the eastern islands (, Tauu and nukumanu)

VII The Eastern Islands (Nuguria, Tauu and Nukumanu)

ast of the large Melanesian islands extends a For years the population has been in the process Elong chain of small islands, mostly raised of dying out. The current number is about fifteen. coral reefs or , belonging geographically to In 1902 alone, sixteen died, particularly as a result , but occupying a quite special position of influenza. The natives’ physical resistance seems ethnographically. to be very low, and it will not be many more years Three of these small atolls, Nuguria, Tauu and before none of the present population exists. In Nukumanu, have been annexed by the German 1885 when I first visited this small group I esti- protectorate. A fourth group, Liueniua or Ong­­­ mated the population to be at least 160 people. tong Java, by far the most significant, was Ger­- Tauu, pronounced Tau’u’u (Mortlock or Mar­ man for a time but then by treaty passed into queen Islands; Dr Thilenius names it incorrectly as English hands. Taguu), is likewise an structure. It lies at ap- Although the three German groups are of no proximately 157ºE longitude and 4º50’S latitude, great interest commercially and probably never and the total land area of the islands is no greater will be, ethnographically they are of no small im- than 200 hectares. The distance from Nuguria is portance because in spite of being in a Melanesian about 150 nautical miles. The nearest point in the neighbourhood, they are inhabited by . , Cape le Cras, is about 120 nauti- In volumes X and XI of the Internationales Ar- cal miles away. The island, like Nuguria, was taken chiv für Ethnographie I have reported extensively over by a European planter, who is exploiting the on these islands. Later, in the Abhandlungen der stands of and is bringing the previously Kaiserl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der unplanted areas into cultivation. Naturforscher, Dr Thilenius, based to some extent The population is in rapid decline and currently on my earlier work, examined the entire island consists of about twenty people. In 1885 there were chain and discussed the origin of its inhabitants about fifty. Had the European owner of the island in greater detail. not looked after the small population, they might Nuguria (Abgarris or Fead Islands) consists have already disappeared from the scene. of two atolls divided by a deep arm of the sea. The Nukumanu atoll (Tasman Islands) lies at The southern one is the real Nuguria while the approximately 159º30’E longitude and 4º35’S northern is called Malum. Both atolls stretch more latitude, about 135 nautical miles east of Tauu and than about 25 nautical miles along a main north- only about 25 nautical miles north of the large atoll west - south-east axis. The maximum breadth of of Liueniua (Ongtong Java). the atoll­ is about 6 nautical miles. The islands on The surface area of all the islands amounts to the coral reef, of which the main island, Nuguria, 250 hectares. Here also the main product is co- is by far the largest, together encompass about conut, but not much is exported because in pro- 1,000 hectares. The group lies fairly distant from portion to size the population is fairly significant, the larger islands – about 120 nautical miles from actu­ally around 300 according to a census that I and about 100 nautical miles from the took in 1900. That the mortality rate is less high northern end of the Solomon Islands. According here and the population more resistant is prob- to the map the position of the main island is about ably because new additions from the quite heavily 154º50’E longitude, and 3º30’S latitude. The populated Liueniua from time to time bring about islands are provided with coconut palms and the a regeneration,­ which does not occur on the other firm E.E. Forsayth is carrying out a regular planta- islands because of their isolated positions. tion business here. The company has planted out All these islands are populated by Polynesians entire islands with coconut palms and can expect with a perceptible, though small, admixture of a significant income in a few years’ time. Melanesian blood. Now, all Polynesians have, to a

225 Thirty Years in the South Seas

doubt identical to that of the island of . The name Tauu also reflects . We could therefore assume that the present remainder of the population is a remnant of an immigrant tribe from , probably from Samoa, which used the islands of Rotuma and as intermediate stages. While we have quite extensive information from the other islands about religion, the names of the gods and their functions, the numerous spirits that inhabit reef, sea and air, Tauu lets us down. The current high priest, a Nukumanu ­native shipwrecked here, is not totally reliable about the old, original beliefs; in his accounts I have often been able to observe that he has not been able to free himself from the impressions of his youth. Nevertheless, I was able to monitor his information sufficiently from the stories from Nukumanu and Liueniua. However, to him too the old legends about immigration and origin have remained unknown, or if he has heard them Fig. 83 Girls of they have long since disappeared from his memory. Nukumanu (Tasman Before I go further, I want to give a brief account Islands) of the legends of the various islands. On Nuguria I was told: In the beginning two gods came over the ocean in a canoe with three women. They came from ­ and Taraua. The names of the gods were Katiariki and Haraparapa; the three women were called Lopi, Tefuai and Tupulelei. When the canoe reached the reef, Katiariki struck the water with his staff and from the deep arose a bubble that burst on reaching the surface and from it sprang a third god, named Loatu. At the same time a sandbank rose above the ocean surface, beneath the feet of the three gods. Katiariki and Haraparapa were great friends and took Loatu into their band as well. However, when they observed that the island was desolate and undeveloped, Katiariki and Harapa­rapa decided to make a journey to seek food; Loatu was delegated to guard the island. During the absence Fig. 84 Boys of of the former two gods, another god appeared, Nukumanu (Tasman named Tepu. He came from Nukumanu, drove out Islands) Loatu and took possession of the island. Meanwhile Katiariki and Haraparapa returned with food, and great extent, the habit of preserving old traditions, when they saw that Tepu had taken their possession and as it is recognised that almost without exception they were incensed, and in their anger they threw these have an historical basis, it is of great interest away the food that they had brought with them. to gather the remnants of these traditions and This is why a certain edible sea snail and the yam draw further conclusions from them. In the case plant occur only on the Malum group and not on the of Nuguria and Nukumanu, the latter of which Nuguria group. Katiariki and Harapa­ rapa­ summoned shows great correspondence with Liueniua, a whole the evicted Loatu and all settled on Nuguria.­ Tepu number of such traditions is available. For Tauu lived on the small hill Mauga (mountain) and right the material is most inadequate; the population in to the present day this is hallowed­ ground and soil, their steady decline has apparently lost all interest dedicated exclusively to the gods and their worship. in earlier times, and from several old songs I was Katiariki and Haraparapa­ settled to the right and able to determine only that the names Sawaii (one Loatu to the left of the hill, Mauga, and today they of the ) and Tikopia were familiar are all still regarded as higher beings.­ to them. One of the aitu or godlike revered ances- Dr Thilenius quotes the following accounts tors is called Lotuma. One of the islands on the given to him, according to which eight different reef bears the same name, a name that is without­ immigrations are named:

