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Measuring Market Power in Professional Baseball, Basketball, Football and Hockey Gerald T Economics Working Papers 8-10-2017 Working Paper Number 17030 Measuring Market Power in Professional Baseball, Basketball, Football and Hockey Gerald T. Healy III Iowa State University, [email protected] Jing Ru Tan Iowa State University, [email protected] Peter Orazem Iowa State University and IZA, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/econ_workingpapers Part of the Industrial Organization Commons, Sports Management Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons Recommended Citation Healy, Gerald T. III; Tan, Jing Ru; and Orazem, Peter, "Measuring Market Power in Professional Baseball, Basketball, Football and Hockey" (2017). Economics Working Papers: 17030. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/econ_workingpapers/32 Iowa State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, age, ethnicity, religion, national origin, pregnancy, sexual orientation, gender identity, genetic information, sex, marital status, disability, or status as a U.S. veteran. Inquiries regarding non-discrimination policies may be directed to Office of Equal Opportunity, 3350 Beardshear Hall, 515 Morrill Road, Ames, Iowa 50011, Tel. 515 294-7612, Hotline: 515-294-1222, email [email protected]. This Working Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please visit lib.dr.iastate.edu. Measuring Market Power in Professional Baseball, Basketball, Football and Hockey Abstract Forbes Magazine estimates of annual revenues, costs and team values for professional sports teams are used to derive market power measures for teams in four major professional sports leagues: the MLB, NBA, NHL, and the NFL. Two variants of the Lerner Index, one that reflects short-term operations for the past year and another reflecting the long-run net present value of the franchise are derived over the 2006-2016 period. Only the long-run measure provides estimates that are always consistent with theoretical requirements. Analysis of variance of long-run market power shows that local market factors and past team performance have less impact on market power than common league-wide effects. Team market power depends least on local team effects in leagues that have stronger revenue sharing policies. Price-cost margins are higher for professional teams in North American than for the most valuable European soccer teams, consistent with the stronger exemption from anti-trust law in the U.S. Keywords market power, Lerner index, anti-trust, revenue sharing, local markets, demand elasticity, Forbes Disciplines Industrial Organization | Sports Management | Sports Studies This article is available at Iowa State University Digital Repository: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/econ_workingpapers/32 Measuring Market Power in Professional Baseball, Basketball, Football and Hockey Gerald T. Healy III ([email protected]) Jing Ru Tan ([email protected]) Peter F. Orazem ([email protected] ) Iowa State University August 2017 Forbes Magazine estimates of annual revenues, costs and team values for professional sports teams are used to derive market power measures for teams in four major professional sports leagues: the MLB, NBA, NHL, and the NFL. Two variants of the Lerner Index, one that reflects short-term operations for the past year and another reflecting the long-run net present value of the franchise are derived over the 2006-2016 period. Only the long-run measure provides estimates that are always consistent with theoretical requirements. Analysis of variance of long- run market power shows that local market factors and past team performance have less impact on market power than common league-wide effects. Team market power depends least on local team effects in leagues that have stronger revenue sharing policies. Price-cost margins are higher for professional teams in North American than for the most valuable European soccer teams, consistent with the stronger exemption from anti-trust law in the U.S. Key Words: market power, Lerner index, anti-trust, revenue sharing, local markets, demand elasticity, Forbes JEL: L43; L13; L83 _____________________ Corresponding author: Peter F. Orazem, 267 Heady Hall, Department of Economics, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011-1070. Email: [email protected] Phone: (515) 294-8656. 