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Home , Anodorhynchus, Great green macaw, Hyacinth macaw, Lecythis ampla, Military macaw, National forest (Brazil)

Vol. 77 Friday, No. 130 July 6, 2012

Part III

Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service 50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and ; Two Foreign ; Proposed Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Executive Summary endangered or threatened, and expeditious progress is being made to I. Purpose of the Regulatory Action Fish and Wildlife Service add or remove qualified species from On January 31, 2008, the Service the Federal Lists of Endangered and 50 CFR Part 17 received a petition dated January 29, Threatened Wildlife and Plants. Section 2008, from Friends of , 4(b)(3)(C) of the ESA requires that we [Docket No. FWS–R9–ES–2011–0101: 450 represented by the Environmental Law treat a petition for which the requested 003 0115] Clinic, University of Denver, Sturm action is found to be warranted but College of Law, requesting that we list precluded as though resubmitted on the RIN 1018–AY33 14 species under the Endangered date of such finding, that is, requiring a Species Act of 1973, as amended (ESA; subsequent finding to be made within Endangered and Threatened Wildlife 16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). As part of a 12 months. We must publish these and Plants; Two Foreign Macaw court-approved settlement agreement, 12-month findings in the Federal Species the Service agreed to submit a Register. determination as to whether the In this document, we announce that AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, petitioned action is warranted, not listing these two species as endangered Interior. warranted, or warranted but precluded is warranted, and we are issuing a ACTION: Proposed rule; 12-month by other listing actions for the military proposed rule to add these two species finding. macaw ( militaris) and the great as endangered to the Federal List of green macaw (Ara ambiguus)) to the Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Federal Register by June 30, 2012. This Prior to issuing a final rule on this Wildlife Service (Service), propose to action complies in part with this list as endangered the proposed action, we will take into settlement agreement and is authorized consideration all comments and any (Ara militaris) and the great green by the ESA. macaw (Ara ambiguus) under the additional information we receive on Act of 1973, as II. Summary of the Major Provisions of the proposed rules. Such information amended (ESA). We are taking this the Regulatory Action in Question may lead to a final rule that differs from action in response to a petition to list this proposal. All comments and We are proposing to list as recommendations, including names and these parrot species as endangered or endangered the military macaw (Ara threatened under the ESA. This addresses of commenters, will become militaris) and the part of the administrative record. document also serves as the completion (Ara ambiguus). We are proposing this of the status review and as the 12-month action primarily because of the effects of Previous Federal Actions finding. We seek information from the loss, fragmentation, and Petition History public on the proposed listing for these degradation; small and declining species. population size; poaching; and On January 31, 2008, the Service DATES: We will consider comments and regulatory mechanisms that are received a petition dated January 29, information received or postmarked on inadequate to ameliorate these threats 2008, from Friends of Animals, or before September 4, 2012. on these throughout their ranges. represented by the Environmental Law Clinic, University of Denver, Sturm ADDRESSES: You may submit comments III. Costs and Benefits College of Law, requesting that we list by one of the following methods: 14 parrot species under the ESA. The • Federal eRulemaking Portal: http:// Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the ESA directs petition clearly identified itself as a www.regulations.gov. Follow the that determinations as to whether any petition and included the requisite instructions for submitting comments species is an endangered or threatened information required by the Code of on Docket No. FWS–R9–ES–2011–0101. species must be made ‘‘solely on the Federal Regulations (50 CFR 424.14(a)). • U.S. mail or hand-delivery: Public basis of the best scientific and On July 14, 2009 (74 FR 33957), we Comments Processing, Attn: FWS–R9– commercial data available.’’ Further, published a 90-day finding in which we ES–2011–0101; Division of Policy and this action is not a ‘‘significant’’ determined that the petition presented Directives Management; U.S. Fish and regulatory action under Executive Order substantial scientific and commercial Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, 12866. Therefore, we have not analyzed information indicating that listing may MS 2042–PDM; Arlington, VA 22203. its costs or benefits. be warranted for 12 of the 14 parrot We will not accept comments by Background species. In our 90-day finding on this email or fax. We will post all comments Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the ESA (16 petition, we announced the initiation of on http://www.regulations.gov. This U.S.C. 1531 et seq.) requires that, for a status review to list as endangered or generally means that we will post any any petition to revise the Federal List of threatened under the ESA the following personal information you provide us Endangered and Threatened Wildlife 12 parrot species: (see the Information Requested section and Plants that contains substantial (1) Blue-headed macaw ( below for more information). scientific or commercial information couloni), FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: that listing the species may be (2) Crimson shining parrot (Prosopeia Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of warranted, we make a finding within 12 splendens), Foreign Species, Endangered Species months of the date of receipt of the (3) Great green macaw (Ara Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, petition (‘‘12-month finding’’). In this ambiguus), 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420, finding, we determine whether the (4) Grey-cheeked parakeet ( Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703– petitioned action is: (a) Not warranted, pyrrhoptera), 358–2171. If you use a (b) warranted, or (c) warranted, but (5) ( telecommunications device for the deaf immediate proposal of a regulation hyacinthinus), (TDD), call the Federal Information implementing the petitioned action is (6) Military macaw (Ara militaris), Relay Service (FIRS) at 800–877–8339. precluded by other pending proposals to (7) Philippine (Cacatua SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: determine whether species are haematuropygia),

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(8) Red-crowned parrot (Amazona made on July 14, 2009 (74 FR 33957) in in the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION viridigenalis), subsequent Federal Register notices. CONTACT section by August 20, 2012. (9) (Ara macao), Information Requested Species Information for the Military (10) White cockatoo (Cacatua alba), Macaw (11) Yellow-billed parrot (Amazona We intend that any final actions collaria), and resulting from this proposed rule will be based on the best scientific and (12) Yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua The military macaw (Ara militaris, commercial data available. Therefore, sulphurea). Linnaeus 1766) is in the we request comments or information We initiated the status review to family and is also known as ‘‘guacamaya from other governmental agencies, the determine if listing each of the 12 verde,’’ ‘‘parava,’’ and ‘‘ravine parrot.’’ scientific community, or any other species is warranted, and initiated a Three of military macaw interested parties concerning this 60-day public comment period to allow have been proposed and are recognized proposed rule. We particularly seek all interested parties an opportunity to by some: Ara militaris bolivianus clarifying information concerning: provide information on the status of (Reichenow 1908), Ara militaris these 12 species of . The public (1) Information on taxonomy, distribution, habitat selection mexicanus (Ridgway 1915), and Ara comment period closed on September militaris militaris (Linnaeus 1766). 14, 2009. (especially breeding and foraging ), diet, and population Avibase, a database of all birds of the On October 24, 2009, and December 2, world maintained by Studies 2009, the Service received a 60-day abundance and trends (especially current recruitment data) of these Canada, and the Integrated Taxonomic notice of intent to sue from Friends of Information System (ITIS) both Animals and Wild Earth Guardians for species. (2) Information on the effects of recognize these subspecies (http:// failure to issue 12-month findings on habitat loss and changing land uses on www.itis.gov and http://avibase.bsc- the petition. On March 2, 2010, Friends the distribution and abundance of these eoc.org/avibase.jsp, accessed August 30, of Animals and Wild Earth Guardians species. 2011). The range of A. m. bolivianus is filed suit against the Service for failure (3) Information on the effects of other thought to be in and Argentina. to make timely 12-month findings potential threat factors, including live The range of A. m. mexicanus is thought within the statutory deadline of the Act capture and hunting, domestic and to be restricted to . However, the on the petition to list the 14 species international trade, predation by other taxonomic status of Ara militaris (Friends of Animals, et al. v. Salazar, animals, and any diseases that are remains unclear. Case No. 10–CV–00357 (D.D.C.)). known to affect these species. Because it is a strong flyer (it has been Pursuant to a court-ordered settlement (4) Information on management observed traveling up to 20 kilometers agreement entered in this case, the programs for parrot conservation, (km) (12 miles [mi]) per day) and it is Service agreed to specific time frames including mitigation measures related to a semi-migratory species, the physical for submitting to the Federal Register a conservation programs, and any other similarities suggest that seemingly determination as to whether the private, nongovernmental, or isolated populations may be in contact petitioned action is warranted, not governmental conservation programs (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 423), and warranted, or precluded by other listing that benefit these species. therefore their populations may be actions. In compliance with the (5) The potential effects of climate connected genetically. settlement agreement, we published change on these species and their For the purpose of this rule, all status reviews for the crimson shining habitats. populations or subspecies of this parrot (Prosopeia splendens), yellow- Please include sufficient information species essentially face similar threats crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea), with your submission (such as full or threats of similar magnitude, are all white cockatoo (Cacatua alba), and references) to allow us to verify any generally in the same region, and all Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua scientific or commercial information have quite small populations, generally haematuropygia) on August 9, 2011 (76 you include. Submissions merely stating fewer than 100 individuals. Absent FR 49202); the red-crowned parrot support for or opposition to the action peer-reviewed information to the (Amazona viridigenalis) on October 6, under consideration without providing contrary and based on the best available 2011 (76 FR 62016); the yellow-billed supporting information, although noted, information, we recognize all parrot (Amazona collaria) on October will not be considered in making a populations of military as a 11, 2011 (76 FR 62740); and the blue- determination. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the single species. For the purpose of this headed macaw (Primolius couloni) and ESA directs that determinations as to proposed rule, we are proposing to list grey-cheeked parakeet (Brotogeris whether any species is an endangered or the military macaw, including all pyrrhoptera) on October 12, 2011 (76 FR threatened species must be made subspecies, as endangered. 63480). ‘‘solely on the basis of the best scientific For the remaining four species that and commercial data available.’’ are the subject of this settlement The military macaw is an extremely agreement (the military macaw, the Public Hearing vocal species; it is described as being great green macaw, the scarlet macaw, At this time, we do not have a public very noisy and is known to shriek and the hyacinth macaw), the Service hearing scheduled for this proposed (Birdlife International (BLI) 2011, p. 1). agreed to submit 12-month findings on rule. The main purpose of most public It is a large macaw (70 centimeters or the petitioned action to the Federal hearings is to obtain public testimony or 27.5 inches in length) and is quite Register by June 30, 2012. This Federal comment. In most cases, it is sufficient vibrant in color. It has dark lime-green Register document complies with the to submit comments through the Federal mixed with blue flight feathers settlement agreement with respect to the eRulemaking Portal, described above in that are olive-colored underneath. Its military macaw and great green macaw. the ADDRESSES section. If you would like forehead is red, and it has a bare white We will announce the 12-month to request a public hearing for this facial area and a black bill. Its lower findings for the remaining two parrot proposed rule, you must submit your back is blue; its tail is red and blue. The species for which a 90-day finding was request, in writing, to the person listed farthest south population, in Bolivia,

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which extends into Argentina, exhibits concentrated in certain sites (Salinas- (species unknown) and cacti (species reddish brown on their throats and Melgoza et al. 2009, p. 306). unknown). In Mexico, in the northern cheeks (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 423). This species prefers the lower part of its range, military macaws have This species is often confused with the montane wet forests of the Andes. It been observed in desert habitat, great green macaw. The great green inhabits remaining fragmented forested although they tend to have lower macaw (Ara ambiguus) is very similar in area in the Neotropics. However, in the reproductive success in this habitat type appearance to the military macaw, but northernmost part of its range, in (Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2008, p. 261). In the military macaw has more prominent Mexico, it is associated with seasonally desert habitat, which is suboptimal, it blue tinge on its hind neck, is smaller, dry, semi-deciduous tropical forest, has been observed consuming edible and has darker . These two deciduous tropical forest, and slopes of flowers (species unidentified). Despite species are separated geographically. pine-oak forest (Bonilla-Ruz 2006, p. 45; the low seasonal abundance of food, Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2006, p. 26). deserts offer some refuge from poaching Habitat and Life History The military macaw is a seasonal due to the inhospitable dry climate, migrant, based on food and nutrient which can act as a deterrent to poachers Military macaws nest both in tree availability. In some areas, it has been (Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2008, p. 261). cavities and cliffs. Parrots that nest in observed using clay licks to obtain cavities in cliff walls such as the Range, Observations, and Population sodium and possibly other minerals, Estimates military macaw (Bonilla-Ruz et al. 2007, which is a common activity in some p. 730) also nest colonially (in groups). parrot species (Lee 2010, p. 58). Its diet The military macaw is distributed in Cliff cavities in ravines used by this varies seasonally. It has been observed highly fragmented, small populations in species have been documented 25 and feeding on several species. Some Mexico and . Its range 30 meters (m) (82 to 98 feet (ft)) above of the plant species it was observed extends from northern Mexico ground (Arcos-Torres and Solano- feeding on include: Brosimum southward into , , Ugalde 2008, p. 70). Tree cavities used alicastrum (Maya , ramo´n), , , Bolivia, and the by this species have been observed to be Bunchosia montana (no common name southern tip of Argentina (see Figure 1 18 m (60 ft) above ground and 75 cm (ncn)), Bursera aptera (ncn), Bursera or http://www.birdlife.org/ for an (29.5 inches) deep (Baker 1958, p. 98). schlechtendalii (ncn), Celtis caudate approximation of its range and This species has also been observed to (ncn), Cedrela species (cedar ), distribution). The species has been use secondary cavities, such as Cyrtocarpa procera (Chupandilla), Ficus described as patchily distributed abandoned woodpecker holes, species (figs), Hura crepitans (ochoo, throughout the eastern foothills of the particularly in dead pine trees (Strewe arbol del diablo, acacu, monkey’s Andes Mountains (Snyder et al. 2000, p. and Navarro 2004, p. 50). They alternate dinner-bell, habillo, ceiba de leche, 125). It occurs in altitudes up to 1,600 nesting and foraging areas based on food sand-box tree, possum wood, dynamite m (5,249 ft) (Strewe and Navarro 2004, availability (Bonilla-Ruz undated, p. 1). tree, ceiba blanca, assacu, posentri), p. 50; Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 33; Nesting appears to be synchronous with Hura polyandra (arbol del diablo, haba, Snyder et al. 2000, chapter 7, pp. 102, the peak fruiting season, which occurs jabillo, tetereta), Melia azedarach 124–125). Although it has a large during April and May (Huatatoca pers. (Chinaberry tree), Neobuxbaumia distribution (276,000 km2 (106,564 comm. in Arcos-Torres and Solano- tetetzo, (cardon, higos de teteche, mi2)), its populations are localized. Ugalde 2008, p. 70). The military macaw tetetzo), Orbignea guacoyula (a type of Most populations are now estimated to is a social species that congregates in palm), Plumeria rubra (Frangipani), have fewer than 100 individuals small flocks and is often observed in Tecoma stans (yellow trumpetbush), (Renton 2004, pp. 12–14). However, in mated pairs. Its clutch size is usually Tillandsia makoyana (ncn), and 2004, one population in Colombia was two to three eggs. They begin to Tillandsia grandis (ncn) (Huellega 2011, estimated to be 156 individuals (Flo´rez reproduce between 3 and 4 years of age p. 9; Moschione 2007, in Navarro et al., and Sierra 2004, p. 3). This species may (Mexican National Commission for 2008, p. 2; Contreras-Gonza´lez et al. have occurred in in the past, Protected Areas [CONANP] 2006 in 2006, p. 387; Renton 2004, p. 12; but it is no longer found there (Gardner Bonilla-Ruz undated, p. 2). Aggregated Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 422). Seeds 1972 in Snyder et al. 2000, p. 125). nesting is believed to be due to the lack were found to be 39 percent of this Overall, its populations are fragmented of suitable disbursed nest sites, which species’ diet. They have also been and becoming more isolated (Rivera- may also explain why they are observed feeding on bromeliad stems Ortiz 2008, p. 256).

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The species inhabits tropical semi- reports of this species crossing the Itau´ the northern Tambopata National deciduous forests along the Pacific and River (Navarro et al. 2008, p. 3), which Reserve to the southern Pilo´n Lajas Atlantic slopes through Central and borders Bolivia and Argentina. Between Reserve (Hennessey et al. 2003, p. 319). South America. The best available 2005 and 2007, approximately 100 These parks are in the general vicinity information indicates there are individuals were observed in the Salta of the border of southern Peru and reasonably healthy but small Province (Coconier et al. 2007, p. 59). northern Bolivia (Hosner et al. 2009, p. populations in El Cielo and Sierra Gorda These areas include: Finca Itaguazuti, 222; Navarro et al. 2008, p. 2; Biosphere Reserves in Mexico, Madidi and the Acambuco Provincial Flora and Hennessey et al. 2003, p. 322). They are and Amboro´ National Parks, Pilo´n Lajas Fauna Reserve (8,266 hectares [ha] or part of the Greater Madidi-Tambopata Biosphere Reserve and Apolobamba 20,426 acres [ac]) in the Tartagal Landscape (known as ‘‘Parque Nacional National Integrated Management Area in Mountains and which borders Bolivia Madidi’’ or GMTL). Within the GMTL, Bolivia, and Manu Biosphere Reserve (BLI 2011b; Navarro et al. 2008, p. 1; there are thought to be reasonably and Bahuaja Sonene in Coconier et al. 2007, p. 59). In 2008, healthy populations of this species in Peru, and a small but stable remnant flocks of between 4 and 40 individuals the Apolobamba National Integrated population in Tehuacan-Cuicatlan of this species were observed in three Management Area, Amboro´ and Madidi Biosphere Reserve, Oaxaca, Mexico ravines in the Salta Province. These National Parks, and Pilo´n Lajas (Hosner et al. 2009, p. 222; Arizmendi locations were the Agua Fresca (Cool Biosphere Reserve (Hennessey 2011 2008, p. 3; Rivera-Ortiz 2008, p. 256; Water) Ravine north of Campo Cauzuti, pers. comm.; Hosner et al. 2009, p. 225). Renton 2004, p. 14). El Limo´n Ravine (which had the largest The GMTL is 110,074 km2 (42,500 mi2) population), and the Caraparı´ River in size, and encompasses one of the Argentina Ravine. These are believed to be largest areas of intact montane forest in Argentina is the southernmost part of established populations, rather than the tropical Andes (WCS 2009, p. 2). this species’ range, and here the species flocks crossing over from Bolivia This area is a high conservation priority has never thought to have been (Navarro et al. 2008, p. 1). due to its large number of endemic bird abundant (Navarro et al. 2008, p. 1). In species (Hennessey et al. 2003, p. 319). Bolivia fact, this species was initially thought to Pilo´n Lajas consists of primary be extirpated (locally extinct) in In Bolivia, the military macaw is evergreen tropical lowland forest, Argentina, but recent surveys have regularly observed in five national parks foothill forest, and lower montane found small populations of this species (Hennessey 2010, pers. comm.). This forest. Pilo´n Lajas was recognized as a in at least two locations in the northern species exists in the Andean foothills in Biosphere Reserve and Indigenous province of Salta. There are anecdotal Bolivia in forested areas extending from Territory by the Bolivian Government in

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1992; however, it did not have any Cueva de los Guacharos National Park Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). This species actual protections in place until 1994. (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 32). In has been observed in the areas of This area in the past has been managed 1998, this species was observed in Sumaco and Zamora-Chinchipe in via a partnership with Veterinarians flocks of up to 12 individuals at Villa Ecuador (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 125) and Without Frontiers (CEPF 2000, p. 28). Iguana and Alto Cagadero in Serranı´a de at Kichwa River Reserve (Reserva In 2008, this species was observed at los Churumbelos (Salaman et al. 2007, Kichwa Rı´o), within the Gran Sumaco Serranı´a Sadiri in Madidi National Park, pp. 33, 38, 47, 89). It has been observed Guacamayos Biosphere Reserve (Arcos- La Paz Department, Bolivia (Hosner et in palm stands in the San Salvador Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). al. 2009, p. 225). Serranı´a Sadiri is valley during the breeding season Most records of military macaw in found just inside Madidi National Park. (December—July) (Strewe and Navarro Ecuador during the 1980s and 1990s Here, flocks of between 2 and 36 2003, p. 33). At Cueva de los Guacharos found groups of up to 20 individuals individuals have been observed (Hosner National Park, flocks of up to 16 have (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001); however, et al. 2009, p. 228). The Pilo´n Lajas been observed (Strewe and Navarro lately most records have not exceeded 8 Biosphere Reserve is primarily in La Paz 2003, p. 32). individuals (Arcos -Torres and Solano- Department, but slightly overlaps into There are two small, stable Ugalde 2008, p. 72) except for a the Beni Department. Here, this species populations of military macaws at Sierra breeding colony of 16 individuals that is described as uncommon (Hennessey Nevada de Santa Marta (Sierra meaning was observed in the Reserva Kichwa Rı´o 2003, p. 329). It was observed in mountain range) and Churumbelos, (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, Parapetiguasu-Taremakua, and Cauca, with approximately 50 mature pp. 70, 72). Prior to 1980, it was ´ Parapetiguas-Uruwigua in Santa Cruz, birds at each site (Fundacion ProAves observed in the upper Upano River Cordillera Province, and at Altamachi 2011a). In 2004, Flo´rez and Sierra Valley (Ridgely 1980 p. 244). In 2006, and Madidi in Cochabamba, Ayopaya estimated that the population in the 200 ha (494 ac) were turned into the Province (MacLeod 2009, pp. 42–43). In cliffs of the Cauca River was 156 Narupa Reserve, where this species has summary, within Bolivia, there are individuals and contained 54 breeding been observed recently (Fundacio´n many small populations of this species pairs and 26 nests (2004, p. 3). However, in areas that provide suitable habitat for this population is subjected to impacts ProAves et al. 2010, p. 42). this species (primarily large forest from poaching and (Flo´rez Additionally, in 2010, a pair of military patches under some form of protection) and Sierra, 2004, pp. 3–4), so the macaws was observed in northern (Herzog 2011 pers. comm.). population now may be smaller. These Ecuador in the Sumaco region (Olah and researchers also noted that many chicks Barnes 2010, p. 19). Colombia fall from the cliff nests and die. A new Mexico In the late 1990s, there were population was recently reported at two approximately five disjunct populations locations in the Catatumbo-Barı´ There are at least four populations of in the central Andes mountains (Snyder National Park on the Colombian- military macaws that are believed to et al. 2000, p. 125). In Colombia, groups Venezuelan border (Avendan˜ o in litt). exist in Mexico, each consisting of of 50 individuals have been observed, There are no recent records in northern between 30 and 90 individuals (Rivera- and in one case, a population was Antioquia (Paramillo), Serranı´a de San Ortiz et al. 2008, p. 256). Those estimated to have 156 individuals Lucas, or Perija´ ranges (Fundacio´n populations are discussed below. (Flo´rez and Sierra 2004, pp. 2–3). In ProAves 2011a, pp. 28–29). Identification of these populations is most cases, the presence of these groups In the Frı´o Valley of Colombia, this difficult for two reasons. First, this is related to cliff formations favorable species is reported to only be present species is thought to primarily breed for nesting (where they are less during the breeding season (Strewe and and forage in remote areas that are accessible to poachers), and where Navarro 2004, p. 50). Several nests were difficult to access, and second, it is a deforestation is having less of an impact found here in forest fragments. A semi-migratory species that follows (Flo´rez and Sierra 2004, pp. 2–3; population at El Congo Reserve was seasonal food sources, so flocks move to Rodriguez and Herna´ndez-Camacho intensively studied in 2001. One nest other areas seasonally. In Mexico, there 2002, p. 203). In Colombia, this species was located 12 m (39 ft) above ground are reasonably healthy but small inhabits a wide range of altitudes and in a Ceiba tree, within open primary populations in the following areas: areas with various degrees of alteration forest on a steep slope at 900 m (2,953 • Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere (Flo´rez and Sierra 2004, pp. 1–3; Juniper ft). A breeding population of 12 pairs, Reserve (at the border of Puebla and and Parr 1998). In Colombia, this with groups of up to 28 was observed Oaxaca States), species has been observed between in December 2000. However, here it is altitudes of 700 and 1,600 m (2,297 to still threatened in the valley by habitat • Mineral de Nuestra Sen˜ ora Reserve 5,249 ft) (Flo´rez and Sierra 2004, pp. 1– loss and domestic trade (two cases (Sinaloa State), 3; Salaman et al. 2002, pp. 167, 187). noted in 2001) (Strewe and Navarro • El Cielo Biosphere Reserve Populations have been observed in 2004, p. 50), and the population may (Tamaulipas State), Guajira peninsula, Las Orquideas, now be decimated. • Tayrona National Park, Serranı´a de Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve Perija´, Serranı´a de San Lucas, San Ecuador (Quere´taro State), and Salvador Valley, Sierra Nevada De Santa In Ecuador, this species is considered • Sierra Manantla´n Biosphere Reserve Marta, La Guajira Department, and to be very rare (Arcos-Torres and (Jalisco State).

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In Mexico, there may also be isolated nests were observed (Cruz-Nieto et al. corridors between existing protected populations of military macaws in other 2006, p. 14). This canyon is areas, such as the Chamela-Cuixmala States. Figure 2 shows the current and approximately 700 m (0.5 miles) wide and the Sierra Manatla´n Biosphere historical distribution of the military by 14 km (8.6 miles) in length and Reserves (Renton 2004, p. 14). These macaw in Mexico (Arizmendi 2008, p. consists of mature pines, firs, and oaks. patches likely have served as critical 4). Other States where it may exist Some gallery temperate forest remains ecological links for this species. include Colima, Durango, Guerrero, in this area. Oaxaca Michoaca´n, Morelos, Nayarit (in the Jalisco Valley of Flags or ‘‘Valle de Banderas’’), This species has recently been the Nuevo Leo´n, San Luis Potosı´, and This species is found sporadically in focus of research in Sabino Canyon, Zacatecas, although in some cases, there the western foothills of Sierra del Cuale Oaxaca. Sabino Canyon is in the are no recent records of the species in and Sierra Cacoma in Jalisco on the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve several of the previously mentioned western coast of Mexico (Renton 2004, (Reserva de la Biosfera Tehuacan States (Bonilla-Ruz 2011 pers. comm.; pp. 13–14). Here, it was observed in Cuicatlan) in central Mexico. In 2001, Nova-Mun˜ oz 2006, p. 20; In˜ igo-Elı´as 2004, near a freshwater lake, Cajo´n de this species was observed in two 1999, 2000 in Almaza´n-Nu´ n˜ ez 2006, p. Pen˜ a (26 by 9 km (16 by 5.6 mi) in size), canyons within this reserve. In both 20). Areas where it has been recently which was constructed in 1976. It is ravines, 20 pairs were observed nesting documented are described below. found in the Chamela-Cuixmala (Salazar-Torres 2001, p. 18). Here, this Biosphere Reserve (132,000 ha or 32,617 species nests in the canyon cliff walls in Chihuahua ac), which is managed by Mexico’s crevices that can be as high as 250 m Researchers believe there is a Instituto de Ecologia of the National (820 ft). Between 2002 and 2004, remaining population in the Sierra Autonomous University of Mexico approximately 100 individual military Madre Occidental Mountains (north- (UNAM) and nongovernmental macaws were observed (Bonilla-Ruz et central Mexico) in Otachique (Cruz- organizations (NGOs). Patches of semi- al. 2007, p. 729). During 2007–2008, at Nieto et al. 2006, p. 14). In 2005, 25 deciduous forest in this area form least 67 birds were observed during the

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month of August (Rivera-Ortiz et al. occur (Arvin 2001, p. 8). The University populations ranging from a few pairs to 2008, p. 256; Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2007, p. of Texas, Brownsville maintains a approximately 100 individuals. It is 26). This area is thought to be a fairly research station, Rancho del Cielo, found primarily in protected areas in new site for this species (Rivera-Ortiz et within the 145,687-hectare Mexico, Colombia, Bolivia, and to a al. 2007, p. 28). The known nesting site (360,000-acre) reserve. The research lesser extent, in Ecuador, Peru, locations within the reserve increased station supports locally driven scientific Venezuela, and Argentina (see Figure 1), from five to nine during the study research and community development where large areas of suitable habitat period (Rivera-Ortiz et al. 2007, p. 28). (University of Texas, Brownsville, remain. The population in the Pilo´n Currently in the Sabino Canyon, the unpaginated). Activities conducted by Lajas Biosphere Reserve, Bolivia, may population of military macaws is the research station have positive serve as a link to other populations of thought to be between 90 and 100 impacts on this species by attracting this species to the northwest and to the individuals (Arizmendi 2008, p. 15). researchers and the birding community, south (Hennessey et al. 2003, pp. 330– This is a large reserve, which was preserving and protecting habitat, and 331). Recent records of this species created in 1998. It spans 490,187 ha creating awareness in the area. usually, but not always, find this (1,211,278 ac) and is located within the species in protected areas (Flesch 2009; Peru Mixteca Oaxaquen˜ a Province between MacLeod 2009; Flesch 2008; Flo´rez and the cities of Puebla and Orı´zaba. It is There are populations in Manu Sierra 2004; Rodriguez 2004; Renton approximately 150 km (93 mi) southeast Biosphere Reserve, Tambopata National 2004; Hennessey et al. 2003). These of Mexico City (http:// Reserve, and Bahuaja Sonene National records find this species in areas such www.parkswatch.org, accessed July 11, Park in Peru. The two latter parks as protected parks where there are large 2011) and approximately 2 hours from border one another in the southern remaining areas of suitable habitat for Tehuacan, Oaxaca, Mexico. Large Peruvian Amazon region (ParksWatch nesting, feeding, and breeding (see mountain ranges delineate the 2002, p. 1). This species has been Figure 1). boundaries of the reserve, and six rivers observed around the Pongo de Mainique Most current, available records of this are within the protected area’s of the Urubamba River and on the upper species pertain to populations in Bolivia boundaries. Tambopata River (Snyder et al. 2000, and Mexico, and to a smaller extent in p. 125). Recently, it was observed in the Peru and Colombia. We do not know Sinaloa Madre de Dios department in the how this species is distributed outside This species exists in Mineral de southeastern Peruvian Amazon (Lee of parks and protected areas other than Nuestra Sen˜ ora de la Candelaria 2010, p. 14). Flocks of 40 to 50 what has been described in this status Ecological Preserve, 12 km (7.4 mi) individuals have been observed in review, but it is likely that the species southeast of the town of Cosala in Atalya at Madre de Dios (Snyder et al. is primarily restricted to protected areas Sinaloa, Mexico (Rubio et al. 2007, 2000, p. 125). The species has been for the following reasons: p. 52; Bonilla-Ruz et al. 2006, p. 45). Its observed seasonally in small numbers in (1) It is a large species that requires area is 1,256 ha (3,104 ac) and consists the area of the Hua´llaga River Canyon habitat containing large trees or cliffs for of dry tropical forest. In 2002, this area (JGP Consultants 2011 pp. 1, 5, 8). nesting, both of which are limited, and was designated as a protected area by Venezuela large areas of suitable habitat for the State of Sinaloa Decree. nesting, feeding, and breeding. Within Venezuela, it has been Sonora (2) This species requires a variety of documented primarily within protected specific plant species throughout the Between 2008 and 2009, it was areas. In this country, little information year for feeding, which likely only observed at the Northern Jaguar Reserve about the species exists (Rodriguez et al. remain in enough abundance in in east-central Sonora (Flesch 2009, pp. 2004, pp. 375–376). Here it persists in protected areas. 5, 12), and was described as a rare the Andes in the Central Coastal (3) The species persists in areas where summer resident here. In this area, this Cordillera and Sierra de Perija´ they are less accessible to poaching species was recently observed in small (Rodriguez et al. 2004, pp. 375, 378, because they are located farther from flocks in cliff areas (Flesch 2008, pp. 379). It has been found on the north roads. 35–36). In 2005, it was observed in the slopes of El A´ vila, Guatopo, Henri (4) In some cases there are Rı´o Aros canyon and upper Rı´o Yaqui Pittier National Park, the State of conservation awareness programs in valley in an area known as the Yaqui Cojedes, Cerro La Misio´n, and Sierra de place in these protected areas. Basin (O’Brien et al. 2006, pp. 4, 28). Perija´ National Park (Desenne and (5) Protected areas often offer some Flesch suggests that the species is likely Strahl 1994 and Fernandez-Badillo et al. measure of protection from threats to to occur only in cliffs near stands of 1994 in Snyder et al. 2000, p. 125). A the species. tropical vegetation (full citation 2008, new population of this species was Summary of Population Estimate p. 27). recorded at two localities at the Catatumbo-Barı´ National Park at the There are various but imprecise Tamaulipas Colombian-Venezuelan border population estimates for this species. Historically, in Mexico’s eastern State (Avendan˜ o in litt). Moist forests exist as One report estimates the population to of Tamaulipas, flocks of approximately four distinct enclaves within the be fewer than 10,000 individuals 60 individuals were noted almost daily Catatumbo Valley, in both northwestern (Arizmendi 2008, p. 3). BLI reports that in the area of Go´mez Farı´as, Mexico Venezuela and northeastern Colombia. the population is estimated to be (Sutton and Pettingill 1942, p. 14). The This extends the species’ previously between 10,000 and 19,999 mature Go´mez Farı´as region is on the eastern known range from the east slope of the individuals with a decreasing trend (BLI slope of the Sierra Madre Oriental Serranı´a de Perija´ southwards 2011, p. 1). We believe that the mountain range, known locally as the (Avendan˜ o in litt). population is significantly fewer than ‘‘Sierra de Guatemala.’’ This area is in 10,000 based on recent documented the general vicinity of the state- Summary of Range observations of this species, most of protected El Cielo Biosphere Reserve, According to several recent surveys, which are described in this status where this species is still known to the military macaw exists in small review. Researchers in Colombia agree