226 the eastern islands (Nuguria, Tauu and nukumanu)

• Katiariki, Haraparapa and Haurua from how to prepare food with the aid of fire, which Nuku­oro (450 nautical miles northward); was not previously known either. Sapu brought • Loatu from (590 nautical miles out of the canoe, and planted them on south-eastwards); the island, thus laying the ground for the present • Tepu, Apua, Akati from Tarawa (1,110 stands of coconut palms. Ame le lago had brought nautical miles eastwards); plants, and with Keruahine he established the • Nuguria, Mahuike from Sikaiana; first taro crops. Keruahine introduced tattooing; • Arapi, Tupulelei (female), Tefuai (female) Lolo stretched out on a mat and was tattooed by from Tarawa; her with the still-used patterns. Tattooing was thus • Ranatau, Lopi (female) from Nukufetau universal, and to the present day it is a women’s (1,440 nautical miles eastwards); task. Ame le lago also showed the people how to • Hooti, Aitu, Arei, Atipu from Nukumanu make mats on a weaving loom for clothing men (300 nautical miles south-eastwards). and women, and consequently weaving is still done Finally, at the time of Tepu, Pakewa arrived from by men; only the highest chief and his relatives do the high seas in the form of a fish. not practise weaving. No traditions are known to us from Tauu; how- After a while Lolo chose Keruahine as his wife, ever, in the holy house there an aitu is revered, but in so doing incensed both his comrades, Keui bearing the name Loatu, a higher being that we and Puapua, who also had their eyes on Keruahine, also encounter on Nuguria, and on Nukumanu and Puapua was so angry that he left the island and Liueniua as well. Today in the hare aiku the group completely and settled on the neighbouring following ancestors are venerated: Kikumanu (Nukumanu, Tasman Islands), where Loatu (from Sawaii?), Teporo and Lutuma, as today he is still venerated in the hare aiku. (On well as the women Pukena, Tetuai and Hinepua. Nukumanu he is called Pau-Pau.) Keui remained In order to understand the legends from on the island but moved to the uninhabited part Nuku­manu, we need to mention those from the on the far side of the Keave burial site, where he neighbouring Ongtong Java. It was recounted to built a house on the site of Kelahu. me in Liueniua: In Keruahine’s time Kapu lau lagi came from Lolo lived on the sea floor and built up the coral Nuguria in a canoe. Only after prolonged negotia- reefs. When these had not yet climbed above the tions was he permitted to land, on condition that surface of the sea, a canoe came from afar with Siva he remained living alone. in it. He saw Lolo’s head rising out of the sand and Lolo and Keruahine’s children were Poho uru gripped it by the hair which was being moved to moro, a daughter who died while a child ( mole and fro by the waves, and pulled. Lolo called to him mole is called ‘bald head’ in Samoan), and a son, to pull very hard, and Siva succeeded in pulling him Kemagia. right out into the open. Lolo, however, indicated Dr Thilenius’s accounts begin first with Loatu, to Siva to go away again, for his island was not yet who, according to the accounts given to me, ready, and also it was for his own use and not for immigrated much later. According to Thilenius, outsiders; upon which Siva went further on. Lolo Loatu and Laurumore and the woman Niua came now built busily and made the reef so high above in a boat from far across the high seas. They set- the water that waves were unable to wash over it. tled on Liueniua, but after some time had passed He then began to cover the rock with grass and Loatu became jealous of Laurumore and caused plants, then with bushes and undergrowth, and the latter’s hair to fall out. He was thus harmless finally with large trees. to women and actually had no offspring. All chiefs During this period another canoe arrived, with originated from Loatu. The people stemmed from four people, three men and a woman. Lolo, with Uila, who came from heaven with five wives. whom two comrades, Keui and Puapua, had previ- The north-western end of the Ongtong Java ously been associated, did not want the strangers group is named Pelau after the main island. The to land, and ordered them to remain on the beach Pelau people, significantly smaller in number, and with their canoe. But the new arrivals begged and under an individual headman, maintain a certain in- pleaded, and promised Lolo that they would teach dependence from the headman on Liueniua. They him many new things that would offer great advan­ likewise venerate their legendary ancestors as aitu. tages to him and his island, so that finally Lolo re­ Tradition there has it that Kepu was the creator of lented, and gave them permission to set foot on his the island of Pelau and its first inhabitant. Later, island. The men who had come in the canoe were Apio, Loaku, and Waikahi arrived, and the women called Ame le lago, Sapu and Kau, the woman was Ogäi, Kehä and Keania. These are still venerated as called Keruahine. Their homeland was Makarama. aitu today and have their own hare aiku. The new arrivals kept their promise. Kau taught The significance of these traditions is without how to make fire by rubbing two sticks together, doubt that immigrants from the earliest times en- which was previously unknown; he also showed joyed divine veneration by their successors, but that

