High-frequency Sequences within the Lower Mississippian Allensville Member, Logan

Formation, South-central Ohio

A thesis presented to

the faculty of

the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

Master of Science

Trey O. Klopfenstein

August 2018

© 2018 Trey O. Klopfenstein. All Rights Reserved. 2

This thesis titled

High-frequency Sequences within the Lower Mississippian Allensville Member, Logan

Formation, South-central Ohio

by

TREY O. KLOPFENSTEIN

has been approved for

the Department of Geological Sciences

and the College of Arts and Sciences by

Gregory C. Nadon

Associate Professor of Geological Sciences

Robert Frank

Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3

ABSTRACT

KLOPFENSTEIN, TREY O., M.S., August 2018, Geological Sciences

High-frequency Sequences within the Lower Mississippian Allensville Member, Logan

Formation, South-central Ohio

Director of Thesis: Gregory C. Nadon

The Allensville Member of the Logan Formation (Late Tournaisian; 345 – 349

Ma) in south-central Ohio is an anomalously coarse-grained unit deposited in a shallow marine setting at a time when tectonic subsidence rates were low and after the onset of

Late Paleozoic glaciations. The Allensville Member mainly consists of interbedded very fine- to very coarse-grained arenites with small amounts of laminated mudstone and coarse-grained laminations in finer-grained sandstones. Less common are well sorted and well rounded, granule to pebble conglomerates. Average grain size is 0.9 mm with a maximum clast size of 3.0 cm. Vertical grain size trends in the measured sections show similar trends of coarsening and fining upwards that can be correlated along strike for 30 km. Fossils within the member consist of crinoid columnal molds and rare brachiopod shell molds. Vertical burrows that are filled with coarse-grained sand and granules from overlying beds and which are present at the same stratigraphic position within each measured section are interpreted as the Glossifungites ichnofacies. The presence of the

Glossifungites traces combined with the textures of the sandstones and conglomerates are interpreted to be the result of deposition as storm deposits and transgressive lags, respectively. Vertical changes in grain size, texture, and concentrations of fossils were used to subdivide the interval into systems tracts that represent two 4th order sequences in 4 which deposition was controlled by high-frequency, high magnitude glacio-eustatic sea- level fluctuations.

5

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First, I would like to acknowledge my advisor, Dr. Greg Nadon, who has been so critical to my success in the past few years, through undergraduate and graduate school, and has guided me through the journey that was this project. I am much appreciative of the Ohio University Department of Geological Sciences as a whole, for providing such a friendly atmosphere and shaping me into a proper geologist. I would also like to thank the Ohio University Geological Sciences Alumni for awarding me a Graduate Research

Grant and Summer Research Fellowship, and the Crane Hollow State Nature Preserve for granting me a permit to conduct my study in the Hocking Hills region. Lastly, I want to acknowledge all of the wonderful friends I’ve made throughout my journey here at Ohio

University, who have delivered me social bliss, and my family members, who have been so supportive of my endeavors. Thank you, all.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page Abstract ...... 3 Acknowledgments ...... 5 List of Tables...... 7 List of Figures ...... 8 Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 9 Chapter 2: Previous Work ...... 13 Chapter 3: Methodology ...... 22 3.1 Introduction ...... 22 3.2 Field Methodology ...... 22 3.3 Laboratory Methodology ...... 27 Chapter 4: Results...... 28 4.1 Introduction ...... 28 4.2 Lithofacies ...... 32 4.3 Facies Associations ...... 45 Chapter 5: Discussion ...... 54 5.1 Introduction ...... 54 5.2 Transgressive Lags, Storm Deposits, and Erosion Surfaces ...... 54 5.3 Sequence Stratigraphy ...... 58 5.4 Glacio-eustasy...... 66 Chapter 6: Conclusions ...... 69 References ...... 70 Appendix A: Measured Sections ...... 82 Appendix B: Cross-sections ...... 93

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LIST OF TABLES

Page Table 1. Facies table...... 33 Table 2. Ichnogenera within the Glossifungites...... 41 Table 3. Facies associations...... 46

8

LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 1. Study location...... 11 Figure 2. General stratigraphic column ...... 14 Figure 3. Isopach map (previous work) ...... 16 Figure 4. Paleolocation ...... 17 Figure 5. Tectonic model ...... 20 Figure 6. Mississippian sea-level changes ...... 21 Figure 7. Section locations from previous work ...... 23 Figure 8. Poor outcrop character ...... 25 Figure 9. Good outcrop character ...... 26 Figure 10. Isopach map ...... 29 Figure 11. Isopach map (present study and previous work) ...... 30 Figure 12. Isolith map ...... 31 Figure 13. Laminated mudstone (Facies 1) ...... 35 Figure 14. Normally graded bedding character (Facies 2) ...... 37 Figure 15. Diagenetic iron cement (Facies 2) ...... 38 Figure 16. Crinoid columnal molds (Facies 2) ...... 39 Figure 17. Vertical burrows of the Glossifungites ichnofacies (Facies 2) ...... 40 Figure 18. Substrate control on ichnofacies ...... 41 Figure 19. Coarse-grained sandstone (Facies 3)...... 43 Figure 20. Conglomerate (Facies 4) ...... 44 Figure 21. Shelf model ...... 47 Figure 22. Erosion surfaces model ...... 48 Figure 23. Facies associations cross-section ...... 51 Figure 24. Storm deposit model ...... 56 Figure 25. Storm deposit thickness and distribution (Hurricane Carla) ...... 58 Figure 26. Depositional model ...... 62 Figure 27. Sequence stratigraphic model ...... 64 Figure 28. Glacio-eustatic sea-level cyclicity ...... 67

9

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Lower Mississippian strata of south-central Ohio were deposited between major pulses of the Acadian and Allegheny orogenies. The Logan Formation (Upper

Tournaisian) in eastern and southern Ohio dominantly consists of westward dipping fine- grained marine facies deposited on a low-angle ramp. The Logan Formation overlies the

Black Hand Sandstone (Upper Tournaisian) incised valley fill or shales of the Cuyahoga

Formation, where present (Matchen and Kammer, 2006). Overlying the Logan

Formation is the Rushville Shale or Maxville Limestone, where present (Ohio Division of

Geological Survey, 1990).

The Logan Formation is composed of four members: the basal Berne conglomerate, the Byer, the Allensville, and the Vinton. The focus of this study is the

Allensville Member. Detailed measured sections of the Logan Formation were identified in previous studies in a series of reports, including theses and dissertations (Hall, 1951;

Hohler, 1950; Merrill, 1950; and Stout, 1927). The lithostratigraphic descriptions of the

Logan Formation all show that the Allensville Member is a coarse-grained, thin-bedded deposit surrounded by fine-grained marine facies.

Since the previous studies of the Logan Formation, advances have been made in methodologies for interpreting the processes and environments associated with deposition of siliciclastic sediments, e.g., facies models. Advances in quantifying extrabasinal factors, such as tectonism, eustasy, and climate, have led to the development of sequence stratigraphy, which is a methodology designed to interpret facies in terms of allocyclic 10 versus autocyclic controls. These developments allow for a new perspective in investigating and describing the Logan Formation.

Ultimately, the present study has three goals: 1) identify new exposures of the

Allensville Member in south-central Ohio; 2) update the lithostratigraphic descriptions of the Allensville Member using process sedimentology and ichnology; and 3) apply process facies models and high-frequency sequence stratigraphy to the Allensville

Member.

To achieve those goals, three hypotheses were proposed:

Hypothesis 1: The orientation of the incised valley of the underlying Black Hand

Sandstone suggests that the depositional strike was NE-SW. The trends of grain size and thickness of the Allensville Member indicate deposition parallel to paleoshorelines.

Isopach and isolith maps of previous workers and new locations from this study will be used to determine the orientation of sandstones in the Allensville Member.

Elongation in a NE-SW direction will indicate deposition parallel to a paleoshoreline.

Hypothesis 2: The thin, coarse-grained to conglomeratic beds at the base and top of the Allensville Member were deposited as a transgressive lag and a regressive shoreface, respectively.

Transgressive and regressive deposits differ in texture and can be differentiated based on grain size, sorting, and bioturbation. The erosion surfaces that bound the coarse-grained deposits can be used to differentiate transgressive and regressive deposits using the current sequence stratigraphic methodology. 11

Hypothesis 3: Deposition of siliciclastic sediments in the Allensville Member was dominantly controlled by glacio-eustasy.

A sequence stratigraphic analysis will show the presence of high order sequences, which in this part of the basin cannot be explained by tectonics or autocyclic controls.

These hypotheses were evaluated in a four-county region that includes the type section of the Logan Formation (Orton, 1880) and Allensville Member (Hyde, 1915 in

Holden, 1942). The study area includes parts of Fairfield, Hocking, Ross, and Vinton counties in south-central Ohio (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Map showing the location of the study area within south-central Ohio, USA (modified from Ohio Division of Geological Survey, 2006). The yellow line outlines the area in which sections were explored and measured. Mississippian-age strata make up the western portion of the study area and Pennsylvanian-age strata make up the eastern portion. The southern extent of the most recent glaciation (Wisconsinan) is indicated by a dashed line. 12

The results of this study show that sandstone and grain size trends are consistent with shoreline parallel deposits. The facies analysis determined that deposition occurred on a storm-dominated inner shelf. The vertical stacking pattern of facies associations were interpreted using sequence stratigraphy to show deposition was controlled by 4th order glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations within a 3rd order sea-level rise.