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with our supposition (Botero–Delgadillo (2011). However, this status under IUCN province of Salta. This species is and Pa´ez 2011, p. 13). Published conveys no actual protections to the considered to be a critically endangered literature (referenced in this document) species. species by the Government of Argentina has documented small flocks ranging (Navarro et al. 2008, p. 1). It is protected CITES from approximately 16 to 156 through national legislation (Law 22.421 individuals distributed in disjunct The military macaw is protected by and Decree 691/81), administered by the locations in Mexico, Argentina, the Convention on International Trade Direccio´n Nacional de Fauna y Flora Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna Silvestres. Law 22.421 addresses the and Bolivia. In situations where species and Flora (CITES), which is one of the Conservation of Fauna, enacted in 1981. are rare or have small populations, the most important means of controlling Decree 691/81 addresses the protection number of observations made per survey international trade in and plant and conservation of wild fauna and is may be very small and the number of species affected by trade. CITES is an implemented through law 22.421. international agreement through which sites limited, and, therefore, estimates Bolivia and projections may not be accurate member countries, called Parties, work (Pollack 2006, p. 891; Marsden 1999, together to ensure that international In Bolivia, this species is listed as pp. 377–390). trade in CITES-listed animals and plants vulnerable. The 1975 Law on Wildlife, The current total population number is not detrimental to the survival of wild National Parks, Hunting and Fishing is unclear; however, based on these populations by regulating their import, (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1–34) recent records, we believe that the export, and reexport. All of the range has the fundamental objective of population is substantially fewer than countries for this species are Parties to protecting the country’s natural 10,000 individuals for the following CITES (CITES 2009, p. 1). Almost all resources. This law governs the reasons: psittacines (parrots), including the protection, management, utilization, • It is unlikely to exist in large military macaw, were included in transportation, and selling of wildlife numbers other than in the areas CITES Appendix II in 1981 (CITES and their products. It also governs the documented, or it exists in small flocks 2008a, p. 1). This species was protection of endangered species; of similar numbers in undocumented transferred to Appendix I of CITES in habitat conservation of fauna and flora; areas. 1987, because populations were and the declaration of national parks, • It is unlikely to persist in viable declining rapidly due to uncontrolled biological reserves, refuges, and wildlife populations in areas outside of trapping for the international pet bird sanctuaries. protected parks, which contain large trade (CITES 1989a, pp. 1–7). An Colombia forested areas that contain suitable Appendix-I listing includes species habitat. threatened with whose trade In Colombia, various protections are • There is little evidence or is permitted only under exceptional in place. Colombia categorizes this documentation of substantial flocks. circumstances, which generally species as ‘‘vulnerable’’ (Salaman et al. Because this is a loud, charismatic precludes commercial trade. 2009, p. 21). A is considered to be one that is not in species, it is logical to assume that WBCA where this species exists, at least in imminent danger of extinction in the substantial flocks, there is The import of the military macaw into near future, but it could be if natural documentation or evidence of the the United States is also regulated by population trends continue downward species publicly available. the Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA) and deterioration of its range continues • The areas where this species exists (16 U.S.C. 4901 et seq.), which was (EcoLex 2002, p. 10). are likely known because the species enacted on October 23, 1992, in an effort A conservation project focusing on tends to return to the same area to nest. to ensure that exotic bird species are not the coffee zone of the middle Rı´o Frı´o It has been recorded to use one area for harmed by U.S. trade. The purpose of is ongoing and its goal is to create a approximately 30 years (Flo´rez and the WBCA is to promote the conservation corridor connecting Sierra 2004, p. 3). conservation of CITES-listed exotic natural habitats and shade-grown coffee • This species may exist in other birds by ensuring that all imports into plantations (Strewe and Navarro 2004, areas where it has not been the United States are (1) sustainable and p. 51). The establishment of the private documented, but if so, it is likely to (2) not detrimental to the species. nature reserve, Buena Vista, was the exist in very small flocks, based on the Permits may be issued to allow imports first step to conserve the foothill forest best available scientific and commercial of listed birds for scientific research, ecosystems. This was done in close information. zoological breeding or display, or as a cooperation with a local organization, We estimate that the population is personal pet when certain criteria are Grupo Ecologico Defensores de la closer to between 1,000 and a few met. The Service may approve Naturaleza—Campesinos de Palomino, thousand remaining individuals. cooperative breeding programs and (Strewe and Navarro 2003, pp. 34–35). However, with this status review, we are subsequently issue import permits The Pro-Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta requesting information from range under such programs. Wild-caught birds Foundation (FPSNSM) maintains a countries, species experts, local NGOs, may be imported into the United States permanent monitoring station at Buena and the public about this species if the Service approves a management Vista nature reserve. FPSNSM is regarding where it exists and current plan for their sustainable use. At this working toward sustainable population estimates. time, the military macaw is not part of development projects in cooperation a Service-approved cooperative with local communities, national park breeding program and does not have an units, and coffee-grower committees in There are various protections in place approved management plan for wild- the region. This includes educational for this species at the international, caught birds. campaigns to limit hunting. Habitat national, and local levels. At the management takes place on private international level, this species is listed Argentina lands in the lowlands and foothills of as vulnerable by the International Union There is only a small population the San Salvador valley to reduce the for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) remaining in Argentina, in the northern pressure on the remaining natural forest

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habitats, including a reforestation (BLI 2011, pers. comm.) Note that this conducts outreach activities to foster program using native tree species. does not mean this species always knowledge and conservation of this Additionally, forest reserves have been occupies these areas; rather, the species species at the Mineral de Nuestra established as part of a network of has been identified in these areas. Sen˜ ora de la Candelaria Ecological private nature reserves in the valley A number of locally based and Preserve. (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 35–36). international conservation organizations have developed programs in connection Evaluation of Threat Factors Ecuador with protected areas within this species’ Introduction In Ecuador, this species is considered range such as ecotourism associated Throughout the range of this species, endangered, ‘‘en peligro de extincio´n’’ with clay licks (Lee 2010, pp. 167–168). the factors impacting this species are (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, The Wildlife Conservation Society generally very similar. The current p. 69). Here, this species is considered (WCS) is implementing a range of primary factors affecting the military to be very rare (Arcos-Torres and projects aimed at strengthening the macaw are habitat loss and degradation, Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). management of Greater Madidi- ˜ Tambopata Landscape in Bolivia. Its and poaching (Gastanaga et al. 2011, Mexico program is based on three main entire; Strewe and Navarro 2004, p. 50). In Mexico, the military macaw is categories: (1) Park management, (2) Habitat loss is primarily due to protected as endangered under Mexico’s natural resources management, and (3) conversion of the species’ habitat Wildlife Protection Act, and this species scientific research (Parks Watch 2005a, (generally forests) to agriculture and has been highlighted as a priority p. 35). In the Greater Madidi-Tambopata other forms that are not optimal for the species for conservation in the Mexican Landscape, where the WCS is military macaw (Donald et al. 2010, p. Parrot Conservation Plan (Rivera-Ortiz monitoring populations of the military 26; Flo´rez and Sierra 2004, p. 3). et al. 2008, p. 256; Renton 2004, p. 12). macaw (WCS 2009, p. 8), the area Conversion of habitat to soy plantations Its official list of endangered and encompasses one of the largest swaths is now considered to be one of the threatened bird species is termed the of intact montane forest in the Tropical principal causes of Amazon Norma Oficial Mexicana 059 (NOM– Andes in northern Bolivia and southern deforestation (Bonilha 2008, p. 17). 059–ECOL). Peru. It is 110,074 km2 (42,500 mi2) and Because this species has a small and includes five protected areas. fragmented population, poaching, while Peru A Colombian-based NGO, Fundacio´n apparently uncommon, remains a In Peru, this species is listed as ProAves, is also working to protect this concern (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez vulnerable and its protections fall under species and its habitats. Fundacio´n 2011, p. 13). the jurisdiction of the National Institute ProAves developed a conservation plan This status review focuses primarily of Natural Resources (Instituto Nacional for 2010 to 2020 for several parrot on where this species has been de Recursos Naturales, INRENA). Peru’s species, including the military macaw documented, in parks and other areas Supreme Decree No. 034–2004–AG (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 7). with protected status and the peripheral (2004, p. 276,855) prohibits hunting, However, it is unclear if or when it will zones. In some cases, we will evaluate take, transport, and trade of protected be adopted by the Government of the factor by country. In other cases, we species, except as permitted by Colombia. may evaluate the factor by a broader regulation. In Mexico, several NGOs are region, if we do not have adequate participating in the conservation and information specific to a particular Venezuela management of this species. In 1989, a country about this species. This is In Venezuela, this species is listed as strong citizen movement began to because often threats are the same or endangered (Rodriguez et al. 2004, p. conserve the 383,567-ha (947,815-ac) very similar throughout the species’ 376). Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve by range. For particular areas in which we establishing the local group, Grupo lack information about the species, we NGO Involvement Ecolo´gico Sierra Gorda. In collaboration request additional information from the In the 1980s, conservationists realized with the local community, this group public during this proposed rule’s the value of identifying areas or habitat has taken action to effectively protect comment period (see DATES, above). in terms of numbers of endemic bird bird communities as well as other A. The Present or Threatened species. BirdLife International, in groups of wildlife in this area. Strategies Destruction, Modification, or partnership with countries, other include environmental education, the nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), establishment of private reserves, and Curtailment of its Habitat or Range and various other partners, developed payment for environmental services in a The military macaw has a large but the Important Bird Area (IBA) program, 25,000-ha (61,776-ac) area of this fragmented distribution (276,000 km2 which is a worldwide initiative to reserve (Pedraza-Ruiz, 2008 p. 1). The (106,564 mi2)), and not all locations identify and protect critical areas for Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve is where the military macaw exists are bird conservation. IBAs are areas that managed by Mexico’s Instituto de known. and regularly contain significant numbers of Ecologia of the National Autonomous modification is one of the main threats one or more globally threatened species University of Mexico (UNAM) and local to the military macaw; significant or other species of global conservation NGOs. Other NGOs are working with amounts of this species’ habitat have concern. One of the criteria in communities to obtain macaw feathers been converted such that its habitat is identifying important regions for bird from aviaries so that indigenous people no longer suitable and no longer conservation is the distribution of will not hunt the macaws for their provides adequate shelter (nesting sites) restricted-range and globally threatened feathers (Renton 2004, p. 14). In the and food sources, and these causes of species such as the military macaw. As Sinaloa area, the Universidad Auto´noma habitat loss are likely to continue. of 2007, more than 8,500 IBAs had been de Sinaloa has been active in Between 2000 and 2005, of all the identified worldwide (Garcı´a-Moreno et conservation of this species since 1998 continents, South America had the al. 2007, p. 1). The military macaw has (Rubio et al. 2007, p. 52). This largest net loss of forested area, triggered the IBA criteria for 37 IBAs university conducts research, and experiencing a loss of 4.3 million ha

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(10.6 million ac) per year (FAO 2006 in process for our final determination on has been observed, the designation of Mosandl et al. 2008, p. 38). In some this proposed action. Acambuco Reserve as a provincial reserve provides some protective countries, extractive activities for Argentina nontimber forest products occur, such measures. The purposes of this reserve, as the removal of palm trees ( In Argentina, habitat destruction, in part, are to preserve its genetic family) to obtain hearts of palm particularly deforestation for resources, to preserve the environment (ParksWatch 2011; http:// agricultural expansion for soy surrounding catch basins of its rivers, www.tropicalforestresearch.org). plantation, and timber extraction have and to guarantee the maintenance of the Currently, the military macaw exists in significantly increased in recent years living in the reserve. (Devenish 2009, p. 60; Chebez et al. in many parks and other areas that have However, in the Salta Province, this litt. in Navarro et al. 2008, pp. 7, 9; protected status (Coconier et al. 2009, p. species is primarily found in areas that DiPaola et al. 2008, pp. 1, 8; FAO 2007, 63; Arizmendi 2008, p. 4; Rodriguez et are unprotected, with the exception of p. 42). The species was thought to no al. 2004, p. 78; Renton 2004, p. 12). the Acambuco Reserve. In summary, longer exist in Argentina, which is the significant amounts of this species’ Studies have found that compared with southernmost part of its range, but the surrounding areas, conditions inside habitat have been converted such that recent surveys found small populations its habitat is no longer suitable, and the parks were significantly better than of this species in at least two locations these causes of habitat loss are likely to their surrounding areas (Bruner et al. in the Salta Province (Navarro et al. continue. 2001, p. 125). One study found that in 2008, p. 1). The primary threat to 40 percent of tropical parks, land that forested areas in Argentina is the Bolivia had formerly been under cultivation and expansion of agriculture, particularly Madidi National Park experiences that was incorporated into park soy, into remaining habitat such as the threats representative of threats to this boundaries had recovered. This Chaco plains in the Andes mountain species’ habitat in Bolivia, and this is subsequently led to an actual increase in range (Centro de Accio´n Popular Olga one of the key areas where this species vegetative cover. The study found that Ma´rque´z de Aredez (CAPOMA) 2009, p. likely has a viable population in Bolivia. 83 percent of parks were successful at 6). The practice of drying Thus, we focused our analysis on this mitigating encroachment (Bruner et al. through channeling is common in park. The National Service of Protected 2001, p. 125). This was confirmed in a northern Argentina, particularly for Areas (SERNAP) has authority over more recent study that found that forests producing soybeans, which have an Bolivia’s parks and protected lands. in conservation units were four times increasing demand in the global market. Approximately 53 percent (57.2 million better at protecting against deforestation The current rate of deforestation stands ha; 141.3 million ac) of Bolivia’s total than unprotected areas (Oliveira et al. at 25,000 ha (61,776 ac) per year area is forested (FAO 2011, p. 118). Of 2007, p. 1,235). However, this species resulting from land converted to this area, 38.9 million ha (96.1 million still faces habitat loss, even in protected agricultural use (Devenish 2009, p. 60). ac) are within the Bolivian Amazon and areas. The area converted to soy production constitute 5 percent of the total Amazon We are limiting our analysis to areas increased from as little as 3 percent in forest (Locklin and Haack 2003, p. 774). where there is readily available the 1970s to 40 percent of the total crop As of 2005, Bolivia had 12 national information about this species. For area in 2003, covering 14 million ha parks, including 6 with integrated (34.6 million ac) (Devenish 2009, p. 60). management natural areas, 1 with instance, there is very little information Conversion of lands to soy production is indigenous territory (or communal available about this species in Argentina favored by the current political and lands), and 4 national reserves; 2 and Venezuela (Coconier et al. 2009; economic climate, both at the global and biosphere reserves; and 3 integrated Navarro et al. 2008, p. 1; Coconier et al. national levels (Devenish 2009, p. 60). management natural areas, totaling 2007; Rodriguez et al. 2004). However, With regard to other types of land use, 16,834,380 ha (41,598,659 ac) in both of these countries, the species the area used for cattle ranching has (ParksWatch 2005, p. 2). A discussion of faces similar threats (such as the lack of decreased, but exotic tree plantations typical threats in Bolivia’s parks suitable habitat) as in other countries have doubled (Devenish 2009, p. 60). follows. The region suffers from chronic (Rodriguez et al. 2004, p. 373). The In addition, pipeline routes and and intense poverty levels, which affect largest populations of this species, associated roads are being established in more than 90 percent of the population discussed in detail in the Range, this area in connection with oil, gas, and (Instituto Nacional de Estadı´stica de Observations, and Population Estimates mineral exploration (Navarro et al. Bolivia (INE) 2005). The result is intense section, appear to be in Mexico and 2008, pp. 7, 9). Road building conflict between development and Bolivia. Even in these countries, its operations greatly facilitate access to conservation. In Madidi National Park, populations are small and its large, previously inaccessible forested the three greatest threats to the nature distribution is fragmented. In other areas (Fimbel et al. 2001, pp. 511–512). preserve are the construction of a countries within its range such as The area occupied by permanent highway within the park, drilling for oil, Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador, it exists facilities including pipelines and and a planned hydroelectric dam. Other in smaller populations, and Argentina refineries is relatively small, but oil activities that are impacting or are likely and Venezuela have even smaller and development areas cover large tracts of to impact this park are illegal logging, possibly negligible populations. land. Oil development can have gold mining, and uncontrolled tourism Additionally, the military macaw may significant negative impacts on nearby (ParksWatch 2011b, pp. 1–15; Chavez have occurred in Guatemala in the past, habitat through construction of roads 2010, pp. 1–2). but it is no longer found there (Gardner and other buildings, discharge of 1972 in Snyder et al. 2000, p. 125). We contaminants, and oil spills and leaks Deforestation and Logging invite experts and the public to provide (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 6, p. 31). The forests of Bolivia have mainly any additional information they may Although some of this species’ habitat been subjected to selective logging (Salo have about the species in these is protected, its habitat continues to and Toivonen 2009, p. 610; countries, which we will consider and shrink in Argentina. In the area of Fredericksen 2003, p. 10), which has incorporate into the decision making Acambuco, where the military macaw been done at very low levels and with

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low human pressures (Pacheco 2006, p. its natural resources. A road has been Oil Exploration 206), allowing them so far to remain proposed that would bisect the Madidi In October 2010, the Bolivian largely intact. In the five national parks National Park and Natural Integrated Government approved Supreme Decree where the military macaw is regularly Management Area, opening vast, 0676, which directly affects the Madidi observed, there are some protections in currently inaccessible tropical forest National Park and the Biosphere place for the species’ habitat (Hennessey areas to colonization and resource Reserve and Indigenous land called 2010, pers. comm.). However, logging extraction (ParksWatch 2011b, pp. 1–2; Pilo´n Lajas (http:// still occurs within the range of this Fleck et al. 2006, p. 13). This can www.oecoamazonia.com/en/news/ species (ParksWatch 2011b, p. 1). Large promote illegal logging, and facilitate bolivia/171-bolivia-transforma-parque- tracts of primary forest remain in access to previously inaccessible na-amazon; accessed September 13, Bolivia, but it is likely that some of forested areas (Fimbel et al. 2001, pp. 2011) by extending gas and oil these will be subjected to logging 511–512). The construction of roads exploration and development. Oil (Fredericksen 2003, p. 13) due to slash- through this park has been a source of exploration in the region would not and-burn activities by indigenous controversy for several years (http:// only affect the pristine nature of the communities, and because forest conservation-strategy.org/en/project/ Madidi National Park and Pilo´n Lajas, products are one of Bolivia’s primary economics-road-through-madidi- but also the subsistence of the exports (Byers and Israel 2008, p. vi). national-park, accessed October 6, indigenous people living in the area The use of slash-and-burn practices on 2011). The current status of the road and (http://www.amazonfund.eu/art-oil- steep and erodible slopes has whether it will be constructed around madidi.html, accessed September 13, considerably affected the area’s hydrological regime, particularly near the park or through the park remains 2011). The exact effects of oil the city of Santa Cruz. In many areas of unclear. However, regional development exploration to this species are still human settlement, soil erosion is plans are often implemented without unclear. compounded by logging, nutrient consideration of impacts on natural Other Pressures depletion, and weed invasion. resources (WCS 2009, p. 4). Plans to In Madidi National Park, there is As of 2006, 89 timber companies held connect Bolivia and Peru to ’s the rights to 5.8 million ha (14.3 million expanding markets and expand the limited legal hunting, but in the areas ac) of logging concessions (Pacheco energy industry (oil and gas) will affect surveyed, this species was described as 2006, p. 208). The Bolivian Forestry fragile areas of high biodiversity (WCS common and not exploited (Hosner et Law of 1996 (Forestry Law 1700) 2009, p. 4). Roads constructed in the al. 2009, p. 226). Nine villages or requires the preparation and approval of past have also been problematic. In the communities are within the national management plans and adherence to late 1990s, roads through Serranı´a park, and 22 are in the integrated best management practices ((BMPs) Sadiri spurred an increase in management natural area. Of the 31 (Nter et al. 2011, p. 292; Fredericksen unsustainable logging of the area’s communities, three are located in the 2003, p. 10). For instance, harvesters mahogany trees, which were the most Andean plateau zone. In the lowlands, must pre-map harvestable trees (which valuable tree at the time (World Land two of the communities occupy the zone have minimum diameter limits), protect Trust 2010, p. 1). of valleys around the municipality of seed trees, and set aside areas that are Apolo. Madidi’s buffer zone has an designated as protected or not Hydroelectric Power additional 11,000 indigenous inhabitants (Fleck et al. 2006, p. 29). harvestable (Nter et al. 2011, p. 292). Possibly one of the greatest threats in Management issues still need to be Timber extraction still occurs here the Madidi National Park is the (WorldLand Trust 2010, p. 1). In 2010, addressed, including sufficient proposed Bala Hydroelectric Dam regeneration time for commercial an additional 25,090 ha (62,000 ac) of Project at the Beni River in the Bala pristine tropical in Bolivia species (Fredericksen 2003, p. 10). Gorge, where the Beni River goes However, Bolivia continues to attempt were protected, following a decision by through the Bala Mountain Range (WCS to balance the use of its natural an indigenous community to create a 2011, p. 2). El Bala Hydroelectric Dam, resources with competing priorities. For tourism refuge in the Sadiri rainforest as proposed, could flood much of example, the Pilo´n Lajas Management (WorldLand Trust 2010, p. 1). Landless Madidi National Park and the adjacent Plan divided the reserve into specific Andean farmers make a living in the zones to combine indigenous biosphere reserve and indigenous lowlands, and they at times expand the territory Pilo´n Lajas, which is an area of agricultural frontier, increasing the risk community rights with conservation 2 2 initiatives (Hennessey et al. 2003, p. about 2,000 km (4,942 mi ) (Chavez of disease transmission between 320). Despite national laws and 2010, pp. 1–2; Bolivia Supreme Decree domestic animals and wildlife, bringing regulations, activities such as illegal 24191). Construction of dams can have crops and domestic animals closer to timber extraction continue to spread severe impacts on ecosystems wildlife predators, and increasing unabated (World Bank 2006, p. 8; U.S. (McCartney et al. 2001, p. v). For hunting pressure in surrounding forests Forest Service 2007, p. 2; Pacheco 2006, example, a dam blocks the flow of (WCS 2009, p. 4). Harvest of nontimber p. 208; TRAFFIC 2006, p. v). sediment downstream. During forest products such as palm hearts (in construction of dams, disturbance to the Arecaceae or Palmaceae family), Roads soils at the construction site is one of jatata (Geonoma species), pachiuva There are increasing demands for road the largest concerns. This leads to ( exorrhiza), and jipijapa infrastructure within Bolivia for many downstream erosion and increased (Carludovica palmata) for subsistence reasons. It is one of the poorest sediment buildup in a reservoir. (Fredericksen 2003, p. 13) also occurs. countries in South America (MacLeod Although the current status of this dam In summary, threats to the species’ 2009, p. 6; INE 2005), and the is unclear, it is clear that the habitat in Bolivia include unsustainable government would like to improve its Government of Bolivia is intent on land use practices, illegal logging, road economy (ParksWatch 2011b, p. 13). becoming more self-reliant, in part building, and exploration activities for The construction of the Apolo-Ixiamas through creating its own sources of oil extraction, which are contributing to Road is one way of facilitating access to energy through hydroelectric dams. the erosion of Bolivia’s ecosystems

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(MacLeod 2009, p. 6; ParksWatch 2005, were converted to other uses. This (approximately 5,000 ha or 12,355 ac) p. 1). Large tracts of primary forest corresponds to a nearly one-third total and even here, illegal encroachment remain in Bolivia, but it is likely that loss of primary forest habitat, or a nearly occurs (Salaman et al. 2007, p. 89). many of these will be subjected to 2 percent mean annual rate of Catatumbo-Barı´ National Park logging and other pressures, such as deforestation within the study area. extraction of nontimber forest products, Since the 1970s, the Colombian The primary threat in the Catatumbo- particularly because forest products Government has encouraged road Barı´ National Park (at the Colombian- contribute to Bolivia’s national exports construction and colonization projects. Venezuelan border) is deforestation and (Byers and Israel 2008, p. vi). The The goal is to create links to the vast impacts associated with coca Government of Bolivia is attempting to and undeveloped Amazonian region, plantations surrounding the Park balance improving its economy with and to open up the Llanos and (Fundacio´n ProAves 2011, Avendan˜ o in conservation initiatives, and some of its Amazonian lowlands for utilization of litt). Coca cultivation has fluctuated for development initiatives may negatively their natural resources (Salaman et al. the past several years. Over a 4-year impact this species’ habitat. Despite 2007, pp. 10, 89; Salaman et al. 2002, p. study period, it contained about 100 ha protections in place, this species’ 160). In recent years, this species’ (247 ac) of coca (United Nations Office habitat in Bolivia continues to habitat has come under increased on Drugs and Crime, undated report, p. experience these threats, and we expect pressure with the completion of the 33). A new population of this species these pressures to continue into the Mocoa-Bogota´ highway, the proposed was recently recorded at two locations future. Puerto Ası´s-Florencia road, and the in this park (Avendan˜ o in litt). One discovery and exploitation of petroleum population in the Cauca valley (fewer Colombia and precious metals. All of these factors than 50 mature birds) could be affected In the past, human colonization, contribute to an escalation in human by the construction of a dam (155 m development, and exploration within encroachment and associated impacts (508.5 ft) in height) that could affect its the range of the species in Colombia that degrade this species’ habitat sole breeding cliff. However, this dam is were limited due to the exceptionally (Salaman et al. 2007, p. 10). The few still in the planning stages (Fundacio´n steep and high terrain of the Andes remaining forest connections between ProAves 2011 pers. comm., September (Salaman et al. 2002, p. 160). However, the upper and lower slopes are under 4, 2011). researchers reported in 2004 that the pressure, even where they are Ecuador Cauca River Canyon in northeastern minimally protected. Colombia, an area containing military Five main routes link the lowlands Ecuador is experiencing the highest macaws, was extensively deforested from Colombia’s high Andean interior. deforestation rate in South America (Flore´z and Sierra 2004, p. 3). The main Infrastructure development on the (Mosandl et al. 2008, p. 37). Forested threats in the lowlands are the eastern slope of the Andes in Colombia, habitat within many parts of Ecuador expansion of agriculture, particularly by as well as adjacent Ecuador, has also has diminished rapidly due to logging, small farmers in the middle altitude caused significant human population clearing for agriculture, and road areas, and extractive activities such as pressures and has led to much habitat development (Youth 2009, pp. 1–3; hunting (including the removal of birds degradation. Increased and improved Mosandl et al. 2008, p. 37; Sierra 1999, to sell as pets) and wood harvesting access roads have led to the conversion p. 136; Dodson and Gentry 1991, pp. (Salaman et al. 2007, p. 89). As of mature tropical forests for pasture 283–293). Between the years 1990 and resources become scarcer in the lands, petroleum products exploitation, 2005, Ecuador lost a total of 2.96 million lowlands, these pressures move upland. and coca plantations (Salaman et al. ha (7.31 million ac) of primary forest, Associated with these farming practices 2007, p. 89). These road projects to link which represents a 16.7 percent is the use of livestock and the erosion Colombia with Venezuela and Ecuador deforestation rate, and a total loss of caused by livestock grazing on steep along the entire eastern base of the 21.5 percent of forested habitat since slopes, as well as erosion due to Andes have contributed to additional 1990 (Butler 2006b, pp. 1–3; FAO cultivation. deforestation. 2003b, p. 1). Much of the primary moist Until recently, forest cover was forest habitat has been replaced with largely continuous in Colombia, but Serranı´a de los Churumbelos National pastures and scattered trees (Collar et al. deforestation has increased dramatically Park 1992, p. 533), and forest habitat loss (FAO 2010, pp. 22, 106; FAO 2002). Currently, the Serranı´a de los continues in Ecuador. Very little Deforestation rates in lowland moist Churumbelos forest is almost entirely suitable habitat now remains for the forest on the foothills of the eastern intact, and land is owned by the species here, and remaining suitable Andes of Colombia are rapidly government and uncolonized (Salaman habitat is highly fragmented (Bass et al. accelerating. Deforestation has increased et al. 2007, pp. 10, 91–92). This 2010, p. 2; Snyder et al. 2000, p. 122). from 1.4 percent (1961–1979) to 4.4 mountain range has largely avoided the In the area where this species exists, percent (1979–1988), and is correlated degree of human impact that other near the Gran Sumaco Biosphere with increasing human population regions have suffered. However, this is Reserve, there are several oil reserves density (Salaman et al. 2007, p. 89; Vin˜ a changing rapidly due to mineral (Celi-Sangurima 2005, p. 22). However, and Cavelier 1999, p. 31). Primary forest exploration (petroleum and precious specific impacts to this species as a habitats throughout Colombia have metals) and natural resources (timber result of oil exploration or extraction undergone extensive deforestation. Vin˜ a and rich organic soils for agriculture) activities are unknown. et al. (2004, pp. 123–124) used satellite demands. The Serranı´a de los The colony in Kichwa River Reserve imagery to analyze deforestation rates Churumbelos could become the focus of is currently in an area designated as and patterns along the Colombian- large-scale deforestation and protected, although it is unclear what Ecuadorian border (in the Departments colonization in the near future (Salaman these protections entail. In this area, the of Putumayo and Sucumbios, et al. 2007, p. 89). Parque Natural local community group Macaw Rio is respectively), finding that between 1973 Nacional Cueva de los Gua´charos interested in conducting ecotourism. and 1996, a total of 829 km2 (320 mi2) provides some protection to the forests Although this colony has persisted for of tropical forests within the study area in this region although it is a small park about 150 years (Huatatoca, in litt.), it

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likely will be affected by logging and the In the range of the military macaw, conducted technical studies to propose resulting deforestation on nearby land. such as the tropical forest along the the area as a nature reserve. The Researchers suggest that the apparent Pacific coast of Mexico, high rates of university also conducted conservation lack of this species in Ecuador is deforestation have occurred; slash-and- projects here which focused on the possibly related to lack of suitable sites burn agriculture still occurs along with ‘‘Ecology and Conservation of the for the formation of breeding colonies, grazing. In 2002, it was estimated that Military Macaw’’ and ‘‘Environmental or lack of knowledge about sites that the species had suffered a 23 percent Education and Ecotourism.’’ In 2002, may be located in inaccessible areas habitat loss within its range in Mexico the Mineral de Nuestra Sen˜ ora reserve (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, using a Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set was formally designated. Since then, p. 72). We know of no specific threats Prediction (GARP) analysis tool (Rı´os- parrot populations and their habitat to the species in the Kichwa River Mun˜ oz 2002, pp. 24, 32). GARP analysis here both within and outside the Reserve, other than those associated essentially uses ecological preserve have been affected by mining with small population sizes, which is characteristics of known species activities taking place in the area (Rubio discussed under Factor E, below. locations in order to determine its likely et al. 2007, p. 52). In early 2005, mining distribution. efforts began on underground Mexico A 3-year study documented loss of development and drilling (Scorpio Mexico has suffered extensive habitat, particularly trees used by Mining 2011, p. 2). The current effect of deforestation (conversion of forest to macaws, in the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan mining on the species is unclear. Biosphere Reserve, Sabino Canyon. In other land uses) and forest degradation Peru (reduction in forest biomass through their study, researchers found a total of selective cutting, etc.) over the past 170 individual plants of species There is little to no current published several decades (Commission for consumed by military macaws in the information with respect to specific 2 Environmental Cooperation (CEC) 2010, pine forests in an area of 1,500 m threats to this species in Peru 2 pp. 45, 75). In recent decades, Mexico’s (16,146 ft ) in 2005 (Arizmendi 2008, p. (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, entire; BLI 2011, deforestation has been rapid (Blaser et 43). By January 2008, eleven (6.5 p. 2; JGP 2011, entire; Lee 2010, entire; al. 2011, pp. 343–344). Between 1990 percent) of these trees had been logged. Cowen 2009, entire; Terborgh 2004, and 2000, Mexico lost forest (factoring In the transitional forest between dry entire; Brightsmith 2004, entire). It and pine (in an area of 1,000 m2 or exists in several parks which convey in natural regeneration of degraded 2 forest and planting of forest in areas that 10,764 ft ), 134 plants were documented some measures of protection (Oliveira et previously did not have forest) at a net in 2005, and by January 2008, fifteen al. 2007, p. 1235; Terborgh 2004, p. 35). rate of 344,000 ha (850,043 ac) per year (11.90 percent) of them had been logged. Peru’s protected areas are managed by (FAO 2010, p. 21). During 1990–2010, Arizmendi suggested that these the General Department of Natural Mexico lost approximately 6 million ha activities are carried out by local Protected Areas, INRENA, under the (15 million ac) of forest, and had one of communities, and suggested that a local authority of Law No. 26834, Law of environmental education campaign be the largest decreases in primary forests Natural Protected Areas, promulgated in implemented. A reduced number of worldwide (FAO 2010, pp. 56, 233). 1997. The Peruvian national protected trees limits the availability of adequate Although Mexico’s rate of forest loss has area system includes several categories food resources across the landscape. slowed in the past decade, it still of habitat protection. Habitat may be With fewer trees remaining, the area continues. The current rate of net forest designated as any of the following: cannot support the same number of loss in Mexico is 155,000 ha (383,013 (1) Parque Nacional (National Park, an individuals of the species and therefore ac) per year, with an estimated 250,000– area managed mainly for ecosystem causes a further reduction in the 300,000 ha (617,763–741,316 ac) per conservation and recreation); population. Macaws were not found in year degraded (Government of Mexico (2) Santuario (Sanctuary, for the deforested areas, even where an preservation of sites of notable natural (GOM) 2010b, in Blaser et al. 2011, p. important food source, Hura polyandra, 344; FAO 2010, p. 233). or historical importance); was left as shade for cattle (Rivera-Ortı´z (3) Reserva Nacional (National Currently, Mexico has 64.8 million ha et al. 2008, p. 256). As further support, Reserve, for sustainable extraction of (160.1 million ac) of forest (Food and in Jalisco, most of the sites where certain biological resources); Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2010, p. macaws were present had little or no (4) Bosque de Proteccio´n (Protection 228), and 50 percent of these forests are habitat loss (note that none of the sites Forest, to safeguard soils and forests, considered degraded. Projections of lost in Jalisco where military macaws were especially for watershed conservation); forested area by the year 2030 in Mexico located were in protected areas). No (5) Zona Reservada (Reserved Zone, are between 10 percent to nearly 60 macaws were located in sites with more for temporary protection while further percent of mature forests lost, and than 30 percent habitat loss, even study is under way to determine their approximately 0 to 54 percent of though these sites may have had importance); regrowth forests lost (CEC 2010, pp. 45, abundant trees. (6) Bosque Nacional (National Forest, 75). Deforestation via forest conversion to be managed for utilization); Mining to agricultural uses remains a major (7) Reserva Comunal (Communal driver of land transformation in Mexico At the Mineral de Nuestra Sen˜ ora Reserve, for local area use and (CEC 2008, p. 24). Agricultural reserve in Co´sala, where this species management, with national oversight); production is projected to double within occurs, mining activities are occurring and the country by 2030 (CEC 2010, pp. 34, (Rubio et al. 2007, p. 52; Bonilla-Ruz et (8) Cotos de Caza (Hunting Reserve, 70). Although some of this increase in al. 2006, p. 45). This reserve is 12 km for local use and management, with production is expected to be due to an (7.5 mi) southeast of Co´sala in Sinaloa, national oversight) (BLI 2008, p. 1; increase in productivity on previously Mexico. This reserve was created after a Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). converted land, total agricultural land joint effort in 1999 between the state, Because the designations of national area in Mexico is projected to increase municipal government, and the parks, sanctuaries, and protection by 6,300 to 41,400 ha (15,568 to 102,302 Autonomous University of Sinaloa. The forests are established by supreme ac) by 2030 (CEC 2010, p. 75). Autonomous University of Sinaloa decree that supersedes all other legal