0 Measuring Market Power in Professional Baseball, Basketball, Football and Hockey In 2015, the four largest professional sports leagues generated almost $28 billion in revenues with the NHL earning $4 billion, the NBA $4.8 billion, MLB $ 7.9 billion, and the NFL $11.1 billion. While individual teams compete with one another in games, they cooperate with one another in the generation of sales. All four leagues act as a single firm with the teams treated legally as if they were subsidiaries. Because firms are not obligated to open subsidiaries, the leagues can legally restrict entry of new teams. That differs from the European soccer leagues where the practice of relegation and promotion allow new teams to enter by winning their way into the top leagues. As monopolies, we would expect the North American professional leagues would price their product above marginal cost without risk of future lost profitability from new entry. But do the ‘subsidiary’ individual teams have the same market power as the league or is their variation in market power across teams? If a team’s ability to price is based on its local market, its success on the field, or the loyalty of its fan base, then there may be variation in market power across the teams. On the other hand, if individual team profits are shared in common, as would be the case with pooled net revenues that were equally distributed across teams, the league market power would be the same as the individual team market power. As a result, the team’s market power will be divorced from its local market conditions and past competitive success depending on the extent of revenue sharing in the league. This study presents two variations on the Lerner Index computed from Forbes Magazine’s estimates of the revenues, costs and present values of U.S. professional sports teams. These price-cost margins are commonly used as indicators of the share of the consumer price that is the mark-up over cost. Variation in these indexes across teams within a league will show 1 how much the league insulates member teams from their own local market conditions or their competitiveness. Variation in price-cost margins across leagues will show which leagues have the greatest market power. Variation across time will show how market power varies over the business cycle. All four leagues are characterized by an ability to set price above marginal cost. The stronger exemption from anti-trust laws in North America compared to European sports leagues are reflected in higher computed Lerner Indexes in all four leagues compared to comparable estimates for the most valuable European soccer teams. All the North American leagues gained market power in the recovery, and common macroeconomic factors across teams are the dominant factor explaining variation in market power over the 2006-2016 sample period. The highest price-cost margins are in the NBA and the NFL, the teams with the strongest revenue sharing policies. Local market factors are more important for team market power in the NHL and MLB where revenue sharing is less aggressive. 1. Background Professional sports leagues in the United States have market power because they can legally collude to limit entry. As a result, they can set the number of games, control broadcasting, restrict ticket sales, and restrict sale of licensed memorabilia. However, Major League Baseball is the only league that has a nonstatutory exemption from the Sherman Anti-Trust Act thanks to a Supreme Court ruling that ruled baseball was not a business and therefore not subject to antitrust regulation (Federal Baseball Club vs. National League, 1922). The antitrust exemption was upheld in Toolson vs. New York Yankees, Inc. (1953). Because these rulings apply only to MLB, other professional leagues such as the NBA, NHL, and NFL are technically subject to antitrust law although there has been no definitive legal test. An argument favoring exemption 2 from antitrust law is that these leagues are viewed as single entities with subsidiaries rather than competing businesses. As individual entities, the leagues are viewed as a single firm allocating production across its subsidiaries rather than as a group of colluding firms (Farzin, 2015).1 The anti-trust protection of the other leagues is sufficiently strong that Grow (2012) argues that even if the MLB exemption were to be reversed, its current practices are so similar to the other leagues that do not enjoy the added protection that monopoly power in MLB would be unaffected.2 Professional sports in the U.S. appear to have a stronger exemption from antitrust law than do professional leagues in Europe. Sports Governing Bodies (“SGBs”) such as the British Premiership, the German Bundesliga, or the Italian Serie A administer rules that could violate European antitrust laws if the rules are believed to limit economic competition. However, the European Commission and the European Court of Justice have been willing to grant that professional sports leagues regulate competition among their members for noneconomic reasons (Farzin, 2015). However, all of the European soccer leagues have rules that force teams to place high enough in the league standings to retain their status in the top league. Teams that lose too many games are relegated to lower leagues while others are promoted from below. As a result, professional teams in Europe have less security against competition than is the case in the United States. These difference in rules regarding entry and exit may lower price-cost margins for European teams compared to teams in North America. 1 While three of the leagues also have teams in Canada, the Foreign Antitrust Improvements Act of 1982 treats foreign firms as subject to U.S.
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