Mass Media's Cultivation Effect on Islamic, Muslim, and Qur'anic
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Illinois State University ISU ReD: Research and eData Theses and Dissertations 10-10-2016 Mass Media’s Cultivation Effect On Islamic, Muslim, And Qur’anic Prejudice Shanna J. Carlson Illinois State University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.library.illinoisstate.edu/etd Part of the Communication Commons, Near Eastern Languages and Societies Commons, and the Other International and Area Studies Commons Recommended Citation Carlson, Shanna J., "Mass Media’s Cultivation Effect On Islamic, Muslim, And Qur’anic Prejudice" (2016). Theses and Dissertations. 609. https://ir.library.illinoisstate.edu/etd/609 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by ISU ReD: Research and eData. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ISU ReD: Research and eData. For more information, please contact [email protected]. MASS MEDIA’S CULTIVATION EFFECT ON ISLAMIC, MUSLIM, AND QUR’ANIC PREJUDICE Shanna J. Carlson 97 Pages This thesis explores the power of the mass media’s ability to cultivate reality in terms of the threat of Islam. A rhetorical analysis of the messages portrayed by the mass media is then compared to the findings of the study. While the study did not find any significant correlation between consumption of media and fear of Muslims, the Qur’an, or Islam, it did find a strong negative correlation between intergroup contact and salience of stereotypes. KEYWORDS: Muslim, Islam, Rhetoric, Cultivation Effect, Agenda Setting, Mass Media MASS MEDIA’S CULTIVATION EFFECT ON ISLAMIC, MUSLIM, AND QUR’ANIC PREJUDICE SHANNA J. CARLSON A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Communication ILLINOIS STATE UNIVERSITY 2016 © 2016 Shanna J. Carlson MASS MEDIA’S CULTIVATION EFFECT ON ISLAMIC, MUSLIM, AND QUR’ANIC PREJUDICE SHANNA J. CARLSON COMMITTEE MEMBERS: John R. Baldwin, Chair Joseph Zompetti K. Megan Hopper ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to first thank my committee for their guidance and support of this study. I have wanted to write this thesis for almost a decade, and they have helped me to achieve something greater than I thought possible. I would also like to thank my friends and family members who have spent countless hours listening to me complain, rant, and gush over this research. My friends and family members have also been integral in driving me to do this research. My parents have been nothing but supportive in achieving what I dreamed about for so long. My colleague Megan Koch has also been a great motivator through this whole process. She has helped me learn how to balance life, teaching, coaching, and academia. I also want to thank my Forensics Team; they have all challenged me to critically engage my own preconceived notions regarding many issues facing the activity. The entire debate community has also aided me along the way of writing this thesis. Many rounds there would be evidence read that I had not heard before that eventually made its way in some capacity into the study. Finally, I want to thank the Islamic Center of Topeka, Kansas. In 2011, I was invited by a member of their mosque to come and speak during Ramadan; it was the most nerve wracking thing I had ever done up to this point. The entire mosque welcomed me with open arms, asked me to break fast with them and enjoy in an evening of fellowship, even though I do not identify as Muslim. After dinner and conversation, I provided a quick presentation on the differences between Qur’anic jihad and mass media’s interpretation and representation of jihad. The questions that were asked were insightful and engaging. As the presentation was ending and they were preparing for prayer, one of the gentlemen of the mosque asked that I go and get an advanced degree so that I could continue to help a community in need of allies. I am not sure if that gentleman remembers me, but I will never forget him, and he has been in the back of my mind for many years and will always have a place in my research. I also want to specifically i thank the women of the mosque that asked me to sit down and speak with them directly about my research and experiences. Those women also may not remember me, but they are another major reason I continue this line of research and advocacy. I am not sure I would have ever finished this thesis if it were not for the presentation that I gave that night and the discussions that were had in that mosque. S. J. C. ii CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i CONTENTS iii TABLES vi CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 10 Western Construction of Islam 10 Ideology 11 Hegemony 11 Collective memory 13 Rhetoric 16 Rhetoric and ideology 17 Political rhetoric 18 Ideographs 21 Media Effects 24 Agenda Setting 24 Priming the audience and framing the problem 28 