227 Thirty Years in the South Seas they were men of flesh and blood who, for whatever ­interbreeding with a foreign race is the most notice- reason, landed on the tiny islands, whether on able, and this can be explained if we consider their journeys to unknown regions, or because they were proximity to the Melanesian island groups of the driven from their homeland by wind and wave, and the Solomon Islands. and after long meandering finally found haven. Liueniua, by virtue of its larger population, was The traditions from time to time give the original able to resist Melanesian immigration. The smaller homeland precisely; for example, Samoa, the Ellice groups were less fortunately placed. Thus on all of group, Rotuma, Sikaiana, Tikopia, the Kingsmill them we hear of immigration by Melanesians who Islands, and several islands of the Carolines. Thus sometimes moved on again after a long time, or we are justified in concluding that the population sometimes settled there. The have of all these islands has arisen from an intermingling only in relatively recent times been settled by Buka of the most varied Polynesian tribes. We are still people, and the latter encountered a pale people, more justified in such a conclusion because even whom they completely wiped out, and the sole today, from time to time new arrivals appear on the trace of them is in the form of Tridacna axe blades islands, having been driven from their homelands found in the ground. by unfavourable weather conditions. In the previ- If we look more closely at the islanders, we ously mentioned works of the author, as in those become convinced that their outward appearance by Dr Thilenius, there are numerous examples of matches the Polynesians. The men are of medium such journeys. build, although on Nukumanu and especially on Furthermore the great similarity of language Tauu tall men are quite common. On my first visit and the general appearance of the islanders sup- to Tauu I was quite astonished at the extraordinary port their belonging to the Polynesians. Again, height of the old men who received me at that the specific racial features of the Polynesians, the time. On Nuguria a shorter type lives, probably characteristic blue-grey spot as large as a hand, because the principal immigration from the north that is seen on the upper margin of the buttocks came from the Caroline Islands, and the Caroline (called ila in Samoa) of all pure Polynesian infants people, in spite of their close relationship with the until about five months old, is found here in most central Polynesians, did not attain their height. cases. I say in most cases because children are also The skin shade may be regarded as pale brown. born without this feature. The absence of the ila Darker and paler shades occur here as in Samoa, reveals intermingling with another race. Offspring partly as a result of occupation, because some na- of Samoan women and white men do not have this tives are more at the mercy of the sun’s rays than feature, and it is also missing in cross-breeding others. Fishermen and outdoor workers are there- between Polynesians and Melanesians, even when fore darker than, for example, the headman who for the latter, as, for example, in the New Hebrides the most part remains in his hut, and the women, or in the southern Solomon Islands, have a high who do not come out into the open often either. content of Polynesian blood. On Liueniua there Sometimes the hair is completely straight, are very few exceptions. On Pelau and Nukumanu sometimes in ringlets or wavy. On Nuguria I have they are already somewhat more frequent. On seen hair that one would call almost frizzy, even Tauu I was able to observe only a single infant, though the characteristic small curls in the shape and in this one the blue mark was clearly visible. of a closely wound corkscrew, so characteristic of On Nuguria island in an observation in 1888, there Melanesians, do not appear. Beards on the whole were two out of six infants, in 1893 three out of are sparse, although quite heavy beards are seen four, and in 1900 not one out of four without the on Liueniua and on Tauu; I do not remember ever mark. Absence of the mark, which moreover does having seen a single heavy full beard on Nukumanu, not occur­ without exception in either Samoa or nor on Nuguria. , seems to indicate that an intermingling with In older age the women especially are uncom- another, impure Polynesian group has occurred. In monly fat and portly, and, in this regard, what I Samoa and Tonga this is explainable by mixing with had occasion to observe during my first visit to the Viti islanders, partly also with Europeans and Tauu exceeded everything that I had seen, for members of other races. In Nukumanu, Tauu and example, in Samoa and Tonga. Several of the old Nuguria and on Ongtong Java we must similarly Tauu women at that time were so stout that they explain the lack of the spot by interracial breeding, were not able to move round, and had not only and indeed we can, with justification, draw a con- to be carefully carried from place to place by their clusion on the greater or lesser purity of the race less stout compatriots but also fed as well. In this from the regularity or irregularity of occurrence regard Nuguria takes second place to the other of this mark. Thus the population on Liueniua is islands probably because of the poor health of the the most purely preserved, probably because this population; however, well-nourished and stout island was settled by pure Polynesian migrants. women are of the greatest beauty in the eyes of On Nukumanu­ and Nuguria, especially the latter, the islanders.

228 the eastern islands (Nuguria, Tauu and nukumanu)

I have already mentioned that the languages of these islands show a great similarity, and moreover are very closely related to the central .­ Samoan is immediately and without great difficulty understood on the islands; how- ever, closer investigation elicits the fact that many words originate from the north, particularly from the Caro­lines, proving once more that immigra- tion occurred from there as well. Particularly on Nuguria immigration from the north, from all those islands that we recognise under the group name Micronesia, seems to be strongly represented. Religious ideas are basically the same everywhere. Although the central Polynesian element is predominant, we find, however, only slight traces of the knowledge of a supreme god, which we cer- tainly find elsewhere in Polynesia. The Polynesian gods Taga­loa and Maui seem to have passed into total oblivion. On Nukumanu they know higher spirits that live in Ba e lagi. Ba e lagi is an ­indefinite concept; it signifies both the residence of the spirit and the spirit itself. Ba e lagi has two children, namely Koko e lagi and Keagiva (the Milky Way). Koko e lagi is the guardian of the place Ba e lagi which the souls of the dead strive to reach, without sufficient protection from Keruahine, driven back under thunder and lightning onto the reef Muli a au. Keagiva sends the rainbow (umaka) and, if he is angry, the hurricane (sisio). The makua (see page 230) have the privilege of calling upon Keagiva,­ who then sends shooting stars (kagaloa) to cause disaster. Kagaloa is undoubtedly identical with the central Polynesian Tagaloa, but has gradually sunk from the idea of a supreme being into a subordi- nate position. Spirits also dwell in the moon; the moon spirit, Makaga is clearly seen sitting in the moon twisting cords of coconut fibre. Magu (on Nuguria te taro) lives in the evening star and makes wind and bad weather; Kauha (on Nuguria Atea) has his position in the morning star and makes the sunshine and good weather. On Tauu they also know a dwelling place above the stars, where a higher spirit lives. His name is Taroa, which could be a distortion of the name Tagaloa. On Nuguria they know a higher being, named i Luna te lagi, to whom all the living and lifeless are subject, also the ancestral godheads. They do not make images of any of these higher Fig. 85 Ancestral image beings for public veneration. of Pau-Pau. Nukumanu The whole religious cult is based on veneration of those first colonists, which are all revered asaitu or aiku. The cult of these ancestral gods is totally to the fore. Special dwellings, hare aiku, are erected for them, and many are built in all kinds of shapes. On Nukumanu we find the god Pau-Pau (Pua- Pua from Liueniua) (fig. 85.) It is a roughly carved wooden figure about 5 metres tall and almost an exact replica of the images of Lolo and Keruahine