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claim to the land, these areas tend to have conducted oil exploration combined with pressures of capture for provide more habitat protection than activities in this area (Terborgh 2004, the pet trade, has severely impacted the other designations. All other protected p. 55; ParksWatch 2002, pp. 5, 7). wild population of military macaws. areas are established by supreme Within Bahuaja, as of 2002, there were Studies have shown that over time, resolution, which is viewed as a less no human establishments within its resident bird diversity generally powerful form of protection (Rodrı´guez boundaries (ParksWatch 2002a, p. 1). declines as forest fragments become and Young 2000, p. 330). However, activities that could affect the smaller (Turner 1996, pp. 202, 206). This species has been documented in military macaw in this area include gold As with most parrots, the military the Tambopata National Reserve, which mining, illegal logging, extraction of macaw requires large areas of suitable is a 275,000-ha (679,540-ac) forest resources, and an increase in habitat, including large trees or other conservation area created by the farming (ParksWatch 2002b, p. 1). nesting cavities for nesting, feeding, and Peruvian Government in 1990. The roosting as well as food sources. Logging main purpose was to protect the Venezuela is a common form of habitat loss that watersheds of the Tambopata and There is little published information affects this species (Bonilla-Ruz 2006, Candamo rivers. This area protects some about the species in Venezuela (BLI p. 45). Deforestation via conversion of of the last pristine lowland and 2011, p. 2; Rodriguez 2004, entire). Here land to agricultural use is a threat to premontane tropical humid forests in it exists in the Andes in the Central military macaws because it directly the Amazon. Within the Tambopata Coastal Cordillera, and Sierra de Perija´ eliminates forest habitat, removing the National Reserve, there have been (Rodriguez et al. 2004, pp. 375, 378, trees that support the species’ nesting, isolated human settlements along 379). It has been found on the north roosting, and dietary requirements. It stretches of the Malinowski River and slopes of El A´ vila, Guatopo, Henri also results in fragmented habitat that where it flows into the Tambopata Pittier National Park, Ceroo La Mision, isolates military macaw populations, River. Fewer than 5,000 people inhabit Sierra de Perija´ National Park (Desenne potentially compromising the genetics the Tambopata National Reserve’s and Strahl 1994 in Snyder et al. 2000, of these populations through inbreeding border area to the north. They make a p. 125; Fernandez-Badillo et al. 1994 in depression and genetic drift (Lande living of slash-and-burn agriculture, Snyder et al. 2000 p. 125). Most of its 1995, pp. 787–789; Gilpin and Soule´ small-scale gold mining, timber range in Venezuela is within protected 1986, p. 27). We do not know the exact extraction, and hunting and fishing. One areas, but threats still exist in the extent of deforestation in the range of area of Tambopata, including a buffer protected areas here (Snyder et al. 2000, the military macaw. However, the best zone, was recently described as a ‘‘crisis p. 125). In 2000, Snyder et al. noted that available information indicates that zone’’ (Lee 2010, p. 169). It has been Sierra de Perija´ was being deforested for deforestation continues to occur and described as being at high risk to illegal narcotics, land speculation, and cattle affect the species throughout its range, settlement, timber extraction, and (p. 125). A population of this species despite protections that are in place. mining (Lee 2010, p. 169). was recently recorded for the first time Currently the population of military Populations of this species are at two localities at the Catatumbo-Barı´ macaws is extremely small (likely a few thought to be in the Manu Biosphere National Park in the Colombian- thousand individuals), those Reserve and the Bahuaja Sonene Venezuelan border, extending the populations are severely fragmented, National Park in Peru (WCS 2007, p. 1; previous species’ range from the east and its suitable habitat is becoming Herzog in litt. 2007; Terborgh 2004, slope of the Serranı´a de Perija´ increasingly more scarce. Therefore, pp. 40–41). Problems here are primarily southwards (Avendan˜ o in litt). based on the best available scientific due to human population growth and commercial information, we find Summary of Factor A (Terborgh 2004, pp. 40–41). Five that the present or threatened indigenous groups reside in the Manu Habitat loss, human encroachment, destruction, modification, or Biosphere Reserve—they are both legal and conversion to agriculture are the curtailment of habitat or range is a and illegal settlers (Terborgh 2004, pp. main threats acting on the species threat to the military macaw now and in 40–41). An ecological research station throughout its range. These threats are the future. has been in place since 1973 in Manu´ exacerbated by an inability by range B. Overutilization for Commercial, National Park (Terborgh 2004, entire), country governments to adequately Recreational, Scientific, or Educational which also adds some protection to the manage and monitor the species (see Purposes species. Research has shown that often discussion under Factor D, below). simply by having a long-term research South America had the largest net loss The trade in wild parrots is common presence there, this serves to reduce of forest area of all continents between in some areas of South America poaching (Campbell et al. 2011, p. 2). 2000 and 2005 (Mosandl et al. 2008, (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, entire; Cantu´ - Unlike parks in the United States, in p. 38), with a net loss of 4.3 million ha Guzma´n et al. 2008, entire). In its Red countries such as Peru, parks and per year. Although specific, detailed List assessment, the IUCN indicates that protected areas were formed around the information about this species’ the two major threats to the military indigenous tribes that live there remaining occupied habitat status is not macaw are habitat loss and capture for (Terborgh 2004, p. 51), and the available for each country, we know that the domestic pet trade (IUCN 2011, management and purpose of the parks much of this species’ habitat has been p. 1). Many reports indicate that often include protection of the rights of lost through conversion of land to poaching for the pet trade is still a indigenous human communities. This farming, forestry, or other activities problem for parrot species, particularly philosophy of park protection and (Bonilha 2008, p. 17; Etter et al. 2006, in poorer countries (Herrera and mandates of parks is different from in p. 369; Renton 2004, p. 13). Conversion Hennessey 2007, entire; Dickson 2005, the United States, where humans are of habitat to soy plantations is now p. 548). For perspective, in the United viewed as visitors to the parks, rather considered to be one of the principal States, captive-bred specimens of this than permanent residents (Terborgh causes of Amazon deforestation. species were recently found offered for 2004, p. 51). In Manu Biosphere Deforestation may already have sale for $699 (Basile 2010, p. 2). In 2006, Reserve, another potential threat is oil destroyed as much as 1.2 million ha four military macaws were advertised exploration. Both Shell and Mobil Oil (3 million ac) in the Amazon. This, for sale with an average sale price of

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$850 (Cantu´ -Guzma´n et al. 2008, p. 72). in Peru, poachers cut down the nesting from a low of 14 live birds during 2006, Although the scope of the illegal trade tree in order to access the nestlings to 122 live birds (including 80 exported in the military macaw is unknown, (Gonzalez 2003, p. 443). They also were from South Africa) in 2009. Since 2004, poaching can be a lucrative and observed ‘‘hacking’’ open the nest none of the exports from range countries relatively risk-free source of income cavities to remove chicks (Bergman has been reported as wild origin. (Dickson 2005, p. 548). 2009, pp. 6–8; Low 2003, pp. 10–11). An Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, and A high percentage of birds die during average of 21 nests was destroyed per Mexico the process of capturing from the wild, poaching trip (Gonzalez 2003, p. 443). transporting, and selling them. Younger Nest destruction was also reported by In Argentina, Ecuador, and birds die at a higher rate than adult Bergman in Ecuador in 2009 (pp. 6–8). Venezuela, there is little to no birds, and the younger birds are more The military macaw was listed in information available about desirable. Because most of these CITES Appendix II, effective June 6, overutilization. International trade has activities are illegal, it is difficult to 1981, and was transferred to CITES diminished, but local trade continues to accurately determine the actual Appendix I, effective October 21, 1987. occur. In Bolivia, a report published in mortality rate, but estimates vary Most of the international trade in 2009 indicated that of 17,609 birds between 31 and 90 percent (Weston and military macaw specimens consists of (including military macaws) Memon 2009, p. 79; Cantu´ -Guzma´n et live birds. Data obtained from the documented in the market studied in al. 2007, pp. 7, 20, 22, 55, 60). Wild United Nations Environment Department of Santa Cruz (not far from harvest can destroy pair bonds, remove Programme—World Conservation the range of this species), 64 percent of potentially reproductive adults from the Monitoring Center (UNEP–WCMC) the birds were found to be adults breeding pool, and have a significant CITES Trade Database show that during captured in the wild. Ninety percent effect on small populations (Kramer and the nearly 6 c years that the military (24,707) of the birds were found to be Drake 2010, p. 11). Military macaws macaw was listed in Appendix II, a total from the Department of Santa Cruz. A mate for life, are long-lived, and have of 1,034 military macaw specimens total of 2,604 individuals were from the low reproductive rates. These traits were reported to UNEP–WCMC as Department of Tarija, 176 from the make them particularly sensitive to the (gross) exports. Of those 1,034 Department of Beni, 20 from Peru, and impacts of their removal from the wild specimens, 1,019 were live birds and 15 12 from Brazil (Herrera and Hennessey (Lee 2010, p. 3; Thiollay 2005, p. 1,121; were feathers. In analyzing these data, it 2009, p. 233). The report indicated that Wright et al. 2001, p. 711). These appears that several records may be most parrots (some of which were activities adversely affect a species’ over-counts due to slight differences in military macaws) were locally sold, and population numbers (Pain et al. 2006, the manner in which the importing and found that 23,306 were in the city of p. 322). exporting countries reported their trade. Santa Cruz, and 4,156 were sent to Although poaching continues to occur It is likely that the actual number of Cochabamba. for the pet trade, it has been found to military macaw specimens in In Mexico, the military macaw is be significantly lower at protected sites international trade during this period reportedly one of the most sought-after (Pain et al. 2006, pp. 322–328; Wright et was 973, including 958 live birds and 15 species in the illegal pet bird trade al. 2002, p. 719). Other reports have feathers. Fourteen of the live birds were (Cantu´ -Guzma´n et al. 2007, p. 38), and found that national or local protection, captive-bred, and the others were poaching remains a concern. In 1995– particularly when local communities are reported with the source unknown. 2005, it was the fifth most seized actively involved in conservation Exports from range countries included: Mexican psittacine species by Mexico’s efforts, can successfully reduce nest take 364 live birds from Bolivia; 320 from Environmental Enforcement Agency, (Pain et al. 2006, p. 328; Chassot et al. Mexico; 11 from Ecuador; 4 from becoming the fourth most seized 2006, pp. 86–87). Gonzalez (2003, pp. Venezuela; and 1 from Argentina. psittacine species in 2007–2010 (p. 52). 437–446) found evidence of poaching, During the more than 22 years As an example, at a sinkhole in El Cielo particularly during nesting seasons, in following the transfer to Appendix I Biosphere Reserve; a population of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, a (October 21, 1987 through December 31, approximately 50 birds was decimated protected area in the Loreto Department, 2009, the last year for which complete by poaching in the 1980s (Arago´n-Tapia Peru, during his 1996–1999 study. data are available), the UNEP–WCMC in litt. 1989 in Snyder et al. 2000, p. However, he also found that poaching database shows a total of 1,523 military 125). In many areas, it nests in relatively decreased during the 1998 harvest macaw specimens as (gross) exports, inaccessible cavities on cliff walls, season (Gonzalez 2003, p. 444), which including 1,226 live birds, 190 scientific which provides some protection against he attributed to increased numbers of specimens, 105 feathers, 1 body, and 1 the pressures of nest poaching. birds confiscated by regional trophy (UNEP–WCMC trade database, However, nest poaching is a severe authorities, which may have accessed July 12, 2011). As noted above, threat in Jalisco and Nayarit, where the subsequently discouraged poaching it appears that some records may be species nests in tree cavities (Contreras- (also see Factor D, below). over-counts due to differences in the Gonza´lez et al. 2009, p. 43; Renton in A related factor is the destruction of manner in which the importing and litt. 2007 and Bonilla in litt. 2007 in BLI trees in this species’ habitat due to exporting countries reported their trade. 2011, pp. 1–2). Between 2005 and 2006 poaching. This species primarily It is likely that the actual number of live in Mexico, five military macaws were depends on tree-cavity nests as its military macaws in international trade found for sale, and the average price habitat. Not only does nest poaching during the 22-year period was 1,119. Of was $373 (Cantu´ -Guzma´n et al. 2007, negatively affect this species by those 1,119 birds, 840 were captive-bred p. 76). reducing the population size and the or captive-born, and 119 were reported Local residents in Argentina indicated number of birds available to reproduce, as wild. The source of the remaining that young chicks are removed ‘‘for it also in some cases destroys this live birds is unknown. Exports from foreigners’’ but also noted that it is species’ habitat. Several studies have range countries included: 54 live birds extremely difficult due to the difficulty found that poachers will cut down trees from Mexico; 10 from Argentina; 4 from in accessing the species’ preferred to remove nests. A study conducted in Venezuela; 2 from Colombia; and 1 from nesting sites and the aggressiveness of the late 1990s found that in some cases Peru. Annual quantities exported ranged the macaws (Navarro et al. 2008, pp. 7,

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9). Additionally, in Mexico and to involvement by NGOs, minimal (Chosset et al. 2004, pp. 35–39). Ecuador, indigenous communities have international demand for the species, Another disease, proventricular used military macaw feathers for and enforcement by authorities. dilatation disease (PDD), may be one of ceremonial and medicinal practices. the worst diseases known to affect Summary of Factor B However, NGOs are working with these parrots (Kistler et al. 2008, p. 2). PDD communities to obtain macaw feathers Among birds, parrots are the group has been documented in several from aviaries so that the indigenous most subject to commercial trade continents in more than 50 different people will not hunt the macaws (Hutton et al. 2000, p. 14). Parrots have parrot species and in free-ranging (Renton 2004, p. 14). suffered a disproportionate number of species in at least five other orders of , in part due to their birds (Kistler et al. 2008, p. 2). It is not Colombia desirability as pets. Conservation efforts clear if some diseases observed in birds This species and other Ara macaws by the various entities working to in captivity also occur in the wild with are occasionally hunted by indigenous ensure long-term conservation of the the same frequency. However, because people in Colombia. In one study, in the military macaw may result in its the populations of military macaws are Catatumbo-Barı´ National Park, hunting population slowly increasing; however, small and widely distributed, disease is was found to be concentrated around it is likely that the population is still less of a concern because diseases tend the 15 indigenous communities within declining. Even though the military to be more easily transmitted between the 160,000-ha (395,369-ac) park macaw is listed as an Appendix–I individuals within close range, and wild (Avendan˜ o 2011). In 2004, in a cliff- species under CITES and laws have birds disperse and are not constantly in nesting location along the Cauca River, been established within the range close proximity. Also, captive Colombia, threats to this species countries to protect this species, we are conditions in aviaries make birds more included poaching and loss of foraging still concerned about the illegal capture susceptible to disease where the stress trees (Flo´rez & Sierra 2004, pp. 2–3). of this species in the wild. Despite of confinement combined with They found that at the Cauca River site, regulatory mechanisms in place and inadequate diet can reduce the ability of it was common for some people to restricted international trade, poaching birds to fight disease. remove hatchlings from the nests and is lucrative and continues to occur. We have no evidence of significant sell between 20 to 30 chicks per year on Additionally, because each population adverse impacts to wild populations of the black market (p. 3). To counteract of military macaws is small, with military macaws due to disease. Disease these activities, a local awareness usually fewer than 100 individuals, is a normal occurrence within wild campaign was initiated (Flo´rez & Sierra poaching is likely to have a significant populations. There is no indication that 2004, pp. 2–3). As a result of this effect on the species. Based on the best disease occurs to an extent that it is a project, 3,000 Hura crepitans trees (a available scientific and commercial threat. Based on the best available species used by the military macaw) information, we find that overutilization scientific and commercial information, were planted by the local communities, for commercial, recreational, scientific, we find that disease is not a threat to the and the awareness campaign appeared or educational purposes is a threat to military macaw in any portion of its to be effective. Researchers do not the military macaw throughout its range now or in the future. believe that hunting pressure is a range. serious short-term threat. However, Predation local education and awareness programs C. Disease or Predation Eggs and chicks are more susceptible to predation than adult macaws generally need to be ongoing and long- Disease term for them to be effective, and the (Arizmendi 2008, local communities need to be aware of Studies of macaws indicate that this p. 44). Chicks and eggs are particularly the benefits of conserving species in the species is susceptible to many bacterial, susceptible to predation by snakes wild, as well as have alternative sources parasitic, and viral diseases, particularly (Arizmendi 2008, p. 44), but military of income (i.e., income other than that in captive environments (Kistler et al. macaws select their nests where they are derived from poaching). 2009, p. 2,176; Portaels et al. 1996, likely to have a high level of p. 319; Bennett et al. 1991). Viral reproductive success. Because military Peru diseases seem to be more prevalent and macaws generally construct their nests A recent study in Peru examined nest subsequently more studied in parrots in high locations such as canyon cliffs, poaching and illegal trade of parrots, than bacteria and parasites. Psittacines snake predation is less of a concern including the reasons for poaching, and are prone to many viral infections such because snakes need tree canopy or the methods, seasons, and locations as retrovirus, pox virus, and paramyxo vines to climb in order to gain access to where the sale and actual poaching of virus, and captive-held birds seem eggs and chicks. parrots occurred. This study found that particularly susceptible (Gaskin 1989, Other predators known to consume this species is still being poached in the pp. 249, 251, 252). A highly fatal this species’ eggs include iguanas, red- wild (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, pp. 79–80), disease, Pacheco’s parrot disease, is also tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), turkey even in protected areas and despite caused by a virus (Simpson et al. 1976, vultures (Carthates aura), and some national protections in place. During the p. 218). After infection from this virus, mammals (Arizmendi 2008, p. 44). In 2007–2008 study, eight military macaws death occurs suddenly without apparent the Sabino canyon, iguanas were were found for sale in two out of eight sign of sickness other than some mild observed near the nesting sites. markets surveyed in Peru (p. 79). Seven nasal discharge and lethargy (Simpson Researchers suggested that a predator of these birds were found in the et al. 1976, p. 211). However, as control program here would benefit the Amazonian lowland city, Pucallpa (p. transmission of this disease is mainly macaws (Arizmendi 2008, p. 45). 80). The study also found that where through nasal discharge and feces, it is Macaws frequently exhibit alarmed protections and enforcement have been less likely to happen in open habitat in behavior when red-tailed hawks and implemented such as in Cusco, there the wild than in a confined aviary, turkey vultures approach their nests were no parrots for sale in markets. This particularly because in the wild this (Arizmendi 2008, p. 44). In Argentina, a indicates that although it still continues, species has been observed to alternate flock of parrots was attacked by a pair poaching is becoming less frequent due nest sites based on food availability of peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus),

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which also nest in ravines (Navarro et We are primarily evaluating these reviewing a country’s national al. 2008, p. 6). However, although regulatory mechanisms in terms of parks legislation, the CITES Secretariat parrots and falcons can be combative, because this is where this species evaluates factors such as: the peregrine falcon, which normally generally occurs. Regulatory • Whether a Party’s domestic laws consumes small mammals and birds, is mechanisms could be at the local, prohibit trade contrary to the not thought to be a natural predator of national, or international levels. requirements of the Convention, the military macaw (Bradley et al. 1991, • Whether a Party has penalty International Wildlife Trade (CITES) p. 193). Due to its large size and careful provisions in place for illegal trade, and nest site selection, the military macaw A specimen of a CITES-listed species if they have designated the responsible is less susceptible to predation by both may be imported into or exported (or Scientific and Management Authorities, land and aerial predators (Flore´z and reexported) from a country only if the and Sierra 2004, pp 2–3). However, even appropriate permit or certificate has • Whether a Party’s legislation limited predation is still a concern in been obtained prior to the international provides for seizure of specimens that part because removal of potentially trade and it is presented for clearance at are illegally traded or possessed. reproductive adults from the breeding the port of entry or exit. The Conference The CITES Secretariat has determined pool can have a significant effect on of the Parties (CoP), which is the that the legislation of Argentina, small populations by destroying macaw decision making body of the Convention Colombia, Mexico, and Peru is in mating pair bonds (Kramer and Drake and comprises all its member countries, Category 1, meaning they meet all the 2010, p. 11). Additionally, studies on has agreed on a set of biological and requirements to implement CITES. similar species in similar Andean trade criteria to help determine whether Bolivia, Ecuador, and Venezuela were habitats indicate that vulnerability to a species should be included in determined to be in Category 2, with a predation by generalist predators Appendix I or II. The military macaw is draft plan, but not enacted (http:// increases with increased habitat listed in Appendix I. For Appendix-I www..org, SC59 Document 11, fragmentation and smaller patch sizes species, both an export permit or Annex p. 1). This means the Secretariat (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan 1997, p. 140). reexport certificate must be issued by determined that the legislation of Because each population of military the country of export and an import Bolivia, Ecuador, and Venezuela meet macaws is small, with usually fewer permit from the country of import must some, but not all, of the requirements than 100 individuals, and because this be obtained prior to international trade. for implementing CITES. Based on the species mates for life, even low levels of An export permit for species listed in decrease in reported international trade, predation are likely to have a significant either Appendix I or II may only be CITES and the range countries for this effect on the species. issued if the country of export species have effectively controlled legal determines that: international trade of this species. Summary of Factor C • The export will not be detrimental Therefore, we find CITES is an effective Diseases associated with military to the survival of the species in the wild mechanism for preventing macaws in the wild are not well (CITES Article III(2) and Article IV); overexploitation for international trade documented. Although there is evidence • The specimen was legally obtained in this species. that diseases occur in parrots in the according to the animal and plant Parks and Habitat Management wild, we found no information that protection laws in the country of export; diseases affect this species to the degree • For live animals or plants, that they We are focusing our evaluation of the that they are negatively impacting this are prepared and shipped for export to potential threats to this species species in the wild. Because the minimize any risk of injury, damage to primarily to parks for the following populations are distributed across such health, or cruel treatment; and reasons. Most suitable habitat, primary a large area, these populations have a • For Appendix I species, an import forest, only remains in these protected built-in resiliency against impacts from permit has been granted by the areas. The best available information disease if one population is affected by importing country. suggests that this species is now mostly a disease outbreak. Conversely, although Except in specific scenarios for found in protected areas such as parks, disease in the wild is not a concern, approved captive-breeding programs, in part because this is where suitable predation does remain a concern; there the import of an Appendix-I species habitat remains for the species. is evidence that predation on this requires the issuance of both an import Additionally, the majority of the species occurs often enough that it can and export permit. Import permits are information available regarding the have a significant impact. Because of the issued only after the importing country potential threats to the species pertains species’ small and declining population determines that it will not be used for to the parks, where the species is size, tendency to mate for life, low primarily commercial purposes (CITES usually found. Our rationale is reproductive capacity, and existence in Article III(3)) and that the proposed supported by Cowen, who noted that isolated habitat fragments, even recipient of live animals or plants is encounter rates for large macaw species minimal predation renders the species suitably equipped to house and care for were generally higher in primary forests more vulnerable to local extirpations. them. Thus, with few exceptions, (2008, p. 15), which tend to be located Therefore, we find that predation, Appendix-I species cannot be traded for in areas with protected status. compounded by ongoing habitat loss commercial purposes. Throughout this species’ range, we and poaching, is a threat to the military The CITES Treaty requires Parties found that many of the threats that macaw. (member countries) to have adequate occur to this species are the same or legislation in place for its similar. Threats generally consist of D. The Inadequacy of Existing implementation. Under CITES various forms of habitat loss or Regulatory Mechanisms Resolution Conference 8.4 (Revised at degradation. Each range country for this Regulatory mechanisms to protect a CoP15) and related decisions of the CoP, species has protections in place, but for species could potentially fall under the National Legislation Project reasons such as limited budgets and categories such as regulation of trade, evaluates whether Parties have adequate limited enforcement capabilities, the wildlife management, parks domestic legislation to successfully laws and protections are generally not management, or forestry management. implement the Treaty (CITES 2011a). In able to adequately protect the species.

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Our analysis of regulatory mechanisms in Argentina’s highest court to attempt natural landscapes or geologic is discussed essentially on a country-by- to combat deforestation (DiPaola et al. formations, and to conserve the country basis, beginning with Bolivia, 2008, p. 2). In this case, the court biological diversity contained therein; and is summarized at the end. mandated deforestation activities to be (4) Wildlife Reserve, for protection, Research has found that tropical parks halted pending the completion of a management, sustainable use, and have been surprisingly effective at cumulative environmental impact monitoring of wildlife; protecting ecosystems and species study. The decision forced the Salta (5) Natural Area of Integrated within boundaries designated as parks Province to comply with the Management, where conservation of or other protected status despite deforestation moratorium imposed by biological diversity is balanced with underfunding and pressures for the Forestry Law, and pressured the sustainable development of the local resources (Oliveira et al. 2007, p. 1,235; Province to comply with the other key population; and Bruner et al. 2001, p. 126; Terborgh provision of the law by completing an (6) ‘‘Immobilized’’ Natural Reserve, a 1999, entire). Bruner’s study found that environmental land use plan (DiPaola et temporary (5-year) designation for an protected areas are especially effective al. 2008, p. 2). Although the Forestry area that requires further research before in preventing land clearing. It found Law is in place and the court case has any official designations can be made that in 40 percent of parks, land that set a precedent for compliance with this and during which time no natural had formerly been under cultivation and law, the area where this species occurs resource concessions can be made that was incorporated into park in Argentina to the best of our within the area (Supreme Decree No. boundaries had actually recovered. This knowledge remains largely unprotected 24,781 1997, p. 3). subsequently led to an increase in (Navarro et al. 2008, pp. 7, 9). However, The foundation of Bolivia’s laws is vegetative cover. The study also found we do not know how this area is largely based on Bolivia’s 1975 Law on that 83 percent of parks were successful affected by these activities, nor what Wildlife, National Parks, Hunting, and at mitigating encroachment (Bruner et regulatory mechanisms are in place here Fishing (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, al. 2001, p. 125). It concluded that the with respect to this species and its pp. 1–34), which has the fundamental conditions inside the parks were habitat. objective of protecting the country’s significantly better than in their natural resources. This law governs the surrounding areas (Bruner et al. 2001, p. Bolivia protection, management, utilization, 125). Oliveira et al. found that forests in This species primarily inhabits the transportation, and selling of wildlife conservation units were four times parks and protected areas in Bolivia’s and their products; the protection of better at protecting against deforestation Andean region (Herzog 2011, pers. endangered species; habitat than unprotected areas (2007, p. 1,235). comm.). National parks are intended to conservation of fauna and flora; and the However, despite these protections, this be strictly protected; however, some declaration of national parks, biological species has experienced threats such areas where the species occurs are also reserves, refuges, and wildlife that their populations are now so small designated as areas of integrated sanctuaries, regarding the preservation, (generally fewer than 100 in each management, which are managed for promotion, and rational use of these population) that any pressure now has both biological conservation and the resources (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, a more significant effect. Parks, without sustainable development of the local pp. 1–34; eLAW 2003, p. 2). Later, management, are often insufficient to communities. Bolivia attempts to Bolivia passed an overarching adequately protect the species. balance natural resource uses; however, environmental law in 1992 (Law No. Conditions in specific parks are it is one of the poorest countries in 1,333 1992), with the intent of discussed below. South America (MacLeod 2009, p. 6; protecting and conserving the CIA World Factbook, accessed environment and natural resources. Argentina December 6, 2011), and subsequently Studies have shown that protected areas In 2007, Argentina enacted a law has competing priorities. As of 2005, have been successful in providing mandating minimum standards for the Bolivia had 5 national parks, 6 national protection from poaching, logging, and environmental protection of native park and integrated management natural other forest damage, especially when forests (Ley de Bosques). However, the areas, 1 national park and indigenous compared to unprotected areas (Lee federal government has not fully territory (or communal lands), 4 2010, p. 3; Killeen et al. 2007, p. 603; enforced the law, and provincial national reserves, 2 biosphere reserves, Oliveira et al. 2007, p. 1,234; Asner governments are not in full compliance and 3 integrated management natural 2005, p. 480; Ribeiro et al. 2005, p. 2; with it (DiPaola et al. 2008, p. 2). areas (ParksWatch 2005, p. 1). These Gilardi and Munn 1998, p. 641). Argentina lacks adequate protections of make up Bolivia’s National System of However, pressures on the parks’ its natural environments; there is a lack Protected Areas ((SNAP) Servicio resources are increasing; these are of environmental awareness and Nacional de Areas Protegidas). Below described below. commitment from the government to are the designations and their relevant Within the Greater Madidi-Tambopata adequately protect its resources (FAO categorizations of protections (eLAW Landscape, activities that could 2007, pp. 43–44, 59–60). Provinces 2003, p. 3). negatively affect this species occur, and usually allow landowners to decide (1) Park, for strict and permanent there are competing priorities within whether to maintain forest cover or protection of representative ecosystems these protected areas. Madidi is divided deforest the land. The absence of a and provincial habitats, as well as plant into three contiguous areas, with two serious land use planning strategy, and animal resources, along with the different management categories: A particularly during the past 20 years, geographical, scenic and natural strictly protected National Park in two has led to significant habitat landscapes that contain them; sections which total 1,271,000 ha degradation (FAO 2007, p. 60). The (2) Sanctuary, for the strict and (3,140,709 ac), and a natural integrated threat to native forests has remained permanent protection of sites that house management area with 624,250 ha particularly high in the Salta Province. endemic plants and animals that are (1,542,555 ac), where conservation and As a result, a coalition of indigenous threatened or in danger of extinction; sustainable development of the local communities and nongovernmental (3) Natural Monument, to preserve communities is the main purpose organizations filed for injunctive relief areas such as those with distinctive (Conservation Strategy Fund (CSF)

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2006, p. 29). The most significant wildlife and flora. Colombia currently As of 2005, 40 percent of Colombia’s activities that are having a negative has 54 areas that have protected status public resources were managed by local impact or could in the future in this area (El Sistema Nacional de Areas municipalities, making Colombia one of are the construction of a highway within Protegidas (SINAP); National Natural the most decentralized countries in Madidi, mining for natural resources Parks of Colombia 2011). Of those, 33 terms of forestry management in Latin such as gold, drilling for oil, and a have been declared Important Bird America (Blackman et al. 2006, p. 36). planned hydroelectric dam (ParksWatch Areas (IBAs). The protected area Monitoring of resource use and forest 2011b, p. 8; http:// designations are as follows: National development authorized by these www.amazonfund.eu/art-oil- parks (parques nacionales), flora and corporations is conducted mostly by madidi.html, accessed September 13, fauna sanctuaries (santuarios de fauna y local nongovernmental organizations. 2011; Chavez 2010, pp. 1–2). There is flora), flora sanctuaries (santuarios de The International Tropical Timber limited legal hunting of this species flora), nature reserves (reserva natural), Organization (ITTO) considers the occurring here, but in the areas and unique natural areas (a´rea natural Colombian forestry sector to be lacking surveyed, this species was described as u´ nica) (Law 165 of 1994). Small in law enforcement and on-the-ground common and not exploited (Hosner et populations of this species occur in control of forest resources, with no al. 2009, p. 226). Timber extraction still several reserves and protected areas in specific standards for large-scale occurs in some areas (World Land Trust Colombia (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. forestry production, no forestry 2010, p. 1). In the rainforest and foothill 32). These protected areas in Colombia concession policies, and a lack of forest of Serranı´a Sadiri within Madidi, offer various degrees of protection to the transparency in the application of the roads in the late 1990s spurred a rise in species. various laws regulating wildlife and the unsustainable logging of the area’s In 2003, conservation priorities were their habitats (ITTO 2006, p. 222). mahogany trees, which were the most identified for its bird species, a Consequently, there is currently no valuable tree at the time (World Land conservation corridor was designed, and effective vehicle for overall coordination Trust 2010, pp. 1–2). Within the a habitat conservation strategy within of species management for Apolobamba protected area, the San Salvador valley was developed multijurisdictional species such as the uncontrolled clearing, extensive (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 29). The military macaw. Fundacio´n ProAves agriculture, grazing, and ‘‘irresponsible’’ private Buena Vista Nature Reserve was developed a conservation plan for 2010 tourism are ongoing (Auza and established and protects approximately to 2020 for several parrot species, Hennessey 2005, p. 81). Habitat 400 ha (988 ac) of tropical wet lowland including the military macaw (Botero- degradation and destruction from forest and wet premontane forest on the Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 7). grazing, forest fires, and timber northern slope of the Sierra Nevada. It However, it is unclear if or when it will extraction are ongoing in other encompasses extensive primary forests be adopted by the Government of protected areas, such as Tunari National along an altitudinal gradient of 600 to Colombia. 2,300 m (1,968 to 7,545 ft) and forest Park (Department of Cochabamba), Additionally, despite protections, patches and secondary forest at where suitable habitat exists for this forest loss continues almost unabated in elevations between 450 to 600 m (1,476 species (De la Vie 2004, p. 7). the mountains of the Sierra Nevada, Bolivia’s national policy is to to 1,968 ft). The reserve is adjacent to demonstrating that formal protections decentralize decision making, and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and regulatory mechanisms are responsibility for land planning and National Park and the Kogi-Malayo natural resource management is Indian reserve (Strewe and Navarro inadequate. In this area, El Congo increasingly shifting to local and 2003, p. 29). Reserve currently may be the only regional governments (Wildlife Resource management in Colombia is secure nesting site for the military Conservation Society (WCS) 2009, pp. highly decentralized. Colombian macaw, but it is too small (40 ha; 99 ac) 2–5). However, the decentralization environmental management has been to conserve viable populations. process is occurring without sufficient divided between the national and Efforts are occurring in Colombia to personnel, staff training, and regional levels since the 1950s. protect and monitor its species, operational funds. There is little Governmental institutions responsible although they do not appear to be information as to the actual protections for oversight appear to be under adequate to combat the threats to this that Bolivia’s laws and protected areas resourced (ITTO 2006, p. 222) and species. One management tool that confer to military macaws, despite the unable to adequately manage species Colombia has recently developed is a laws in place at the national level for its such as the military macaw. Resources bird-watching strategy in these wildlife. Threats to the species and its are managed within local municipalities protected areas to monitor and report on habitat include unsustainable land use by one of 33 ‘‘Autonomous Regional bird species such as the military macaw, practices, illegal logging, mining, road Corporations’’ known as CARs in conjunction with ecotourism building, oil extraction, illegal animal (Corporaciones Auto´nomas Regionales) (National Natural Parks of Colombia trade, and hunting, which are all still (Blackman et al. 2006, p. 32). CARs are 2011). Despite the efforts in place, there occurring within this species’ habitat described as corporate bodies of a is a lack of information available about (MacLeod 2009, p. 6; WCS 2009, pp. public nature, endowed with the status of this species and its habitat 2–5). The mechanisms in place are administrative and financial autonomy in Colombia. There is no clear inadequate at reducing the threat of to manage the environment and information about the status of the habitat destruction and human renewable natural resources, species in Colombia; particularly its disturbance within these protected implemented through Law 99 of 1993 population trend. We are unable to areas. (p. 32). Each department (analogous to determine that this conservation U.S. state designations) within strategy will sufficiently mitigate threats Colombia Colombia is managed by a separate local to the military macaw, nor are we able The Colombian Government has entity. These corporations grant to find that the regulatory mechanisms enacted and ratified numerous domestic concessions, permits, and in place in Colombia are adequate. The and international laws, decrees, and authorizations for forest harvesting species population is small in Colombia, resolutions for managing and conserving (ITTO 2006, p. 219). and threats to its habitat still exist.