13

CHAPTER 2: PREVIOUS WORK

The ‘Logan Formation’ was first named by Orton (1880). In south-central Ohio, the Logan Formation is situated above the Cuyahoga Formation (including the Black

Hand Sandstone in some localities) and below the Maxville Limestone and Rushville

Shale, where they are present (Figure 2). Hyde (1915, 1921; in Hyde, 1953) first subdivided the Logan Formation into three members: Byer, Allensville, and Vinton; and then later added the basal Berne Member (Holden, 1942). The four members form an overall fining upward succession, from the Berne Member (also termed the Berne

Conglomerate) to the shaly, upper Vinton Member.

Previous detailed measured sections of the Logan Formation were made in

Fairfield, Hocking, Ross, and Vinton counties of Ohio by Hall (1951), Hohler (1950),

Merrill (1950), and Stout (1927). The following summary of the lithological variations of the Logan Formation members is taken primarily from Hyde (1953). The basal Berne

Member rests on the Cuyahoga Formation shales or the Black Hand Sandstone, where present. The latter is a localized incised valley fill deposit composed of coarse-grained sandstone and quartz conglomerates trending NW-SE (Matchen and Kammer, 2006).

The Berne Member is typically a quartz pebble conglomerate with clast sizes up to 13 mm in diameter, but coarse sandstones and shales may be found in some locations. The unit never exceeds 6.1 meters in thickness. Hyde (1953) described the Berne Member as lithologically similar to the conglomerate within the Cuyahoga but concluded that it belonged in the Logan Formation based on: 1) a sharp base and, in places, a basal erosional plane; 2) there are locations where contact with the Logan Formation is 14 transitional; 3) sandstone beds like those found in the Logan Formation are frequently present in the Berne Member; 4) the Berne Member contains marine fauna, which are lacking in the Cuyahoga, and; 5) those faunas show a close relationship to those of the

Logan Formation. Bork and Malcuit (1979) later interpreted the Berne Member as a transgressive lag deposit consisting of reworked pebbles from the Black Hand Sandstone.

Figure 2. A general stratigraphic column (not at true vertical scale) of the Logan Formation and relative stratigraphic position to adjacent Mississippian deposits (Matchen and Kammer, 2006; Ohio Division of Geological Survey, 1990). The time scale is given in absolute dates and standard and regional stages (Haq and Schutter, 2008). The far- right column lists the formations present in the study area. The stratigraphic column depicts the members present in the Logan Formation and the underlying Black Hand Sandstone with grain size increasing to the right. The focus of this study (Allensville Member) is highlighted in yellow.

The Byer Member is typically a fine-grained, argillaceous sandstone that is yellow or buff where exposed and blue or gray in fresh exposures. Individual beds do not exceed 45 cm and the total thickness ranges from 7 – 46 m (Hyde, 1953). 15

The Allensville Member is comprised of a basal and upper coarse-grained sandstone to conglomeratic bed with well-sorted, rounded quartz grains up to 3 mm in diameter (Hyde, 1953). Layers of fine-grained sandstones, like those of the Byer

Member, typically lie between the coarser beds. The upper 0.9 – 1.5 m almost invariably comprises coarse-grained sandstones usually cemented by limonite. The total thickness of the Allensville Member varies from 4.6 – 7.6 m.

The stratigraphically youngest unit is the Vinton Member, which is typically capped by an erosion surface; therefore, an original maximum thickness is not known, but thicknesses up to 73 m have been reported. The Vinton Member is composed of a series of alternating beds of fine-grained sandstones and shales, gray or yellow in color, that are relatively thin compared to those within the Byer Member.

An isopach map of the Allensville Member drawn using data obtained from theses, dissertations, and publications is shown in Figure 3. The thickness varies from

0.6 to 14.8 m (2.0 – 48.5 ft). The contoured data show a NE-SW fabric that is perpendicular to the thickness trend of the Black Hand Sandstone (Matchen and Kammer,

2006).

The Logan Formation was deposited during the latest Tournaisian (345 – 349 Ma) based on data from ammonoids, brachiopods, miospores, and conodonts (Matchen and

Kammer, 2006). Deposition is estimated to have occurred at a paleolatitude of ~15°S during the Early Carboniferous (~356 Ma) (Figure 4; Scotese, 2001).

16

Figure 3. Isopach map of the Allensville Member using data from previous work (Hall, 1951; Hohler, 1950; Merrill, 1950; Stout, 1927). County borders are marked by green lines. Measured sections are indicated by red dots. Thickness measurements from previous work are presented in standard units. Paleoflow direction of the older Black Hand Sandstone is reported to be ~340° (Kittredge and Malcuit, 1985).

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Figure 4. Map showing the paleolatitude and paleogeography of the study area in the Early to Middle Mississippian (~345 Ma) (Garrity and Soller, 2009). The paleolatitude is estimated to be ~15°S during the Early Carboniferous (Scotese, 2001).

The age of the Logan Formation shows it was deposited between the major pulses of the Acadian and Allegheny orogenies. A regional isopach map of the Weir Sandstone

(Kinderhookian) in West Virginia (Figure 5a), which is equivalent to the Cuyahoga

Formation in Ohio, shows that sediment thicknesses of the Weir Sandstone do not thicken 18 to the east (Matchen and Vargo, 1996). This pattern shows that Allegheny foreland basin had not yet developed. In contrast, there is a pronounced eastward increase in thickness of the younger Mauch Chunk Group (Meramecian) in Virginia and West Virginia (Figure

5b), which is equivalent to the Maxville Limestone in Ohio (Barlow, 1996). The Mauch

Chunk Group isopach trend is indicative of deposition in the early foreland basin of the

Allegheny orogeny. The importance of both figures is that they show that the regional tectonic dip in east-central Ohio during deposition of the Logan Formation was very low

(Figure 5c).

Limited tectonic subsidence is reported in the Lower Mississippian (Matchen and

Kammer, 2006). The Acadian foreland basin was effectively filled by the end of the

Devonian (Castle, 2000) and a westward dipping ramp-style geometry persisted through the Lower Mississippian (Pashin and Ettensohn, 1995 in Matchen and Kammer, 2006).

The relatively consistent thickness of Lower Mississippian strata through eastern

Kentucky, eastern Ohio, central Pennsylvania, and Maryland suggests minimal subsidence or isostatic rebound in the Appalachian region following the Acadian orogeny

(Heller et al., 1988; Matchen and Kammer, 2006).

A detailed chronology of Paleozoic sea-level changes was compiled by Haq and

Schutter (2008). Figure 6 is modified from Haq and Schutter (2008) to highlight sea- level changes during the Early Mississippian. The short-term sea-level curve in Figure 6 represents a 3rd order trend (0.5 – 3 my) sensu Vail et al. (1991) that shows multiple fluctuations ranging from 10s to 100s of meters and two 3rd order sequence boundaries in the Late Tournaisian (Early Osagean). The longer term 2nd order sea-level curve (3 – 50 19 my; Vail et al., 1991) shows a peak in the Middle Touraisian and a decline in sea-level that continued through to the Visean before a low was reached at the Mississippian/

Pennsylvanian boundary (not shown in Figure 6). Periods of known glacial intervals are also depicted in the figure with three intervals occurring in the Early Mississippian.

Glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations of 20 – 25 m are reported for the slightly older

(upper Kinderhookian-Osagean) Lodgepole Formation, Montana (Elrick and Read, 1991;

Read et al., 1995 in Rygel et al., 2008). Incision of the Black Hand Sandstone paleovalley and formation of the Kinderhookian-Osagean unconformity is reported to be the result of up to 60 m of relative fall in sea-level caused by Gondwanan glaciation

(Matchen and Kammer, 2006).

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Figure 5. Regional isopach maps of the Weir Sandstone (a) and the Chunk Group (b) that show the change in thickness patterns with the onset of foreland basin development. Logan Formation strata (Late Tournasian/Early Osagean) were deposited on a relatively flat- lying landscape like the older Kinderhookian Weir sandstone with total accommodation controlled by regional, dynamic subsidence. c) Tectonic model showing the proposed depositional environment of strata within the study area during the Mississippian (closer to Kinderhookian age) (modified from Fichter, 1993). 21

Figure 6. Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous sea-level changes (modified from Haq and Schutter, 2008). The time scale is given in both standard and regional stages. Known intervals of continental glaciation are indicated alongside the numerical time scale on the left. The onlap curve is a measure of relative landward or basinward movement of the regional baseline, including sequences associated with known condensed sections indicated by asterisks. The ages of sequence boundaries are indicated in the adjacent column. The far-right column shows sea-level curves, both the long-term envelope and the short-term curve of fluctuations in sea-level, calibrated to the present- day (PD) sea-level (represented by the dashed line). The period that is estimated to include deposition of the Logan Formation is highlighted in yellow.