229 Thirty Years in the South Seas

set up in the hare aiku on Liueniua. crops. They tease humans, cause illness and injury, In their shape, the faces of these ancestral images and can be appeased by the mediation of certain strongly recall the large wooden masks from the priests or sorcerers. Their number is very great, Lukunor group (Museum Godeffroy, plate 29, and the designation of individual ones varies from fig. 1), which are called topánu there. island to island. Some of them have the property On Tauu the ancestors Loatu, Teporo and Hine­ of becoming visible to the islanders at night; this pua are venerated in a hare aiku. The ancestral always results in an illness or misfortune. Widely image of Loatu was a carved spear, of which the varying forms of sacrifice are brought to thetipoa lower part of the shaft was broken off and set into or kipua just as to the aitu or aiku, to keep them a new piece of wood. The spear (fig. 86) could quite on favourable terms. probably have been the personal property of the The islanders split into several classes, which are immigrant Loatu. I succeeded in acquiring this old the same everywhere. The chiefs and their male item, and since that time a simple stick has been set relatives form the highest class. On Liueniua and up as a memorial to Loatu. Teporo’s memorial is a Nukumanu this class is called tu’u; but on Tauu, black piece of wood about 4 metres long and about on the other hand, it is tui. (This is a still current 15 centimetres in diameter at the thickest end, Samoan word that is used for the highest chief or painted red at one end; it appears to be a washed- king, as, for example, Tui Aana, the highest chief up fragment of a ship’s spar. Hinepua’s memorial of Aana, Tui Atua, the highest chief of Atua, and is a simple rough wooden block without carving. so on.) Following this class, in order, is the class of On Nuguria the memorial to Tepu consists of a the makua or matua (in Samoa, matua = parents, rock. The hut erected over it was burned down a the elders), with whom the priests rank equal. Then few years ago at the time of a punitive expedition, on the lowest rank follow the common people. The and as far as I know has not been replaced. Tepu’s tu’u are the successors of the legendary ancestors; memorial by its nature avoided destruction; but after death their souls remain on the island, some- according to comments by the natives there were times in special houses, in the neighbourhood of other wooden memorials which were destroyed the aitu, their ancestors. The souls of the makua by the fire. or matua go after death to the legendary home Over the years the ancestors have taken on that lies beyond the stars, when they have the godlike functions, and are venerated and called necessary escort of the aiku. After death, the souls upon on all occasions. As intermediaries between of the common folk go as a rule to a certain place the aitu and the people, a special class of priests on the coral reef. or sorcerers developed over time, and enjoys a The members of the highest class never marry special reputation. Some of these priests provide women of their own class, but always from the low- the service of a particular aitu; others combine in est class. The women of this class must therefore themselves the ability to conjure up all aitu. Some always marry men of lower class. If, after marriage, are created temporarily, others remain priests their men of a lower class had illicit intercourse with whole life. In the latter the occupation is passed as upper-class women, this would be punished by a rule from father to son. A special jewel of these death in earlier times. It is possible that this custom priests is two large ornaments of turtle shell that still exists but is kept secret from fear of the whites. hang from the nostrils. A fan and a folded mat also Women of an upper class, who, while not being belong among their attributes. married, have illegal intercourse with men from a The sorcerers or priests also fulfill the role of lower class, were punished by female relatives biting healers and doctors. They do not seem to know off their noses and ears. I have seen such a mutilated real medications; all illnesses are banished by mur- person on Nukumanu and another on Liueniua. muring special spells, rubbing with oil, sprinkling Incidentally, before marriage the young women with salt water, wrapping with special sacred mats, of all classes are quite unfettered in their way of waving certain green twigs to and fro, and fanning life, but wisely remain within the confines of their with the priest’s fan. The evil spirits that cause all own class. illnesses must then yield to the sorcerer; otherwise The wives of deceased members of the highest the illness is brought about by the anger of some class can never remarry. Widows or divorcees of the aitu or other, and it must then be appeased by other two classes can seek a new husband. sacrifice and supplication until it changes its mind, Special marriage customs do not exist. The men whereupon recovery results; in the opposite situ- of the upper class simply send their retinue to the ation death ensues. house of the girl whom they desire and she calmly As well as the ancestral gods, there is a large follows them. In the other two classes it is essential series of spirits which we can designate as spirits that the suitor brings the father of the girl a gift of of nature, bearing the name tipoa (Nuguria), or mats, turtle shell and turmeric. Acceptance of this Fig. 86 Memorial of kipua (Nukumanu). They inhabit the coral reef, gift is tantamount to acceptance of the proposal, Loatu, Tauu the sea, the air, odd trees or certain rocky out- and without further ado the girl follows the suitor

230 the eastern islands (Nuguria, Tauu and nukumanu)

to his hut. Divorces occur, but not often, and are marriage. On Nuguria and Tauu, where tattooing Plate 34 Village scene mostly the result of scenes of jealousy. Suicide by is not customary, dressing in mats is regarded as a on Nissan the wife also occurs for the same reason; it is more sign of readiness. rare in the husbands. Funeral customs vary according to the class of the Birth celebrations and customs are likewise not deceased. A dead person from the highest class is of great significance. A type of feast is put on for wrapped in mats and laid out on mats in the hut. A the pregnant woman in the fifth month. The rela- general wail of mourning begins, and continues un- tives bring food and a public meal is prepared; the interrupted for two days and nights. Then the corpse sorcerer pronounces his charm over the pregnant is buried in the burial ground set aside for the highest woman. As a rule the child’s grandmother performs class, and the wailing continues for several more days, the midwife duties. If the pregnant woman is mar- this time in the house where, in the people’s opinion, ried to a native of either of the upper classes the the souls of the members of this class remain. At the birth takes place in the house of the family head same time a great feast is prepared. The priests of the of this class. The women of the lowest class give aitu have nothing to do here because the spirits of birth in their husband’s house. the dead return directly to their ancestors, the aitu, The newborn baby is cared for by the grand- and need no intermediaries. mother; she shapes the infant’s head by gentle If a makua or someone of equal rank dies, the pressure and then bathes it in the sea. Then the corpse is laid out on a scaffold about 2.5 metres tall child is wrapped in mats, and for the following and rubbed copiously with oil and turmeric; the two days the grandmother (kepuga) holds it by the relatives then cover the corpse with woven mats. fire so that it is kept quite warm. Then it is handed The priest then approaches, beseeches the aitu, and over into the mother’s care. After about four weeks ignites dry flower cases of the coconut palm, which the relatives bring coconuts and food and there is he lays under the scaffold. For each individual case feasting again. he names an ancestor of the deceased. Every male When the young boys are about ten to twelve makua approaches the corpse and has to recite the years old the septum and wings of the nostrils are responses to a particular song that those round bored through, and clothing mats are donned. The about begin to sing. Two days later, the corpse ear lobes of girls of the same age are bored through, is brought to the hare aiku, where the aitu are and at the same time they are dressed in clothing implored to guide the soul of the deceased to the mats and tattooing is gradually carried out, from home above the stars. Then the corpse is fastened to waist to knees. When this is complete the girls are a wooden frame, wrapped in mats, and interred at ready for marriage. Boys are tattooed only after the burial site of the makua. A coral block is erected