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Ecuador protections by being in a Reserve. Mexico In Ecuador, the military macaw is However, a study published in 2002 Threatened and endangered species considered to be very rare (Arcos-Torres concluded that although 14 percent of are regulated under the general terms of and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). It has Ecuador is categorized as national the General Law of Ecological Balance been observed in the areas of Sumaco reserve network (Sierra et al. 2002, p. and Environmental Protection (Ley and Zamora-Chinchipe (Youth 2009, p. 107), the system does not provide General del Equilibrio Ecolo´gico y 1; Snyder et al. 2000, p. 125) and adequate protection for its ecosystems. Proteccio´n al Ambiente (LGEEPA)), the recently at Kichwa River Reserve As of 2006, the amount of protected General Wildlife Law (Ley General de (Reserva Kichwa Rı´o), within the Gran land (both forested and nonforested) in Vida Silvestre (LGVS)), and also under Sumaco Biosphere Reserve Guacamayos Ecuador totals approximately 4.67 CITES (CEC 2003, unpaginated). NOM– (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, million ha (11.5 million ac) (ITTO 2006, 059–ECOL–2001 establishes a list of p. 72). This species is categorized as p. 228). However, only 38 percent of wildlife species classified as either in endangered ‘‘en peligro de extincio´n’’ these lands have appropriate danger of extinction (endangered), (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, conservation measures in place to be threatened, under special protection, or p. 69) in Ecuador. It is protected by considered protected areas according to probably extinct in the wild Decree No. 3,516 of 2003 (Unified Text international standards (i.e., areas that (Government of Mexico 2002, p. 6). All of the Secondary Legislation of the are managed for scientific study or use of endangered and threatened Ministry of Environment) (EcoLex wilderness protection, for ecosystem species requires a special permit from 2003b, pp. 1–2 and 36). This decree protection and recreation, for the Secretariat of the Environment and summarizes the laws governing conservation of specific natural features, Natural Resources (Secretarı´a del Medio environmental policy in Ecuador and or for conservation through management Ambiente y Recursos Naturales provides that the country’s biodiversity intervention) (IUCN 1994, pp. 17–20). (SEMARNAT). SEMARNAT’s main goal be protected and used primarily in a The ITTO, as of 2006, considered is to protect, restore, and conserve its sustainable manner. ecosystem management and ecosystems and natural resources. Habitat destruction is ongoing and conservation in Ecuador, including Under Mexico’s General Wildlife Law, extensive in Ecuador (Mosandl et al. effective implementation of mechanisms the use of these protected species, 2008, p. 37; Butler 2006b, pp. 1–3; FAO that would protect the military macaw including the military macaw, may be 2003b, p. 1). Unsustainable forest and its habitat, to be lacking (ITTO authorized only when priority is given harvest practices likely continue to 2006, p. 229). to the collection and capture for impact the military macaw’s habitat. In restoration, repopulation, and Although this colony has persisted for 2004, Ecuador Law No. 17 (Faolex 2004, reintroduction activities (Comisio´n about 150 years (Huatatoca, pers. comm. pp. 1–29) amended the Forest Act of Nacional Para El Conocimiento y Uso de in Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 1981 (Law No. 74) to include five la Biodiversidad 2009, unpaginated; 2008, p. 72), it may be affected by criteria for sustainable forest CEC 2003, unpaginated). management: (i) Sustainable timber logging and the resulting deforestation International trade of Mexico’s production; (ii) the maintenance of on nearby land (Arcos-Torres and wildlife is also managed by forest cover; (iii) the conservation of Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). The best SEMARNAT. In 2008, Mexico passed biodiversity; (iv) co-responsibility in available information indicates that on- Article 60_2 to amend its General management; and (v) the reduction of the-ground enforcement of Ecuador’s Wildlife Law. The article bans the negative social and environmental laws, oversight of the local jurisdictions, capture, export, import, and reexport of impacts (ITTO 2006, p. 225; Aguilar and and implementing and regulating any species of the Psittacidae (parrot) Vlosky 2005, pp. 9–10). In 2001, the activities are ineffective in conserving family whose natural distribution is Ecuadorian government worked with the military macaw and its habitat in within Mexico (Cantu´ and Sa´nchez the private sector to develop a system of Ecuador. Researchers suggest that the 2011, p. 1). It allows for authorizations monitoring and control of forest harvest apparent lack of this species in Ecuador for removal of individuals from the wild practices. However, in 2003, the is related to lack of existing suitable to be issued only for conservation Supreme Court of Ecuador declared the sites (large areas containing appropriate purposes, or to accredited academic control system unconstitutional, and feeding, nesting, and breeding habitat) institutions for scientific research. new control systems were being for the formation of breeding colonies. However, it does not appear to be developed (ITTO 2006, p. 225). The governmental institutions adequate based on recent investigations Approximately 70 percent of the forest responsible for natural resource of trade of Mexico’s native parrot products harvested are harvested oversight in Ecuador appear to be species. illegally, or are used as fuel wood, or are under-resourced, and to our knowledge, The military macaw falls under the discarded as waste (ITTO 2006, p. 226; there is a lack of law enforcement on the jurisdiction of several other laws in Aguilar and Vlosky 2005, p. 4). Because ground. Despite the creation of a Mexico. The 2003 General Law on the extractive harvesting industry is not national forest plan, the best available Sustainable Forest Management (Ley monitored, the extent of the impact is information indicates there is a lack of General de Desarrollo Forestal unknown; however, the best available capacity to implement this plan due to Sustenable (LGDFS)) governs forest information indicates that habitat inconsistencies in application of ecosystems in Mexico, including degradation negatively affects this regulations, and discrepancies between military macaw habitat. This law species in Ecuador. actual harvesting practices and forestry formalizes the incorporation of the The Ecuadorian government regulations. These inadequacies have forest sector in a broader environmental recognizes 31 different legal categories facilitated logging, clearing for framework. Under this law, harvesting of protected lands (e.g., national parks, agriculture, subsistence farming, and of forests requires authorization from biological reserves, geo-botanical road development. Habitat conversion SEMARNAT. It also requires that reserves, bird reserves, wildlife reserves, and alteration are ongoing within harvesting forests is based on a etc.). The colony in Kichwa River Ecuador, including within protected technical study and a forest Reserve Macaw receives some legal areas. management plan (GOM 2010, p. 24). A

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number of additional laws complement NPAs (out of 160 NPAs decreed in aviculturists in Venezuela had the 2003 law in regulating forest use. Mexico) that were 1,000 ha (2,471 ac) or developed both an action plan for the The LGEEPA regulates activities for larger, which is the minimum area for conservation of parrots and a book protecting biodiversity and reducing the conserving ecosystems in Mexico containing information on parrot impact on forests and tropical areas of (Figueroa and Sanchez 2008, p. 3,225; biology (Morales et al. 1994, in Snyder certain forest activities; the LGVS Ordo´n˜ ez and Flo´rez-Villela 1995, p. 11). 2000, p. 125). However, currently, it is governs the use of plants and wildlife The study found that, overall, only unclear what conservation initiatives found in the forests; the General Law on approximately 54 percent of protected are occurring. Sustainable Rural Development (Ley areas, including 65 percent of biosphere El A´ vila National Park (81,800 ha; General de Desarrollo Rural Sustentable) reserves, were effective. 202,132 ac in size), is located along the provides guidance for activities aimed at central stretch of the Cordillera de la Peru protecting and restoring forests within Costa Mountains in northern Venezuela. the framework of rural development In Peru, this species is listed as The most immediate threats to the park programs; and the Agrarian Law (Ley vulnerable under Supreme Decree No. are forest fires and illegal settlements, Agraria) governs farmers’ ability to use 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276855), and its which occur primarily near Caracas forest resources on their land (Anta protections fall under the jurisdiction of (ParksWatch 2011f, unpaginated). 2004, in USAID 2011, unpaginated). the National Institute of Natural ParksWatch notes that the areas closest Another law regulating portions of the Resources (Instituto Nacional de to the city have experienced more military macaw’s habitat is the National Recursos Naturales, INRENA). This problems in the more isolated northern System of Protected Natural Areas Decree prohibits hunting, take, slope and eastern sector of El A´ vila. (Sistema Nacional de A´ reas Naturales transport, and trade of protected Other threats in this park include the Protegidas (SINANP)). These protected species, except as permitted by presence of nonnative plants and natural areas are created by presidential regulation. The military macaw is poaching. decree, and the activities in them are thought to occur in at least three areas Summary of Factor D regulated under the LGEEPA, which with protected status in Peru. The requires that the protected natural areas Peruvian national protected area system In Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, and receive special protection for includes several categories of habitat Venezuela, we recognize that conservation, restoration, and protection (refer to Factor A. National conservation activities are occurring, development activities (Comisio´n reserves, national forests, communal and that these activities may have a Nacional de A´ reas Naturales Protegidas reserves, and hunting reserves are positive effect on the species at the local (CONANP) 2011, unpaginated). These managed for the sustainable use of population level. Parrots, in general, are natural areas are categorized as: resources (IUCN 1994, p. 2). The long-lived with low reproductive rates, Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, designations of national parks, traits that make them particularly Natural Monuments, Areas of Natural sanctuaries, and protection forests are sensitive to poaching and other threats Resource Protection, Areas of Protection established by supreme decree that such as habitat loss (Lee 2010, p. 3; of Flora and Fauna, and Sanctuaries supersedes all other legal claim to the Thiollay 2005, p. 1,121; Wright et al. (CONANP 2011, unpaginated). The land and, thus, these areas tend to 2001, p. 711). Removal of a few birds military macaw is known to occur in provide some form of habitat protection from a population of 100 can have a several protected areas. (Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). greater effect than removal of a few Conservation strategies in Mexico rely However, limited information is birds from larger populations. The heavily on natural protected areas, and available with respect to the status of primary threats to this species biosphere reserves comprise most of the this species in Peru. We do not know if historically have been the loss of habitat designated protected area in the country the occurrence of the military macaw and capture for the pet trade (Strewe (Figueroa and Sanchez 2008, pp. 3324, within protected areas in Peru actually and BLI 2011, p. 1; Navarro 2003, p. 33). 3234). The military macaw occurs in or protects the species or mitigates threats Since regulatory mechanisms such as near at least four biosphere reserves. to the species, and to what extent these CITES and the WBCA have been put Although some areas where this species protections are effective. into place, particularly since 1992, occurs have protected status, Figueroa much of the legal international trade in Venezuela and Sanchez (2008, entire) found that, the military macaw has declined (see for example, the Sierra Gorda Biosphere In Venezuela, the military macaw is Factor B discussion, above; UNEP– Reserve was ineffective (as opposed to thought to exist in two parks: El A´ vila WCMC CITES trade database, accessed effective or weakly-effective). This study National Park and Henri Pittier National September 6, 2011). However, those specifically evaluated the effectiveness Park. Very limited information about the pressures prior to the military macaw’s of Mexico’s protected areas for status of this species is available in listing under CITES and the WBCA preventing land use and land cover Venezuela. Henri Pittier National Park contributed significantly to the decline change. It assessed the effectiveness of (107,800 ha; 266,380 ac) was declared in population numbers for this species. national protected areas (NPAs) by the first national park in Venezuela in Since then, the species’ habitat has quantifying (1) the rate of change and (2) 1937. Henri Pittier National Park is the become fragmented, its range has the total extent of change, between 1993 largest national park of the Cordillera de reduced, and its populations have more and 2002, as well as (3) the percentage, la Costa (Coastal Mountain Range) difficulty finding suitable habitat. in 2002, of areas transformed by human region. The principal threats to this park Each of these countries has enacted use; transformed areas included include fire, human encroachment, laws to protect its wildlife and habitat. agriculture, cultivated and induced solid waste buildup, pollution, hunting, However, we are unable to conclude pastures, human settlements, and and limited resources for effective park that the regulatory mechanisms in place forestry plantations. The rate of change management (ParksWatch 2011g, are adequate. The populations of this of transformed areas inside each NPA unpaginated). In many cases, the species in these four countries likely was also compared with that estimated intensity of threats has increased. Prior range from fewer than 100 to a few for an equivalent area surrounding the to 1994, a team of government hundred individuals. There are NPA. They selected 69 federal decreed representatives, NGOs, universities, and numerous threats acting on this species;

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its populations have severely declined. military macaw throughout its range restricted and severely fragmented range In some cases, the actual causes of now and into the future. increase this species’ vulnerability to decline may not be readily apparent and other threats. E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors a species may be affected by more than Affecting its Continued Existence Climate Change one threat in combination. Habitat conservation measures within these Small Population Size Consideration of ongoing and projected climate change is a range countries do not appear to Small, declining populations can be component of our analysis under the sufficiently mitigate future habitat especially vulnerable to environmental ESA. The term ‘‘climate change’’ refers losses. Habitat loss and degradation disturbances such as habitat loss to a change in the mean, variability, or continue to occur within these (O’Grady 2004, pp. 513–514). In order countries; the best available information seasonality of climate variables over for a population to sustain itself, there time periods of decades or hundreds of does not indicate that the existing must be enough reproducing regulatory mechanisms have mitigated years (Intergovernmental Panel on individuals and habitat to ensure its Climate Change (IPCC) 2007, p. 78). these threats in the range of this species. survival. Conservation biology defines Because these populations of this Forecasts of the rate and consequences this as the ‘‘minimum viable of future climate change are based on species are very small in these population’’ requirement (Grumbine countries, any impact is likely to have the results of extensive modeling efforts 1990, pp. 127–128). This requirement conducted by scientists around the a significant impact on the species; may be between 500 and 5,000 therefore, we are unable to conclude world (Solman 2011, p. 20; Laurance individuals depending on variability, and Useche 2009, p. 1,432; Nun˜ ez et al. that regulatory mechanisms in place for demographic constraints, and this species and its habitat are adequate. 2008, p. 1; Margeno 2008, p. 1; Meehl evolutionary history. The military et al. 2007, p. 753). Climate change Bolivia, Colombia, and Mexico have macaw occurs in relatively small models, like all other scientific models, enacted various laws and regulatory populations (ranging from a few pairs to produce projections that have some mechanisms for the protection and approximately 100 individuals, with the uncertainty because of the assumptions management of this species and its total population size that is likely no used, the data available, and the specific habitat. Although information available greater than a few thousand). The model features. The science supporting is limited, the best evidence suggests military macaw relies on specific habitat climate model projections as well as that the military macaw exists in small to provide for its breeding, feeding, and models assessing their impacts on populations in several large protected nesting. Historically, the military species and habitats will continue to be areas within these countries. As macaw existed in much higher numbers refined as more information becomes discussed under Factor A, the military in more continuous, connected habitat. available. While projections from macaw prefers primary forests and Its suitable habitat is becoming regional climate model simulations are woodlands and complex habitat that increasingly limited, and its suitable informative, various methods to offers a variety of food sources. Its habitat is not likely to expand in the downscale projections to more localized suitable habitat has been severely future. areas in which the species lives are still constricted due to deforestation. In The combined effects of habitat imperfect and under development these three countries, there is clear fragmentation and other factors on a (Solman 2011, p. 20; Nun˜ ez et al. 2008, evidence of threats to this species due species’ population can have profound p. 1; Marengo 2008, p. 1). The best to activities such as habitat destruction effects and can potentially reduce a available information does not indicate and degradation, poaching, construction species’ respective effective population that climate change is impacting this of roads, and mining, as well as by orders of magnitude (Gilpin and species such that it is a threat. After decreased viability due to small Soule´ 1986, p. 31). For example, an reviewing the best available population sizes, despite the regulatory increase in habitat fragmentation can information, we do not find that mechanisms in place. We acknowledge separate populations to the point where changes in climate are impacting this that research and conservation programs individuals can no longer disperse and species such that climate change is a are occurring in these countries. breed among habitat patches, causing a threat. However, based on the best available shift in the demographic characteristics information, we find that the existing of a population and a reduction in Summary of Factor E regulatory mechanisms for these genetic fitness (Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, A species may be affected by more countries are either inadequate or p. 31). This is especially applicable for than one threat acting in combination. inadequately enforced in order to a species such as the military macaw Impacts typically operate protect the species or to mitigate that was once wide-ranging. It has lost synergistically, particularly when ongoing habitat loss and degradation, a significant amount of its historical populations of a species are decreasing. poaching, and the severe population range due to habitat loss and Initial effects of one threat factor can decline of this species. Habitat degradation. Furthermore, as a species’ later exacerbate the effects of other conservation measures within these status continues to decline, often as a threat factors (Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, range countries do not appear to result of deterministic forces such as pp. 25–26). Further fragmentation of sufficiently mitigate future habitat habitat loss or overutilization, it will populations can decrease the fitness and losses. become increasingly vulnerable to other reproductive potential of the species, Based on the best available impacts. If this trend continues, its which will exacerbate other threats. information, we are unable to conclude ultimate extinction due to one or more Lack of a sufficient number of that the existing regulatory mechanisms stochastic (random or unpredictable) individuals in a local area or a decline currently in place sufficiently mitigate events becomes more likely. The in their individual or collective fitness threats to the military macaw military macaw’s current occupied and may cause a decline in the population throughout its range. Therefore, we find suitable range is highly reduced and size, despite the presence of suitable that the existing regulatory mechanisms severely fragmented. The species’ small habitat patches. Within the preceding are inadequate to mitigate the current population size, its reproductive and review of the five factors, we have threats to the continued existence of the life-history traits, and its highly identified multiple threats that may

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have interrelated impacts on this exists generally in very small and to be only around 100 individuals of A. species. For example, the species’ fragmented populations, usually in a. guayaquilensis in two areas in behavior of not nesting in areas where areas with some form of protected status Ecuador. This subspecies has a smaller depredation or disturbance is likely may in Mexico, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia, bill with greener underside of the flight mean that a nest site is ‘‘abandoned’’ and to a limited extent Ecuador, and tail feathers than the nominate before nesting is even attempted. Thus, Venezuela, and Argentina. Its life- subspecies (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. the species’ productivity may be history traits (such as mating for life and 423). Avibase and ITIS both recognize reduced because of any of these threats, small clutch size) make it particularly these subspecies (http://www.itis.gov either singularly or in combination. The susceptible to extinction because its and http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/ most significant threats are habitat loss populations are so small. Based on our avibase.jsp, accessed November 3, and poaching, particularly because the review of the best available scientific 2011). species has such a small and fragmented and commercial information pertaining There is no universally accepted population, and it requires a large range to the five factors, we found that many definition of what constitutes a and variety of food sources. These of these threats are similar throughout subspecies, and the use of the term threats occur at a sufficient scale so that the species’ range. subspecies varies among taxonomic they are affecting the status of the In four of the countries (Argentina, groups (Haig and D’Elia 2010, p. 29). To species now and in the future. Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela), the be operationally useful, subspecies must In addition, the species’ current range populations are extremely small, and be discernible from one another (i.e., is highly restricted and severely very little information about the status diagnosable) and not merely exhibit fragmented. The species’ small of the species is available in many parts mean differences (Patten and Unitt population size, its reproductive and of its range. It is not necessarily easy to 2002, pp. 28, 34). This element of life-history traits, and its highly determine (nor is it necessarily diagnosability, or the ability to restricted and severely fragmented range determinable) which potential threat is consistently distinguish between increase the species’ vulnerability to the operational threat. However, we populations, is a common thread that adverse natural events and manmade believe that these threats, either runs through all subspecies concepts. activities that destroy individuals and individually or in combination, are All populations or subspecies of Ara their habitat. The susceptibility to likely to occur at a sufficient ambigua essentially face similar threats, extirpation of limited-range species can geographical scale to significantly affect all are generally in the same region occur for a variety of reasons, such as the status of the species. Additionally, (Central and northern South America), when a species’ remaining population is although we do not have precise genetic and all have small populations. For the already too small or its distribution too information about populations purpose of this proposed rule and based fragmented such that it may no longer throughout this species’ range, it is on the best available information, we be demographically or genetically viable likely that there is some genetic transfer recognize all populations of great green (Harris and Pimm 2004, pp. 1612–1613). between populations. We believe this macaws as a single species. Therefore, we find that the species’ based on its demonstrated ability to fly Description small population size, in combination long distances in search of food sources This species ranges between 77 and with other threats identified above, is a (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 5). The most 90 cm (30 and 35 inches) in length and threat to the continued existence of the significant threat, habitat loss and has a red frontal band above a large military macaw throughout its range degradation, is prevalent throughout black bill, bare facial features with black now and in the future. this species’ range. Its suitable habitat lines, blue flight feathers on the superior has severely contracted, and habitat loss Finding and Status Determination for feathers and olive inferior feathers, blue is likely to continue into the future. We the Military Macaw lower back, and orange tail (Juniper and do not find that the factors affecting the We find that this species is Parr 1998, pp. 423–424). It is the second species are likely to be sufficiently endangered based on the above largest macaw. This species ameliorated in the foreseeable future. evaluation, and we propose to list this is not sexually dimorphic, meaning Therefore, we find that listing the species as endangered due to the threats there are no differences in appearance military macaw is warranted throughout described above that continue to act on between males and females of the same its range, and we propose to list the this species. Within the preceding species. The great green macaw is very military macaw as endangered under review of the five factors, we identified similar in appearance to the military the ESA. multiple threats that may have macaw, but the military macaw has interrelated impacts on the species. For Species Information for the Great more prominent blue coloring on its example, the productivity of military Green Macaw hind neck, has darker plumage, and is macaws may be reduced because of the smaller. These two species are also Taxonomy effects of poaching and habitat loss, separated geographically. which are expected to continue to act on The great green macaw (Ara ambiguus the species in the future. In cases where or ambigua, Linnaeus, 1766; Bechstein, Range, Observations, and Population populations are very small, species mate 1811) is in the parrot (Psittacidae) Estimates for life, and birds produce small clutch family. It is known by various common The great green macaw is patchily sizes, these effects are exacerbated. The names such as lapa verde, Buffon’s distributed in a 100,000-km2 (38,610- susceptibility to extirpation of species macaw, Guacamayo verde mayor, Guara mi2) area (BLI 2011). In addition to with small and declining populations verde, and Papagayo de Guayaquil. It occupying humid tropical forests can occur for a variety of reasons, such occurs as two subspecies. The nominate primarily in (Costa as when a species’ remaining subspecies, Ara a. ambiguus, occurs Rica, , , and population is already too small or its from Honduras to north-west Colombia. ), there are small remnant distribution too fragmented such that it The subspecies A. a. guayaquilensis populations in western Ecuador, as well may no longer be demographically or occurs in western Ecuador (Rodriguez- as northern Colombia (Berg et al. 2007, genetically viable (Harris and Pimm Mahecha et al. 2002, p. 116; Fje¨ldsa et p. 1; Chassot et al. 2006, p. 7). Although 2004, pp. 1,612–1,613). This species al. 1987, pp. 28–31). There are believed there may be some interaction between

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populations, the great green macaw is Population estimates were made in species, they may also be biased because fragmented into seven isolated the 1990s and early 2000s. The global surveys may not have sampled populations throughout its distribution population is now likely less than 2,500 randomly. Thus, historical population due to habitat loss (Monge et al. 2009, mature individuals (or less than 3,700 estimates of this species may not be pp. 159, 174). with juveniles included) (Monge et al. accurate. Although the population in Deforestation has reduced this 2009, pp. 213, 256); however, the actual is increasing, the population species’ habitat and concentrated its population is far from clear. In 1993, the continues to be very small (Monge et al. population into primarily five areas: the population estimate was 5,000 2010, p. 16), and researchers believe border of Honduras and Nicaragua, the individuals; in 2000, the population was that the global population of this species border of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, the estimated to be between 2,500 and is decreasing (Botero-Delgadillo and Darie´n region of Panama and Colombia, 10,000 birds (BirdLife International Pa´ez 2011, p. 91). Specific information and two very small populations in 2009a; Rodrı´guez-Mahecha 2002a). about the range and population estimate Ecuador (Hardman 2010, p. 8; Monge et Although historical observations are al. 2009, p. 159). useful for assessing the range of the for each country is discussed below.

Colombia geographical range is 51,777 km2 15). Even though the largest population (19,991 mi2), which includes two core is thought to be in the northern Darie´n Historically in Colombia, it was found areas in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta border region with about 1,700 adults, in the north of the Serranı´a de Baudo´ and in the center of Antioquia researchers believe this is an estimate and the West Andes and east to the Department of Columbia (Salaman et al. without a strong basis (Botero- upper Sinu´ valley (Snyder et al. 2000, 2009, p. 21; Monge et al. 2009, Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 91). The pp. 121–123). In the late 1990s, this unpaginated; Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, populations in Colombia are highly species was observed in Los Katı´os p. 15). The total Columbian population localized, and this number could be an National Park, around Utrı´a National is currently unclear, but it is now overestimate (Botero-Delgadillo and Park in Serranı´a de Baudo´ (Salaman in believed to primarily exist in Los Katı´os Pa´ez 2011, p. 91). litt. 1997), and the Choco´ area of National Park, which borders the Darie´n Costa Rica western Colombia (Angehr in litt. 1996 region in Panama. It was also recently in Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 121–123; observed in the area of Sabanalarga, The great green macaw historically Ridgley 1982). This species’ potential Antioquia (Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, p. inhabited forests along the Caribbean

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lowlands of Costa Rica (Chosset et al. individuals were observed in the Playa p. 242). Currently, it exists in the Rio 2004, p. 32). The population has de Oro area along the Santiago River Pla´tano Biosphere Reserve (800,000 ha increased in that area since 1994, when (Jahn 2001, pp. 41–43). In 2002, or 1,976,843 ac), which has been there was an estimate of 210 birds. The Ecuador’s population was estimated to described as one of the most important population appears to have fluctuated; be between 60 and 90 individuals reserves in Central America (Anderson in 2004, it was estimated that a (Monge et al. 2009, et al. 2004, p. 447). maximum of 35 pairs were breeding in p. 256), but the population was reported Nicaragua northern Costa Rica (Chosset et al. 2004, to be rapidly decreasing. In 2005, the p. 32). A survey conducted in 2009 species was described as being found in In Nicaragua, the great green macaw reported an population estimate of 302 scattered forest remnants in coastal is found primarily in lowland, tropical, in Costa Rica (Monge et al. 2009, p. 12); Ecuador from Guayas to Esmeraldas and rain forest, as well as pine barrens, another estimate was that there was a Province (Horstman 2005, p. 3). primarily in the Bosawas Reserve in the total of 275 birds in Costa Rica in 2010 In addition to the small population in north and around the Indio-Maı´z and (Chassot 2010 pers. comm. in Hardman the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest, San Juan rivers in the south (Stocks et 2010, p. 11). recently reported to be about 11 al. 2007, p. 1503; Martine´z-Sa´nchez Approximately 67,000 ha (165,561 ac) individuals, there may be another small 2007; Chassot 2004, p. 36). The name of great green macaw breeding territory group in the Rio Canande Reserve, Bosawas is derived from three now remains in Costa Rica (Chun 2008, which is humid tropical forest, in the significant geographic landmarks that p. v), which is less than 10 percent of Esmeraldas province in coastal northern delineate the reserve’s core zone limits: its original suitable habitat (Monge et al. Ecuador (Horstman pers comm. in The Bocay River, Mount Saslaya, and 2010, p. 15; Chosset et al. 2004, p. 38). Hardman 2010, p. 12). Rio Canande the Waspuk River. The Bosawas Potential great green macaw breeding Reserve (1,813 ha or 4,478 ac) is one of protected area contains habitat that is habitat, excluding Ecuador, is defined eight reserves managed by another NGO, vital to the species. In the buffer zone by the density of almendro trees, which the Jocotoco Foundation. The most of the Indio-Maı´z Biological Reserve, this species uses for its primary feeding recent population census in Ecuador great green macaw nesting locations and nesting substrate. Based on the was conducted in the provinces of have been identified. The Indio-Maı´z assumption that great green macaw Esmeraldas, Santa Elena, and Guayas. Biological Reserve is located in breeding pairs require 550 ha (1,359 ac) Five individuals were recently observed Nicaragua just across the San Juan River of non-overlapping habitat, Chun in the Bosque Protector Chongo´n at the northern border of Costa Rica, and postulated that northern Costa Rica Colonche; one macaw was observed at is nearly 264,000 ha (652,358 ac) in size. could support about 120 breeding the Hacienda El Molino, near the Cerro The Nicaragua and Costa Rica macaw macaw pairs (2008, p. 110). Chun notes Blanco Protected Forest; and two populations intermix; macaws have that even the forested areas identified as macaws were seen at Rio Canande been observed crossing the San Juan individual ‘‘patches’’ through a (Horstman 2011, p. 16). The Cordillera River, which separates Nicaragua and geographic information system (GIS) (mountain range) de Chongo´n-Colonche Costa Rica. As of 2006, in the Quezada, program do not necessarily represent is on the central pacific coast of Bijagua, Samaria, and La Juana areas of forest with continuous canopy Ecuador, located in the provinces of communities, five macaw nests had cover (indicating complex, fairly Guayas and Manabi. Some individual been located during surveying. undisturbed habitat that is likely to great green macaws have also been Recently, 35 active nests had been contain nutritional needs for this observed at Hacienda Gonzalez (40 km documented in the Indio-Maı´z species). Although these patches of or 25 mi) northwest of Guayaquil; Biological Reserve (Monge et al. 2010, forest are technically connected at some however, these individuals may be part p. 16). level, they are for the most part highly of the same population found in Cerro In 1999, Powell et al. estimated that porous and discontinuous, and no Blanco. In summary, the majority of the Nicaraguan great green macaw analysis was performed to filter out individuals are believed to be in population could be 10 times the size of stands that might be porous or Esmeraldas Province, and very small the population in Costa Rica. In 2008, a discontinuous. There are some areas in numbers remain in the Chongo´n- population viability analysis was its potential range that are above the Colonche mountain range, Guayas. conducted that indicated the size of the elevation threshold for almendro trees, great green macaw population in Honduras and do not meet the criteria for suitable Nicaragua was 661 individuals (Monge habitat. In 1983, the great green macaw was et al. 2010, p. 21). In 2009, a population common in lowland rain forests in the census was conducted, during which Ecuador Moskitia (Mosquitia) area and eastern 432 macaws were observed. The In Ecuador, there may be only Olancho (Marcus 1983, p. 623). The researchers suggest that the ‘‘average potentially one viable population. This region known as the Moskitia includes population’’ in Nicaragua is 532 (Monge population exists in the Cerro Blanco both eastern Honduras and northern et al. 2010, p. 13). This 2009 study Protected Forest, which is 6,070 ha Nicaragua. Historically, the species was yielded an estimated population of 871 (15,000 ac) outside of Guayaquil in reported to occur in the areas of individuals in Costa Rica and Nicaragua Guayas Province (Villate et al. 2008, Juticalpa and Catacamas in Olancho combined (Monge et al. 2010, p. 21). p. 19). This population is believed to be (Marcus 1983, p. 623). The species has approximately 10 individuals; an been observed daily in the Pla´tano River Panama estimate of 60 to 90 individuals in area in flocks of more than 10 In Panama, the great green macaw is Ecuador may be optimistic (Horstman individuals and almost daily in the believed to inhabit the following areas: pers comm. in Hardman 2010, p. 12). Patuca River area, usually in pairs Bocas del Toro, La Amistad, northern This is a decline from 1995, when the (Barborak 1997 in Snyder et al. 2000, Veraguas, Colon, San Blas, Darie´n, and population was estimated to be pp. 121–123). In August 1992, it was Veraguas South (Monge et al. 2009, approximately 100 birds in the recorded on the Patuca River at unpaginated). The species has been Esmeraldas Province (Waugh 1995, p. Pimienta upstream from Wampusirpe described as locally fairly common near 10). Between 1995 and 1998, some (Wiendenfeld in Monge et al. 2009, Cana, Alturas de Nique, in 2005 (Angehr

