡ F − ρ 1∇ p. (12) ing the slope with the least standard deviation (SD) while being nearest to the average was chosen. The percentage error in es- The set of iterates vt starting from an initial value ω at time t = 0, the orbit of the map (8), gives rise to a fractal timating the slope for known fractals with Benoit 1.3 varies with an attractor and a basin of attraction and so may be called from 0.47 (Sierpinski gasket) to about 2 (Koch curve). Log-log a dissipative dynamical system (Frisch 1999). graphs were then plotted (Fig. 2) of the reciprocal of the side length of the square against the number of outline-containing squares. Ten further sets of measurements were taken with this 3. Observations selected number of iterations and box size decrease factors (Table 1). Normality of the sample populations was tested with The image of the Horsehead nebula (RA 5h 49m 58.6s; the Shapiro-Wilkes test (Pearson & Hartley 1972). The 1 per- ◦ Dec 2 27 23.84 ) in the Hα at 6563 A (bandwidth 50 Å) was cent significance limit for W for 10 samples is 0.781. The cal- observed with the 2.34 m VBT at the Vainu Bappu Observatory culated value of W is 0.01065 and so the population is normal. (VBO) in Kavalur, India on 2nd April 2000. The exposure time The Student’s t test of significance (Kapur & Saxena 1982) was was 30 min (Fig. 1). The VBT is a Cassegrain with a focal then applied to test for difference of the sample average from a ratio of f /3 at the prime focus. The data were acquired on mean value of unity (topological dimension) and also from the a Photometrics CCD camera. The Tektronix CCD chip with average dimension of the Julia set (Fig. 3) found by the same 1024 × 1024 pixels was placed at the prime focus of the VBT method. The calculated t value is 16.52918, while the 1 percent where the plate scale is 0.66 per pixel, giving a field of view significance limit for the Student’s t test is 3.25. of 11.26 square arc min of the sky. The gain of the CCD is 8.9 electrons and the read-out-noise is 10 electrons. The image 5. Conclusions was bias subtracted and flat-fielded and cleaned of cosmic rays using IRAF Image Analysis software (NOAO, Arizona, USA). Comparison of the topological dimension value of one with Dark subtraction was found to be unnecessary since the cam- the average box dimension of B 33 (1.6965725) at a 1 percent era was cooled with liquid nitrogen to a temperature of −90 ◦C. level of significance shows that the Horsehead nebula shape The seeing was found to be 4 arcsec. Guide stars were found is a true fractal. Results also show that the box dimension of from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Guide Star Catalogue. the Horsehead nebula is not significantly different from that of S. Datta: Horsehead nebula (B 33) 195

Fig. 3. The Julia set with c = −0.745429 + 0.113008i (Peitgen 1992). Box dimension is 1.679594.

Fig. 2. Log-log plot of the reciprocal of side lengths of the square against the number of outline-containing squares. The slope gives the dimension.

Table 1. Box dimension of 10 readings measured on the Hα image of B33 (Fig. 1) with Benoit 1.3. The grid rotation has been kept constant at 15 degrees. The average of 10 measurements is 1.696572.

box SD no. of Co-efficient size of dimension boxes of box largest decrease box 1.675196 0.016569 10 1.5 100 1.71113 0.007594 9 1.5 80 Fig. 4. DSS image of col. I in IC 434 (RA 5h 41m 48.89s; Dec −2◦1240.6). Box dimension is 1.811718. 1.67231 0.008941 7 1.5 80 1.73453 0.006216 9 1.4 50 1.79839 0.001004 9 1.3 50 the Julia set. Taking into consideration that there is a connec- 1.68676 0.009777 9 1.7 40 tion between the power-law index of the cloud mass distribu- 1.65873 0.008258 8 1.8 40 tion relation, Eq. (1), and the fractal dimension (Stutzki et al. 1.68559 0.010693 10 1.5 40 1998; Elmegreen & Falgarone 1996), it is significant that its α = ± 1.67440 0.010112 8 1.6 20 observed dimension is within the error limits ( 1.72 0.05) 1.66869 0.008465 7 1.7 10 of Kramer et al. (1998). Consequently, the box dimension may be assumed to be the corresponding index. Another significant fact is that the Horsehead is physically attached to its parent cloud so that the index may be assumed to apply to it as well, Table 2. Summary of box dimensions and test values of the figures and so it may be inferred that the surrounding area is fractal as measured. well and its fractal dimension is also 1.696572. This hypothesis is strengthened by an estimation of the box dimension of col. I Name box dimension Shapiro-Wilkes Student’s t (Fig. 4) in IC 434 (RA 5h 41m 48.89s; Dec −2 ◦1752.57)tobe test value value 1.812614. Comparison with the box dimension of the Julia set Julia set 1.679594 - - by application of the Students t test shows that it is not signif- B33 1.696572 0.01065 16.52918 icantly different. The presence of another head-trunk structure − ◦ IC434(col I) 1.811718 0.00513 17.11578 in Col. II (RA 5h 40m 55.89s; Dec 2 17 52.57 )inIC434 also supports this hypothesis, although estimation of its box 196 S. Datta: Horsehead nebula (B 33) dimension has not been undertaken due to the presence of a India. Thanks also go to Dr. M. Hart & Dr. Dixon , Department of bright star in front. Pure Mathematics, University of Sheffield and Prof. A. Boksenberg, The assumption of a fractal morphology of Orion B can Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge, UK. explain the clumpy or filamentary structure found. Kramer et al. (1996) have detected a total of 288 clumps in this region of which the 5 most massive are found near NGC 2024 and NGC 2023, both close to the Horsehead nebula. The clump References masses are found to range from 14 M to 300 M and together Botet, R., Hegelsen, G., Skjeltrop, A. T., Mors, P. M., & Jullien, R. they contain about 35% of the total clump mass. Physical as- 1989, Fractals Physical Origin & Properties, ed. L. 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