231 Thirty Years in the South Seas

Fig. 87 Tattooing on Nukumanu. (Man, posterior and anterior aspects)

at the head of the grave, anointed with oil and designs, which represent stylised fish, sea creatures, wrapped round with consecrated Pandanus leaves. caterpillars, birds and birds’ beaks, nets and replicas The widows of the makua cover their heads with of occasionally washed-up decorated parts of canoes, plaited coconut palm leaves and wander around, and in no way come from any religious motives. lost, on the beach or in the forest for days. Those The same tattooing had been fleetingly introduced chancing upon them hide at their approach. into Nuguria, but had again passed into oblivion. The lowest classes, after a short wail of grief by On Tauu I certainly observed the same tattooing, the relatives, are buried without further ceremonial. but it transpired that the wearers of the tattoo had The same applies for all dead women. been shipwrecked from Nuguria and Liueniua. The Annually, around March, there is a general feast Tauu people tell me that a long time ago tattooing in honour of the aitu, which continues for four to was also customary on their island, and followed a six weeks depending on the availability of a greater completely different design. or lesser food supply. At these festivities the cloth- Markings of a Samoan design brought contradic- ing of boys and girls in mats takes place; the images tory comments, but I was able to conclude that they of the ancestors are carried into the open, crowned, were similar, for they were all in agreement that the and adorned with mats. Children and adults form ancestors, not like on Nukumanu, covered the face, a procession with loud singing in honour of the the arms and the chest with designs. The tattoo- ancestors, and the young folk in particular lead an ing instruments were also known on Tauu, and I unfettered and unrestrained life. succeeded in acquiring several very old ­specimens. Tattooing (tatau) of the body is common, es- The tattooing instruments are little wooden sticks pecially on Nukumanu. The predominant design about 15 centimetres long, into one end of which matches the Liueniua pattern completely. Both are stuck 2-centimetre-long fine-toothed blades of men and women are tattooed, and the procedure bone scraped thin, at right angles to the handle.­ for the latter especially is very comprehensive and These blades are 2 to 6 millimetres wide. To use time-consuming, for almost the entire body is it, the instrument is held firmly in the left hand and, covered with tattooed designs. Dr Thilenius has by gentle blows with a little baton held in the right explained clearly the significance of the individual hand, the fine points are driven through the outer

232 the eastern islands (Nuguria, Tauu and nukumanu)

Fig. 88 Tattooing on Nukumanu. (Woman, posterior and anterior aspects) surface of the skin, after the instrument has been the entire crew of a whaling ship was slain and moistened with black dye. Tattooing is exclusively the vessel destroyed. In the 1880s and 1890s, a task of the women, who are recompensed with the Nuguria people killed peaceful traders and mats, turmeric, and so on. concealed the fact for a long time by a show of The name of the tattooing instrument with apparent friendship. Surprise attacks and slayings which the design, tatau, is made, is matau on of ships’ crews have taken place on Liueniua too. Nukumanu and Liueniua; on Tauu the instrument Even today they are not so particular about the is designated as taau; in Samoa it is called le au, and truth, and the concept of yours and mine is not on Nukuoro te au. The similarity is so striking that strongly developed. On the whole they are not very a conclusion can well be drawn on the homogeneity industrious and work only as much as is necessary to of the islanders. stay alive. Only the headmen accumulate property, In earlier times the natives were not so peaceable at the expense of their subjects. In general one has as they are today. One can quite justifiably blame to designate the islanders very much as having no them by and large for falsehood and cunning, even wants. With fish and coconuts and the very small though today out of fear of punishment they sup- and poor-quality species­ of Arum that grow on press these characteristics more than previously. the island, they satisfy their needs year in and year On Tauu in the middle of the previous century, out. Recently the whites have introduced rice,

233 Thirty Years in the South Seas which has very rapidly earned the general favour nets, the latter being the common property of the of the ­people. whole population or of individual families. Small, The headmen rule their people fairly autocrati- cunningly constructed nets, fastened on cords be- cally. On Tauu the headman’s family has totally died tween two cross-bound sticks, are set up in such a out. On Nuguria and Nukumanu the ruling chiefs way that in diving the fish pulls the net over itself. can produce a long family tree of their ancestors,­ These are used here as on the island of Apolima in extending as far back as the fabled first ­settlers, or Samoa. They fish also with hooks, some of which aitu. The headman’s office is inherited;however, ­ resemble those of central Polynesia, while others the post passes first to the brother of the dead head- resemble hooks from the Micronesian islands. The man, if one is available, and only second to the son. material is mother-of-pearl, turtle shell and pieces Although supremacy in all things belongs to the of Trochus shell as well as a certain species of Pinna. chief, he is not the sole possessor of land and soil. The most interesting is a large hook made of wood, Of course, a certain not inconsiderable portion of generally known as a shark-hook, although not this belongs in his possession, but by far the larg- used to capture this marauding creature but for est portion belongs to the matua class who have catching a species of Ruvettus that is found outside parcelled out the land among themselves. By gift or the reef. This Ruvettus is spread far across the South purchase, land and soil and all growing on it passes Seas; it is caught here with exactly the same hooks into the ownership of another matua. The third as on the Gilbert and Ellice islands where the fish class of people have no ownership of land; they at- is called ika na peke. In several of the Carolines tach themselves to members of both upper classes, the fish and the hooks are not unfamiliar, and on perform all types of service and form the following Liueniua and Nukumanu we find the hooks in of the person in question, who thereby gives them a general use. On Tauu I found the hooks but the portion of his coconuts and other fruits, and allows catching is no longer carried out; on Nuguria­ the them to fish on the reef and in the lagoon. hooks are likewise present, but Ruvettus fishing is On the whole, the women lead quite a comfort- dying out. The Ruvettus lives in deep water outside able life and work outside only occasionally. The the reef and never comes into the lagoon. They fish headman’s wives lead a distinctly lazy life, lie on for it only on dark nights and must go out on the mats most of the time, allowing themselves to be high seas in their canoes for this purpose. These pampered and waited on. They are always rubbed Ruvettus fishing expeditions are often the reason copiously with oil and turmeric, and spend much why canoes and their crews lose the island from time on this toileting. They go only seldom into sight in sudden squalls, and are shipwrecked in the open air, in order not to be burned by the sun, other regions. The Ruvettus hook or auu is made for a pale skin colour, which allows the tattoo de- of hardwood, the longer shank is 20 to 30 centime- sign to appear sharply and strongly, is regarded as tres long, the shorter 15 to 25 centimetres. At the a particular beauty. If they travel from one island upper end of the short shank the hook is fastened to another, a special shelter from the sun’s rays is by coconut fibre cords at an angle of 45˚ to 50˚ in built for them in the canoe. At home they have a such a way that the tip of the longer shank is only lot to say, and the husbands, right up to the highest 1 centimetre away. The long shank has a projection chief, fear their malicious tongue which now and at the end for better fastening of the cord. This again leads to marital disputes where the husband consists of a number of thin cords wrapped round exercises his authority with the stick. If a wife with another, similar, one so that they form a fat pushes the quarrel too strongly, this is sufficient rope 7 to 10 centimetres long which hangs from grounds for divorce. a 45- to 55-centimetre-long bar. From the end of Wars do not occur among the small groups, al- the stick rises an open loop. Use of this hook is though on the other hand there are disputes now depicted in figure 89: a. is the line with which the and again, in which the individual families take hook is sunk; b. is a heavy coral block which pulls part. These disputes can degenerate into brawls in the end of the bar under water, so that the end of which the women also take part. A few years ago the stick is horizontal in the water and the attached on Nukumanu the then chief received a fatal stab hook swims freely. wound on such an occasion. Ruvettus fishing is a very popular sport since it Fishing forms the main occupation of the island- requires not only the utmost skill in sailing and ers. To a far lesser degree they take up farming, if steering but also includes many dangers. It is a it can be called that. sign of maturity when the boy is permitted to join Everything that lives in the sea or on the reef is these night-time fishing expeditions. hunted; the islanders do not easily let go of any- The fish itself is an universal favourite food and thing edible. Single- and multi-pronged spears are a real delicacy, although the pleasure has strongly common everywhere, and are used on the reef and purgative effects, which is why in other places it in shallow water in the lagoon. Besides this they use is called ika na peke, the purging fish. On the smaller draw-nets, throw-nets and longer sinking small islands mentioned here it is known by the