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in litt. 2005). As of 2009, the historical macaw are particularly subject to mi) while in search of food (Chosset et distribution in Panama was described as population size overestimation, because al. 2004, p. 35). not well known due to lack of they are unlikely to be randomly Diet information (Monge et al. 2009, p. 68). distributed within the habitat (Jetz et al. The most viable population is believed 2008, p. 116). Thus, additional surveys The great green macaw has been to be in Darie´n National Park, Panama, are needed and ground-truthing observed feeding on fruits of 37 tree which borders Colombia (Monge et al. (gathering data regarding where the species (Berg et al. 2007, p. 2; Chassot 2009, p. 68; Angehr in litt. 1996 in species is located) is essential to obtain et al. 2006, p. 35). While it is closely Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 121–123; Ridgley accurate population estimates for this associated with the almendro tree, its 1982). Researchers believe the Darie´n species. diet varies based on location. In area may contain the largest overall Ecuador, it was observed feeding on the Habitat and Life History population of the great green macaw. following tree species: Cordia However, there is little recent The great green macaw inhabits eriostigma (totumbo), Cynometra sp. information to confirm this (Monge et humid lowland foothills and deciduous (cocobolo), Ficus trigunata (matapalo), al. 2009, p. 68). Darie´n National Park is forests generally below 600 m (1,968 ft), Ficus sp. (higuero´n), Psidium the largest national park in Panama, and but also may occur between 1,000 and acutangulum (Guayaba de monte), one of the largest tropical forest 1,500 m (3,281 and 4,921 ft) depending Chrysophyllum caimito (caimito), and protected areas in Central America (TNC on suitable habitat, which is primarily (tillo blanco or pechiche) 2011, p. 1). The Darie´n region based on the presence of almendro (Berg et al. 2007, p. 2; Waugh 1995, p. encompasses nearly 809,371 ha (2 (Dipteryx panamensis) trees. The type of 7). In other parts of its range, it has also million acres) of protected areas, habitat preferred by the great green been observed feeding on Cavanillesia including Darie´n National Park and macaw is an ecosystem where the platanifolia (no common name [NCN]), Biosphere Reserve, Punta Patin˜ o Natural almendro tree and Pentacletra Cecropia litoralis (pumpwood or Reserve, Brage Biological Corridor, and macroloba (oil bean tree) dominate trumpet tree), Centrolobium ochroxylum two indigenous reserves (TNC 2011, p. (Chassot et al. 2006, p. 35). This species’ (amarillo de guayaquil), 1). La Amistad, an area which may have nests have been found in Cochlospermum vitifolium (buttercup a fairly viable population, connects nicaraguensis (caobilla), Enterolobium tree), ampla (sapucaia), suitable habitat in Panama such as Cerro schomburgkii (guanacaste blanco), Leucaena trichodes (NCN), Odroma Punta, Rio Pla´tano, and the Darie´n Goethalsia meiantha, copaifera pyramidalis (NCN), Pseudobombax region, and connects the remote hills of (cativo), and Vochysia ferruginea guayasen (NCN), Pseudobombax millei Bocas del Toro Province with habitat in (botarrama) trees (Chosset and Arias (beldaco), Rafia species (believed to be Costa Rica. La Amistad is approximately 2010, p. 14; Powell et al. 1999). Nests palms), Sloanea spp., Symphonia 200,000 ha (500,000 acres) in area. have been observed in large trees, with globulifera (NCN), and Terminalia cavities that are nearly 20 m (66 ft) valverdeae (guarapo) (Berg et al. 2007, Summary of Population Estimate above ground (Rodriguez-Mahecha p. 6). One preferred plant species, The global population of great green 2002, p. 119). Great green macaws have Cynometra bauhiniifolia (NCN), macaws is estimated to be fewer than been observed to use the same nesting produced more food than nine other 2,500 mature individuals, or no more cavity for many years if they are species (Berg et al. 2007, p. 1). In than 3,700 individuals (Monge et al. undisturbed, although they may another study, two of the most 2009, p. 213; Jahn in litt. 2005, 2007, alternate nest sites each year (Chun important sources of food for the great unpaginated). Based on the best 2008, p. 102). Reproductive capability is green macaw, in addition to the available information from experts, the generally reached between ages 5 and 6 almendro tree, were found to be total population is likely between 1,000 years (Chassot et al. 2004, p. 34). The Sacoglottis trichogyna (titor, rosita, or and 3,000 individuals (Botero- great green macaw mates for life, and manteco) and Vochysia ferruginea Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 91; Monge nests in deep cavities (usually of (NCN) (Herrero-Fernandez 2006, p. 9; et al. 2009, p. 213; Monge et al. 2009b, almendro trees) from December to June Chassot et al. 2006, p. 35). S. trichogyna p. 68). In Ecuador, the population is (Chassot et al. in Villate et al. 2008, p. fruits were observed to be its preferred estimated to be likely fewer than 80 19; Monge et al. 2002, p. 39). The food when D. panamensis was scarce or individuals (Horstman 2011, p. 17). In incubation time is 26 days and the unavailable in Costa Rica (Chassot et al. 2009, a census was conducted in Costa nesting period is 12 to 13 weeks 2004, p. 34). Rica and Nicaragua (Monge et al. 2010, (Rodriguez-Mahecha et al. 2002, p. 119). p. 13). A total of 173 individuals were After the breeding season, individuals Almendro Trees observed in the Costa Rican study area, disperse from the lowlands towards The great green macaw is closely and 432 individuals were observed in higher forests in the mountains in associated with almendro trees for the Nicaraguan study area during the search of food (Powell et al. 1999 in feeding and nesting in the majority of its breeding season (Monge et al. 2010, p. Chosset et al. 2004, p. 38). range (Chun 2008, p. iv; Chosset et al. 22), with the areas of Mo´nico, Romerito, The great green macaw has been 2004, p. 34). Because the great green and Bartola having the highest observed in flocks of up to 18 macaw is highly dependent on the estimated abundance at the time of each individuals, and has been observed almendro tree, we are describing census. The population of the great traveling long distances on the almendro tree habitat, its life history, green macaw for Costa Rica is currently Caribbean slope. Macaws are strong and factors that affect its habitat. The estimated to be approximately 302 fliers and are known to travel hundreds almendro tree (also known as the individuals, and the population for of kilometers (Chosset and Arias 2010, tropical almond or mountain almond Nicaragua is roughly estimated to be 532 p. 5; Chosett et al. 2004, p. 36). During tree) is a member of the pea family individuals (Monge et al. 2010, p. 22). a study in the late 1990s, macaws fitted (; Papilionoideae) and bears Horstman and Jahn both state that the with radio transmitters demonstrated compact, single-seeded drupes. The estimate for Ecuador may be optimistic that macaws migrate seasonally based seeds are encased in a thick woody (in litt.). Species with strict habitat on food availability, and were found to endocarp that has been observed to requirements such as the great green travel between 40 and 58 km (25 to 36 persist on the forest floor for up to 2

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years (Hanson 2006, p. 68). This tree parties in the control of trade.’’ For the to its open crown structure, almendro species is only located in southern export of specimens of an Appendix–III has a relatively translucent canopy that Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and species, the Management Authority in produces only moderate shade, which Colombia, where it grows primarily in the country of export needs to allows for the production of shade the lowlands of the Atlantic plains. determine that the specimens were not canopy crops such as and They require an annual rainfall of 3 to obtained in contravention of that cacao (Schmidt 2009, p. 19). These 5 m (approximately 10 to 16 ft) country’s laws. In addition to CITES almendro plantations are being (Schmidt 2009, p. 14) for optimal protections, a recent decision by the researched for several reasons, growth. A 2008 study reported that fourth Chamber of Costa Rica’s Supreme particularly due to the almendro tree’s nearly 90 percent of all great green Court in 2008 required the Ministry of ability to resist decay, its ability to macaw nests identified in northern Environment and Energy (MINAE, or capture carbon dioxide, and its role in Costa Rica are located within hollowed Ministerio de Ambiente y Energia) to the ecosystem (Schmidt 2009, p. 11). cavities of large almendro trees (Chun abstain from the use, exploitation, or Additionally, almendro trees have been 2008, p. 109). Additionally, almendro extraction of almendro trees (Chun identified as the most promising species trees were found to provide 80 to 90 2008, p. 113). for long-term carbon sink reforestation percent of both the macaw’s food and Recent research found that this tree projects in Costa Rica (Redondo-Brenes nesting needs. Great green macaw pairs species is much more restricted to 2007, p. 253; Redondo-Brenes and tend to select nesting trees that are lowland habitat than previously Montagnini 2006, p. 168). surrounded by relatively dense stands of described; it is predicted to occur In Ecuador, the great green macaw is reproducing almendro trees (Chun between 45 and 125 m (147 to 410 ft) not dependant on almendro trees, 2008). Almendro tree sustains the in elevation, in part based on its soil although the great green macaw still adults, chicks, nestlings, and fledglings requirements (Schmidt 2009, p. iv; inhabits humid lowland areas (Juniper over the course of the breeding and Chun 2008, p. 109). The almendro tree and Parr 1998, p. 424). In this habitat, development season, which coincides is best adapted to areas with high levels the great green macaw prefers Lecythis with the peak production of almendro of rainfall and acidic clay soils with ampla (salero) in the Esmeraldas fruit (November through March). good drainage below elevations of 500 rainforest, Cynometra bauhiniaefolia Likely pollinators of the almendro m (1,640 ft), such as the Atlantic (cocobolo) as a primary food source, and tree are bees within the genera Bombus, lowlands of Costa Rica (Schmidt 2009, pigio (Cavanillesia platanifolia) as a Centris, Melipona, Trigona, and p. iv). Almendro trees require at least nest tree (Horstman pers. comm. 2011). Epicharis (Thiele 2002 in Hanson 2006, 2000 millimeters (mm) (79 inches) of Conservation Status p. 3; Flores 1992, pp. 1–22; Perry et al. rainfall per year for optimal growth 1980, p. 310). These trees are referred to (Schmidt 2009, p. 69). There are various protections in place as ‘‘emergent’’ because they are the Great green macaw breeding pairs are for the great green macaw at the tallest trees in the forest. Almendro trees believed to require a home range of 550 international, national, and local levels. can grow to over 46 m (150 ft) and reach ha (1,359 ac) (Chun 2008, p. 105). At the international level, this species is a diameter of 1.5 m (4.92 ft). Three Because the great green macaw requires listed as endangered on the IUCN Red hundred-year-old trees have been such a large range and is strongly List due to continuous loss of habitat, documented, but research suggests that associated with almendro trees, range hunting, and poaching of this species the almendro tree has a maximum countries such as Nicaragua and Costa for the pet trade (IUCN 2011). IUCN’s potential age of 654 years (Fichtler et al. Rica have developed conservation plans Red List classifies species as endangered 2003 in Schmidt 2009, p. 15). for the almendro tree. Almendro trees (extinction probability of 20 percent Wood from the almendro tree is commonly occur at a density of less within 20 years) or critically endangered heavy, is commercially valuable, and than one adult tree per hectare (Hanson (extinction probability of 50 percent yields the highest prices on local et al. 2008 in Schmidt 2009, p. 14; within 10 years) based on several markets (Rodriguez and Chaves 2008, p. Hanson et al. 2006, p. 49). The highest criteria, including limited or declining 5). It is used for furniture, floorings, density recorded was 4 trees per hectare ranges or populations. However, the bridges, railroad ties, boats, marine (Chaverri and Lo´pez 1998). In one area status under IUCN conveys no actual construction, handicrafts, veneers, of Costa Rica that was surveyed for protections. This species is listed in industrial machinery, sporting almendro trees, of 140,178 ha (56,728 Appendix I of CITES. Appendix I equipment, springboards, and ac) surveyed, 20 percent exhibited includes species threatened with agricultural tool handles (Schmidt 2009, densities of 0.50 almendro trees per extinction that are or may be affected by p. 16). Almendro outsells every other hectare or more, and 50 percent had international trade, and are generally tree species on the Costa Rican timber densities of 0.20 trees per ha or more prohibited from commercial trade. Refer market (Grethel and Norman 2009 in (Chun 2008, p. 103). to the discussion above for the military Schmidt 2009, p. 77; Rodriguez and Due to their important role in the macaw for additional information about Chaves 2008, p. 5). It was listed in ecosystem, particularly with respect to CITES. The great green macaw’s Appendix III of CITES in Costa Rica in the great green macaw, conservation conservation status in each country is 2003, and in Nicaragua in 2007 efforts have focused on the almendro discussed below and in more detail (http://www.cites.org). A species is tree. These trees not only provide under Factor D. unilaterally listed in Appendix III by a habitat to many wildlife species such as country in the native range of that the great green macaw, but they also Colombia species, at the request of that country. play a significant role in the ecosystem. The great green macaw is listed as Article II, paragraph 3, of CITES states One conservation strategy for the great Vulnerable on Colombia’s Red List that ‘‘Appendix III shall include all green macaw is to protect 30,159 ha (Renjifo et al. 2002, p. 524). It has species which any Party identifies as (74,493 acres) of primary, secondary, protected status in Los Katı´os National being subject to regulation within its and mangrove forest that remains in this Park, Utrı´a National Park, Paramillo jurisdiction for the purpose of species’ nesting habitat. Another National Park, and preventing or restricting exploitation, conservation strategy has been to National Natural Park (Rodriguez et al. and as needing the cooperation of other establish almendro tree plantations. Due 2002, pp. 120–121). The largest

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population of the great green macaw is containing key conservation sites for the ecotourism sites which can increase believed to exist in the Darie´n Endemic great green macaw, the corridor conservation efforts in the areas. For Bird Area (EBA) 023, which connects the vast expanse that includes additional information on IBAs, see the encompasses southern Panama´ and Punta Gorda Natural Reserve, Cerro discussion above for the military northwestern Colombia. However, there Silva Natural Reserve, and Fortaleza macaw. are no reliable population estimates for Inmaculada Concepcio´n de Marı´a Nicaragua this area (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez Historic Monument (Chassot et al. 2006, 2011, p. 91; Jahn in litt. 2004). Colombia p. 85). The corridor also provides Nicaragua follows the IUCN developed a National Action Plan for connections among unprotected forest categorization for this species (Castellon the Conservation of Threatened Parrots patches in Costa Rica in addition to 2008, pp. 13, 19; Lezama-Lo´pez 2006, p. (Plan Nacional de Accio´n para la providing connections to protected 90). The great green macaw exists in the Conservacio´n de los Loros areas. Many of these areas may not be Indio-Maı´z Biological Reserve, which Amenazados), and it was in effect until pristine habitat; some areas are either has had protected status since 1990, 2007. The ProAves Foundation, an NGO inhabited by humans or used by local although threats to the species still exist in Colombia, has been active in parrot communities to extract resources. in this Reserve (Herrera 2004, pp. 5–6). conservation since 2005. Other than However, there are conservation Nicaragua is also participating in the bi- NGO involvement, it is unclear what awareness programs in place throughout national conservation strategy for this proactive, effective protections are in the corridor, and the great green macaw species (Monge et al. 2009, pp. 11, 16). place for this species. is being intensely managed and Panama monitored in the San Juan-La Selva Costa Rica Biological Corridor. There is little information available The great green macaw is considered regarding the status of this species in to be endangered in Costa Rica (Monge Ecuador Panama (Monge et al. 2009, p. 67); et al. 2010; Herrero 2006, p. 6; Executive This species is categorized as however, Panama follows the IUCN Order No. 26435–MINAE). Several critically endangered in Ecuador categorization for this species (Devenish intense conservation initiatives are (Monge et al. 2009, p. 256), primarily et al. 2009, p. 294). The great green underway for this species in Costa Rica. due to deforestation and hunting macaw is believed to be in Darie´n In 2001, a committee was formed to pressures. In Ecuador, the only National Park (Monge et al. 2009, p. 68). investigate a corridor for the potentially viable population is believed Panama’s wildlife law of 1995, Law No. conservation of this species’ habitat. As to exist in the Cerro Blanco Protected 24, establishes the standards for wildlife a result, the San Juan-La Selva Forest, which is 6,070 ha (15,000 ac) in conservation. Biological Corridor was formed to size. The Guayaquil subspecies of the NGO Involvement connect the Indio Maı´z Biological great green macaw (Ara a. Reserve in southeastern Nicaragua with guyaquilensis) is thought to be in There are many nongovernmental the Central Volcanic Cordillera Range in imminent danger of extinction (Berg organization (NGO), private, and Costa Rica. This links Costa Rica’s La 2007, p. 1). In 2008, the National government efforts to protect this Selva Biological Station in the north to Preservation Strategy for the Great species, although not all of the projects the Barra del Colorado Wildlife Reserve Green Macaw in Ecuador was described and NGOs are identified in this and National Park and Protective Zone at the Great Green Macaw Population document. NGOs have conducted of Tortuguero on Costa Rica’s Caribbean Viability Assessment and Habitat collaborative efforts, such as training coast. In addition, the conservation team Conservation Workshop held in Costa workshops, that are community-focused lobbied for the establishment of the Rica; however, funding is still lacking and aimed at the conservation of Maquenque National to for many of the initiatives in Ecuador habitat. In Nicaragua, Fundacio´n protect the macaw’s breeding habitat that have been prescribed as necessary Cocibolca is active in this species’ (Hardman 2010, p. 10; Chun 2008, p. for the conservation of this species. conservation. The NGO first signed an 98). This corridor makes up a part of the agreement with Nicaragua’s Natural Honduras larger MesoAmerican Biological Resources Ministry (MARENA) in 1996, Corridor, which has been proposed to The great green macaw is categorized at which time the conservation group connect protected habitat from the as endangered in Honduras (List of was the first NGO to have been granted Yucatan Region in southern Mexico and Wildlife Species of Special Concern, responsibility to manage a national to the Darie´n National Park in Resolution No. Gg–003–98 APVS). In protected area in Nicaragua (http:// Panama (http:// 1990, the government of Honduras www.marena.gob.ni; accessed www.greatgreenmacaw.org/ prohibited the capture and sale of November 9, 2011; http:// BiologicalCorridor.htm, accessed wildlife, including the great green www.planeta.com, accessed November October 25, 2011). macaw in Honduras. Currently, this 9, 2011). The Nicaraguan conservation The San Juan-La Selva bi-national species exists in the Rio Pla´tano organization, Fundacio´n del Rio, works corridor links existing protected wild Biosphere Reserve (which consists of in the buffer zone of the Indio-Maı´z areas. There is also an extended part to 800,000 ha or 1,976,843 ac). The official Biological Reserve, which borders the the northwest that includes the El designation of the Biosphere as a reserve San Juan River (Villate 2008, p. 39). In Castillo area. The goal of this initiative is to protect and conserve biodiversity; 1999, this NGO began an environmental is to provide linkages to 29 protected however, this designation has not halted education program in this buffer zone to areas involving 1,311,182 ha (3,240,001 deforestation within the protected area promote awareness of the great green ac) (Chassot et al. 2006, p. 85). Because (UNESCO 2011, p. 1; ParksWatch 2011; macaw and its habitat. In another area, macaws are known to move hundreds of Wade 2007, p. 65). Additionally, as of as a result of conservation efforts, the kilometers (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 2009, there were 23 areas in Honduras local government of declared 5), these linkages should allow for this identified as Important Bird Areas this species the official municipal bird, species to better access different habitats (IBAs) (Devenish et al. 2009, p. 1) that and the city established sanctions to so that it is able to meet its nutritional may provide additional protections to those intending to harm this species and nesting requirements. In addition to this species in part by serving as (Chassot et al. 2008, p. 23).

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Since 2001, Fundacio´n del Rı´o and Ministry of Agriculture. Its mission is to in a way that causes actual impacts to the Tropical Science Center in Costa protect areas with an emphasis in the species. If there is exposure to a Rica have coordinated a binational reforestation, agroforestry, investigation, factor and the species responds campaign focused on promoting the environmental education, ecotourism negatively, the factor may be a threat, awareness of the ecology of the great programs, all in order to support the and, during the status review, we green macaw in the lowlands of the San conservation of biodiversity. attempt to determine how significant a Juan River area (Chassot et al. 2009, p. In Panama, the Asociacio´n Nacional threat it is. The identification of factors 9). Between 2002 and 2005, at least 11 para la Conservacio´n de la Naturaleza that could impact a species negatively workshops on great green macaw (ANCON) began conservation work in may not be sufficient to compel a biology and preservation were held 1991. The project has jointly worked on finding that the species warrants listing. within communities of the buffer zone conservation efforts with Panama’s The information must include evidence of Indio-Maiz Biological Reserve in Instituto Nacional de Recursos sufficient to suggest that these factors, Costa Rica (Chassot et al. 2006, p. 86). Naturales Renovables (INRENARE). singly or in combination, are operative Some examples of projects initiated by ANCON has worked on training park threats that act on the species to the NGOs include installation of nest boxes rangers, marking and patrolling paths point that the species may meet the to increase nest availability and and park boundaries, acquiring property definition of endangered or threatened community heritage festivals that are around parks and tree nurseries, and under the ESA. focused on the great green macaw. Some improving agricultural techniques (TNC This status review focuses primarily NGOs are providing training to local 2011, p. 2). on where this species has been communities to monitor populations, Additionally, members from several documented, which is generally in and some researchers are studying this NGOs participated in the great green parks and other areas with protected species via satellite transmitters to macaw conservation workshop held in status and the peripheral zones. In some determine the species’ home range and the 2008. The purpose of the workshop cases, we will evaluate the factor by specific habitat used (Chosset et al. was to bring together experts, to country. In other cases, we may evaluate 2004, p. 35). In Costa Rica and determine the priorities for the the factor by a broader region or context, Nicaragua, 20 communities are conservation of the species, and to for example, if we do not have adequate participating in monitoring and develop a plan for its conservation information specific to a particular protection activities of the great green (Monge et al. 2009, entire). We country about this species. This is macaw (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 3). acknowledge the substantial effort because often threats are the same or The primary objectives of the campaign underway by various NGOs in the range very similar throughout the species’ have been to improve awareness by countries of this species to protect it and range. If we do not have information conducting workshops on the its habitat. Despite many efforts in about the species in a particular area, importance, threats, and conservation of place, the populations of the great green we will state this and request the great green macaw and its habitat; to macaw continue to face many threats to information during this proposed rule’s strengthen natural resources its habitat. comment period (see DATES, above). management by environmental Evaluation of Threat Factors A. The Present or Threatened authorities of both Nicaragua and Costa Destruction, Modification, or Rica, focusing on the local and Introduction Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range international biological corridors; and to organize joint activities (Chassot et al. Section 4 of the ESA (16 U.S.C. 1533) Throughout the range of this species, 2006, p. 83). and implementing regulations (50 CFR the factors impacting the great green In Colombia, the NGO, ProAves, has 424) set forth procedures for adding macaw are generally very similar. The made great progress in forming species to, removing species from, or main factors affecting this species are partnerships at the local, regional, and reclassifying species on the Federal List habitat loss and degradation, and international levels to carry out bird of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife poaching (McGinley et al. 2009, p. 11; conservation initiatives (Chassot et al. and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the Berg et al. 2007; Chassot et al. 2006; 2008, p. 23; Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, p. ESA, a species may be determined to be Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, p. 16; Guedes 18). Additionally, reforestation efforts endangered or threatened based on any 2004, p. 280). Both Central and South have occurred (Monge et al. 2009, p. of the following five factors: America continue to experience high 263). These efforts have focused (1) The present or threatened levels of deforestation (FAO 2010, p. primarily within the reserves of the destruction, modification, or xvi). Habitat loss is primarily due to Colombian Civil Society Association curtailment of its habitat or range; conversion of the species’ habitat Network (Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, p. (2) Overutilization for commercial, (generally forests) to agriculture and 17). Conservation efforts and these recreational, scientific, or educational other forms that are not optimal for this workshops have been important because purposes; species (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 3; they have trained the community in (3) Disease or predation; Monge et al. 2009, entire). sustainable development by linking (4) The inadequacy of existing Almendro habitat, this species’ local agricultural activities to the regulatory mechanisms; and primary food and nesting source, has protection of natural resources (5) Other natural or manmade factors declined significantly (Schmidt 2009, p. (Quevado-Gill et al. 2006, p. 17). affecting its continued existence. 16), particularly since the 1980s. Three NGOs are active in the In making this finding, information Almendro and other tree species used conservation of this species in Ecuador: pertaining to the great green macaw in by the great green macaw have been Pro-Forest Foundation in Guayas relation to the five factors in section selectively cut down and removed from Province, Fundacio´n Natura, and the 4(a)(1) of the ESA is discussed below. In this species’ habitat. Selective logging is Jocotoco Foundation at the Rio Canande considering what factors might the practice of removing one or two Reserve in Esmeraldas Province. The constitute threats to a species, we must generally large, mature trees and leaving Pro-Forest Foundation (Fundacio´n look beyond the exposure of the species the rest. Throughout the range of the ProBosque) was created in 1992, to a particular factor to evaluate whether great green macaw, its habitat has through a decree of the Ecuadorian the species may respond to that factor declined primarily due to competition

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for resources and human encroachment selectively logged. Concern for this tree Colombia (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez (Guedes 2004, p. 279; Rodrı´guez- species was significant enough that the 2011, pp. 86, 90; Monge et al. 2009; Jahn Mahecha and Herna´ndez-Camacho species was added to CITES Appendix in litt. 2004). A large population is 2002; Chassot and Monge 2002 in III in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Listing believed to exist in Los Katı´os National Rothman 2008, p. 509). Its habitat has species in Appendix III enhances Park, which borders the swampy and continuously been clear-cut and conservation measures enacted for the sparsely-populated Darie´n region in converted to agriculture or human species by regulating international trade Panama; however there are no recent establishments, which is discussed in in the species, particularly by reported observations of the species in more detail below. preventing trade in illegally acquired this area. Population surveys need to be specimens. In general, shipments conducted (Botero-Delgadillo et al. Logging containing CITES-listed species receive 2011, pp. 88, 90; Monge et al. 2009). At Tree species used by macaws tend to greater scrutiny from border officials in least 40 percent of the great green be large, mature trees with large nesting both the exporting and importing macaw’s original distribution area in cavities. The practice of selective countries. The elimination of almendro northwestern Colombia was deforested logging can severely impact macaws trees is possibly the most severe threat by 1997 (Etter 1998 in Jahn in litt. 2004). because this practice often targets the for the species in its range countries Threats to this species in Colombia have old, large trees that the macaws depend with the exception of Ecuador, where been identified as: Agriculture upon for nesting. In selective logging, the decrease in availability of other tree (particularly illegal coca cultivation); the most valuable trees from a forest are species used by the great green macaw agroindustrial farms; large forest commercially extracted (Asner et al. is a concern. plantings of exotic trees; wood 2005, p. 480; Johns 1988, p. 31), and the Unsustainable logging practices that extraction; development of forest is left to regenerate naturally or destroy the forest canopy also reduce infrastructure; and hunting, capturing, with some management until being habitat available to the great green harvesting of this species (Botero- subsequently logged again. Johns (1988, macaw. The great green macaw’s Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, pp. 91–92). p. 31), looking at a West Malaysian primary nesting habitat, the almendro Threats specific to Los Katı´os National dipterocarp forest, found that tree, is slow growing and may take Park are illegal deforestation and mechanized selective logging in tropical centuries to reach sufficient size to hunting (UNEP–WCMC 2009, p. 1). In , which usually removes a harbor cavities (Schmidt 2009, p. 15). 2009, the threats in this park were so small percentage of timber trees, causes Although the nest cavities that the severe that the park was added to severe incidental damage. He found that macaws prefer (deep and dry) may take UNESCO’s List of World Heritage Sites the extraction of 3.3 percent of trees 10 to 20 years to form, these nests can in Danger (http://whc.unesco.org/en/ destroyed 50.9 percent of the forest. last for several decades (Chun 2008, p. list/711, accessed January 17, 2012). Timber companies operating under a 101). Not only have amounts of selective logging system can cause available suitable habitat decreased, but Deforestation considerable damage to the surrounding the spatial distribution of its habitat has Colombia has experienced extensive forest, both to trees and soil. Selective also changed, making foraging more deforestation in the last half of the 20th logging can cause widespread collateral difficult and requiring more energy century as a result of habitat conversion damage to remaining trees, subcanopy expended. Even in undisturbed forests, for human settlements, road building, vegetation, and soil, and the practice suitable tree cavities are usually limited. agriculture, and timber extraction (FAO impacts hydrological processes, erosion, As a result, each loss of a nest site can 2010, p. 233; Armenteras et al. 2006, p. fire, carbon storage, and plant and represent the loss of potentially many 354). A 23-year study, conducted from animal species (Chomitz et al. 2007, pp. future chicks that could have been 1973 to 1996, found that these activities 117, 119; Asner et al. 2005, p. 480). raised in each tree cavity. reduced the amount of primary forest Forests that were selectively logged 15 cover in Colombia by approximately years before exhibited an open structure Agriculture 3,605 ha (8,908 ac) annually, with skeletons of incidentally killed Habitat degradation, particularly due representing a nearly one-third total loss trees, serious gulley erosion, and to conversion of forest habitat to of primary forest habitat (Vin˜ a et al. vegetation on waterlogged sites that had agriculture or plantations, is a major 2004, pp. 123–124). More than 70 been compacted by heavy vehicles factor affecting great green macaws. The percent of rural land of Colombia (Edwards 1993, p. 9). Because selective clearing of forests and buffer zones for located in former forestlands is now logging targets large, mature trees, this the development of plantations for devoted to cattle grazing (Etter and practice can have a disproportionate , oil palms, cacao, coffee, McAlpine 2007, pp. 89–92). Beginning impact on hole-nesters, such as macaws. soybeans, and rice destroys great green in the 1980s, habitat loss increased Additionally, the availability of food macaw nesting sites and exposes chicks dramatically as a result of influxes of sources for frugivores (fruit-eaters, such to poaching for the pet trade (Botero et people settling in formerly pristine areas as the great green macaw) is reduced al. 2011, p. 92; Monge et al. 2009, pp. (Perz et al. 2005, pp. 26–28; Vin˜ a et al. because the trees that contain 26, 29, 43, 54; Waugh 1995, p. 2). By 2004, p. 124). More recent studies nutritional sources are no longer there. 2005, the world’s tropical forests biome indicate that the rate of habitat Selective logging is particularly had decreased to less than 50 percent destruction is accelerating (FAO 2010, devastating in the case of the great green tree cover (Donald et al. 2010, p. 26), in p. xvi). Between the years 1990 and macaw, as the species is closely part due to the above activities. Tropical 2005, Colombia lost approximately associated with the almendro tree, forest fragmentation due to these 52,800 ha (130,471 ac) of primary forest which it needs for both food and shelter. activities continues to be a concern. A annually (Butler 2006a, pp. 1–3). The almendro tree’s wood is of great discussion of habitat loss and Primary forest habitats such as those commercial value due to its strength degradation for each country follows. used by the great green macaw and durability for flooring, roofing, and throughout Colombia have undergone irrigation systems (Madriz-Vargas 2004, Colombia extensive deforestation. Vin˜ a et al. p. 8). Because this tree species is quite Very little information is available (2004, pp. 123–124) used satellite high in commercial value, it has been about the great green macaw’s status in imagery to analyze deforestation rates