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This study was conducted in western Hocking and Vinton counties of south- central Ohio, USA (refer to Figure 1). Upper Mississippian-age strata (i.e., the Logan

Formation) outcrops throughout this region and the regional dip (discussed in Chapter 3) dictates that a transition to Lower Pennsylvanian-age outcrop begins in central Hocking

County and west-central Vinton County (Ohio Division of Geological Survey, 2006).

Portions of eastern Ross County and eastern Fairfield County were also investigated for

Allensville Member exposure, but no data were collected in these areas.

The topography of this region is described as the foothills of the Appalachian

Mountains, where elevation changes between valley floors and ridge tops are typically less than 100 meters. In the northwestern portion of the study location, the topography changes abruptly to a low relief landscape due to erosion from the most recent glaciation

(Wisconsinan). To the north and northwest, beyond the glacial advance, bedrock exposure is sparse and poor.

3.2 Field Methodology

Field work began with locating sections of the Allensville Member reported by

Hall (1951), Hohler (1950), Hyde (1953), Merrill (1950), and Stout (1927) throughout western Hocking and Vinton counties. The original section locations, which were based on township quadrants and relative landmarks, were located on historical topographic maps then transferred to modern topographic maps to reflect the updated topography, borders, and transportation network (Figure 7). 23

Figure 7. Google Earth Pro image showing the locations of measured sections from Hall (1951), Hohler (1950), Merrill (1950), and Stout (1927). County borders are indicated by bright green lines. The red pins indicate section locations.

Identifying the previously described sections in outcrop proved to be challenging due to poor exposure and limited access to land (Figure 8). To overcome this limitation, 24 the top of the Allensville Member at suitable locations was used to locate additional sections using the 3-point problem. Potential outcrops were identified and investigated in the field using topographic maps and Google Earth Pro satellite images. The highest quality Allensville Member outcrop proves to be in perennial streambeds (Figure 9) and on roadcuts. Only outcrops that were accessible and included most of the Allensville

Member were measured for this study.

Sections of the Allensville Member were measured and described in the field.

Section descriptions began within the Byer Member (where present) and ended at the base of the Vinton Member (where present). In sections where the Byer Member and/or

Vinton Member were absent, descriptions would begin and end at the first and last appearance of a bed within the Allensville Member.

The following characteristics were noted in the field: rock type, grain size, color, stratum thickness, bedding character, degree of cementation, sorting, rounding, fossil content, character of bedding contacts, special weathering characteristics, sedimentary structures, and degree of cover. Stratum thicknesses were measured using a standard tape measure. At least one representative sample was collected from each bed for further laboratory analysis, unless bedding character or degree of cementation did not allow for a usable sample to be collected. Emphasis was put on collecting samples from the middle of each bed. For relatively thick beds or beds of special interest, multiple samples were collected for complete representation, with emphasis on collecting samples from the base, middle, and top.

25

Figure 8. Photos of poor outcrop characteristics in south-central Ohio. a) A typical streambed, cluttered with vegetation, soil, foliage, and woody debris. b) A typical roadcut exposure of the Allensville Member, in which suitable outcrop is limited. A low- relief landscape, extensive vegetation, thick soil horizons, foliage, woody debris, high weathering rates, and poor accessibility due to private land ownership all contributed to limited measurable outcrop in this study.

26

Figure 9. Photos of good outcrop characteristics in south-central Ohio. a) A section of the Allensville Member well-exposed in a perennial streambank, in which alternating coarse-grained and fine-grained units are visible (section TK-04). b) Relatively good outcrop in a perennial stream, in which measurable units are exposed in the streambank and streambed (section TK-10).

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3.3 Laboratory Methodology

Samples were examined in the lab using a Nikon SMZ-2T optical microscope to more accurately describe the lithological characteristics and estimate mineralogy. Grain size was determined to 0.5 Φ on the phi-scale using the Udden-Wentworth classification system (Wentworth, 1922). Mudstones were described using the classification system of

Potter et al. (1980 in Boggs, 2006). Sandstones were described using the classification system of Williams et al. (1982 in Boggs, 2006, figure 5.5). Conglomerates were described using the classification system of Boggs (2006, table 5.4). Color was determined using the Munsell Color System (Munsell, 2009). Rounding was determined using the classification system adapted from Folk (1955) and Krumbien (1941) (The

Geoscience Handbook, 2016). Sorting was determined using the classification system of

Powers (1953 in The Geoscience Handbook, 2016). The intensity of reaction to diluted

(10%) HCl was qualitatively noted. Porosity and permeability were estimated qualitatively and noted through observation of grain interconnectedness and migration of water droplets, respectively. Degree of cementation, fossil content, and sedimentary structures were also identified, as well as any other minor characteristics, such as accessory minerals.

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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

Overall, strata in south-central Ohio are nearly horizontal and lack major structural discontinuities. The three-point analysis using the top of the Allensville

Member found the dip of strata in south-central Ohio to be 4.7 m/km (0.27°) SE in western Vinton County, 4.4 m/km (0.25°) SE in western Hocking County, and 7.9 m/km

(0.45°) ESE in central Hocking County.

An isopach map of the Allensville Member based on the measured sections in this study show an overall thickening trend to the ESE with a fabric aligned NE-SW (Figure

10). Total Allensville Member thickness ranges from 2.0 to 6.1 meters at sections TK-10 and TK-04, respectively. A maximum depositional relief of 0.63 m/km (0.036°) is recorded between these sections. Total thickness could not be reported for every measured section due to incomplete exposures. All sections containing the Allensville

Member are shown but only complete sections are used in contouring. Isopach trends of

Allensville Member sections from this study are consistent with isopach trends of sections from the previous work (Figure 11).

An isolith map of coarse-grained sandstone and conglomerate within the

Allensville Member shows that deposition follows the overall Allensville Member trend of shoreline parallel to the Black Hand Sandstone, with two lobes of relatively thicker deposition in northern Hocking County and northwestern Vinton County. The lobes of thick deposition likely indicate regions of major sediment supply from east of the study area (Figure 12). All measured sections were considered for this analysis. 29

Figure 10. Isopach map of the Allensville Member across western Hocking and Vinton counties of Ohio. County borders are marked by green lines. Total thicknesses were measured in the field. Measured sections are indicated by yellow dots with total thicknesses noted only for sections where the entire Allensville Member is present. Paleoflow direction of the older Black Hand Sandstone is reported to be 340° (Kittredge and Malcuit, 1985). Overall thickness trends indicate that the Allensville Member was deposited shoreline parallel to paleoflow of the older Black Hand Sandstone. 30

Figure 11. Isopach map of the Allensville Member using data from previous work (Hall, 1951; Hohler, 1950; Merrill, 1950; Stout, 1927), with thicknesses measured in the present study overlain to show the consistency of isopach trends. County borders are marked by green lines. Measured sections from previous work are indicated by red dots and can be referenced to Figure 3. Measured sections from the present study are indicated by yellow dots. Thickness measurements are presented in standard units.

31

Figure 12. Isolith map of Allensville Member deposits ranging in grain size from coarse- grained sandstone to medium-grained conglomerate. County borders are marked by green lines. Thicknesses were measured in the field. Measured sections are indicated by yellow dots with thicknesses of coarse grain sizes noted adjacent to the corresponding section. Measured sections in which both the top and base of the Allensville Member are not present in outcrop are denoted by a “≥” symbol adjacent to the thickness measurement. Paleoflow direction of the older Black Hand Sandstone is reported to be ~340° (Kittredge and Malcuit, 1985). Thickness trends of coarse-grained sandstone to medium-grained conglomeratic deposits indicate two potential lobes of major sediment supply from east of the study location in northern Hocking County and northwestern Vinton County.

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4.2 Lithofacies

A sedimentary lithofacies is defined as a body of rock with specified characteristics and is defined based on color, bedding, composition, texture, fossils, and sedimentary structures (Reading, 1986). Lithofacies are interpreted in terms of depositional or post-depositional processes, such as deposition under the influence of wave action or bioturbation. An association of lithofacies occurs together because they are genetically or environmentally related (Reading, 1986), and can be interpreted in terms of a depositional environment, e.g., a beach or shallow marine shelf. The lateral juxtaposition of lithofacies associations (FA) allows sediments to be grouped into contemporaneous depositional tracts (Brown and Fisher, 1977), which are important in evaluating the controls on deposition through the sequence stratigraphic methodology

(Van Wagoner et al., 1990).

Four sedimentary lithofacies, hereafter termed facies, were identified in the 10 detailed sections measured in this study. These facies, which are described and interpreted below, are arranged primarily by grain size and sedimentary structures (Table

1).

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Table 1. Facies table.