234 the eastern islands (Nuguria, Tauu and nukumanu) name lavenga. The raw material for nets and ropes is supplied by the coconut palm in the form of coconut fibres, and a species of hibiscus with fibres that give a strong, long-lasting twine when twisted together. The coconut fibre cords are not twisted but plaited. When fishing on the reef the people protect the soles of the feet, and more particularly the balls of the feet, by wearing firm sandals,kaa, plaited from coconut fibre. One cannot talk of farming on a small coral island. Everywhere the coconut palms grow luxuriantly and Fig. 89 Ruvettus hook require no special care; the smaller islands are almost from Nukumanu exclusively occupied by this useful tree. The larger islands are forested in the interior; among the trees me that earlier, people had sailed in these vessels are the type of breadfruit with the big kernel, and far out to sea to catch lavenga (Ruvettus), and that on the seaward side of the islands a circlet of Pan- large triangular mat sails were used. The drawing danus trees, the fruits of which are enjoyed by the shows an oval plate at the upper end, hollowed out islanders as a source of nourishment. In the middle a little, like a dish; this served as a seat according of the islands, protected against on­shore winds by a to the headman. dense stand of trees, the people conduct small-scale In our small island groups the population lives on agriculture, which is characteristic of these islands. the main island of the atoll; the smaller islands are in- The islanders have dug flat pits out of the upper habited only temporarily during fishing expeditions surface of the coral reef for probably hundreds of or coconut harvesting; it may be that the headman­ years. These are up to 2 metres deep and 100 to exiled this one or that one who had made themselves 500 square metres in area. In the bottom of the pit unpopular in the village, to one of the islands. over the course of time they have built up a scanty The villages are laid out according to a particular layer of humus by throwing in all kinds of plant system; wider streets run between the huts, and material, and here they grow a small species of taro where the population is still numerous, as, for and a considerably robust species of Alocasia, the example, on Nukumanu, they take care that the latter cultivated in preference since the yield is more streets are always swept clean and strewn with sand. abundant and the cultivation less difficult. Bananas On Nuguria, and especially on Tauu, this is not the have been introduced only in recent times, but are case, because of the reduced population, and the still regarded as a luxury item. latter island shows a sad decline. The canoes of the islanders are hollowed-out tree The huts are constructed universally according to trunks with an outrigger. Driftwood is frequently, the same plan, about 6 to 8 metres long and 3 to I would almost say usually, used since the trees 4 metres wide. The side walls are 1.5 to 2 metres­ growing on the island yield a wood too hard and tall; the roof rests on two to three posts about difficult for this purpose. They are very skilled at 6 metres tall, and projects about 1.5 metres beyond improving damaged sections of the trunks floating the vertical walls at the gable ends. Roof and side ashore by inlaying pieces of wood. walls are, as a rule, covered with woven coconut Years ago, on my first visit to Tauu, I saw big palm leaves. The longer-lasting Pandanus are also canoes lying in separate huts on the beach. Even used as roof cladding. The floor is pounded earth at that time they could no longer be used by the covered with coral sand. A shallow circular pit serves diminished population because they were too heavy as a hearth. Implements hang on the side walls; on to be launched into the water, even with the com- one end wall an open cupboard is often attached, bined strength of all the men. These canoes were mainly for storing coconuts. For sleeping­ or sitting up to 14 metres long and 1.5 metres deep, and down, they spread out woven Pandanus mats on were built from the keel upwards from planks laid the floor. The dwelling house,hare or hale, is far less side by side. Both fore and aft they had long steeply carefully constructed than the houses of the ances- rising end pieces, carefully carved, and also at both tors, the hare aiku or hale aiku (or aitu). These are ends a canopy which depicted roughly carved relief­ figures. Unfortunately, on this first visit I did not have enough time to take a photograph, but I was able to throw together rapidly the following draw- ing of one of the end pieces (fig. 90). When I paid a visit to Tauu several years later wind and weather had destroyed the canoes to such an extent that Fig. 90 Canoe prow only small fragments remained. The natives said to from Tauu