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and patterns along the Colombian- provides the main ingredient of cocaine. 2005, p. 2042; Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez Ecuadorian Border (in the Departments Between 1998 and 2002, cultivation of Becerra 2004, p. 355; Oldham and of Putumayo and Sucumbios, illicit crops increased by 21 percent Massey 2002, pp. 9–12; A´ lvarez 2002, respectively) and found that between each year, with a parallel increase in pp. 1,088–1,093). 1973 and 1996 a total of 829 km2 (320 deforestation of formerly pristine areas The ecological impacts of coca mi2) of tropical forests within the study of approximately 60 percent (A´ lvarez production are significant. Farmers clear area were converted to other uses. This 2002, pp. 1,088–1,093). Much of forest to plant coca seedlings. Not only corresponds to a nearly one-third total Colombia’s coca is grown by farmers does each acre of crop production result loss of primary forest habitat, or a nearly because it generates more income than in the clearing of roughly 1.6 ha (4 ac) 2 percent mean annual rate of any other crop (Butler 2006, pp. 1–2). of forest, this practice also results in deforestation within the study area. Illegal drug crops are cultivated within secondary effects such as the pollution Habitat loss and degradation, including the great green macaw’s range (BLI of land and local waterways with the conversion of this species’ habitat to 2011, pp. 1–2). Large-scale coca chemicals used to process coca leaves, other forms of use such as agriculture, production has moved into the including kerosene, sulfuric acid, plantations, or harvesting of this extensive rainforests of the Choco´ state, acetone, and carbide (Butler 2006, pp. species’ plant food sources, continue to which is considered to be a biodiversity 1–2). occur and affect the quality of this hotspot in northwest Colombia, in the Costa Rica species’ habitat. range of the great green macaw. In addition to the direct detrimental A 1990 United Nations study Most of the research on this species effect of habitat loss, there are several estimated that coca growers can make has been conducted in Costa Rica, indirect effects of habitat disturbance about $4,000 U.S. dollars per hectare where a very small population of this and fragmentation, such as road (Tammen 1991, p. 12 in Page 2003, pp. species remains. Despite Costa Rica’s building (Brooks and Strahl 2000, p. 10). 15–16). A farmer can only earn about progress in conservation of this species, Roads increase human access into $600 per hectare growing an alternative the historical breeding area for this habitat, facilitating further exploitation, crop such as coffee, which is the most species in Costa Rica has been reduced erosion, and habitat destruction often-cited potential substitute crop for by 90 percent (Villate et al. 2008, p. 19; (Chomitz et al. 2007, p. 88; Hunter 1996, coca (Page 2003, pp. 15–16). Page notes Chosset et al. 2004, p. 38). In 2004, pp. 158–159). Research has documented that production of coffee and tea approximately 30 reproductive pairs that road building and other requires 3 to 4 years from planting to remained in the wild in Costa Rica infrastructure developments in areas first harvest and then can only be (Madriz-Vargas 2004, p. 4). Up until the that were previously remote forested harvested once per year, while coca can 1960s, Costa Rica’s human population areas have increased accessibility and be harvested 8 months after it is planted was growing by approximately 4 percent facilitated further habitat destruction and can be harvested every 90 days annually (World Bank 2011, and human settlement (Etter et al. 2006, thereafter. The coca bushes themselves unpaginated; Chun 2008, p. 6). Logging p. 1; A´ lvarez 2005, p. 2,042; Ca´rdenas do not require much care, and can be in the 1960s and 1970s decimated this and Rodrı´guez-Becerra 2004, pp. 125– cultivated on plots of land that are species’ habitat (Hardman 2010, p. 8). In 130; Vin˜ a et al. 2004, pp. 118–119; much smaller than those required for the 1980s, the area near Puerto Viejo de Hunter 1996, 158–159). A study crops other than coca (Tammen 1991, p. Sarapiqui experienced severe conducted on the effects of habitat 6 in Page 2003, p. 16). Finally, not only deforestation and conversion to fragmentation on Andean birds within do coca crops displace native habitat and pineapple plantations. By 1996, western Colombia determined that 31 and species assemblages that are 52,000 ha (128,495 ac) of lowland forest percent of the historical bird important for the great green macaw, but had been converted to banana populations in western Colombia had they also deplete the soil of nutrients, plantations (Brewster 2009, p. 8). The become extinct or locally extirpated by which hampers regeneration following loss of forested area in the north has 1990, primarily as a result of habitat abandonment of fields (Van Schoik and primarily been due to the production of fragmentation from deforestation and Schulberg 1993, p. 21). livestock, forestry products, sugar cane, human encroachment (Kattan and Drug eradication efforts in Colombia and (in more recent years) pineapple A´ lvarez-Lopez 1996, p. 5; Kattan et al. have further degraded and destroyed (Villate et al. 2008, p. 15). 1994, p. 141). Greater exposure of soil primary forest habitat by using In the mid-1980s, policies changed to direct sunlight leads to factors such nonspecific aerial herbicides to destroy from granting incentives for livestock as drier soils and also creates a different illegal crops (BLI 2007d, p. 3; A´ lvarez and cattle ranching to reforestation for growing environment. For example, the 2005, p. 2,042; Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez forest management. However, these creation of roads changes the habitat by Becerra 2004, p. 355; Oldham and incentives led initially to the clearing altering the distance of nesting and Massey 2002, pp. 9–12). For example, in forests for conversion to exotic species feeding habitat to the forest ‘‘edge,’’ 2006, eradication efforts were plantations. As a result, forestry in Costa increasing the amount of light exposure, undertaken on over 2,130 km2 (822 mi2) Rica (and Panama) has been dominated and creating stress on (breeding) of land, which included spraying of by the use of exotic species such as individuals in part due to noise and 1,720 km2 (664 mi2) and manual Tectona grandis (teak) or Gmelina visual stimuli (Benı´tez-Lo´pez et al. eradication on the remaining land. arborea (melina) (Schmidt 2009, p. 10). 2010, p. 1,308). These eradication efforts occurred over This trend changed in 1986, with the an area 2.7 times greater than the net Forestry Act 7472. In the 1990s, the Coca Cultivation cultivation area (UNODC et al. 2007, p. focus changed, and the government Ongoing coca cultivation has had a 8). Herbicide spraying has introduced began to create incentives for small farm significant impact on forest cover in harmful chemicals into great green owners to establish and maintain native Colombia (Armenteras et al. 2006, p. macaw habitat and has led to further tree species plantations (Piotto et al. 355; Fjeldsa˚ et al. 2005, p. 205; Page destruction of the habitat by forcing 2003, p. 427). By 1992, a project was 2003, p. 2; A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 1,088– growers to move to new, previously implemented to improve the use of 1,093). Colombia is one of the leading untouched forested areas (A´ lvarez 2007, forested areas; however, it estimated producers of coca, the plant species that pp. 133–143; BLI 2007d, p. 3; A´ lvarez that by that time only 5 percent of

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original forest area remained intact nesting trees had protection agreements nesting area of the great green macaw, (Chassot et al. 2001 in Villate et al. (Brewster 2009, p. 10). Still, habitat it is only about 10 km (3 mi) southeast 2008, p. 15). Reforestation projects degradation continues to impact the of the historical distribution of the began initially through an agreement great green macaw (Villate et al. 2008, species. The mining activities are likely between Costa Rica and Germany. The p. 14), and even trees that are to affect the current population of the program was implemented by the designated as protected are either cut great green macaw by impacting its Agribusiness Association and Forestry down or targeted for poaching (Chun habitat as well as ongoing conservation Producers (APAIFO) and the 2008). Logging still occurs in the efforts. The project lies within a Cooperation for Forestry Development remnant forests of both the northern geographical area that is of critical San Carlos (CODEFORSA). zone of Costa Rica and southeast importance to the conservation of this In Costa Rica’s border zone with Nicaragua (Chassot and Arias 2011, p. 1; species. Additionally, the removal of Nicaragua, Landsat TM satellite images Monge et al. 2009, pp. 128–129). more primary forest cover would further from 1987, 1998, and 2005 showed a Logging, while it may be illegal, has also reduce the ability to maintain fragmented landscape with remnants of been documented in the buffer zone of connectivity along the San Juan-La natural ecosystems, which has the Indio-Maı´z Biological Reserve Selva Biological Corridor, which implications for the conservation of this (Monge et al. 2006, p. 10). The buffer continues to be subjected to species. The images identified several zone is within the breeding range of the fragmentation (Villate 2008, p. 58). As of classes of cover and land use (natural great green macaw and likely affects the November 2010, a court ruled that the forest, secondary forest, water, species’ viability. Additionally, both open-pit gold mine was improperly agriculture and pasture, banana and primary and regrowth forest in the San permitted (http:// pineapple plantations, and bare ground) Juan-La Selva Biological Corridor centralamericadata.biz/en/article/ (Chassot et al. 2009, pp. 8–9). These continue to be threatened by timber home/Crucitas_Mining_ researchers noted that the annual rate of extraction and agricultural expansion Concession_Cancellation_Confirmed, deforestation was 0.88 percent for the (Chassot and Arias 2011, p. 1; Monge et accessed January 12, 2012). However, 1987–1998 period, and 0.73 percent for al. 2009, pp. 128–129). prior to the court ruling, 121 ha (300 ac) the 1998–2005 period, even considering Mining of primary forest had already been recovery of secondary forest. The cleared (http:// researchers also noted that in the area A gold mining project may also affect www.santuariolapas.com/ studied, deforestation rates were higher conservation efforts for the great green profile_003.html, accessed December 14, macaw in Costa Rica. In 2001, the than national averages for the same time 2011). The ultimate impacts and Ministerio del Medio Ambiente y span (Chassot et al. 2009, p. 9). outcome of the mining project are Energı´a (MINAE) granted the mining In the 1990s, plans to form the San unclear; however, the species is and Juan-La Selva Biological Corridor began concession (Resolution R–578–2001— will continue to be impacted by in response to the significant decrease MINAE) in San Carlos to clear nearly pressures for resources that affect its in habitat available to the great green 202 ha (500 ac) of old-growth rainforest habitat. macaw and its decline in population for the project (Villate 2009, p. 57; numbers. In 1993 and 1994, about 1,000 http://www.infinito.co.cr and http:// Ecuador km2 (386 mi2) were identified as www.nacla.org, both accessed important nesting areas for this species November 15, 2011). The Crucitas Although the population of great in Costa Rica. In 2002, the San Juan-La mining project is located in the green macaw is reported to be stable and Selva Biological Corridor, an area of Northwest Corridor of San Juan-La slowly increasing in the Cerro Blanco 60,000 hectares (148,263 ac), was Selva, a few miles from the San Juan Protected Forest, it is an extremely established to protect the nesting sites river (which separates Costa Rica from small population (Monge et al. 2009, p. and migration flyway of the great green Nicaragua). The Crucitas area is part of 256). There are likely fewer than 100 macaw in Costa Rica, up to the a major zone for bird conservation individuals remaining in Ecuador. In Nicaragua border (Guedes 2004, p. 280). initiatives, partly implemented by BLI, this part of its range, three tree species Although this corridor is in place, that includes both the Water and Peace are noted as crucial for the survival of recent reports indicate that habitat Biosphere Reserve and the San Juan-La the species: (salero) and degradation and other factors continue Selva Biological Corridor (Chassot et al. Cynometra bauhiniaefolia (cocobolo) as to affect the great green macaw (Monge 2009, p. 9), including the El Castillo primary food sources, and Cavanillesia et al. 2009, p. 121). extension. It is reported that 72 percent platanifolia (pigio) as a nest tree To its credit, Costa Rica was the only of the area that had been proposed for (Horstman 2011, p. 17). Logging, country in Central America that had a implementation of the project is forested poaching, and illegal land settlements positive overall increase in forest area and contains almendro tree (and continue to occur in the great green during the period 2000–2005 (FAO consequently great green macaw) macaw’s range and are threats to the 2010, p. 19; FAO 2007). Intense efforts habitat. The company proposed to clear population in Ecuador, particularly in are underway in Costa Rica to conserve cut the area in order to establish the the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest ( and recover this species, in part by open pit mine. http://www.worldlandtrust-us.org, addressing habitat degradation. In some In adjacent Nicaragua, the area of unpaginated; World Wildlife Fund areas, the commercial use of the influence of the mining project is also 2011, p. 5; Horstman 2011, p. 12). almendro tree is now being replaced by part of the buffer zone of the two Between 1960 and 1980, the human synthetic material due to conservation reserves: San Juan River Biosphere population in Ecuador grew from 4 to efforts focused on the great green Reserve and the Indio-Maı´z Biological 10.2 million, which resulted in more macaw. In some areas, landowners are Reserve. These areas contain features of than 90 percent of Pacific lowland and being paid to protect and ‘‘adopt’’ and species compositions foothill forest below 900 m (2,953 ft) almendro trees, and several ecotourism that are unique (Sistema Nacional de being converted to agriculture (Dodson projects have developed using these A´ reas de Conservacio´n (SINAC) 2007 in and Gentry 1991, p. 279). Much of the trees and the macaws as part of the Villate et al. 2008, p. 58). Although species’ habitat was converted to ecotourism attraction. As of 2009, 12 Crucitas is not part of the current plantations of bananas, oil palms, cacao,

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coffee, soybeans, and rice (ELAW 2005, Another threat to the macaw’s area for its resources continue (TNC p. 1; Dodson and Gentry 1991, p. 279). population in this reserve is the rapid 2011, unpaginated). In 2011, the Rı´o In 2002, the Government of Ecuador expansion of the city of Guayaquil. Pla´tano Biosphere Reserve was added to authorized the conversion of 50,000 ha Squatter settlements develop on the the list of World Heritage Sites in (123,553 ac) of tropical forest in the city’s outskirts and encroach the forest danger due to encroachment (UNEP– Choco region of western Ecuador into (Fundacion ProBosque undated, p. 3). WCMC 2011, p. 1). oil palm plantations (ELAW 2005, pp. Illegal settlements are a problem, and In the Rı´o Pla´tano Biosphere Reserve 1–2). As of 2005, 374 ha (924 ac) of squatter communities have attempted to of Honduras, the unregulated extraction native forests were being cut daily take over property within Cerro Blanco. of timber and mass production of (Horstman 2005, p. 8). Clearing forests The local NGO conducts educational bananas has caused an alarming decline for this monoculture crop has awareness programs to mitigate these of great green macaw populations threatened thousands of endemic activities. An example of awareness (Devenish et al. 2009, p. 256). The species and introduced dangerous campaign activities is educating the deforestation in Honduras is occurring pesticides to local ecosystems (Ca´rdenas local communities about the effect on as a result of an increase in the human 2007, p. 43). For example, in Esmeraldas their water supply when they destroy population, which requires clearing Province, pesticides are used forested areas (Horstman pers. comm. in areas for home development as well as intensively in a 36,000-ha (88,958-ac) Hardman 2010, p. 13). However, wood products (Devenish et al. 2009, p. area of oil palm plantations (ELAW pressures to this species’ habitat 256). The annual human population 2005, pp. 1–2). Local villages cite continue to impact the species. growth rate as of 2011 was estimated to problems from the pesticides and be 1.09 percent (U.S. Department of effluents from the processing plants. Honduras State 2011, unpaginated). Palacios and Logging, poaching, and illegal land In Honduras, threats have included Brus Laguna, towns on the coast settlement are occurring in the Cerro illegal trafficking of this species and approximately 5 km (3.1 mi) from the Blanco Protected Forest, Ecuador deforestation due to agriculture, cattle park on either side of the reserve, are (ProForest Foundation (Fundacion grazing, and logging (Devenish et al. likely contributing to the pressures such ProBosque), undated, p. 3). The Food 2009, p. 256). The threat of deforestation as agriculture and logging that are and Agriculture Organization of the is particularly important because a occurring illegally in the reserve. United Nations (FAO) reported in 2010 recent study found that 87 percent of that in Ecuador, ‘‘planted forests are Honduras is only suitable for forest Nicaragua predominantly composed of introduced (Larios and Coronado 2006, p. 13) due In Nicaragua, great green macaws face species,’’ such as rubber plantations and to its generally mountainous terrain. reductions in populations due to illegal other nonnative species (FAO 2010, p. There is very little information available extraction of timber and agricultural 93), which do not provide appropriate on the status of this species in expansion (McGinley et al. 2009, pp. 13, habitat and nutritional needs for the Honduras, particularly scientific 33, 35; Jeffrey 2001, pp. 1–5). Overall, great green macaw. Despite these literature (Monge et al. 2009, p. 122). there is a lack of information about the activities, due to the efforts of the Only six papers on avian diversity and status of the great green macaw ProForest Foundation—the NGO in avian population surveys in Honduran population and its habitat in Nicaragua charge of the reserve—the population in forests were published between 1968 (Monge et al. 2010; Monge et al. 2009, the Cerro Blanco forest preserve is and 2004 (Anderson et al. 2004, p. 456). pp. 52–53). However, a population of reported to be stable (Horstman 2011, p. However, we do know that the threats the great green macaw is known to 17). The Cerro Blanco forest preserve is in Honduras are similar to those in other occur in the Indio-Maı´z Biological a small area that is being managed countries within the range of this Reserve, located in Nicaragua just across particularly for this species. It is jointly species (McCann et al. 2003, pp. 321– the San Juan River at the northeastern owned by the ProForest Foundation and 322), and the most significant threat is border of Costa Rica (Monge et al. 2009, a cement company, Holcim, as deforestation. In 2008, the p. 51), where suitable habitat for this mitigation for its nearby limestone Departamento de A´ reas Protegidas y de species remains. This reserve, which is quarries. Reserve managers are Vida Silvestre (DAPVS) in Honduras believed to be one of the few converting former cattle pasture to estimated that 80,000 ha (197,684 ac) of strongholds for the great green macaw, native tree farms, which they use to natural areas were being destroyed is nearly 264,000 ha (652,358 ac) in size. help restore dry tropical forest in other annually (DAPVS 2008 in Devenish et It is likely that the Indio-Maı´z Biological locations, including a corridor to nearby al., 2009 p. 256). Reserve contains extensive forest areas patches of forested areas (Horstman The great green macaw is believed to with high densities of almendro trees 2009 pers. comm.). Despite the exist in the Rı´o Pla´tano Biosphere (Chun 2008, p. 94), and therefore is conservation efforts in place, logging, Reserve within the watershed of the critical to this species’ survival. Chun poaching, and illegal land settlement Pla´tano River (Monge et al. 2009, p. 8). suggests that many areas in Nicaragua continue to affect the population in the The area is also known as the may exceed the minimum great green Cerro Blanco Protected Forest ‘‘Mosquitia Honduren˜ a,’’ which is macaw nesting requirement of 0.20 trees (Horstman 2011, p. 17; Fundacion Pro- 500,000 ha (1,235,527 ac) in size. The per hectare within the breeding Bosque, undated, p. 3). A conservation reserve serves as protection to the 100 territory. Although the Indio-Maı´z strategy for this species recommends km (62 mi) long Pla´tano River Biological Reserve is considered one of that a ban be instituted on the cutting watershed, in addition to protecting Nicaragua’s best preserved forested and commercialization of the three tree parts of the Paulaya, Guampu, and Sicre areas and has limited access, its buffer species described above that were noted rivers (Devenish 2009, p. 256). Several zone has recently been under assault as crucial for the great green macaw’s indigenous tribes such as the Miskito, from activities such as loggers in search survival (Monge et al. 2009, pp. 256– Tawahka, Pech, Garı´funas, and of lumber and illegal farming of Elaeis 258). However, deforestation, ’’Mestizos’’ use this area for their guineensis (African palm) trees for encroachment, and habitat degradation traditional livelihoods. Although this biofuel (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 3; activities such as these continue reserve was designated as a World Ravnborg et al. 2006, p. 2). As resources (Horstman 2011, p. 17). Heritage Site, pressures to the reserve become more scarce in the buffer zones,

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illegal activities push farther into the period when lands were being the species’ original range in Panama lesser disturbed and lesser accessible converted to plantations. Both the (Angehr 2004, in litt.). Although there is areas. Despite the existence of this mestizo and indigenous communities limited information available on the protected area, deforestation continues depend on access to land to ensure their threats affecting great green macaw to occur. livelihoods. However, the mestizo populations in Panama, deforestation is Deforestation is one of the major communities convert primary forest to known to occur within this species’ threats to biodiversity in this region; one agricultural or livestock uses (Cue´llar range (Monge et al. 2009, p. 68; Angehr steadily increasing form is the and Kandel 2005, p. 13), while the 2004, in litt.). Conflict regarding land conversion of forest into agricultural or indigenous communities have less rights of indigenous communities has pasture lands (Chassot et al. 2006, p. impact on the ecosystem. Land rights become one of the most critical issues 84). In Nicaragua, between 1990 and disputes are common in these areas, and in the Darie´n region. The most 2005, 1.35 million ha (3.34 million ac) land use rights are often unclear. The significant threats to tropical forests in of forested areas were converted to Government of Nicaragua is attempting Panama overall include road agriculture or were deforested due to to manage these issues (Pellegrini 2011, construction and road improvement, other reasons such as logging (FAO p. 21), but conflict and practices that especially in the Darie´n region, and 2010, p. 232; FAO 2007). Much of degrade the great green macaw’s habitat agricultural expansion, particularly in Nicaragua has protected status. In 2005, persist both in the Bosawas Reserve and the Darie´n and Bocas del Toro regions, approximately 36 percent of Nicaragua’s in other areas within the range of the which results in increased access to forested area was designated as species. forests (Parker et al. 2004, p. V–2). protected or in some form of One of the factors contributing to Roads have been found to be one of the conservation status (FAO 2007). deforestation in this area is a high rate leading causes of global biodiversity Additionally, in 2007, there were 72 of poverty (Pacheco et al. 2011, p. 4). loss (Benı´tez-Lo´pez et al. 2010, p. protected areas in Nicaragua’s National Nicaragua is the poorest country in 1,307). The construction of the Pan- System of Protected Areas (Castellon Central America (CIA World Factbook American Highway and other roads are 2008, p. 19). However, 88 percent of 2011). In part, due to the high rate of affecting the Darie´n forest area (TNC Nicaragua’s area designated as forest is poverty, the great green macaw 2011, p. 1). When roads are constructed, privately owned (FAO 2010, p. 238), continues to face threats to its habitat. they increase access to previously and, therefore, is not protected. Communities living within the range of inaccessible areas. This leads to more Additionally, much of the logging that the great green macaw practice pressures on the forested areas, such as occurs is illegal and is not monitored unsustainable activities, such as conversion to agriculture, competition (Pellegrini 2011, p. 21; Richards et al. conversion of habitat to agriculture or for resources (such as the extraction of 2003, p. 283). logging, which contribute to plant species that may be consumed by As an example, the Bosawas Reserve deforestation of the species’ remaining the great green macaw), and more is one of the areas believed to contain habitat in Nicaragua (McGinley 2009, p. logging. great green macaws as well as suitable 36; Castellon 2008, pp. 21, 30; Richards habitat for a viable population. It was et al. 2003, p. 282). Much of the Indio- A 2006 report indicated that the designated a reserve in 1979, in Maı´z Biological Reserve is described as advance of the agricultural frontier and response to the advance of the being intact and unlogged (Chun 2008, ‘‘spontaneous colonization’’ occurring at agricultural frontier (Cue´llar and Kandel p. 116). Despite this, some loggers cross a rate of 50,000 to 80,000 ha (123,500 to 2005, p. 9). However, during the 1980s, the border into Nicaragua to harvest the 197,700 ac) per year is rapidly shrinking the area was not managed; it was the almendro tree (Schmidt 2009, p. 16; Panama’s forests and protected areas battleground for the armed conflict Chassot et al. 2006, p. 84). Anecdotal (McMahon et al. 2006, p. 8). Prior to its between the Sandinistas and the reports indicate that Costa Rican loggers formal designation in 1990, La Amistad (Cue´llar and Susan Kandel 2005, p. 9). pay Nicaraguan farmers about $15 for National Park, which spans the border In October 1991, Bosawas was declared each almendro tree, bring the logs to between Costa Rica and Panama, a National Natural Resource Reserve Costa Rica, and sell them for about experienced impacts from cattle through Executive Decree No. 44–91. $1,450 in Costa Rica (Arias 2002, p. 4). ranching, timber extraction, burning, Despite its designation as a protected Because incomes in the Bosawas region and illegal settlements (UNEP–WCMC area, encroachment and habitat of Nicaragua were found to average 2011, p. 7). Trails, encroachment, roads, degradation still occur (McCann et al. under $800 per family per year (Stocks grazing, and hunting continue in this 2003, p. 322). In Bosawas, indigenous et al. 2007, p. 1,498), the almendro trees area and affect this species’ habitat tribal communities have rights to use are quite valuable. Consequently, a bi- (TNC 2012, unpaginated; UNEP–WCMC the forests under the Autonomy Statute national biological corridor between 2011, p. 7) . Soil and water resources of 1987 (Cue´llar and Kandel 2005, p. Nicaragua and Costa Rica was proposed have been depleted due to traditional 11). As of 1998, the indigenous in an attempt to prevent the extinction agricultural practices and inadequate population was approximately 9,200 in of the almendro tree (Chassot et al. conservation measures. Indigenous or near the Bosawas reserve (Stocks et 2006, p. 84). Although this corridor production systems, with their low- al. 2007, p. 1497). In 2005, the exists and efforts are in place (refer to intensity land use, long rotation periods, Nicaraguan government granted land discussion under Factor D, below) to and plentiful forests for hunting and titles to 86 indigenous Miskitu and mitigate border issues (Hernandez et al., gathering, are increasingly becoming Mayangna groups in Bosawas and undated, pp. 1–14) in this region, unsustainable due to economic contiguous indigenous areas (Stocks et habitat degradation continues. pressures. The indigenous production al. 2007, p. 497). Generally, these systems are being replaced by farming indigenous communities manage the Panama systems that emphasize monoculture forests well and want to maintain their In Panama, this species is believed to without rotation, which leads to traditional way of life. However, primarily exist in the Darie´n region, depleted soils and encourages greater ‘‘mestizo’’ communities were which borders northern Colombia expansion of the agricultural frontier. encouraged to settle in the area that is (Angeher 2004, in litt.). Deforestation These threats are heightened by rural now the reserve’s buffer zone during the was estimated to exceed 30 percent of poverty that drives populations in

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search of areas with a relatively intact there is now second-growth forest present or threatened destruction, natural resource base with high levels of recovery from the gold mines that had modification, or curtailment of habitat is globally significant biodiversity been abandoned during the 18th a threat to the great green macaw now (Pacheco et al. 2011, pp. 4, 18). century. It does not appear that mining and in the future. Watershed degradation from in this area still occurs, and, therefore, B. Overutilization for Commercial, deforestation and unsustainable land mining is not currently impacting the Recreational, Scientific, or Educational use has accelerated soil erosion, species. Purposes sedimentation, and pollution. As a Summary of Factor A result of competition for resources, Because this species has an extremely many farmers and indigenous people The global population of great green small and fragmented population, have emigrated to the Darie´n and Bocas macaws is decreasing due to the threats poaching, while apparently uncommon, del Toro provinces, where the great identified above that continue to exert remains a concern (Botero-Delgadillo green macaw is believed to exist in pressure on the species. The loss of and Pa´ez 2011, p. 13; Monge et al. 2009, larger numbers than in other parts of the much of the older forested areas has pp. 26, 40, 106). Removal of this species species’ range. Unsustainable land reduced high-quality habitat for this from the wild has a significant practices, the lack of capacity by both species to relatively small and isolated detrimental effect on this species public and private stakeholders to patches throughout its range; however, because this species tends to mate for encourage sustainable land use, suitable habitat remains in some life and only produces 1 or 2 eggs infrastructure development, and the protected areas in Central and South annually. The species has been heavily lack of management plans further America. Habitat degradation poses a poached in the wild historically and is exacerbate the degradation of this significant threat throughout the range still trafficked for the pet trade in species’ habitat. of the great green macaw, which is Honduras and Nicaragua (Anderson Darie´n forests are under pressure from especially vulnerable to the effects of 2004, p. 453; http:// the expanding agricultural frontier and isolation and fragmentation because it www.lafeberconservationwildlife.com/ related colonization (TNC 2011, p. 1; tends to mate for life, it has a small ?p=1714, accessed December 14, 2011). McMahon 2006, p. 8). The region’s clutch size and specialized habitat Although there are no known current human population is growing at a rate requirements, and its populations are reports of poaching in all parts of its of about 5 percent a year. Loss of forest small and decreasing. range, poaching was raised as a concern cover is often linked to agricultural The great green macaw is naturally at the 2008 workshop held in Costa Rica expansion, which often follows new or associated with unfragmented, mature, on this species (Monge et al. 2009, improved roads, and which results in forested landscapes, and is considered a various). After regulatory mechanisms increased access to forests. Slash-and- habitat specialist that selects areas of such as CITES and the WBCA were put burn agriculture has resulted in huge contiguous mature forest in Central into place, particularly since 1992 when tracts of deforested land. Other factors America and parts of northern South the WBCA went into effect, much of the that affect the stability of great green America (Monge et al. 2009; Madriz- legal trade in the great green macaw macaw populations include the Vargas 2004, p. 7). This species requires declined (see discussion of military National Authority for the large areas for its feeding requirements macaw for more information about Environment’s (ANAM) inability to and is not well adapted to fragmented WBCA) (UNEP–WCMC CITES trade fund programs for protected areas and landscapes. Deforestation results in database, accessed September 6, 2011). buffer zones, and the extraction of other fragmented forests with high ratios of The great green macaw was listed in minerals and building materials, edge to forested area, and the original CITES Appendix II, effective June 6, whether legal or illegal (Angehr et al. biodiversity upon which this species 1981, and was transferred to Appendix 2009, p. 291). Logging and mining is depends is lost. Greater exposure of soil I, effective August 1, 1985. Most of the legally restricted in the area; however, to direct sunlight leads to factors such international trade in great green macaw logging still occurs outside the Darie´n as drier soils and also creates a different specimens consists of live birds. reserve, and the practice encroaches the growing environment. Because there are Data obtained from the United remaining forest cover in the buffer few remaining older, complex forest Nations Environment Programme– zone. Problems in or adjacent to stands providing adequate habitat for World Conservation Monitoring Center protected areas include illegal clearing breeding, feeding, and nesting, great (UNEP–WCMC) CITES Trade Database for development, agriculture, and cattle green macaw populations are in decline. show that during the 4 years the great grazing; road construction; and The great green macaw is threatened by green macaw was listed in Appendix II, extraction of minerals or construction the impacts of both past and current 26 live great green macaws were materials (Devenish et al. 2009b, p. habitat loss, including ongoing habitat reported to UNEP–WCMC as (gross) 291). modification that results in poor quality exports. In analyzing the data, it appears The presence of gold mines in the and insufficient forest habitats, habitat that several records may be overcounts Darie´n Region, particularly the Cerro fragmentation, and isolation of small due to slight differences in the manner Pirre area, was also indicated to be a populations. The ability of the great in which the importing and exporting threat to the species. Significant mining green macaw to repopulate an isolated countries reported their trade. It is likely activities in this area were conducted patch of suitable habitat following that the actual number of great green prior to the 18th century. The clearing decline or extirpation is particularly macaw specimens in international trade of forests to create roads for mining unlikely due to the species’ large home during this period was 22 live birds. All facilitates the transport of materials and range requirements, and this is of the live birds were reported with the personnel in and out of the mining exacerbated by its small overall source ‘‘unknown.’’ Exports from range zones (Robbins et al. 1985, pp. 200, population size and the large distances countries included six live birds from 202). Roads exacerbate deforestation between the remaining primary forest Panama and five live birds from practices such as logging and fragments. Despite the existence of the Nicaragua (UNEP–WCMC 2011). conversion to agriculture or other land bi-national corridor in Nicaragua and During the more than 24 years uses, as well as colonization. This area Costa Rica and a multitude of following the transfer to Appendix I is now an ecotourism site; as of 1985, conservation efforts, we find that the (August 1985 through December 2009,