Cultivating Reality 30 Cultivation theory 30 Cultivating stereotypes 34 Cultivation and threat construction 35 Media Depiction of Arabs in Western Thought 41 iii Beginnings of Islamic Threat Construction 41 Threat Construction after the Cold War 44 Threat Construction During the Second Bush Administration 46 Continued Coverage of Islam 51 Hypotheses and Research Questions 53 Conclusion 56 CHAPTER III: METHODS 57 Participants and Procedures 57 Survey 58 Demographics 58 Islamophobia Scale 58 Intergroup Contact 59 Cultural Sensitivity Presentation Bias 59 Stereotypes 60 Media Usage 60 Procedure 61 Data Analysis 61 Conclusion 62 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS 63 Hypothesis 1 63 Hypothesis 2 and 3 66 Research Question 1 68 Conclusion 68 iv CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION 69 Summary of Findings 69 Hypothesis 1 70 Hypothesis 2 and 3 72 Research Question 1 73 Conclusion 74 Limitations 74 Implications for Practice 76 REFERENCES 80 APPENDIX A: COPYRIGHT PERMISSIONS 95 v TABLES Table Page 1. Source of News: Percentages 65 2. Independent-Samples Test 66 3. Pearson Correlation 67 vi CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION Muslims and Middle Easterners have constituted the West’s and Christianity’s number one nemesis for close to ten centuries. A diverse and large area of the world has been reduced to a single identity: the barbaric, hate-driven Muslim Arab. Shaheen (2003) explains that the term “Arab” is used to “refer to the 265 million people who reside in and the many more millions around the world who are from the 22 Arab states” (p. 173). The Muslim population has surged to 1.6 billion and is considered “the fastest growing religion…[and]…if current demographic trends continue, the number of Muslims is expected to exceed the number of Christians by the end of this century” (Lipka, 2016, “How many Muslims,” para. 1). Lipka explains that the majority of the world’s Muslim population is not centered in the Middle East or Northern Africa. Indonesia is currently the home to the largest concentration of Muslims, but India is expected to replace Indonesia by 2050 with a projected Muslim population of 300 million (Lipka, 2015). This dispersion of Islam is being fueled by global climate change and violent wars raging across the East. Muslims and non-Muslims are interacting more and more frequently. The growing global climate and immigration trends are only going to increase interaction between the groups. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) (2016) explains that since January 1, 2016, the numbers of refugees from Northern Africa and the Middle East are steadily increasing. Some of these refugees may be due to climate change. Frangoul (2016) reports that a German study predicted that “by the middle of the century temperatures in these areas [Middle East and North Africa] would not drop lower than 30 degrees Celsius at night during the warmest periods, with temperatures potentially hitting 46 degrees Celsius during the day” (para 6); climate change anticipates migration out of these areas to cooler climates. However, the 1 UNHCR reports that “the vast majority of those attempting this dangerous crossing are in need of international protection, fleeing war, violence, and persecution in their country of origin” (np). The growing Muslim population around the world and the forced increased interaction among cultures highlights the need to explore the media’s ability to cultivate and maintain a fear of an entire religion and region of the world. Al Dawlah al-Islameyah fi Iraq wal-Sham (daesh), which translates into the Islamic State in Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS), is carrying out bombings around the world, security lines at airports are growing longer, fear of the next terror attack is high, and the media are capitalizing on these situations. Mass media outlets are constantly reporting on the latest bombing or feared threat all over the world. Islamophobia has become so pervasive that anything can cause a scare if it is seen as being Arab, Islamic, or daesh. Agence France-Presse (2015) reports that a global charity group, The Bearded Villains, were reported to Swedish police as suspected daesh members. In an interview with Agence France-Presse, the group’s spokesman, Andre Fransson, said that he acknowledges “that the club’s flag – two crossed sabers on a black background – could easily be confused with that of the militant group” (para. 5). While it may be true that the club’s flag does resemble daesh’s, that is not grounds for the need for a police presence. The men are part of an international organization that does charity work around the world, yet they suffer at the hands of Islamophobia simply for the colors on their flag. Europe is witnessing a vast influx of Middle Eastern and Muslim refugees due to the conflicts in Syria and Iraq.