235 Thirty Years in the South Seas

considerably larger, and the roof construction in particular is carried out with much care. The floor of the ancestor house or temple is always covered with coconut mats and is only walked upon by the priests, the other people sit along the walls. The open space by the hare aiku is called marae (Samoan: malae); around which are the open huts that are regarded as dwellings of the spirits of the dead chiefs. Not far from the hare aitu is Fig. 91 Wooden the sorcerer’s dwelling, likewise a more carefully vessels. Eastern islands constructed house than the ordinary dwellings. Every village has several wells; that is, deep holes dug into the coral base, where water gathers, especially when it rains. At the time of prolonged drought the water available, for the most part sea water seepage, is very brackish and undrinkable to Europeans; the natives, however, seem to relish it. Above all, it is characteristic of these islanders that they are also able to quench their thirst with salt water without experiencing any after effects. This is a circumstance that must be considered when we hear of week-long wanderings of those adrift from their island. Europeans would succumb after a few days because of a lack of drinking ­water. Not far from the village is a common burial ground. The individual graves are marked by headstones, and are always kept clean and tidy. Very ­often villagers are seen here, pulling up weeds, sprinkling a grave with fresh white coral sand, or garlanding the upright headstones or sprinkling them with oil. Fig. 92 Pounders. Since the population of these islands consists of Eastern islands a mixture of many surrounding, mainly Polynesian groups, most of the ethnographic items bear a relationship with items from their homeland. Domestic utensils are sparse. But everywhere we find one-piece carved wooden seats,aluna or nahoa, wooden bowls, kumate, haufa or umette (fig. 91), and coconut bowls plaited round with a network of fibrous cord, for storing oil or drinking water. Wooden pounders, kuhi or tuki (fig. 92), of various shapes for pounding different foodstuffs, and coconut scrapers, tutuai, are found in all the huts. Coconut scrapers from Tauu are prepared particularly carefully; on the other islands they consist of a simple board or stick to which a shell scraper is attached. Baskets, both of coconut palms leaves and strips of Pandanus leaves, serve widely varying purposes. As well as these household utensils, variously shaped scrapers and knives are found in the huts, some made of turtle shell, some of turtle bones, and also bone needles for sewing mat sails, but year by year they become more rare, and are in places already no longer in use, replaced by Eu- ropean items. It is even more so with old weapons and imple- Fig. 93 Multi-pronged ments. On Nuguria the principal weapon was a club spears from Nukumanu about a metre long, made of wood; we

236 the eastern islands (Nuguria, Tauu and nukumanu) find it on the other islands as well. Long smooth item of jewellery; the old men wear it only at the spears were also present, but seldom used. On annually recurring festivities. Nukumanu we find spears used that in their multi- Ear ornaments in the form of rings pushed into pronged shape resemble the lances of the Gilbert one another, and fish-like turtle-shell or marine- Islands; these occur also on Liueniua from where shell discs are not infrequent; plaited armbands are they were probably introduced (fig. 93). seen here and there, but all these items are now As a close-quarters weapon in hand-to-hand superseded by introduced glass beads. combat they use a club-shaped piece of whalebone, An early, very special ornament on Nukumanu, called paramoa on Nukumanu (fig. 94). I have not probably introduced from Liueniua, was a series seen this on Tauu and Nuguria. Axes and other of worked whale teeth. These did not occur on instruments have totally disappeared today. At Tauu and Nuguria. most they still have the blades. I have a few blades At festivities women wear a wide belt to fasten from Tauu and Nuguria (still in the original bind- the mat skirt, moso on Nuguria, moro on Nuku­ ing), which I was able to obtain years ago as last manu. This belt consists of about ten rows of about remnants. The raw material is mostly Tridacna 65-centimetre-long cords of beads. The individual shell; on Tauu there occurs a blade made from the beads are made out of coconut shells about 5 mil- Tereb­ra snail shell as well. All blades are attached limetres in diameter and 1.5 to 3 millimetres thick; in the same way, namely to a knee-shaped piece of the outer rim is polished. The black coconut beads wood by means of firm wrapping with fibre. The are interrupted at intervals from about 8 to 10 cen- Tridac­na blades from Tauu stand out through their timetres by one or two small white shell discs. This extraordinary­ length and their careful manufacture belt strongly resembles similar items from several (see the illustration in Internationales Archiv für of the Carolines. On Tauu this belt consists of two Ethno­graphie, vol. X, page 144). to four adjacent rows of white snail shells, each I also obtained a very old wooden club from as large as a small hazel nut; these snail shells are Tauu. The striking end is broad, thicker in the firmly sewn onto a strong binding of plaited fibre. middle, tapering towards both edges; the handgrip On Nukumanu money cords are still made, called carries an incised pommel at the upper end. From kua, common earlier also on Tauu and Nuguria. the same island I have several quadrangular blades They consist of small discs of coconut shell, 7 to with sharp cutting edges, and with two circular holes at the opposite end; the raw material is turtle bone. Fastening is achieved by fibrous cords; the Fig. 94 Whalebone club edge of the blade is inset into the handgrip. The from Nukumanu object very much resembles the spatula from Matty, used in food preparation (see fig. 73). On Nuguria in earlier times a shovel was used, especially for preparing taro beds, and was not found on the other islands. The implement, called kapa, is no longer used (fig. 95). On Nukumanu a characteristic weapon is still found, called gipugipu. It is a throwing weapon, made from a heavy piece of mangrove wood. Short conical sharp knobs are carved in, towards both ends of the actual body of the weapon which is about twice as big as a fist. When thrown by a powerful arm the instument would be capable of inflicting serious injury. Ornaments are found only to a slight degree. In ordinary life they are not used as a rule; they appear­ at festivities, but one cannot say that they are an everyday item. Massaging with oil which is dyed intensively yellow by grated turmeric, is the main decoration. Its use is so extensive at celebrations that the people are literally dripping oil; the women especially seem to prefer such massaging, for it gives the skin a paler shade, a sign of beauty in the eyes of the men. The sorcerers or priests of the ­ancestors wear a characteristic turtle-shell ornament in both wings of the nose, consisting of two discs which hang Fig. 95 Shovel from down over the mouth. The priests never remove this Nuguria