Stratum Bedding Lithology Grain texture Color Sedimentary structures Bioturbation Fossils thickness character

Occasional current-ripple Occasional 0.05 – 0.24 m cross-laminations; rare disarticulated crinoid in Allensville Laminated to Yellow-red 0% to 10%; bioturbation Facies Poorly spherical nodules of columnal molds; rare Mudstone Member; up to bedded; sharp (10YR 5/4) or present as horizontal 1 cemented pyrite cement (up to 3 brachiopod shell 4 m in Vinton contacts gray (N6) burrows mm); rare symmetrical molds (up to 9 mm Member ripple marks wide)

0 – 30%; bioturbation Occasional iron cemented present as horizontal Very fine- to Laminated to Absent to widespread 0.02 – 2.5 m in Rounded; nodules and layers (<10 burrows and/or vertical medium-grained massive; sharp disarticulated crinoid Allensville well- to very Yellow (5Y 7/2) mm); occasional current- burrows (up to 68 mm Facies quartz arenite; contacts; normally columnal molds; rare Member; up to well-sorted; to yellow-red ripple cross-laminations; wide) infilled by coarse 2 occasional coarse- graded; occasional brachiopod shell 4 m in Byer moderately to (10YR 6/6) rare fractures infilled by grains, granules, and grains and granules, coarse-grain molds (up to 40 mm Member well-cemented coarse grains, granules, pebbles from above; rare diminishing upward laminations wide) and pebbles from above backfilled burrows infilled by surrounding sediment

Laminated to Coarse- to very massive; sharp Occasional iron cemented Rounded; coarse-grained basal contact; Yellow (5Y 7/2) nodules and layers; rare Absent to widespread Facies well-sorted; quartz arenite; 2 – 54 cm sharp to to yellow-red spherical nodules of Absent disarticulated crinoid 3 variable occasional granules gradational upper (10YR 6/6) pyrite cement (up to 12 columnal molds cementation and pebbles contacts; laterally mm) discontinuous

Thin-bedded to Very fine- to massive; sharp Well-rounded; Rare disarticulated Facies medium-grained basal contact; well-sorted; Yellow-red Occasional iron cemented 3 – 62 cm Absent crinoid columnal 4 quartzose sharp to variable (10YR 6/6) nodules and layers molds conglomerate gradational upper cementation contacts 34

4.2.1 Facies 1: Laminated mudstone

Description: Mudstone is defined as a mixture of clay and silt (Wentworth, 1922).

Rare scattered coarse sand grains (<2 mm) are present in some beds. Facies 1 deposits are typically poorly cemented, weather recessively, and are often covered. Facies 1 mudstones are laminated to bedded (Boggs, 2006) and typically yellow-red (10YR 5/4) or gray (N6) in color (Figure 13). Bed thickness varies from 0.05 – 0.24 m in the

Allensville Member and up to 4 meters in the Vinton Member. Lower and upper contacts are typically sharp, and upper contacts are often erosion surfaces. Occasional current- ripple cross-laminations (<10 mm thick) were observed in cross-section and rare wave- ripple marks were present on the tops of some beds. The intensity of bioturbation varies from 0 – 10% (Droser and Bottjer, 1986). Where present, horizontal burrows occur as small, undulating traces visible on the tops of beds with infill the same as the surrounding bed. Body fossils are restricted to molds of occasional disarticulated crinoid columnals and, less often, brachiopod shell molds up to 9 mm wide. Pyrite cement and spherical nodules of pyrite cemented sandstone up to 3 mm in diameter occur scattered throughout the beds.

Interpretation: Facies 1 deposits are the finest-grained deposits observed in this study and represent the lowest energy depositional processes. The horizontally laminated character of Facies 1 indicates deposition from suspension. The gray color of laminated mudstones is primary and indicates aerobic conditions of the overlying water column, which is consistent with the presence of the fossil content (Wang and Morse, 1996). The yellow-red color is a weathering product. The low intensity of bioturbation could be due 35 to fluctuating salinity, low oxygen content, or high sedimentation rates (Droser and

Bottjer, 1986; Knaust and Bromley, 2012). The presence of normal marine fossils and gray color mudstones rule out salinity and oxygen stress, therefore the lack of burrows is interpreted to be a result of high sedimentation rates. The occasional presence of pyrite indicates relatively reducing, sulfate-rich early diagenetic conditions for Facies 1 deposits

(Berner, 1984; Wang and Morse, 1996).

Figure 13. Photo of a Facies 1 laminated mudstone in the Allensville Member (section TK-07). Facies 1 is the least common lithofacies in the measured section.

4.2.2 Facies 2: Very fine- to medium-grained, laminated to massive sandstone

Description: Facies 2 comprises very fine- to medium-grained (0.0625 – 0.5 mm) quartz arenite with scattered coarse sand grains and granules (2 – 4 mm) that diminish in abundance upward within the beds. Color is typically yellow (5Y 7/2) to yellow-red 36

(10YR 6/6). The basal and upper contacts are sharp. Bedding character is laminated to massive and normally graded with coarser-grained laminations at the base (Figure 14).

Bed thickness typically ranges from 0.02 – 2.5 m in the Allensville Member and up to 4 meters in the Byer Member. Grains are typically rounded, well- to very well-sorted, and moderately to well-cemented. Occasional current-ripple cross-laminations, nodules of iron cemented sandstone, and layers of iron cement were observed. The iron cemented layers are thin (<10 mm), dark brown (5YR 3/2) in color, and occur at all orientations

(Figure 15). The intensity of bioturbation varied from 0 – 30% (Droser and Bottjer,

1986). Some beds show no evidence of bioturbation, but most had both horizontal and vertical burrows. Small, undulating, horizontal burrows varied widely in occurrence from absent at the base of beds to widespread at the tops. Rare horizontal burrows backfilled with grains from the surrounding bed are also present. Vertical burrows with well-defined walls and up to 68 mm wide occur in 16% of the beds. These burrows are notable because the infill, which can include coarse grains (0.0625 – 0.5 mm), granules, and pebbles (>4 mm), is from the bed above. Molds of disarticulated crinoid columnals are common in some beds and absent in others (Figure 16). Molds of brachiopod shells up to 40 mm wide are present, but rare.

37

Figure 14. Photo showing the normally graded bedding character of a Facies 2 bed in the Allensville Member (section TK-11). The arrow shows the fining. The normal grading is interpreted to be a product of repeated high energy events that resulted in suspension and then deposition on an erosional base.

Interpretation: Grain sizes of Facies 2 indicate higher energy depositional processes than Facies 1. The beds exhibiting current-ripple cross-laminations represent deposition from lower flow regime unidirectional flow (Ashley, 1990). The horizontally laminated beds represent deposition under upper flow regime conditions for the grain size range in Facies 2 (Ashley, 1990). The normal grading is interpreted to be a product of repeated events that resulted in suspension and then deposition on an erosional base as a result of storm wave reworking (Suter, 2006). The massive beds are interpreted to be a result of cementation rather than depositional fabric. The abundance of bioturbation and 38 marine fossil molds indicates normal marine conditions (Droser and Bottjer, 1986;

Knaust and Bromley, 2012). The absence of pyrite is interpreted to be a result of oxygenation of the sediment by bioturbation (see Facies 3) (Berner, 1984; Wang and

Morse, 1996). The iron cemented nodules and layers are diagenetic in origin.

Figure 15. Photo of a fine-grained sandstone (Facies 2) in the Allensville Member with diagenetic iron cement and nodules of iron cemented sandstone (section TK-08). Material within the iron cement is the same grain size as the host.

The vertical burrows in Facies 2 infilled by coarser sand grains, granules, and pebbles from overlying beds are interpreted as the Glossifungites ichnofacies, possibly

Skolithos (Figure 17) (Cattaneo and Steel, 2003; MacEachern et al., 1998; Zecchin and

Catuneanu, 2013). The formation of the burrows indicates colonization of a firm substrate, which was then buried (Figure 18; MacEachern et al., 2007a). There are 13 39 common ichnogenera recorded within the Glossifungites ichnofacies (Table 2;

MacEachern et al., 2007a). The vertical burrows in Facies 2 are probably Skolithos. The preservation of the Glossifungites ichnofacies within Facies 2 requires the removal of uncompacted muds and exposure of the seabed by storm waves, which is colonized by organisms, followed by the infill of open burrows by deposits of a subsequent storm event.

Figure 16. Photo showing the character of both articulated and disarticulated crinoid columnal molds in the Allensville Member. The sample is from a Facies 2 bed in section TK-11. Fossil molds are absent to common in Facies 2 deposits.

40

Figure 17. Photos of burrows in Facies 2. a) A burrow (outlined in yellow) completely penetrating a thin Facies 2 bed from section TK-10. b) Burrows that appear to terminate within a Facies 2 bed from section TK-02 (adjustments to contrast and sharpness made in Photoshop CC). Burrows are typically set in very fine- to fine-grained sandstones and infilled by coarse grains, granules, and pebbles. They are interpreted to be part of the Glossifungites ichnofacies (Figure 18), possibly Skolithos.

41

Figure 18. Substrate control on ichnofacies (modified from MacEachern et al., 2007a). Vertical burrows in the Allensville Member are interpreted as the Glossifungites ichnofacies, indicating colonization of firm substrate.

Table 2. Ichnogenera within the Glossifungites ichnofacies (cf., MacEachern et al., 2007a, figure 7.3).