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the last year for which complete data the sale of a parrot can significantly rates. These traits make them reported are available), the UNEP– increase their earnings. As mentioned particularly sensitive to the effects of WCMC database shows 786 live birds in above under the Factor A discussion, poaching (Lee 2010, p. 3; Thiollay 2005, international trade. However, it is likely incomes in the Bosawas region of p. 1121; Wright et al. 2001, p. 711). In that the actual number of live great Nicaragua were found to average under some areas in Costa Rica, there were no green macaws in international trade $800 per family per year as of 2007 recent reports of nest poaching due to during this period was 701 (U.S. CITES (Stocks et al. 2007, p. 1,498). The great conservation efforts (Villate et al. 2008, Management Authority 2012). Of these, green macaw was found for sale at an p. 23). However, despite conservation 647 were reported to be captive-bred or average of $200 to $400 U.S. dollars efforts in place, the conservation captive-born, 5 were reported as wild, (USD) (Fundacion Cocibolca in BLI workshop for Ara ambiguus held in and 15 were reported as ‘‘pre- 2007, p. 1) For perspective, in the 2008 indicated that poaching of this Convention.’’ The source of the United States, captive-bred specimens species is still a concern throughout its remaining live birds is unknown. can sell for up to $2,500 USD (Basile range (Monge et al. 2009, pp. 18, 26, 29, Exports of live birds from range 2009, p. 6). The high commercial value, 40). especially in relation to the average countries included 17 from Costa Rica, Summary of Factor B 10 from Ecuador, 12 from Nicaragua, family income, indicates that it is still and 6 from Panama. Note also that some worthwhile to poach and sell this Conservation efforts by various of these birds may be personal pets that species. Due to the extreme poverty in entities working to ensure the long-term are counted more than once. Central America, particularly in conservation of the great green macaw Nicaragua, and due to the high may result in its population slowly The pressures historically to remove increasing (Monge et al. 2010, pp. 12– this species from the wild for the pet commercial value of great green macaws, poaching continues to be a 13). However, overall, the best available trade, in part due to its high commercial information indicates that the value, have contributed significantly to significant concern for this species. Poaching can be intertwined with population is still declining (Botero- the decline in population numbers for habitat destruction (Factor A). Some Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 91; Monge this species. Poaching continues to poachers still cut down trees to obtain et al. 2009). The species still faces occur in this species’ range countries, nestlings (Hardman 2011, p. 13; Chun threats such as habitat loss and particularly in Nicaragua (Castellon 2008, p. 105). This practice of cutting poaching. Often, there is a lag time after 2008, pp. 20, 25; Kennedy 2007, pp. 1– down trees to remove nestlings is factors have acted on species (i.e., 2; BLI 2007, p. 1). The majority of particularly devastating to small poaching and habitat loss) before the information available for Central populations reliant upon certain types effect is evident (Sodhi et al. 2004, p. America regarding poaching and the and sizes of nesting trees. Not only are 325). Even though the great green sale of parrot species was focused in poachers removing vital members of the macaw is listed as an Appendix-I Nicaragua (Herrera-Scott 2004, pp. 1–2). population, they are destroying a nest species under CITES and commercial A study published in 2004 assessed the site that may have taken a breeding pair international trade is now significantly origin and local sale and export of several years to find and cultivate. One reduced, there is still concern about the parrots and parakeets in Nicaragua study looked at 51 nest sites that had illegal capture of this species in the (Herrera-Scott 2004, pp. 1–2), and been identified between 1994 and 2003 wild. This species is desirable as a pet, focused on the buffer zone of the Indio- (Chun 2008, p. 105). The study and its native habitat is in impoverished Maı´z Biological Reserve, a critical area evaluated potential habitat by countries, where the sale of an for the great green macaw. The study examining the presence and density of individual bird can significantly followed the marketing chain from rural almendro trees by aerial survey. It increase a person’s income. Despite areas to the capital city. Most of the examined portions of two protected regulatory mechanisms in place, wildlife trade was found to occur in areas—the San Juan-La Selva Biological poaching is lucrative and still occurs. Managua. As of 2000, poaching was still Corridor and the Maquenque National Additionally, because each population occurring in the buffer zone of the Wildlife Refuge (Chun 2008, p. 117). Of of great green macaws is small, with Indio-Maı´z Biological Reserve (Herrera- 51 nest sites, 10 trees had been cut by possibly between 10 to 500 individuals Scott 2004, p. 6). An estimated 7,205 the end of the survey period. In some (Monge et al. 2010, pp. 21, 22), poaching parrots were sold during that year cases, the nests had been deliberately is likely to have a significant effect on (Herrera-Scott 2004, p. 1). The legal cut even after the tree had received the species. The populations are export of wildlife species from protection status and had been distributed widely throughout the range Nicaragua in general decreased distinguished as a nesting tree with a of the species (see Figure 3) and are significantly between 2002 and 2006 plaque. Nest destruction has also been highly fragmented, and the amount of (McGinley 2009, p. 16). Despite the reported in Ecuador (Bergman 2009, pp. interaction between populations is decrease in legal trade, in 2007, a 6–8), where it is estimated to have an unknown but likely infrequent. Based number of parrot species could be still extremely small population. Another on the best available information, we found for sale along roads to tourists study confirmed this practice, although find that overutilization, particularly (Kennedy 2007, pp. 1–2; BLI 2007, p. 1) this was a different parrot species, and due to poaching, is a threat to the great Nicaragua is the poorest country in found an average of 21 nests was green macaw throughout its range now Central America and the second poorest destroyed per poaching trip (Gonzalez and in the future. in the Hemisphere, and has widespread 2003, p. 443). underemployment and poverty (CIA Poaching for the pet bird trade can C. Disease or Predation World Factbook 2011, unpaginated; destroy pair bonds, remove potentially Diseases associated with great green FAO 2011, p. 1). Approximately 17 reproductive adults from the breeding macaws in the wild are not well percent of its population lives in pool, and have a significant effect on documented (De Kloet and Dorrestein extreme poverty (Castellon 2008, p. 21). small populations (Kramer and Drake 2009, p. 571; Herrero 2006, pp. 15–19; Many of Nicaragua’s citizens live in 2010, pp. 511, 513). This is in part Tomaszewski et al. 2001, p. 533). rural areas where they usually earn a because this species mates for life, is Studies of macaws have demonstrated living from agriculture and fishing, and long-lived, and has low reproductive that they are susceptible to many

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bacterial, parasitic, and viral diseases, (ABV) or macaw wasting disease, is a We have no evidence of significant particularly in captive environments serious disease reported to infect adverse impacts to wild populations of (Kistler et al. 2009, p. 2,176; Portaels et psittacines. Macaws are among those great green macaws due to disease; al. 1996, p. 319; Clubb and Frenkel commonly affected by PPD (Abramson disease is a normal occurrence within 1992, p. 119; Bennett et al. 1991; et al. 1995, p. 288), although it is a fatal wild populations. A review of the best Wainright et al. 1987, pp. 673–675). disease that poses a serious threat to all available information indicates that However, most studies are conducted on domesticated and wild parrots disease does not occur to an extent that captive macaws. Some of the diseases worldwide, particularly those with very it is a threat to this species, particularly known to affect macaws are discussed small populations (Kistler et al. 2008, p. because the populations are widely below. 1; Abramson et al. 1995, p. 288). This dispersed, which provides an element of Pacheco’s Parrot Disease contagious disease causes damage to the resiliency to the overall population. We nerves of the upper digestive tract, so conclude, based on the best available Pacheco’s parrot disease is a systemic that food digestion and absorption are scientific and commercial information, disease caused by a psittacid herpes negatively affected. The disease has a that disease is not a threat to the great virus (PsHV–1) (Tomaszewski et al. 100-percent mortality rate in affected green macaw now or in the future. 2006, p. 536; Abramson et al. 1995, p. In addition, we have no information 293; Panigrahy and Grumbles 1984, pp. birds, although the exact manner of transmission between birds is unclear. indicating that predation threatens the 808, 811). It is an acute, rapidly fatal great green macaw. This is the second disease of parrots, and sudden death is In 2008, researchers discovered a genetically diverse set of novel ABVs largest New World macaw, and the best sometimes the only sign of the disease; available information does not indicate however, in some cases, birds may show that are thought to be the cause (Kistler et al. 2008, p. 1). The researchers that predation (other than poaching) is symptoms and may recover to become a factor that negatively affects this carriers (Tomaszewski et al. 2006, p. developed diagnostic tests, methods of treating or preventing bornavirus species. While predators undoubtedly 536; Abramson et al. 1995, p. 293; have some effect on fluctuations in great Panigrahy and Grumbles 1984, p. 811). infection, and methods for screening for the anti-bornaviral compounds (Kistler green macaw numbers, there is no This disease and the presence of PsHV– evidence to suggest that predation has 1 has been known in both captive and et al. 2008, pp. 1–15). However, we found no information that this disease caused or will cause long-term declines wild-caught macaws (Tomaszewski et in the great green macaw population. al. 2006, pp. 538, 540, 543; Panigrahy affects wild great green macaws. Therefore, we have determined that this and Grumbles 1984, p. 809); however, Psittacine and Disease factor does not pose a threat to the great we found no information indicating that green macaw, now or in the future. this disease impacts the great green Psittacine beak and feather disease macaw in the wild. (PBFD) is a common circovirus that has D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms Psittacosis been documented in over 60 psittacine species; all psittacines may be Psittacosis (chlamydiosis), also Regulatory mechanisms affecting this potentially susceptible (Rahaus et al. species that we evaluate could known as parrot fever, is an infectious 2008, p. 53; Abramson et al. 1995, p. disease that could affect this species and potentially fall under categories such as 296). This virus, which originated in wildlife management, parks is caused by the bacteria Chlamydophila , affects both wild and captive psittaci. An estimated one percent of all management, or forestry management. birds, causing chronic infections birds in the wild are infected and act as We are primarily evaluating these resulting in either feather loss or carriers (Jones 2007, unpaginated). C. regulatory mechanisms in terms of deformities of the beak and feathers psittaci is transmitted through carriers nationally protected parks because this (Rahaus et al. 2008, p. 53; Cameron who often show no signs of the disease. is where this species generally occurs. A 2007, p. 82). PBFD causes It is often spread through the inhaling summary of the status of forest policies, of the organism from dried feces immunodeficiency and affects organs regulatory mechanisms, and laws in the (Michigan Department of Agriculture such as the liver and brain, and the range countries of the great green 2002, p. 1), but may also pass orally immune system. Suppression of the macaw is below. The most authoritative from adults to nestlings when feeding immune system can result in secondary source for assessing the state of forests via regurgitation or from the adult male infections due to other viruses, bacteria, is the United Nations Food and to the adult female when feeding during or fungi. The virus can exist without Agriculture Organization’s Forest incubation (Raso et al. 2006, pp. 239). obvious signs (de Kloet and de Kloet Resources Assessment (Chomitz et al. Wild birds may not show clinical signs. 2004, p. 2,394). Birds usually become 2007, p. 42). FAO’s 2010 study found This may be explained by a naturally infected in the nest by ingesting or that each range country for this species occurring balanced host-parasite inhaling viral particles. Infected birds has a national forest law, policy, or relationship (Jones 2007, unpaginated; develop immunity, die within a couple program in place, and Table 1 indicates Raso et al. 2006, pp. 236, 239–240). of weeks, or can become chronically the year it was last evaluated. However, infected. No vaccine exists to immunize the study found that few forest policies Proventricular Dilatation Disease populations (Cameron 2007, p. 82). We at the subnational level (such as Proventricular dilatation disease found no information on this disease in jurisdictions equivalent to states in the (PDD), also known as great green macaws. United States) exist in these countries.

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National forest policy National forest program Forest law national Country Exists Year Exists Year Status Subnational National—type Year exists

Colom- Yes ...... 1996 Yes ...... 2000 Under Incorporated in 1974 No. bia. revi- other law. sion. Costa Yes ...... 2000 Yes ...... 2001 Under Specific forest 1996 No. Rica. revi- law. sion. Ecuador Yes ...... 2002 Yes ...... 2002 In imple- Specific forest 1981 No. men- law. tation. Hon- Yes ...... 1971 Yes ...... 2004 In imple- Specific forest – No. duras. men- law. tation. Nica- Yes ...... 2008 Yes ...... 2008 In imple- Specific forest 2003 Yes. ragua. men- law. tation. Panama Yes ...... 2003 Yes ...... 2008 Unclear Specific forest 1994 No. law.

Table 1. Adapted from FAO Global Forest Resource Assessment 2010, pp. 302–303.

In 2007, FAO noted that many • Decree 1974/89: Regulation of range. A vulnerable species is one that countries (in the range of the great green Article 310 of Decree 2811, 1974, on is described as not in imminent danger macaw) had enacted new forest laws or integrated management districts of of extinction in the near future, but it policies within the past 15 years, or had natural renewable resources. could be if natural population trends • taken steps to strengthen their existing Law number 99/93: Creates the continue downward and deterioration of legislation or policies. Among countries Ministry of the Environments and the its range continues (EcoLex 2002, p. 10). that had enacted new forest legislation National Environmental System. • Law number 165/94: Biological Colombian Law No. 99 of 1993 were Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, created the Ministry of the Environment Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador (FAO Diversity Treaty. • Decree 1791/96: Establishment of and Renewable Natural Resources and 2007, p. 43). Despite the existence of the Forest Use Regime. the National Environmental System these laws and policies, the populations A list of legislation that applies to (SINA). SINA sets out the principles of the great green macaw are still protected areas in Colombia is available governing environmental policy in negatively affected by habitat loss, at http://www.humboldt.org.co/ingles/ Colombia, and provides that the encroachment, and, to a lesser extent, en-politica.htm and at http:// country’s biodiversity is protected and poaching. www.regulations.gov in Docket No. used primarily in a sustainable manner Parks and Habitat Management FWS–R9–ES–2011–0101. A discussion (Humboldt Biological Resources of Colombia’s regulatory mechanisms Research Institute 2011, unpaginated; Throughout this species’ range, we with respect to the great green macaw found that many of the threats that EcoLex 1993, p. 2). SINA is a set of follows. activities, resources, programs, and occur to this species are the same or The great green macaw is listed as institutions that allow the similar. Threats generally consist of vulnerable on Colombia’s Red List various forms of habitat loss or (Renjifo et al. 2002, p. 524). Resolution implementation of environmental degradation (see Factor A discussion, No. 584 of 2002 provides a list of principles. Consistent with the above). Each range country for this Colombian wildlife and flora that are Constitution of 1991, this management species has protections in place, but for considered ‘‘threatened.’’ Colombia system was intended to be reasons such as limited budgets and defines threatened as those species decentralized. However, an limited enforcement capabilities, the whose natural populations are at risk of environmental assessment study laws and protections are generally not extinction if their habitat, range, or the conducted for the World Bank in 2006 able to adequately protect the species. ecosystems that support them have been found that Colombia’s current Our analysis of regulatory mechanisms affected by either natural causes or decentralized system is inadequate as is discussed essentially on a country-by- human actions. Threatened species are implemented (Blackman et al. 2006, p. country basis, beginning with Colombia, further categorized as critically 15). Although Law 99 assigns the role of and is summarized at the end. endangered, endangered, or vulnerable. leading and coordinating environmental Colombia defines a critically management in Colombia to the Colombia endangered species as one that faces a Ministry of Environment (Ministerio del Colombia has enacted numerous laws very high probability of extinction in Medio Ambiente, MMA), Colombia’s to protect species and their habitats. the wild in the immediate future, based Autonomous Regional Corporations This species exists predominantly in on a drastic reduction of its natural (CARs) have the role of implementing areas that are protected, and Colombia populations and a severe deterioration environmental laws (Blackman et al. has several laws that pertain to of its range. An endangered species is 2006, pp. 39–40, 42). CARs have protected areas. Some of these laws one that has a high probability of responsibility for both management of include: extinction in the wild in the near future, natural resources and economic • Natural Resources and Decree Law based on a declining trend of its natural development (Ministry of Environment number 2811/74. populations and a deterioration of its et al. 2002).

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In 2006, an analysis of the the status of the species in this area from 85 percent in 1940, to around 35 effectiveness of Colombia’s CARs was (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. percent today, according to the FAO’s conducted for the World Bank. In 91). Although it is extremely remote, State of the World’s Forests (Butler Blackman et al.’s analysis, they reported human communities reside within and 2012, unpaginated; FAO 2010, pp. 227, that many individuals both inside and around the park, and continue to use the 259; FAO 2007). Historically, clearing outside the government felt there was a resources within the park. for agriculture, particularly for coffee lack of effectiveness of SINA. For Despite Colombia’s numerous laws and bananas, in addition to cattle example, Colombia’s efforts to eradicate and regulatory mechanisms to pastures was the main reason for Costa the coca trade has not been effective at administer and manage wildlife and Rica’s rainforest destruction. During the reducing the amount of coca being their habitats, the great green macaw 1970s and early 1980s, vast expanses of cultivated (Page 2003, p. 2; also see continues to face many threats to its rainforest had been burned and Factor A). In addition to not adequately habitat. There is little information converted to cattle pastures. Today, addressing the coca cultivation, which available about the species (Botero- although deforestation rates of natural destroys the great green macaw’s Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 90), and forest have dropped considerably, Costa habitat, aerial fumigations of the coca the most recent information indicates Rica’s remaining forests still experience crop have destroyed banana fields and that no conservation action has been illegal timber harvesting (in protected polluted the environment (Page 2003, p. proposed for this species (Botero- areas) and conversion to agriculture (in 2) (see Factor A discussion, above). The Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 88). On- unprotected zones) (Butler 2012, effectiveness of these regional the-ground enforcement of existing unpaginated; Monge et al. 2009, p. 121; management groups varied; the study wildlife protection and forestry laws, FAO 2007). Despite its abundance of found that the effectiveness was and oversight of the local jurisdictions conservation legislation, Costa Rica has correlated with the CARs’ age, implementing and regulating activities, undergone significant periods of geographic size, and level of poverty are ineffective at mitigating the primary deforestation (Butler 2012, unpaginated; (Blackman et al. 2006, p. 16). Due to the threats to the great green macaw. As FAO 2007, p. 38), which have had a decentralized structure, CARs were discussed under Factor A (above), severe effect on the great green macaw. found to be ineffective at environmental habitat destruction, degradation, and Almendro Tree Protection management in Colombia (Blackman et fragmentation continue throughout the al. 2006, p. 14). existing range of the great green macaw. In Costa Rica and Nicaragua, the great Therefore, we find that the existing green macaw is highly dependent on the This species’ habitat occurs to some almendro tree. Almendro trees are extent in areas designated as protected regulatory mechanisms currently in place are inadequate to mitigate the found only on the Atlantic coast from by SINA, including five national parks southern Nicaragua down through Costa (Rodrı´guez-Mahecha 2002a). Two parks primary threats of habitat destruction to the great green macaw in Columbia. Rica and Panama and into Colombia, are particularly significant: Katı´os primarily at altitudes below 900 m National Park and Utrı´a National Park. Costa Rica (2,953 ft). This tree species is now Although this species likely exists in at In Costa Rica, there are more than 30 protected by law in Costa Rica; cutting least these two parks (Botero-Delgadillo laws related to the environment any almendro tree over 120 cm (47.2 in) and Pa´ez 2011, p. 92), no protective (Peterson 2010, p. 1). A list of the or less than 70 cm (27.6 in) in diameter measures have been actually environmental laws in Costa Rica is is prohibited (Rainforest Biodiversity implemented to curb human impacts on available at: http:// Group 2008, p. 1). The remaining Costa the species’ habitat by the indigenous www.costaricalaw.com/costa-rica- Rican populations of almendro trees are and farming residents within these environmental-laws.html. As concentrated in the northeastern corner protected parks (Botero-Delgadillo and deforestation is the most significant of the country from the San Juan River Pa´ez 2011, p. 92). Cultivation of plants factor affecting the great green macaw, south to Braulio Carrillo National Park for cocaine production is known to some laws applicable to the (Hanson 2006, p. 3). Although little occur within the boundaries of Katı´os conservation of the great green macaw forest remains undisturbed in this National Park. The cultivation of illegal are: region, many almendro trees were left crops (particularly coca) poses • Law No. 2790 Wildlife standing in fragments or pastures, partly additional threats to the environment Conservation Law (‘‘Ley De due to the extremely dense nature of the beyond the destruction of montane Conservacio´n De La Fauna Silvestre,’’ tree’s wood and the difficulty in cutting forests (Balslev 1993, p. 3). Coca crop July 1961). down these trees. production destroys the soil quality by • Law No. 7317 Wildlife As a result of the great green macaw’s causing the soil to become more acidic, Conservation Law (‘‘Ley De dependence on almendro trees, depletes the soil nutrients, and Conservacio´n De La Vida Silvestre,’’ conservation efforts for the great green ultimately impedes the regrowth of December 1992). macaw have focused on this tree secondary forests in abandoned fields • Law 7554 Law of the Environment species. A decree was enacted in 2001 (Van Schoik and Schulberg 1993, p. 21; (‘‘Ley Orga´nica del Ambiente,’’ October to limit extraction of the almendro tree. also see Factor A discussion, above). As 1995). Harvest was temporarily suspended of 2007, Colombia was the leading coca • Law No. 7575 Forestry Law (‘‘Ley until a study could be conducted to producer (United Nations Office of Forestal,’’ February 1996). evaluate the status of this primary food Drugs and Crime (UNODC) et al. 2007, • Law 7788 Biodiversity Law (In and nesting source in relation to the p. 7). Since 2003, cocaine coca 1998, the National System of great green macaw (Chosset et al. 2002, cultivation has remained stable at about Conservation Areas (SINAC) was p. 6). According to Costa Rican 800 km2 (309 mi2) of land under created through this law (Canet-Desanti legislation (Decree No 25167–MINAE), cultivation (UNODC et al. 2007, p. 8). 2007 in Villate et al. 2008, p. 24). the removal or logging of almendro trees This activity continues to degrade and In the early 1990s, Costa Rica had one had been illegal in the area between the destroy great green macaw’s habitat. of the highest deforestation rates in San Carlos and Sarapiqui Rivers With respect to Utrı´a National Park, (Butler 2012, p. 3). Forest (Madriz-Vargas 2004, p. 9). The little to no information is known about cover in Costa Rica steadily decreased objective of the restrictions placed on

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extraction of almendro trees was to wilderness and encourage habitat factors continue within this species’ increase the number of nesting sites for protection necessary to preserve and range. Despite conservation efforts in the great green macaw and to prevent increase the great green macaw place, such as conservation awareness the tree from becoming extinct; population (Villate et al. 2008, p. 24). programs, research, and monitoring, the however, forest clearings continued to In 2005, the Maquenque National population has declined significantly occur at an alarming rate due to the lack Wildlife Refuge (MNWR) was over time and is still only estimated to of resources to protect biological established primarily to protect be approximately 300 individuals. reserves (Madriz-Vargas 2004, p. 8). For breeding habitat for the great green Because this species mates for life and example, researchers reported in 2003 macaw. Approximately 43,700 ha has a small clutch size, the loss of any that of the 60 great green macaw nests (107,985 ac) of land identified as one individual can have a significant identified since the great green macaw potential great green macaw breeding effect on the population. Costa Rica has conservation project was initiated in habitat lies within the boundaries of implemented many environmental laws 1994, 10 had been cut down by forest MNWR (Chun 2008, p. 113). This region in conjunction with conservation efforts engineers working in forest management was targeted because it contains several to protect species, particularly the great plans (Monge and Chassot 2003, p. 4). large nesting trees used by great green green macaw and its habitat. The In 2008, Costa Rica’s Supreme Court macaw breeding pairs. MNWR protects situation of this species is still stated that MINAE must abstain from foraging habitat that may be critical precarious, and any of the threats acting the continuation or initiation of the use, during the great green macaw’s breeding on the species, such as habitat loss and exploitation, or extraction of the season. MNWR is within the larger San degradation, poaching, or other almendro tree (Chun 2008, p. 113). In Juan La Selva (SJLS) Biological Corridor, unknown factors, could have a Costa Rica, fines for those who cut and its goal is specifically to connect significant effect on the population in down almendro trees have been protected areas in southern Nicaragua to Costa Rica because it is so small, and proposed as a measure, although those in central Costa Rica (Chun 2008, because of its life-history characteristics. penalties reportedly have not been p. 98). However, even in this refuge, The existing regulatory mechanisms, as instituted (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez habitat degradation continues to occur. implemented, are insufficient in Costa 2011, p. 92). A Ramsar (the Convention on wetlands) Rica to adequately ameliorate the report on this refuge (which is a Ramsar current threats to this species. Great Green Macaw Conservation site), indicated that the main threats In the two core areas where the great there are agricultural and forestry Ecuador green macaw exists in Costa Rica, activities, which are most prevalent near As of 2006, the Ecuadorian conservation activities are underway, the Colpachı´ and Manatı´ lagoons government recognized 31 various legal and the breeding populations are being (Ramsar 2012, p. 1). categories of protected lands (e.g., closely monitored. Quebrada Grande is In summary, as of 2002, less than 10 national parks, biological reserves, a community-operated, 119-ha (294-ac) percent of the great green macaw’s geobotanical reserves, bird reserves, reserve in the center of great green original range was estimated to exist in wildlife reserves, etc.). The amount of macaw habitat. Additionally, the Costa Rica (Chosset et al. 2002, p. 6). protected land (both forested and non- National Green Macaw Commission was The great green macaw greatly depends forested) in Ecuador as of 2006 was formed in 1996 to protect and manage on the almendro tree as its primary food approximately 4.67 million ha (11.5 this species’ habitat. This commission and nesting resource. However, due to million ac) (ITTO 2006, p. 228). was formed in response to the severe Costa Rica’s complex deforestation However, only 38 percent of these lands decline of the great green macaw history, the great green macaw remains had appropriate conservation measures population, and included 13 imperiled primarily due to habitat in place to be considered protected government agencies, NGOs, and the fragmentation, degradation, and habitat areas according to international Sarapiquı´ Natural Resources loss. In 2004, a maximum of 35 pairs standards (i.e., areas that are managed Commission (CRENASA). This were estimated to be breeding in for scientific study or wilderness conservation effort was formalized by northern Costa Rica (Chosset et al. 2004, protection, for ecosystem protection and Executive Order No. 7815–MINAE of p. 32), and the population in this recreation, for conservation of specific 1999. The group served as an advisory country appears to have increased since natural features, or for conservation body to MINAE regarding a conservation program and regulatory through management intervention) environmental issues in the northern mechanisms have been in place. Costa (ITTO 2009, p. 1). Moreover, only 11 zone of Costa Rica that affect the great Rica’s population was estimated to be percent had management plans, and less green macaw (Chassot and Monge 2008 approximately 300 birds in 2010 than 1 percent (13,000 ha or 32,125 ac) in Villate et al. 2008, p. 22). (Chassot 2010 pers. comm. in Hardman had implemented those management Conservation efforts are still in progress; 2010, p. 11; Monge et al. 2010, pp. 13, plans (ITTO 2006, p. 228). in 2008, a workshop was held to bring 22). Despite the apparent increase in the In 2004, the Ecuadorian Minister of together species experts and government population in Costa Rica, the population the Environment signed a ministerial officials to identify priorities and goals is extremely small and has experienced decree forming the National Strategy for in order to conserve the species (Monge significant decline in available habitat the In-Situ Conservation of the et al. 2009, entire). over the past 60 years. Guayaquil Macaw (Ara a. Additionally, a corridor was created guayaquilensis) into law (ProForest in 2001, with the goal of maintaining Habitat Degradation 2005, p. 3). The strategy included the connectivity and biodiversity between In addition to the historical loss of following components to be protected areas in southeastern habitat, the species continues to face implemented within 10 years. Aspects Nicaragua, the Protected Conservation threats such as habitat degradation. This of this conservation plan, which focuses Area Arenal Huetar North (ACAHN), species requires a complex suite of plant on the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest, a and Conservation Area of the Central species over the course of a year for its stronghold for great green macaw, Volcanic Cordillera (ACCVC) in Costa nutritional needs. Pressures to its include: Rica. The primary purpose was to habitat such as logging, encroachment, • Applied investigation for the promote the creation of protected habitat degradation, and likely other conservation of the species;

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• Management of the conservation an NGO, for approximately 20 years formed the National Forestry Research areas where the presence of the (Horstman 2011, unpaginated). System and the National Institute for Guayaquil macaw has been confirmed, Horstman indicated that at the Cerro Forestry Conservation and Development incorporating new areas that are critical Blanco Reserve, the resident population (211 provisions; pp. 1–17). for conservation of the species, and of approximately 15 macaws travels Before the 2007 Forest Law was providing connecting corridors between widely outside of the 6,475-ha (16,000- approved, at least 38 laws governed the the areas; ac) reserve (http://blogs.discovery.com/ sector, creating a confusing policy • Reforestation with appropriate tree animal_news/2009/11/help-for- framework. The situation is further species in its habitat; -great-green-macaws.html, complicated because in many cases, • Incentives and sustainable accessed October 28, 2011). Horstman, forest tenure (ownership, tenancy, and alternatives for communities and private who has worked in this area since the other arrangements for the use of property owners within its range; and early 1990s, indicated the need to forests) is unclear. Although most forest • Conservation of the Guayaquil establish a conservation corridor is officially state-owned (FAO 2007), macaw. between Cerro Blanco and adjacent states have little practical authority over Despite the existence of this strategy, patches of suitable forest, and most are forest management, and individuals the great green macaw still faces less than 40.5 ha (100 ac) in size. During exercise de facto ownership. Corruption significant threats in Ecuador (Horstman the past 20 years, at least 2,000 ha is a barrier to legal logging because it 2011, p. 12). There are likely fewer than (4,942 ac) have been reforested (Monge facilitates illegal operations and creates 100 individuals of this subspecies et al. 2009, p. 9). Although reforestation obstacles to legal ones (Pellegrini 2011, remaining in Ecuador. Ecuador projects have occurred, encroachment is p. 18; Rodas et al. 2005, p. 53). Bribes recognizes that threats exist to its still occurring (Horstman 2011, p. 12). are extorted from certified community natural heritage, not only to this species, Despite conservation efforts and forestry operations, and, reportedly, but to all of its wildlife. In 2008, regulatory mechanisms in place, there is without bribes, transport of legal wood Ecuador approved Article 71 of its still limited funding available for becomes impossible (Pellegrini 2011, p. Constitution which states, ‘‘Nature has a conservation efforts. Encroachment and 18; Rodas et al., 2005, p. 53). right to integrally respect its existence other forms of habitat degradation The new 2007 Forest Law was as well as the maintenance and continue to occur within its habitat (see supported by environmental groups, but regeneration of its vital cycles, Factor A discussion, above). Therefore, its implementation was delayed. The structures, functions and evolutionary we find that the regulatory mechanisms law included the abolition of the processes.’’ Article 73 also mandates, are inadequate to ameliorate the loss Honduran Forest Development ‘‘measures of precaution and restriction and degradation of great green macaw Corporation (COHDEFOR) (which for all activities that could lead to the habitat in Ecuador. received unanimous support), more extinction of species, the destruction of resources for enforcement, and harsher ecosystems, or the permanent alteration Honduras penalties against those who commit of natural habitats.’’ The National Conservation and forest-related crimes. Previously, the Ecuador has made significant strides Forestry Institute (ICF) (formerly the director of COHDEFOR and other in conservation. Ecuador’s Article 103 Protected Areas and Wildlife political leaders were owners or of Book IV on Biodiversity decreed that: Department, established in 1991) is employees of logging companies, an ‘‘It is prohibited, on any day or time of responsible for regulating natural apparent conflict of interest (Pellegrini the year, to hunt species, whether birds resources and management of protected 2011, p. 20). Also at that time, the army or mammals, that constitute wildlife areas. The National Protected Areas was involved in enforcement. Out of the and that are listed in Appendix 1 of the System includes 17 national parks resources that were spent for the present Record that are qualified as created between 1980 and 2007. As of forestry sector, the military absorbed 70 threatened or endangered. Hunting is 2009, there were 79 protected areas percent without producing any evidence likewise prohibited in certain areas or (Triana and Arce 2012, p. 1). In 1991, that enforcement had improved zones while the bans are in effect’’ the Protected Areas and Wildlife (Pellegrini 2011, p. 20). (Monge et al. 2009, p. 256; Unified Text Department (which is now the National Currently in Honduras, the great green of the Secondary Legislation of the Conservation and Forestry Institute macaw is believed to exist in eastern Ministry of the Environment). Despite (ICF)) was designated to manage natural Honduras in suitable habitat distributed the recent advances made in resources and protected areas (Devenish from Olancho to the Rı´o Pla´tano conservation efforts, Ecuador has gone et al. 2009, p. 257; Decree no. 74–91, Biological Reserve, the Tawahka through periods of devastating habitat 1991). Prior to 1991, wildlife was Biological Reserve, and Patuca National loss and degradation, which affected the managed by the Honduran Department Park (Monge et al. 2009, p. 39). Its range great green macaw’s habitat such that it of Wildlife and Ecology (RENARE). encompasses both unprotected and only remains in two fragmented and Decree 98–2007, the Forest Law of protected areas; however, timber small areas. It is unclear how Honduras, repealed Decree 163–93 of exploitation occurs even in areas sustainable the remaining habitat is, 1993, which contained the Law on designated as protected. This practice particularly because this species has Incentives for Forestation, Reforestation, has created conflicts in protected areas specialized feeding requirements and and Forest Protection. The Forest Law such as the Rı´o Pla´tano Biosphere requires a large range to provide its sets forth the purposes of the law, and Reserve, an area that is considered nutritional needs. regulates the use of forestry areas, the critical for its conservation (Lopez and The National Strategy for the In-Situ rational and sustainable management of Jime´nez 2007, p. 26). Demand for Conservation of the Guayaquil Macaw forestry resources, protected areas, and mahogany, which has been one of the was revised in 2009. As a result, the first wildlife. The law contains definitions most extracted species in the area national census of great green macaw and created a series of administrative (Lopez and Jime´nez 2007, p. 26), has was conducted in Ecuador in late 2010 agencies charged with the also put pressure on this species’ (Horstman 2011, pp. 16–17). The Cerro implementation of forestry regulations, habitat. Selective logging creates Blanco Protected Area has been including the National Forestry openings in forest canopies and changes managed by the Pro-Forest Foundation, Consultative Council. This law also the ecosystem dynamics and