Ichnofacies Ichnogenera Arenicolites Bergaueria Chondrites Conichnus Diplocraterion Gastrochaenolites Glossifungites Planolites Psilonichnus Rhizocorallium Skolithos Taenidium Thalassinoides Zoophycos

42

4.2.3 Facies 3: Coarse- to very coarse-grained, laminated to massive sandstone

Description: Facies 3 comprises coarse- to very coarse-grained (0.5 – 2 mm) quartz arenite with occasional granule and pebble clasts (Figure 19). Basal contacts are commonly sharp and upper contacts are either sharp or gradational. Color is typically yellow (5Y 7/2) to yellow-red (10YR 6/6). The beds, which range from 0.02 to 0.54 m in thickness, are laminated to massive, typically fine upward, and occasionally pinch out laterally. Grains are typically rounded and well-sorted, with highly variable cementation.

Some beds are very poorly cemented and recessive whereas others are well-cemented with abundant, dark brown, iron-oxide mineralization. Occasional dark brown nodules of iron cemented sandstone and layers of iron cement are present, as well as scattered spherical nodules of pyrite cemented sandstone up to 12 mm in diameter. Bioturbation is absent. The only body fossils are molds of disarticulated crinoid columnals that vary in abundance from absent to widespread. Grains from Facies 3 often infill vertical

Glossifungites burrows in beds of Facies 2 directly below.

Interpretation: Grain sizes of Facies 3 indicate higher energy depositional processes than Facies 2. The lack of cross-lamination and cross-bedding indicates upper flow regime plane bed deposition in Facies 3 (Ashley, 1990). The sharp-based, coarse- grained deposits of Facies 3 are interpreted to be storm lag-deposits due to their erosive base, fining upward character, and lateral discontinuity (MacEachern et al., 1998; Swift et al., 1987; Swift et al., 1991). Storm-related deposition also explains the occasional occurrence of disarticulated crinoid columnal molds in Facies 3 beds, through reworking of the substrate by wave-action. The lack of bioturbation could be a result of high 43 energy, high sedimentation rate, or both (Droser and Bottjer, 1986; Knaust and Bromley,

2012). The presence of pyrite is post-depositional and early diagenetic (Berner, 1984).

Figure 19. Photo of a Facies 3 coarse-grained sandstone in the Allensville Member (section TK-04). The high degree of sorting and rounding is indicative of deposition by wave processes.

4.2.4 Facies 4: Conglomerate

Description: Facies 4 comprises very fine- to medium-grained quartzose conglomerate (2 – 11 mm; Wentworth, 1922) with basal contacts that are typically sharp and upper contacts that can be sharp or gradational (Figure 20). Internally, Facies 4 ranges from thin- to thick-bedded (0.03 – 0.62 m) with granules and pebbles that are typically well-rounded and well-sorted. Color is yellow-red (10YR 6/6). Cementation varies from poor in the recessive weathering beds to well-cemented by abundant iron- oxide mineralization. Iron mineralization is present in the form of nodules and thin layers as in Facies 2 and Facies 3. No bioturbation was observed, and the only fossil data 44 were rare molds of disarticulated crinoid columnals. Granules and pebbles from Facies 4 often infill vertical burrows of the Glossifungites ichnofacies in Facies 2 below

(MacEachern et al., 1998).

Figure 20. Photo of a Facies 4 conglomerate in the Allensville Member (section TK-11). The high degree of sorting and rounding is indicative of deposition by wave processes as a transgressive lag.

Interpretation: Grain sizes of Facies 4 are the largest observed in this study and represent the highest energy depositional processes. The lack of cross-bedding indicates deposition was not by unidirectional flow (Ashley, 1990). Deposition from bidirectional flow during storms is consistent with the sharp bases and lack of cross-bedding. The rare crinoid columnal molds were likely transported by high current energy and the lack of bioturbation indicates relatively inhospitable substrate conditions (Droser and Bottjer, 45

1986; Knaust and Bromley, 2012). The sharp basal contact of Facies 4 beds is an erosion surface based on the occurrence of the Glossifungites ichnofacies. Facies 4 beds are interpreted to be transgressive lag deposits due to the well-sorted conglomeratic character and stratigraphic position overlying a regressive erosion surface (MacEachern et al.,

1998; Siggerud and Steel, 1999; Swift et al., 1991; Taylor and Lovell, 1991; Zecchin et al., 2003). The presence of a transgressive lag suggests shoreface ravinement (i.e., marine erosion and reworking of underlying sediments) during transgression, followed by accumulation of a thin, relatively coarse-grained bed, then abandonment of this erosion surface during further shoreline retrogradation and deposition of deeper marine facies.

Therefore, the lag deposits are a product of relative sea-level rise and transgression

(MacEachern et al., 1998; Siggerud and Steel, 1999).

4.3 Facies Associations

The facies were combined into four facies associations: outer shelf (FA-1); inner shelf (FA-2); fine-grained storm-dominated shelf (FA-3); and coarse-grained storm- dominated shelf (FA-4). The facies associations are discussed below in order of increasing energy (Table 3).

4.3.1 FA-1: Outer shelf

Description: FA-1 is composed mainly of Facies 1 with scattered interbeds of the finer-grained end member of Facies 2. The base of FA-1 is typically marked by a Facies

4 bed and occasionally by a Facies 3 bed with sharp basal contacts. Granules and pebbles from the basal coarse bed often infill burrows of the Glossifungites ichnofacies in finer- 46 grained beds below. FA-1 varies up to 4 m in thickness and is found at the top of the study interval, i.e., the Vinton Member. The maximum thickness is not known.

Table 3. Facies associations.

Facies Environment

Dominantly Facies 1; scattered interbeds of finer-grained end FA-1 Outer shelf member of Facies 2; basal Facies 4 bed Dominantly finer-grained end member of Facies 2; occasional FA-2 Inner shelf interbeds of Facies 1 Dominantly Facies 2; interbeds of Facies 3; minor amounts of Storm-dominated FA-3 Facies 1 and Facies 4 shelf Dominantly interbeds of Facies 2 and Facies 3; occasional Storm-dominated FA-4 interbeds of Facies 4; minor amounts of Facies 1 shelf

Interpretation: The basal coarser-grained unit of FA-1 is interpreted to be a transgressive lag deposit (MacEachern et al., 1998; Siggerud and Steel, 1999; Swift et al.,

1991; Taylor and Lovell, 1991; Zecchin et al., 2003). The fine grain sizes and occasional presence of crinoids and brachiopods, along with the lack of current structures and presence of rare wave ripple marks indicates a relatively low energy depositional environment for FA-1 events (Ashley, 1990; MacEachern et al., 1998; Zecchin et al.,

2003). The overall environment is interpreted to be an outer shelf (Figure 21). 47

Figure 21. Conceptual shelf model of the depositional system within the basal Logan Formation which records overall transgression. Deposits from the outer shelf to lower shoreface are observed. The highest energy deposits occur as storm beds and transgressive lag conglomerates overlying finer-grained, low energy deposits. Overall grain size increases toward the shoreline. The relative shelf location of facies associations is shown at the bottom of the figure. The model is not to horizontal or vertical scale.

The erosive base of FA-1 represents one of a suite of possible marine erosion surfaces, which include maximum regressive surfaces (MRS), regressive surfaces of marine erosion (RSME), and wave ravinement surfaces (WRS) (Figure 22) (Cattaneo and

Steel, 2003; Zecchin and Catuneanu, 2013). The Glossifungites ichnofacies commonly demarcates surfaces of erosion, e.g., MRS, RSME, and WRS (Knaust and Bromley,

2012). Ultimately, the MRS, RSME, and WRS indicate an environment above fair- weather wave base. The basal surface is interpreted to be a MRS because of the presence of the Glossifungites ichnofacies, the largest clast sizes, and the location between fine- grained deposits. The MRS (also known as a ‘transgressive surface’) separates regressive 48 deposits below from transgressive deposits above (Zecchin and Catuneanu, 2013). The distal part of the MRS is typically reworked by a transgressive ravinement surface and subsequent deposition of a transgressive lag. The lateral extent of this surface depends on factors including the shelf gradient and the trajectory of the transgressive shoreline

(Zecchin and Catuneanu, 2013).

Figure 22. Model showing the various erosion surfaces interpreted to be present in the Allensville Member (modified from Zecchin and Catuneanu, 2013). In this model, the maximum regressive surface (MRS) is amalgamated with the wave ravinement surface (WRS) at the base of the transgressive systems tract. Systems tracts are discussed in Chapter 5.2. The model is not to horizontal or vertical scale.

4.3.2 FA-2: Inner shelf

Description: FA-2 consists up to 8.8 m of thin-bedded, finer-grained deposits of

Facies 2 with occasional interbeds of Facies 1. The basal contact is sharp. The upper 49 contact of FA-2 is an erosive surface underlying either Facies 3 or Facies 4. FA-2 is fully exposed at section TK-04.

Interpretation: The bulk of sediments in FA-2 are very fine- to fine-grained sandstone, indicating higher energy than FA-1. The abundance of horizontal bioturbation and crinoid columnal molds in Facies 2 deposits indicates normal marine conditions and a lower sedimentation rate than FA-1 (Droser and Bottjer, 1986; Knaust and Bromley,

2012). The graded beds that are laminated to burrowed are interpreted to be storm events

(Swift et al., 1991).

The base of FA-2 is the contact between the Byer Member and Berne Member.

The upper contact is interpreted to be a MRS. The fine sandy grain sizes, extensive horizontal bioturbation, and relative abundance of crinoid columnal molds, along with the disarticulated character of fossils and lack of current structures indicates an inner shelf depositional environment for FA-2 (MacEachern et al., 1998; Taylor and Lovell, 1991;

Zecchin et al., 2003).

4.3.3 FA-3: Fine-grained storm-dominated shelf

Description: FA-3 is composed of Facies 2 with interbeds of Facies 3 and minor amounts of Facies 1 and Facies 4. Where present, Facies 1 occurs at the base of FA-3 and Facies 4 occurs in the upper half. The number of coarser-grained beds generally increases up-section. In some cases, the beds thicken and coarsen upward. Thickness of

FA-3 is typically ~1 meter and ranges from 0.1 to 2.4 meters. The lower contact of FA-3 is placed at the base of the first sandstone bed above a relatively thick bed of Facies 1 or within a fossiliferous bed of Facies 2. The upper contact of FA-3 is sharp and marked by 50 a pronounced increase in grain size (Facies 3 or Facies 4) and commonly contains the

Glossifungites ichnofacies. The highest occurrence of FA-3 in the section is erosionally truncated by a conglomerate in the northwest portion of the study area (Figure 23).

Interpretation: The grain size trends represent an overall decrease in water depth up-section based on the presence of Facies 1 only at the base and the presence of coarser beds in the upper half of FA-3. The depositional environment is interpreted to be a storm- dominated inner shelf based on the abundance of Facies 2 and presence of minor amounts of Facies 3 and Facies 4. The coarser grain sizes of Facies 3 and Facies 4 deposits in FA-

3 indicate relatively higher energy deposition than Facies 1 and Facies 2 and represent lag/storm deposition in an inner shelf environment (MacEachern et al., 1998;

MacEachern et al., 1999; Swift et al., 1987; Swift et al., 1991).

The increase in grain size toward the top of FA-3 is interpreted to be a result of decrease in water depth that marks a change from overall transgression to regression.

The fossiliferous beds of Facies 2 likely contain the turnaround point between increase and decrease of water depth (Loutit et al., 1988, figure 23) and the base of FA-3 is arbitrarily placed in the middle of those beds. The erosive surface capping FA-3 is a

MRS that marks the transition from overall regressive deposits to transgressive deposits and a landward shift in facies association (Cattaneo and Steel, 2003; Zecchin and

Catuneanu, 2013). The erosive bases of storm deposits are RSMEs (Zecchin and

Catuneanu, 2013). The RSME is a diachronous surface produced by wave erosion during relative sea-level fall (Zecchin and Catuneanu, 2013). In the Allensville Member,

RSMEs indicate periods of rapid forced regression. 51

Figure 23. Cross-section showing the correlation of facies associations along depositional dip. Grain sizes increase to the right and the facies associations are labeled on the right. The highest occurrence of FA-3 and the upper contact of the highest occurrence of FA-4 in the section are erosionally truncated by a conglomerate in the northwest portion of the study area. Section TK-02 is the type section for the Allensville Member.

4.3.4 FA-4: Coarse-grained storm-dominated shelf

Description: FA-4 comprises interbeds of Facies 2 and Facies 3 with minor amounts of Facies 1. Most of the occurrences of Facies 4 are in FA-4. The overall grain 52 size pattern is one of fining and thinning upward. Thickness of FA-4 is typically ~1 meter and ranges from 0.08 to 2.4 meters. The upper contact of FA-4 is placed at the base of the first sandstone bed above a relatively thick bed of Facies 1 or within a fossiliferous bed of Facies 2. The basal contact of FA-4 is sharp, underlying a Facies 3 or

Facies 4 bed from which sediments typically infill burrows of the Glossifungites ichnofacies in a Facies 2 bed at the top of FA-3. The upper contact of the highest occurrence of FA-4 in the section is erosionally truncated by a conglomerate in the northwest portion of the study area (Figure 23).

Interpretation: The relative abundance of Facies 4 conglomerates indicates that

FA-4 represents the highest energy depositional environment. The coarse-grained Facies

3 and Facies 4 beds of FA-4 are interpreted to be higher energy storm deposits overlying a wave ravinement surface (WRS) (Swift et al., 1987; Swift et al., 1991). The WRS is a diachronous erosional surface cut by wave-action during transgression (Zecchin and

Catuneanu, 2013). The WRS was formed due to rapid sea-level fall and subsequent sea- level rebound, resulting in a transgressive erosion surface and associated storm bed deposition as the environment was briefly above fair-weather wave base (Cattaneo and

Steel, 2003; Zecchin and Catuneanu, 2013). The vertical extent of erosion reported for

WRSs is variable, ranging from centimeters to several meters. The surface is always overlain by coarser-grained sediments reworked from the substrate and are subsequently onlapped by transgressive shallow-water deposits (Cattaneo and Steel, 2003; Zecchin and

Catuneanu, 2013). The storm deposits commonly infill burrows of the Glossifungites 53 ichnofacies. The overall fining upward character of FA-4 indicates deposition on a storm-dominated inner shelf to lower shoreface undergoing transgression.

The basal contact of FA-4 is a MRS. The Facies 3 or Facies 4 unit above the

MRS is interpreted to be a transgressive lag deposit (MacEachern et al., 1998; Siggerud and Steel, 1999; Zecchin et al., 2003), which typically infills burrows of the

Glossifungites ichnofacies associated with the erosive base (MacEachern et al., 1998).

The upper contact of FA-4 represents the highest relative sea-level and point of maximum shoreline retrogradation (Cattaneo and Steel, 2003; Zecchin and Catuneanu,

2013).

54

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

The Logan Formation was deposited on a ramp margin defined by a uniformly low-angle dip (<1°) and no abrupt change in gradient (Van Wagoner et al., 1990; Pashin and Ettensohn, 1995 in Matchen and Kammer, 2006). The depositional dip of strata is reported in the present study and previous studies, e.g., Holden (1942) and Hyde (1953), and are typically much less than one degree. The Allensville Member contains a relatively high concentration of transgressive lags, storm deposits, and erosion surfaces that indicate shallow water depth. The variations in the types of erosion surfaces are important to understanding the changes in relative sea-level.

5.2 Transgressive Lags, Storm Deposits, and Erosion Surfaces

Many of the coarse deposits in the Allensville Member are interpreted to be transgressive lag deposits based on sorting and location relative to an erosive surface. A lag deposit is an autochthonous response to transgression in which sediments are winnowed out of the underlying substrate during migration of a shoreline as the shoreface undergoes erosional retreat during a relative sea-level rise (Swift et al., 1991). The lag deposit is subsequently buried by deeper water facies deposits (Siggerud and Steel,

1999). Plint (1988) reported that where similar conglomerates are of “significant” thickness (multiple meters), they are bounded below by an erosion surface and above by a transgressive surface. The transgressive lags in the Allensville Member do not exceed

0.62 meters, indicating that the basal contacts are likely amalgamated regressive and transgressive surfaces of erosion. 55

Normally graded coarse laminations in Facies 2 and coarse sand beds of Facies 3 and Facies 4 that do not overlie a major transgressive surface of erosion are interpreted to represent storm deposits (Figure 24). This interpretation is primarily supported by the fining-upward trend of coarse laminations and coarse-grained sandstone beds

(MacEachern et al., 1999; Snedden and Nummedal, 1991; Swift et al., 1987). If the coarse intervals were simple progradational deposits then an overall coarsening-upward trend would be expected (Heward, 1981; MacEachern et al., 1998). Additional support for this interpretation is the variable continuity of coarse intervals. Some modern storm deposits from large-scale hurricane events have been shown to extend for >50 km along strike (e.g., Hurricane Carla, Figure 25; Snedden and Nummedal, 1991), but can be <4 km in the dip direction (Morton, 1981). The thickness of each deposit depends on the intensity of the storm that produced it (MacEachern et al., 1999). In the case of

Hurricane Carla, which was a category 4 hurricane, most of the deposit was <6 cm thick

(Figure 25). The increase in abundance of storm beds in a section corresponds to shallowing of the shoreface along a depositional profile (MacEachern et al., 1998).

56

Figure 24. Model for the deposition of a storm bed (modified from Niedoroda et al., 1989 in Swift and Thorne, 1991). As wave-action persists, the sediments go into graded suspension until wave-action ceases and sediments are deposited as a normally graded bed. The duration of sediment redistribution and the thickness of graded beds depend on the intensity of the storm event.