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composition of plant species. Income to be a good tool in forest conservation the progress made in Honduras with from logging is higher than that earned (Pellegrini 2011, pp. 3–8). The reserve respect to laws and regulatory for crops and cattle, making logging far plan established buffer zones, cultural mechanisms that affect the great green more lucrative for locals. However, after zones, and nucleus zones. Indigenous macaw and other wildlife, the species areas are logged, they become more communities living in the reserve and continues to face habitat loss and accessible and are then often converted buffer zone are allowed to use the degradation in Honduras. to uses such as crops and cattle grazing. resources within the reserve. The Nicaragua Indigenous communities have rights integration of indigenous populations to use many protected areas. Article 107 plays a large part in the success of the Nicaragua’s General Environmental of the Honduran Constitution protects conservation plan, both inside the and Natural Resources Law No. 217, the land rights of indigenous people. It reserve and outside the reserve in the issued in 1996, is considered the legal is the duty of the government to create buffer and peripheral zones (Pellegrini framework that defines the standards measures to protect the rights and 2011, p. 3; Stocks et al. 2007, p. 1502– and mechanisms in regard to the use, interests of indigenous communities in 1503). This reserve also receives some conservation, protection, and restoration the country, especially with respect to funding from the World Wildlife Fund of the environment and natural the land and forests where they are and other private organizations, which resources in a sustainable manner. It settled (Article 346). As an example of assists in the management of the recognizes the sustainable development land use by Honduran indigenous reserve. However, there are currently no concept. By 2004, Nicaragua had communities, between 15 and 40 park guards or any official entity enacted 10 environmental laws and was percent of the total value of actively patrolling or guarding the a member of regional and international consumption for two indigenous reserve to enforce restrictions. environmental agreements (Moreno Tawahka communities was found to be There is a complex history concerning 2004, p. 9). As of 2004, Nicaragua was derived directly from the forest (Godoy the balance of land rights of indigenous moving towards the consolidation of a et al. 2002, p. 404). Struggle over land communities and preservation of habitat National System of Protected Areas rights is a difficult issue for indigenous for species such as the great green (SINAP) in order to preserve the communities in Honduras. Logging and macaw. In Honduras, there is a gap country’s biological wealth (Moreno mining are some of the biggest threats between forestry policy objectives and 2004, p. 9). SINAP consists of National not only to the great green macaw, but the state of forestry. The policy Protected Areas, Municipal Ecological also to the indigenous communities. frameworks exist to manage timber Parks, and Private Wildlife Reserves of Indigenous cultures generally have a extraction, but tools are not ‘‘ecological and social relevance at the low impact on the forests (Stocks et al. implemented (Pellegrini 2011, p. 1). local, national, and international level, 2007, pp. 1,502–1,503). Because COHDEFOR had been responsible for defined in conformance with the law, indigenous communities want their forestry development and enforcement and designated according to lands protected for their traditional way of laws. The Honduran government management categories that permit of life, NGOs are working with these began to decentralize COHDEFOR compliance with national policies and communities to protect reserves in beginning in 1985 (Butler 2012, objectives of conservation’’ (McGinley Honduras, which should ultimately unpaginated) due to its ineffectiveness. 2009, p. 19; Protected Areas benefit the great green macaw. As of 2001, the management of Regulations: Article 3). However, the In 1996, the Rı´o Pla´tano Biosphere Honduran forests was administered by overall protection and administration of Reserve was placed on the ‘‘World the Administracio´n Forestal del Estado SINAP is hindered by an inability to Heritage Site in Danger’’ list, but it was (AFE, Government Forestry administer its financial and human removed from the list in 2007, due to a Administration), Corporacio´n resources (McGinley 2009, p. 20). Of the significant improvement in conservation Honduren˜ a de Desarrollo Forestal 72 national protected areas, only 23 had efforts by NGOs. Several NGOs are (COHDEFOR Honduran Forestry approved management plans in 2008, working in this area including the Development Corporation) (Moreno and another 19 were in some phase of the Mosquitia Paquisa (MOPAWI) and the Marineros 2001, p. 2). Land use approval process, and 30 protected areas Rio Pla´tano Biosphere Project (UNEP– planning occurs at the national level; had no management plan at all WCMC 2011, p. 5). However, however, identifying the best use of (McGinley 2009, p. 20). Despite investigations in 2010 and 2011 indicate areas has not been implemented protections in place, enforcement has that there are still problems within the (Pellegrini 2011, p. 17). In addition, been lacking in protected areas, and reserve (UNESCO 2011, pp. 1–3). estimates of illegal logging are poverty continues to be a huge concern UNESCO, as recently as 2011, approximately 80 percent of the total in Nicaragua (FAO 2011, pp. 1–2; conducted a survey in the Rı´o Pla´tano volume extracted for broadleaf and 50 McGinley et al. 2009, p. 16). Reserve and found illegal activity percent for coniferous species (Richards Three assessments of the effectiveness within the core zone (UNESCO 2011, et al. 2003, p. 1). of Nicaragua’s laws and regulations with pp. 1–3). Clearing of land for cattle Honduras is making progress in respect to wildlife and forestry laws grazing and illegal fishing and hunting managing its forested resources. In 2010, were recently conducted (Pellegrini along the river is ongoing. The area is Honduras implemented Agreement 2011; McGinley et al. 2009; Castello´n et protected by policy by the Department number 011–2010 (Ecolex 2011), the al. 2008). The first explored the of Protected Areas and Wildlife, State Forestry Reinvestment Fund and relationship between forest management Forestry Administration in Honduras. Plantation Development, and its goal is and poverty (Pellegrini 2011). The The reserve management plan, to recover areas degraded or denuded research published in 2009 evaluated implemented in 2000, included zoning forests. In 2010, Honduras also put into Nicaragua’s Tropical Forests and and specific plans for conservation place Decision No. 31/10, the General Biological Diversity (McGinley et al. issues. One of the goals of the reserve’s Regulation of Forestry Law, Protected 2009, entire). The other report evaluated conservation plan is to integrate local Areas and Wildlife (Ecolex 2011). This the effectiveness of Nicaragua’s wildlife inhabitants with their environment in covers the administration and trade policies (Castello´n et al. 2008, part via sustainable agricultural management of forest resources, entire). In Nicaragua, the organization practices. This practice has been found protected areas, and wildlife. Despite responsible for regulation and control of

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the forestry sector is the National Forest banned species (McGinley 2009, p. 22). at the end of 2003) and addressing Institute (INAFOR), which is under the It found that nonregulatory instruments deforestation as a source of ecological Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and such as monitoring, research, education, vulnerability. As part of its poverty Forestry (MAGFOR). The other relevant and information are poorly used in the reduction strategy, Nicaragua developed ministry is the Nicaraguan Ministry of oversight of commercial wildlife trade a National Development Plan Environment and National Resources in Nicaragua. (McGinley 2009, p. 22). (Government of Nicaragua 2005 in (MARENA), which supports Despite these findings, a review Pellegrini 2011, pp. 21–22), the goal of conservation awareness programs for undertaken by the CITES Secretariat which was to strengthen the whole this species. In early 2003, MARENA found that the legislation of Nicaragua forestry production chain. However, the created the Municipal Environmental has been determined to be sufficient to plan was reported to not have been Unit in order to decentralize properly implement the CITES Treaty effectively implemented (Pellegrini environmental functions. Although a (see discussion below). The country has 2011, p. 22). The main policy good legal framework exists in made an effort to protect its resources, instruments that set the framework for Nicaragua to protect its natural and is attempting to address the forestry were the Forest Law and the resources, there are still on-the-ground management of its natural resources. logging ban. The Forest Law establishes problems that affect this species. For In addition, specific, targeted the system of forest management example, in the Indio-Maı´z Biological conservation measures are occurring. (Pellegrini 2011, pp. 21–22). The law Reserve, one of the strongholds for this An NGO in Nicaragua, with the support includes incentives for sustainable species, each forest guard in the control of MARENA, is promoting conservation practices; however, Pellegrini noted that posts along the border of the reserve is of this species. They have initiated a it is virtually impossible to take responsible for monitoring a stretch of 8 campaign to educate communities in advantage of the law’s provisions km (5 mi) of the border and an area of part by posting messages on buses on without support by external 70 km2 (27 mi2) (Rocha 2012, pp. 3–6; three highly traveled public routes in organizations such as NGOs (Pellegrini Ravnborg et al. 2006, p. 6). There are Managua. For example, one message 2011, p. 22; TNC 2007, pp. 3–7). communication and perception describes why buying endangered Nicaragua is focusing efforts on the problems that are prevalent within the species as pets is not a good idea; rather, restoration and protection of forested reserve that perpetuate the inability to they should remain in the wild. areas, and its goal was to reduce the adequately manage the resources within Additionally, in 2003, Nicaragua and deforestation rate from 70,000 ha the reserve. These resources are used Costa Rica participated in the First (172,974 ac) to 20,000 ha (49,421 ac) per both legally and illegally by Costa Mesoamerican Congress for Protected year by 2010 (McGinley 2009, p. 28). Ricans who cross the San Juan River Areas. Senior representatives of both Recently, the Associated Foresters of and the local communities who live in countries discussed ways to explore the Nicaragua (FORESTAN), in cooperation Nicaragua (Rocha 2012, pp. 3–6). framework of connectivity between with a local NGO, the Instituto de In 2008, the government of Nicaragua protected areas (Villate et al. 2008, p. Investigaciones y Gestio´n Social published a report on the status of its 52). As a result, several active (INGES), began an initiative to increase wildlife laws and mechanisms conservation measures for the great forest cover. Their goal is to incorporate (Castellon et al. 2008, entire). It reported green macaw in Nicaragua are conservation and production areas over the following findings (p. 9): underway, such as the development of 5,000 ha (12,355 ac), and more • Nicaragua’s current laws are connected habitat corridors, and the effectively use commercially valuable inadequate to protect and sustain great green macaw conservation tree species while at the same time domestic and international trade in workshop was held in 2008. In creating permanent jobs (INGES– CITES species. They are unfocused and Nicaragua’s Indio-Maı´z Biological FORESTAN 2005 in Sinreich 2009, p. lack provisions on habitat degradation Reserve, training measures for 63). In 2006, a logging ban was put in and biological productivity. monitoring the great green macaw have place. The ban prohibited extraction of • Nicaragua does not have a written been implemented. For example, six species of wood and any logging wildlife trade policy nor laws to technicians associated with Fundacion operation in protected areas or within underpin sustainable species del Rio have been trained in great green 15 km (9 mi) of all national borders, and management in domestic and macaw research (Chassot et al. 2006, p. it put the army in charge of enforcement international trade. The regulatory 86). The species’ population is only (Government of Nicaragua 2006 in instruments pertaining to sustainable estimated to be 871 individuals in Pellegrini 2011, p. 23). However, management of wildlife trade are Nicaragua and Costa Rica combined deforestation rates may have increased relevant and coherent and provide a (Monge et al. 2010, p. 21), and pressures even after the ban’s approval (Guzma´n basis for the formulation of such a continue to occur to the species and its 2007, pp. 1–2). Although Nicaragua policy. habitat. Despite regulatory mechanisms attempts to manage its natural • The nonregulatory instruments for in place and the existence of many resources, it has a large challenge due to measuring the commercial sustainability strategies in Nicaragua to combat threats the pressures for its forest resources in of wildlife trade are rarely used. The to the species such as deforestation, combination with extreme poverty (FAO most important of them are: Monitoring, habitat loss, and poaching for the 2011, p. 1; McGinley et al. 2009, p. 11). research, education, and information. wildlife trade, these activities continue. Despite these efforts, pressure on the • Study of wildlife harvesting shows The impoverished rely strongly on great green macaw’s habitat continues. that the income from trade in harvested forest products (Pellegrini 2011, pp. 21– species goes principally to external 22). In an attempt to reduce poverty and Panama actors, with little or no benefit to rural at the same time conserve forested areas, In Panama, the great green macaw’s communities or populations. analyses addressing poverty reduction stronghold is believed to be in Darie´n The 2008 study also reported that the were conducted prior to 2002. National Park, which borders Colombia government of Nicaragua was unable to Strategies, described as Poverty (Monge et al. 2009, p. 68; Angehr in litt. find a single case in which the Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), 1996 in Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 121–123; application of its laws led to actual fines recommended approving a forestry law Ridgley 1982). The Darie´n region or penalties for harvesting or trading by 2002 (which actually was approved encompasses nearly 809,371 ha (2

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million ac) of protected areas, including 2004, p. II–4). In 1994, a new forestry degraded areas of the Cordillera of the Darie´n National Park and Biosphere law was approved, which central region. Additionally, in 1992, a Reserve, Punta Patin˜ o Natural Reserve, institutionalized forest management. law was passed to provide incentives for Brage Biological Corridor, and two Now, concessions only exist in the the establishment of plantations; reserves for indigenous communities Darie´n Province (Parker et al. 2004, p. however, these were mainly exotic (TNC 2011, p. 1). Panama’s National II–4). Between 1992 and 2000, the species (Parker et al. 2004, p. III–6). System of Protected Areas (SINAP) is Darie´n province was one of Panama’s Panama is now implementing managed by the National Environmental provinces that experienced the greatest reforestation and timber production Authority (ANAM) and consists of 66 declines (11.5 percent) in forest cover projects that focus on native species. areas, totaling 2.5 million ha (6.18 (Parker et al. 2004, p. 32). However, This initiative is known as the ‘‘Native million ac) (Devenish et al. 2009b, p. 1– there are activities in place to combat Species Reforestation Project’’ (Proyecto 2). Of these, 19 have management plans, these pressures. For example, a training de Reforestacio´n con Especies Nativas; and 36 have been through a process of program exists to increase capacity in PRORENA) (Schmidt 2009, p. 10). strategic planning (ANAM 2006, issues such as planning, geographic Forestry managers have realized that, in unpaginated). information systems, sustainable some cases, native species are better ANAM was established in 1998, tourism, trail construction and adapted and perform better than through the General Environmental Law management for park staff, community introduced species. Since 2001, the joint of Panama (Law 41). ANAM is the groups, and other stakeholders in the Native Species Reforestation Project primary government institution for protected area system. between the Smithsonian Tropical forest and biodiversity conservation and Research Institute and the Yale School Darie´n National Park management. ANAM plans, coordinates, of Forestry has conducted ongoing regulates, and promotes policies and Darie´n National Park extends along research on trees native to Panama. The actions to use, conserve, and develop about 80 percent of the Panama- almendro tree, which is vital to the great renewable resources of the country. Its Colombia border and includes part of green macaw’s habitat, has been the mission statement is to guarantee a the Pacific coast. The area has been subject of research projects in Panama healthy environment through the under protection since 1972, with the because of its high commercial value promotion of rational use of natural establishment of Alto Darie´n Protection (Schmidt 2009, p. 17). Despite efforts to resources, the organization of Forest. It was declared a national park reduce deforestation activities, environmental management, and the in 1980. The park is zoned as a strictly management problems remain. A study transformation of Panamanian culture to protected core zone of over 83,000 ha conducted in 2004 suggested that the improve the quality of life (Virviescas et (205,097 ac). Another zone consists of Forestry Department needs increased al. 1998, p. 2). Law 41 also provides the 180,000 ha (444,789 ac) and contains autonomy, funding, and staff, and a framework for SINAP. Environmental indigenous Indian populations that have more appropriate mandate (Parker et al. protection in Panama falls under the maintained their traditional way of life 2004, pp. 10–11). The study suggested jurisdiction of three government and culture. Approximately 8,000 ha that strengthening the Parks and agencies, the Institute for Renewable (19,768 ac) is designated for tourism and Wildlife Service through increased Natural Resources, the Ministry of environmental education, and the last staffing and resources would enable Agricultural Development, and the zone is described as an ‘‘inspection them to protect and manage protected Ministry of Health. There are 17 zone’’ which is 40-km (25-mi) wide, and areas (Parker et al. 2004, pp. 10–11). management categories of protected spans the Panama-Colombia border. The In summary, Panama has a suite of areas that were established through Darie´n forests are threatened from environmental laws in place, and INRENARE’s Resolution 09–94. A later logging, agriculture expansion, burning, conservation measures are being law, the Forest Law of 2004, established and hunting and gathering (TNC 2011, implemented by the government in protections for three types of forest, pp. 1–2; Monge et al. 2009, p. 68). Other collaboration with some NGOs. which covers 36 percent of the country. threats to forest in the region include However, there is very little information There are political and economic the development of projects such as available about the great green macaw in pressures to develop many areas dams and highways (Parker et al. 2004, Panama (Monge et al. 2009, p. 68), and (Devenish et al. 2009b, p. 291). pp. II–7—II–8). the information indicates that this Deforestation, in addition to the lack of Since 1986, the Asociacio´n Nacional species continues to face pressures to its management, and lease periods for these para la Conservacio´n de la Naturaleza habitat. Despite Panama’s participation concessions of 2 to 5 years, have left (ANCON) has been actively involved in in conservation initiatives and Panama’s only an estimated 250,000 to 350,000 ha conservation of the park in conjunction regulatory mechanisms in place, there (617,763 to 864,868 ac) of production with INRENARE, the World Wildlife are still significant pressures for forests in Panama (Gutierrez 2001a in Fund, and other conservation entities. resources in the great green macaw’s Parker et al. 2004, p. I–10). In 1995, a biodiversity conservation habitat. Additionally, many protected areas in project was initiated. The project’s goal Panama lack adequate staff and was to involve local communities in International Wildlife Trade (CITES) resources to patrol the areas or enforce conservation and sustainable use The CITES Treaty requires Parties to regulations (Devenish et al. 2009b, p. activities, and was funded by the United have adequate legislation in place for its 291). In 1986, Panama initiated a Nations Environment Programme implementation. A complete discussion national forest strategy (Plan de Accio´n (UNEP) and the Global Environment on CITES is found under Factor D for Forestal de Panama or PAFPAN) Facility. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) the military macaw. Within the recent supported by FAO; however the plan is also active in conservation efforts in past (since 2000), 261 live great green reportedly did not directly tackle the this area through its Parks in Peril macaws were reported to have been causes of deforestation. Between 1980 program (TNC 2011, pp. 1–2). imported by CITES reporting countries, and 1990, concessions for 77,800 ha Panama has also initiated and none of these live specimens were (192,248 ac) of production forests were reforestation efforts. For example, reported as wild origin (UNEP–WCMC awarded to 23 companies, for periods beginning in the 1960s, Panama began CITES Trade Database, accessed ranging from 2 to 5 years (Parker et al. to plant Pinus caribaea (pine species) in December 8, 2011). Under CITES

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Resolution Conference 8.4 (revised at existence in areas designated as Ecuador was fewer than 100 (Horstman CoP15), and related decisions of the protected, this species has experienced 2011, p. 17). There are no current Conference of the Parties, the National threats such that its populations are population estimates for Panama, Legislation Project evaluates whether now so small that any pressure has a Honduras, and Colombia, but the global Parties have adequate domestic more significant effect. Parks, without population is believed to be fewer than legislation to successfully implement management, are often insufficient to 3,700 individuals (Monge et al. 2009, the Treaty (CITES 2011a). In reviewing adequately protect the species. The pp. 68, 79, 213). Small, declining a country’s national legislation, the information available with respect to the populations can be especially CITES Secretariat evaluates factors such species’ population numbers is vulnerable to environmental as whether or not a Party: extremely limited in its range countries, disturbances such as habitat loss (Harris • Has domestic laws that prohibit and the populations of this species in and Pimm 2008, pp. 163–164; O’Grady trade contrary to the requirements of the these countries all likely range from a 2004, pp. 513–514; Brooks et al. 1999, Convention; few individuals to a few hundred pp. 1,146–1,147). In Costa Rica, the • Has penalty provisions in place for individuals (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez great green macaw has been eliminated illegal trade, and has designated the 2011, p. 91; Monge et al. 2010, p. 22; from approximately 90 percent of its responsible Scientific and Management Monge et al. 2009). The populations are former range, and one estimate Authorities; and indicated that there were only 275 birds • all in relatively disconnected areas. Its Provides for seizure of specimens suitable habitat has been severely remaining in 2010 (Chassot 2010 pers. that are illegally traded or possessed. constricted due to deforestation. In all of comm. in Hardman 2010, p. 11). The CITES Secretariat determined the range countries, there is clear Isolated populations are more likely to that the legislations of Colombia, Costa evidence of threats to this species due decline than those that are not isolated Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama to activities such as habitat destruction (Davies et al. 2000, p. 1456), as are sufficient to properly implement the and degradation, and poaching, and evidenced by the Ecuadorian Treaty (http://www.cites.org, SC58 Doc. there is decreased viability due to small population. Additionally, the great 18 Annex 1, p. 1). These governments population sizes, despite the laws and green macaw’s restricted range, were determined to be in Category 1, regulatory mechanisms in place. Given combined with its small population size which means they meet all the that the species’ habitat continues to be and low prospect for dispersal (Chosset requirements to implement CITES. fragmented and degraded, it is unlikely et al. 2004, p. 32), makes the species Ecuador was determined to be in particularly vulnerable to the threat of Category 2, with a draft plan, but not that any conservation measures are adequately mitigating the factors any adverse natural (e.g., genetic, enacted (http://www.cites.org, SC59 demographic, or stochastic) and Document 11, Annex p. 1, accessed currently acting on the species. Based on the best available manmade (e.g., habitat alteration and December 16, 2011). This means the information, despite protections in destruction) events that could destroy CITES Secretariat determined that the place by the respective governments, we individuals and their habitats. legislation of Ecuador meets some, but find that the existing regulatory The government of Costa Rica, in not all, of the requirements for mechanisms are either inadequate or cooperation with Zoo Ave Wildlife implementing CITES. Based on the inadequately enforced to protect the Conservation Park, located in Garita de limited amount of reported international species or to mitigate ongoing habitat Alajuela, has participated in a captive trade for this species, particularly in loss and degradation, poaching, and bird breeding program (Herrero 2006, wild-caught specimens, the range severe population declines. Habitat pp. 2–3) since 1994. Some of the birds countries, including Ecuador, have conservation measures within these produced have been released in effectively controlled legal international range countries do not appear to be protected areas. However, captive trade of this species. Therefore, we find sufficient to adequately mitigate future breeding is a controversial issue, mainly CITES is an adequate regulatory habitat losses. This is due to a suite of due to the reintroduction of individuals. mechanism. factors, such as high rates of poverty in One of the concerns is that the Summary of Factor D the range of the great green macaw and reintroduced birds introduce infectious diseases (which may be in dormant subsequent pressures for resources, and In the range countries for this species, phase for a period of time) into the wild conflicting management goals (such as we recognize that conservation activities (Brightsmith et al. 2006 in Herrero 2006, economic development and protection are occurring, and each country has pp. 2–3). enacted laws with the intent of of its resources) of its range countries. There are multiple features of this protecting its species and habitat. For Therefore, we find that the existing species’ biology and life history that example, in 2002, the San Juan-La Selva regulatory mechanisms are inadequate affect its ability to respond to habitat Biological Corridor, an area of 60,000 ha to mitigate the current threats to the loss and alteration, as well as to (148,263 ac), was implemented to continued existence of the great green stochastic environmental events. Due to protect the nesting places and migration macaw throughout its range. its current restricted distribution and flyway of the great green macaw in E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors habitat requirements, stochastic events Costa Rica, as far as the Nicaragua Affecting Its Continued Existence could further isolate individuals. An border, where very little is known about example of a stochastic event impacting the species. However, most of the Small Population Size and Stochastic the species occurred in 2010, and the suitable habitat is restricted to protected Events death of several nestlings was recorded areas in clustered locations. Oliveira et There have been few quantitative (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 15). One al. found that forests in conservation studies of great green macaw nestling fell out of a tree, and, in units were four times better at populations (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez another case, a branch fell on a nestling protecting against deforestation than 2011, p. 91; Monge et al. 2010, p. 12; while it was actually in the nest and it unprotected areas (Oliveira et al. 2007, Monge et al. 2009.). In 2009, the died (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 15). p. 1,235). Despite regulatory combined estimate for Costa Rica and Losses such as these can have a mechanisms established by this species’ Nicaragua was 871 individuals (Monge significant effect on the population. range countries and despite the species’ et al. 2010, p. 21), and the estimate for Additionally, limited available suitable

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habitat makes it difficult for the species 2007, p. 26). Land rights disputes threats that have interrelated impacts on to recolonize isolated habitat patches, continue to occur in Bosawas, and land this species. Thus, the species’ which presently exist in a highly use rights are often unclear. Although productivity may be reduced because of fragmented state. This, in combination the government of Nicaragua is any of these threats, either singularly or with the species’ nutritional needs, attempting to manage these issues in combination. These threats occur at results in the species requiring large (Pellegrini 2011, pp. 21), conflict and a sufficient scale such that they are home ranges. practices that degrade the great green affecting the status of the species now macaw’s habitat persist both in the and in the future. Border Conflict Bosawas Reserve and the Indio-Maı´z This species’ current range is highly One of the difficulties in the Biological Reserve. restricted and severely fragmented. Each conservation of this species that may breeding pair requires a large home not be readily apparent is border Climate Change range to meet its nutritional conflict. For example, at the border of Our analysis under the ESA includes requirements; it is a large macaw, and Nicaragua and Costa Rica, despite consideration of ongoing and projected its sources of food are becoming scarcer cooperation efforts; conflict continues changes in climate (see discussion and farther apart, which requires more (U.S. Department of State 2012, under the military macaw). The 2008 energy consumption to locate. The unpaginated; Berrios 2004, entire). The workshop in Costa Rica addressed susceptibility to extirpation of limited- Nicaraguan-Costa Rican border is one of environmental disasters in the range species can occur for a variety of the most conflict-heavy frontiers in evaluation and assessment of the great reasons, such as when a species’ Central America (Lopez and Jimenez green macaw, although climate change remaining population is already too 2007, p. 21). Migration issues, was not specifically addressed. small or its distribution too fragmented navigation rights in border rivers, border Researchers described environmental such that it may no longer be delineation, and cultural differences all disasters as events that occur demographically or genetically viable. affect these countries’ relations (Lopez infrequently but that can drastically The species’ small and declining and Jimenez 2007, p. 21). Additionally, affect reproduction or survival. Monge population size, reproductive and life- this area has historically experienced et al. reported that in Costa Rica, the history traits, and highly restricted and exploitation of its natural resources. number of active nests in 2000 was well severely fragmented range together Since the beginning of last century, below the average of other years. The increase the species’ vulnerability to foreign companies have engaged in researchers linked this with the strong any other stressors. Based on the above logging, rubber extraction, and mining El Nin˜ o event that occurred during evaluation, we conclude that the effects (Lopez and Jimenez 2007, pp. 24–25). 1997–1998 (Monge et al. 2009, p. 149). of isolation and its small, declining After these resources were depleted and The researchers stated that in the last 50 population size, combined with the these activities were no longer years there were two major El Nin˜ o threats of continued fragmentation and profitable, some companies left, leaving events, and, therefore, one would expect isolation of suitable forest habitats, pose behind harmful environmental impacts that in 100 years there would be four a threat to the great green macaw. (Lopez and Jimenez 2007, pp. 24–25). events of this nature, which could These activities have resulted in subsequently reduce reproduction by 30 Finding and Status Determination for polluted rivers, high levels of percent (Monge et al. 2009, p. 149). the Great Green Macaw sedimentation in coastal lagoons, and However, this correlation between the Although precise quantitative deforested areas (Lopez and Jimenez low number of active nests and the El estimates are not available, the best 2007, pp. 24–25). These activities all Nin˜ o event is not strongly supported, available information suggests that subsequently affect the habitat of the nor do we have supporting evidence populations of great green macaws have great green macaw. that this is directly related to climate substantially declined, and this species Deforestation in Nicaragua has a change. We are not aware of any likely persists at greatly reduced complex history. After a civil war information that indicates that climate numbers relative to its historical throughout the 1980s, land tenure change threatens the continued abundance. The factors that threaten the policies inadvertently encouraged existence of the great green macaw. survival of the great green macaw are: farming techniques that led to (1) Habitat destruction, fragmentation, deforestation, soil erosion, and general Summary of Factor E and degradation; (2) poaching; (3) land degradation (Sinreich 2009, p. 11). A species may be affected by more inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms to Later, during the 1990s, COHDEFOR than one threat. Impacts typically reduce the threats to the species; and (4) opened up timber extraction operate synergistically, and are small population size and isolation of opportunities to local community particularly evident when small remaining populations. organizations, mainly cooperatives, to populations of a species are decreasing. The direct loss of habitat through help mitigate the economic situation for Initial effects of one threat factor can widespread deforestation and local people. Licenses allowed the use exacerbate the effects of other threat conversion of primary forests to human of fallen wood and timber extraction for factors (Laurance and Useche 2009, p. settlement and agricultural uses has led sale at local markets. However, a study 1432; Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, pp. 25– to the fragmentation of habitat conducted between 1998 and 2000 26). Further fragmentation of throughout the range of the great green found that local groups had extracted an populations can decrease the fitness and macaw and isolation of the remaining enormous amount of timber and there reproductive potential of the species, populations. The species has been was no monitoring (Colı´ndres and Rubı´ which can exacerbate other threats. Lack locally extirpated in many areas and has 2002). During the period of 1994–1999, of a sufficient number of individuals in experienced a significant reduction of although the government offered a local area or a decline in their suitable habitat. The current suitable support to communities in its border individual or collective fitness may habitat in Costa Rica is now less than 10 regions, tensions continue to affect the cause a decline in the population size, percent of its original suitable habitat Bosawas region of Nicaragua, one of the even with suitable habitat patches. (Chosset et al. 2004, p. 38). This species areas believed to contain a great green Within the preceding review of the five exists generally in small and fragmented macaw population (Lopez and Jime´nez factors, we have identified multiple populations, and in many cases, the

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population is so small that intense the Federal Register. We will invite National Environmental Policy Act monitoring and management of the these peer reviewers to comment during (NEPA) population is underway. The San Juan- the public comment period on our We have determined that La Selva Biological Corridor was specific assumptions and conclusions environmental assessments and established to connect forest patches regarding the proposal to list the environmental impact statements, as and join 20 protected areas (Chosset and military macaw and the great green defined under the authority of the Arias 2010, p. 5) specifically to preserve macaw. habitat for this species. National Environmental Policy Act of We have very little information about We will consider all comments and 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not the species in many parts of its range information we receive during the be prepared in connection with (Botero-Delgadillo and Pa´ez 2011, p. 91; comment period on this proposed rule regulations adopted under section 4(a) Monge et al. 2009, p. 68). In 2008, during our preparation of a final of the ESA. We published a notice experts from this species’ range determination. Accordingly, our final outlining our reasons for this countries attended a conference to decision may differ from this proposal. determination in the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). evaluate the viability of its populations Available Conservation Measures and its habitat (Monge et al. 2009, Paperwork Reduction Act entire). In general, they concluded that Conservation measures provided to populations are viable but they still face species listed as endangered or This proposed rule does not contain threats. The workshop also addressed threatened under the ESA include any new collections of information that goals for the conservation of the species; recognition, requirements for Federal require approval by OMB under the in some parts of its range, conservation protection, and prohibitions against Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44 efforts are intensive. Based on our certain practices. Recognition through U.S.C. 3501 et seq.). This rule would not review of the best available scientific listing results in public awareness, and impose recordkeeping or reporting and commercial information pertaining encourages and results in conservation requirements on State or local to the five factors, the threats to the actions by Federal and State governments, individuals, businesses, or species are generally consistent governments, private agencies and organizations. An agency may not throughout its range. In many of the interest groups, and individuals. conduct or sponsor, and a person is not range countries, its populations are very required to respond to, a collection of small, and specific information about The ESA and its implementing information unless it displays a the status of the species is not available regulations set forth a series of general currently valid OMB control number. in all countries. However, habitat loss prohibitions and exceptions that apply and degradation is prevalent throughout to all endangered and threatened Clarity of the Rule this species’ range; its suitable habitat wildlife. These prohibitions, at 50 CFR We are required by Executive Orders has severely contracted, and habitat loss 17.21 and 17.31, in part, make it illegal 12866 and 12988, and by the is likely to continue into the future due for any person subject to the jurisdiction Presidential Memorandum of June 1, to pressures for resources. Poaching is of the United States to ‘‘take’’ (includes 1998, to write all rules in plain known to occur within many parts, if harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, language. This means that each rule we not all parts, of its range. Despite wound, kill, trap, capture, or to attempt publish must: conservation awareness programs, any of these) within the United States or (a) Be logically organized; poverty is prevalent within the range of upon the high seas; import or export; the species, and the species is quite deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship (b) Use the active voice to address valuable commercially, so poaching in interstate commerce in the course of readers directly; continues to occur. We do not find that commercial activity; or sell or offer for (c) Use clear language rather than the effects of current threats acting on sale in interstate or foreign commerce jargon; the species are being ameliorated by any endangered wildlife species. It also (d) Be divided into short sections and regulatory mechanisms . Therefore, we is illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, sentences; and find that listing the great green macaw transport, or ship any such wildlife that (e) Use lists and tables wherever as endangered is warranted throughout has been taken in violation of the ESA. possible. its range, and we propose to list the Certain exceptions apply to agents of the If you feel that we have not met these great green macaw as endangered under Service and State conservation agencies. the ESA. requirements, send us comments by one Permits may be issued to carry out of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES Peer Review otherwise prohibited activities section. To better help us revise the In accordance with our joint policy involving endangered and threatened rule, your comments should be as with the National Marine Fisheries wildlife species under certain specific as possible. For example, you Service, ‘‘Notice of Interagency circumstances. Regulations governing should tell us the numbers of the Cooperative Policy for Peer Review in permits for endangered species are sections or paragraphs that are unclearly Endangered Species Act Activities,’’ codified at 50 CFR 17.22. With regard to written, which sections or sentences are published in the Federal Register on endangered wildlife, a permit may be too long, or the sections where you feel July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), we will seek issued for the following purposes: For lists or tables would be useful. scientific purposes, to enhance the the expert opinions of at least three References Cited appropriate independent specialists propagation or survival of the species, regarding this proposed rule. The and for incidental take in connection A complete list of all references cited purpose of peer review is to ensure that with otherwise lawful activities. For in this proposed rule is available on the our final determination is based on threatened species, a permit may be Internet at http://www.regulations.gov scientifically sound data, assumptions, issued for the same activities, as well as or upon request from the Branch of and analyses. We will send copies of zoological exhibition, education, and Foreign Species, Endangered Species this proposed rule to the peer reviewers special purposes consistent with the Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service immediately following publication in ESA. (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).

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Authors Proposed Regulation Promulgation 99–625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted. The primary authors of this proposed Accordingly, we propose to amend 2. Amend § 17.11(h) by adding new rule are Amy Brisendine and Janine Van part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title entries for ‘‘Macaw, great green’’ and Norman, Branch of Foreign Species, 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, ‘‘Macaw, military’’ in alphabetical order Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish as set forth below: under BIRDS to the List of Endangered and Wildlife Service. PART 17—[AMENDED] and Threatened Wildlife to read as List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 follows: Endangered and threatened species, 1. The authority citation for part 17 § 17.11 Endangered and threatened Exports, Imports, Reporting and continues to read as follows: wildlife. recordkeeping requirements, Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 16 U.S.C. * * * * * Transportation. 1531–1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201–4245; Public Law (h) * * *

Species Vertebrate population where Critical Special Historic range endangered or Status When listed habitat rules Common name Scientific name threatened

******* BIRDS

******* Macaw, great green Ara ambiguus ...... Costa Rica, Hon- Entire ...... E 797 NA NA duras, Nicaragua, and Panama.

******* Macaw, military ...... Ara militaris ...... Argentina, Bolivia, Entire ...... E 797 NA NA Colombia, Ecua- dor, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela.

* * * * * Dated: May 14, 2012. Rowan W. Gould, Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. [FR Doc. 2012–16492 Filed 7–5–12; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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