The finer-grained sediments underlying erosion surfaces locally have vertical burrows filled with coarse sand grains, granules, and pebbles representing the

Glossifungites ichnofacies suite (Cattaneo and Steel, 2003; MacEachern et al., 1998;

MacEachern et al, 1999; MacEachern et al., 2007b; Schultz et al., 2016; Schwarz, 2012;

Zecchin and Catuneanu, 2013). The Glossifungites ichnofacies is characteristic of firm, unlithified substrate, such as dewatered muds, compacted sands, and incipiently cemented sands. Discontinuities of both allocyclic (e.g., transgressive erosion surfaces and amalgamated sequence boundaries) and autocyclic (e.g., storm/wave action) origin can be demarcated by the Glossifungites ichnofacies (MacEachern et al., 2007b; Knaust and Bromley, 2012). Glossifungites-bearing erosion surfaces in the Allensville Member 57 are laterally restricted and represent storm-wave scour surfaces. Similar observations have been made in the Baldonnel Formation, Williston Lake, British Columbia, Canada

(Schultz et al., 2016). The Glossifungites ichnofacies is not observed to be associated with regressive surfaces of marine erosion (RSME) in the Allensville Member and is exclusive to the interpreted transgressive facies associations. However, the

Glossifungites ichnofacies is not generally exclusive to transgressively incised shorefaces. MacEachern (1994) reported that in forced-regression shorefaces of the

Viking Formation at Kaybob Field, Alberta, Canada, the presence of the Glossifungites ichnofacies is seaward of the shoreface and absent in proximal locations.

There was no evidence for subaerial exposure found in Allensville Member deposits. Subaerial exposure should produce topographic relief (e.g., incised river channels), soil profiles, or root structures (Bergman and Walker, 1987). It is worth noting that the preservation potential of subaerially exposed deposits is relatively low, and any indicators could have been removed during transgression (Bergman and Walker,

1987; MacEachern et al., 1999; Schwarz, 2012).

58

Figure 25. The distribution of net sand thickness of the Hurricane Carla storm bed extending across the central Texas shelf for some 200 km (modified from Snedden and Nummedal, 1991 in Suter, 2006). The similar thickness of the beds in Facies 2 and Facies 3 within the Allensville Member suggests that storms of similar magnitude were present in the Mississippian epicontinental seaway (Figure 4).

5.3 Sequence Stratigraphy

Sequence stratigraphy was originally developed to interpret the control on depositional processes and environments inside a framework of chronostratigraphically significant surfaces within dominantly marine sediments deposited on passive margins

(Van Wagoner et al., 1990). This methodology is an extension of the geometric methods developed for seismic stratigraphy to length and time scales below seismic resolution. 59

The main aspect of sequence stratigraphy is the term ‘accommodation’, which is defined as the space available for sedimentation. Accommodation is the sum of allocyclic processes, i.e., eustatic sea-level change, tectonics, and climate, acting on a depositional site. Accommodation is required for a deposit to form, however, whereas total accommodation controls the thickness of a deposit the rate of formation of accommodation controls the lateral and vertical distribution of depositional environments. The term relative sea-level change is used to refer to the apparent change in sea-level at a specific site that results in transgression or regression.

A sequence is defined as a relatively conformable succession of genetically related strata bounded by unconformities or their correlative conformities (Mitchum,

1977). The building blocks of sequence stratigraphy are parasequences and parasequence sets. A parasequence is a coarsening upward, relatively conformable, genetically related succession of beds or bedsets bounded by marine-flooding surfaces and their correlative surfaces (Van Wagoner, 1985 in Van Wagoner et al., 1988). A parasequence set is a succession of parasequences that may thin and fine upward (retrogradational), coarsen and thicken upward (progradational), or show no change in vertical pattern

(aggradational) depending on the change of relative sea-level (Van Wagoner et al., 1988).

A thinning and fining upward pattern is indicative of a rapid increase in accommodation that leads to a transgression, i.e., relative sea-level rise. A coarsening and thickening upward package is one in which the rate of sedimentation exceeds the rate of formation of accommodation and a regression occurs, i.e., a relative sea-level fall. 60

Parasequences are grouped into systems tracts based on the position within the sequence, stacking patterns of parasequence sets, and types of bounding surfaces

(Posamentier et al., 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1988). A systems tract is a linkage of contemporaneous depositional systems, which are defined as three-dimensional assemblages of lithofacies (Fisher and McGowen, 1967 in Van Wagoner et al., 1990).

Four systems tracts are commonly recognized in siliciclastic facies deposited on ramps: transgressive systems tract (TST); highstand systems tract (HST); falling stage systems tract (FSST); and lowstand systems tract (LST) (Figure 22) (Catuneanu et al., 2009). A transgressive systems tract is characterized by a retrogradational stacking pattern of parasequence sets formed as a result of a rise in base-level at rates higher than the sedimentation rates and marks a landward shift of marine facies (Catuneanu et al., 2009).

A highstand systems tract lies above the TST and is characterized by a progradational stacking pattern that is the result of normal regression, i.e., sedimentation rate exceeds the rate of formation of accommodation due to base-level rise (Catuneanu et al., 2009; Van

Wagoner et al., 1988). The boundary between the TST and HST is a zone of minimal sedimentation rate commonly referred to as a condensed section. The condensed section contains the turn-around point marking the end of transgression that is termed the maximum flooding surface (MFS). There is a basinward shift of marine facies within a

HST that terminates at relative sea-level highstand with the formation of a sequence boundary. In some cases, which depends on local conditions of total accommodation, the subsequent negative rate of formation of accommodation leaves deposits of the FSST.

The falling stage systems tract is characterized by a downstepping and progradational 61 stacking pattern that is the result of forced regression, i.e., rate of base-level fall exceeds the rate of sedimentation (Catuneanu et al., 2009; Plint and Nummedal, 2000). The lowstand systems tract is characterized by a progradational stacking pattern that is a result of normal regression following the onset of base-level rise after a period of base- level fall (Catuneanu et al., 2009). An LST overlies a sequence boundary and is, in turn, overlain by a TST (Van Wagoner et al., 1990).

5.3.1 High-frequency sequence stratigraphy of the Allensville Member

The shifting of depositional systems in the basal Logan Formation is depicted in

Figure 26. Based on the depositional model constructed in this study, two complete high- frequency sequences were identified in the Allensville Member (Figure 27). The sequences are interpreted to be of the 4th order (80 – 500 ky; Vail et al., 1991) because the short-term sea-level changes in Haq and Schutter (2008) are 3rd order (0.5 – 3 my;

Vail et al., 1991). The stacking patterns of facies associations lead to the identification of three sequence boundaries (SB) and two maximum flooding surfaces (MFS). The SBs represent a boundary between regressive and transgressive deposits and are interpreted to be comprised of amalgamated regressive and transgressive surfaces of erosion underlying transgressive lag deposits in the Allensville Member (Posamentier et al., 1999; Van

Wagoner et al., 1990). The MFS refers to the zone of deposition at the time of maximum shoreline retrogradation and marks the transition from transgressive to regressive deposits

(Posamentier et al., 1999; Van Wagoner et al., 1990).

62

Figure 26. Schematic model depicting the shifting of depositional systems within the basal Logan Formation during transgression and regression. The red outline indicates the location of the study interval. Lithologies are described in the key to the left. Shoreline proximal is toward the right of the model (ESE). Lithostratigraphic boundaries of the various members are depicted to the right. This model is not to vertical or horizontal scale.

Sequence Boundary 1 (SB-1) is a readily identifiable MRS underlying the basal

Facies 3 or Facies 4 unit in the Allensville Member. Sequence Boundary 2 (SB-2) is a

MRS typically present in the middle of the Allensville Member underlying a Facies 3 or

Facies 4 bed that is relatively coarser and/or thicker than surrounding beds. Sequence

Boundary 3 (SB-3) is a MRS underlying the upper coarse-grained unit of the Allensville

Member, typically comprising Facies 4 deposits and lesser Facies 3 deposits. Burrows of the Glossifungites ichnofacies are often associated with the erosion surfaces interpreted as SBs in the Allensville Member (Knaust and Bromley, 2012). Maximum Flooding

Surface 1 (MFS-1) is typically identified at the top of a thick laminated mudstone or in 63 the middle of a fossiliferous very fine-grained sandstone between SB-1 and SB-2.

Maximum Flooding Surface 2 (MFS-2) is typically identified at the top of a thick laminated mudstone or within a zone of cover between SB-2 and SB-3. The recessive character of mudstones in the Allensville Member leads to the interpretation that areas of cover may correspond to mudstone deposits, which are the deepest facies deposits in the

Allensville Member and may represent maximum transgression.

Fourth-order transgressive systems tracts (TST) are represented by deposits between SB-1 and MFS-1, between SB-2 and MFS-2, and above SB-3. The TST records deposition during overall transgression (Posamentier et al., 1999; Van Wagoner et al.,

1990) and corresponds to FA-1 and FA-4 deposits in this study. In the Allensville

Member, the TST comprises sets of retrograding WRSs (Vail et al., 1991). Fourth order highstand systems tracts (HST) are represented by deposits between MFS-1 and SB-2, between MFS-2 and SB-3, and below SB-1. The HST records deposition during overall regression (Posamentier et al., 1999; Van Wagoner et al., 1990) and corresponds to FA-2 and FA-3 deposits in this study. In the Allensville Member, the HST comprises sets of prograding RSMEs (Vail et al., 1991). Parasequences and parasequence sets were not observed in outcrop and do not make up the systems tracts identified in this study.

Rather, systems tracts are primarily identified by episodic, coarse, storm deposits that either coarsen/thicken upward or fine/thin upward, with secondary consideration on grain size trends and stratigraphic position of laminated mudstones and fine-grained sandstones.

64

Figure 27. A schematic model showing the interpreted sequence stratigraphy of the basal Logan Formation. Shoreline proximal is toward the right of the model (ESE). The relative shoreface position of deposits investigated in this study is highlighted in yellow. Three sequence boundaries (SB) and two maximum flooding surfaces (MFS) were identified. Fourth-order (80 – 500 ky) transgressive systems tracts (TST) in the Allensville Member are highlighted blue. Fourth-order highstand systems tracts (HST) in the Allensville Member are highlighted green. The TST above SB-3 comprises mostly Vinton Member deposits. A MFS is likely present in the Byer Member, which separates a TST beginning at the base of the Berne Member from a HST at the top of the Byer Member. A 3rd order (0.5 – 3 my) TST is represented by the entire Logan Formation, from the base of the conglomeratic Berne Member to the laminated mudstones of the Vinton Member. The Allensville Member type section (TK-02) is present to provide lithostratigraphic context for the interpreted sequences. Lithostratigraphic boundaries of the various members are depicted to the right. This model is not to vertical or horizontal scale.

The contact between the Berne Member and Black Hand Sandstone is likely a transgressive surface of erosion and SB, marking the beginning of a 4th order TST that continues through the base of the Byer Member. A 4th order MFS may exist within the

Byer Member that would cap the TST, therefore indicating that the top of the Byer

Member represents a HST that is capped by the SB at the base of the Allensville 65

Member. Identifying the lithology to confirm a MFS in the Byer Member was beyond the scope of this project. The deposits making up the Byer Member are relatively deep marine facies, and it is likely that a 4th order MFS may not be identifiable in outcrop. A

3rd order TST is recorded in the Logan Formation from the basal SB of the conglomeratic

Berne Member, to the laminated mudstones of the Vinton Member. A maximum flooding surface for the 3rd order TST likely exists in the Maxville Limestone overlying the Logan Formation. The lack of a 4th order lowstand systems tract (LST) in the basal

Logan Formation is explained by the stacking patterns of the systems tracts. An LST overlies a SB as a progradational parasequences set and underlies the TST (Van Wagoner et al., 1990). The absence of upper shoreface deposits suggests that the 4th order falling stage systems tracts are amalgamated with the maximum regressive surfaces in the

Allensville Member.

Appendix B contains cross-sections correlating sequences within the Allensville

Member. The transects for the cross-sections can be referenced to Figure 7. The continuity of sequences in cross-section A and cross-section B is consistent with the isopach patterns suggesting that they are oriented parallel to shoreline. Although the sequence thicknesses in the cross-sections are variable, similar thickness variations in high-frequency sequences over shorter distances have been reported elsewhere from similar depositional systems (e.g., Siggerud and Steel, 1999). The average thickness of sequences in cross-sections A and B is ~2.5 meters and ~1.3 meters, respectively. The overall northwestward thinning of sequences in cross-section C, as well as the thinning 66 and fining trend of transgressive lag deposits above SB-1 and SB-2 are consistent with the isopach patterns that suggest it is a depositional dip section.

5.4 Glacio-eustasy

A commonly invoked allocyclic control on sequence development is glacial eustasy. Several glaciations are known to occur in the Late Tournaisian (Figure 6)

(Bruckschen and Veizer, 1997; Haq and Schutter, 2008; Mii et al., 1999; Rygel et al.,

2008) and glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations of 20 – 25 m and 60 m are reported for deposits slightly older than the Logan Formation. (Elrick and Read, 1991; Matchen and

Kammer, 2006; Read et al., 1995 in Rygel et al., 2008). Similar records of Paleozoic sea- level fluctuations are seen coeval in limestones of Idaho and Nevada (Saltzman, 2002).

The glacio-eustatic record in the Pleistocene (0.012 – 2.58 Ma) contains cyclicity with variable durations (e.g., Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005). Over the last one million years, the duration of the cycles averages 100 ky (Figure 28). The periodicity falls within the time range of 4th order sequences, i.e., 80 – 500 ky (Vail et al., 1991). However, most of the Pleistocene contains higher frequency cycles of ~40 ky (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005), which would result in higher order (5th) sequences. If the present is a key to the past, then it is more likely that the higher frequency cyclicity occurred during the

Mississippian glaciations.

The sea-level fluctuations recorded in the Allensville Member were controlled by glacio-eustasy. Based on reported sea-level changes during the Mississippian in Haq and

Schutter (2008), the sea-level fluctuation cycles recorded by Allensville Member deposits are higher than 3rd order. The sequences within the Allensville Member are interpreted to 67 be 4th order based on the presence of amalgamated erosion surfaces and the absence of additional evidence of higher frequencies (Castle, 2000; Catuneanu and Zecchin, 2013;

Matchen and Kammer, 2006; McClung et al., 2013; Rygel et al., 2008; Swift et al., 1987;

Zecchin et al., 2017). The lack of observed parasequences, which are typically found in sequences, within the Allensville Member is likely a function of rapid sea-level change

(Catuneanu and Zecchin, 2013).

Figure 28. Cyclicity within 18O of benthic fauna during the Late Pleistocene. Cycles with 41 ky periodicity related to obliquity make up most of the Pleistocene record (1 – 2.58 Ma). During the last one million years, the cyclicity has averaged 100 ky, which is related to eccentricity. Modified from Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005.

The other major allocyclic control on sequence development is tectonic subsidence, or uplift (Van Wagoner et al., 1990). Heller et al. (1988) and Matchen and

Kammer (2006) suggested that minimal tectonic subsidence and isostatic rebound occurred in the Appalachian region following the Acadian orogeny and during Lower

Mississippian deposition. Castle (2000) reported that the Acadian foreland basin was effectively filled by the end of the Devonian and a westward dipping ramp-style 68 geometry persisted through the Lower Mississippian (Pashin and Ettensohn, 1995 in

Matchen and Kammer, 2006). Matchen and Kammer (2006) further discuss the unlikelihood of rapid tectonic uplift and subsidence to be responsible for incision and subsequent filling of the Black Hand Sandstone paleovalley in Ohio, a region far removed from Acadian orogeny. Based on the chronostratigraphic proximity of the

Allensville Member to the Black Hand Sandstone, tectonics likely had a limited role in deposition of the Allensville Member. Assuming relatively constant sedimentation rates, sea-level fluctuations due to glacio-eustasy were likely the dominant control in deposition of the Allensville Member.

69

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS

1) The isolith and isopach trends of the Allensville Member are consistent with

deposition parallel to paleoshorelines. The limited variability of sequences in NE-SW

trending cross-sections compared to those oriented NW-SE is consistent with the

hypothesis that the Allensville Member sandstones were perpendicular to those of the

Black Hand Sandstone.

2) The texture, structures, and fossil content of the conglomerates, coarse-grained

sandstones, and coarse laminations in the Allensville Member indicate deposition as

episodic transgressive lags and storm deposits on a storm-dominated shelf

(MacEachern et al., 1999; Plint, 1988; Siggerud and Steel, 1999; Snedden and

Nummedal, 1991; Swift et al., 1987; Swift et al., 1991).

3) Grain size trends combined with the fossil and ichnofacies data show the Allensville

Member contains two complete sequences. Each sequence consists of a transgressive

and highstand systems tract. Because the entire Logan Formation consists of a 3rd

order (0.5 – 3 my) transgressive systems tract, the higher frequency sequences within

the Allensville Member are interpreted to be 4th order (80 – 500 ky). The

combination of known glacial intervals in the Lower Mississippian (Haq and

Schutter, 2008) and lack of rapid tectonic subsidence indicates that deposition of

high-frequency sequences in the Allensville Member was controlled by glacio-

eustasy (Castle, 2000; Catuneanu and Zecchin, 2013; Matchen and Kammer, 2006;

McClung et al., 2013; Rygel et al., 2008; Swift et al., 1987; Zecchin et al., 2017). 70

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82

APPENDIX A: MEASURED SECTIONS

83

Section TK-02 (Allensville Member type section) 39°17'1.49"N, 82°34'1.24"W 84

Section TK-03 39°17'45.39"N, 82°38'27.53"W 85

Section TK-04 39°23'25.77"N, 82°31'3.87"W 86

Section TK-05 39°32'51.34"N, 82°26'15.66"W 87

Section TK-06 39°38'0.90"N, 82°27'48.40"W 88

Section TK-07 39°22'45.58"N, 82°40'39.43"W 89

Section TK-08 39°33'0.09"N, 82°33'24.60"W 90

Section TK-09 39°35'29.67"N, 82°28'40.21"W 91

Section TK-10 39°22'9.97"N, 82°35'14.75"W 92

Section TK-11 39°18'26.70"N, 82°39'13.20"W 93

APPENDIX B: CROSS-SECTIONS

Cross-section A: Shoreline parallel (SSW-NNE) 94

Cross-section B: Shoreline parallel (NNE-SSW) 95

Cross-section C: Shoreline perpendicular (NW-SE) ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Thesis and Dissertation Services ! !