237 Thirty Years in the South Seas

8 millimetres in diameter, the centre of which is Yap, Sonsol and Mafia. When we see the apparatus bored out with the drill, fao. These discs are strung that the weaving shepherdess from Milam in the onto cords about 1 metre long, and five of these Himalayan region (depicted in K. Boeck, Indische cords comprise a whole item. The manufacture is Gletscherfahrten­ , and reproduced in Lampert’s the women’s task. We find the same cords again Völker der Erde, vol. I, page 221) has spread out on the Gilbert Islands. before her, then one might be tempted to regard Clothing consists of woven mats, made from it as an implement from Nukumanu that has ended the fibres of a species ofHibiscus . Besides this, on up in the Himalayas, so closely do the individual Nuguria a finer weave is produced from banana parts match, and also the manner of using the ap- fibres. The women’s mat,marau or mehau, is about paratus. On Celebes Island we find it again, albeit 175 centimetres long and 80 centimetres wide, improved upon, and in its main features it revisits and after manufacture it is dyed dark brown with not only the African continent and Madagascar, but a brown dye and oil. The men’s mat is only about also America. Ratzel, in his Völkerkunde, volume I, 22 centimetres wide, folded together and wrapped page 668, depicts a loom of the Bakuba (Congo round the waist with one end passing between the region) as an example that ‘where the older Af- legs and fastened behind. rican cultural possession points outside, it points Preparation of these mats forms a characteristic eastwards’, and with regard to the loom he adds: industry, which I will consider somewhat more ‘The loom is significantly the same on both sides closely because a weaving apparatus is used, ena- of the Indian Ocean.’ bling us to draw a conclusion on the origin of the With regard to America, I refer to a diagram population of these islands. in the Annual Report of Field Columb. Museum, The weaving looms from Nuguria, Tauu and Chi­cago 1897-98. In plate 18 the typical home of Nukumanu show no difference from the Liueniua a Hopi Indian family is depicted, and on the wall and Sikaiana apparatus of which I hold examples. to the right we see a loom which, although not According to a description that I have, the loom clearly visible, appears to have the main features on Tikopia ought to correspond with those from of the Polynesian loom. the previously mentioned islands. In his album The old Egyptian pictures of the loom corre- (page 160), Edge Partington depicts a Santa Cruz spond reasonably with the apparatus that is used weaving loom that is not significantly different. today on Nuguria and Nukumanu, and on page To my knowledge, the island is the southernmost 248 of E.B. Tylor’s Anthropologie, based on an point for finding a weaving loom. North of our Aztec picture, a Mexican weaver is depicted holding islands we come across the apparatus again in the her apparatus exactly as they do today on the previ- same form on or Pikiram. Further ously mentioned islands, although from the picture north, we find it on almost all of the Carolines, it emerges that the Aztecs did not know about the on Nukuor, Lukunor, Kuschaie, Ponape (now weaver’s shuttle, but pushed the weft-yarn between totally unused), Ruk, and further remnants on the lengthwise fibres by means of a little rod.

Plate 35 Shell money (kuamanu) from the island of Nissan. Various stages of preparation

238 the eastern islands (Nuguria, Tauu and nukumanu)

There can be little doubt that this loom has its with the Micronesians. Also, it is not improbable homeland in Asia and spread from there to all parts that the immigrated central Polynesians, as a con- of the world, with the exception of . sequence of their greater intellectual gift, acquired Its spread across extends through the a dominant position in the social life of the small Carolines as far as the island of Kuschaie; we do islands without damaging the traditional industry. not find it further eastwards in the Marshall Islands, Outside central Polynesia the art of weaving and there is no evidence that it has ever been there. is not known anywhere; and at the time of first South of the Marshall group, in the Gilbert Islands, discovery we find no mention of it. The Malayo- and on the isolated islands of Paanopa and Nauru Polynesian group, which settled in central Polynesia settled from the Gilberts, it is similarly unknown; undoubtedly never knew the art of weaving, and we and also on the Ellice Islands, Samoa and Tonga. can probably assume that this art was also unknown If we go westward from here we likewise do in the Asiatic homeland at the time of the emigra- not find the loom in the Viti group inhabited by tion. Only later people who expanded out of Asia Mela­nesians, nor in New Caledonia, and this does across the east Asiatic island groups, brought the not surprise us because the apparatus is a Malayo- skill with them. A section of these people poured Polynesian device, not a Melanesian one. On Santa over the Carolines, and from there southwards as Cruz where a strong Malayo-Polynesian immigra- a weaker stream, still carrying the loom with them tion has made itself felt, the loom reappears, but and introducing it into Melanesian regions, where we do not find it anywhere in the Solomon group. they were sufficiently strong in numbers to main- Thus it may be that the primitive apparatus which tain their own customs and avoid absorption by we encounter on Bougainville, Buka and Nissan, the greater numbers of the Melanesian population. and which Dr Danneil has described in the Inter­ If we look at the fabrics produced from the nationales Archiv für Ethnographie, volume 14, looms, we observe that the central Polynesian and drawn on plate 19, is not an initial stage of influence intruded in the bestowing of names. On weaving, or to some extent a transition between Nuguria, for example, they weave great lengths of plaiting and weaving as the author believes, but material of wider-meshed texture than the weav- an atrophied form of the loom. In the Bismarck ing used for clothing, and sew several of these Archipelago and on the western islands south of the widths together to make a protective net against equator, the apparatus is also unknown. Recently, mosquitoes. Here as on Tauu it is called tainamu. from the island of St Matthias north-west of New Tainamu is the Samoan designation for the tent- Ireland, belts and mats have become familiar; these are undoubtedly woven (see pages 143 and 148). However, we find in places where the loom and woven material existed earlier, that the apparatus is no longer in existence. On Pelau, Kubary maintains that the art of weaving existed in ancient times. On the small islands of Mafia and Sonsol the art has vanished into oblivion, although remains of the apparatus and descriptions of the individual parts are familiar. It is the same on Yap, and on Ponape they still remember that ‘in olden times’ the art of weaving was practised. However, in 1901 I could not find an islander who knew the names of the individual parts. The fact that the art of weaving has been maintained for a long time on the small islands like Nuguria, Tauu and Nukumanu is probably because new disruptive elements which wiped out traditions, did not occur. While it is unquestioned that these islands were populated in part from central Polynesia, to a large extent by involuntary immigration, these migrations were never in a posi- tion to replace the predominant north Polynesian element which had emigrated from those islands of Micronesia north of the equator, the Carolines. Although current traditions treat the immigrations from central Polynesia as the more important, this may well be because the central Polynesians retain Fig. 96 Women of the far more the tradition of their roots than is the case Greenwich Islands

239 Thirty Years in the South Seas

from there. The further we go on the former route from west to east, the more the signs of Polynesian influence accumulate. On the eastern end of , in the Bismarck Archipelago, on the Solomon Islands (particularly the southern islands of the group), in the New Hebrides and in Fiji, the Polynesian influence is universally noticeable. It is expressed not only in language but also in the institutions, in the life and customs of the islanders, indeed even in their physical characteristics. It might, after all, have been possible that a portion of the Polynesians took this route from west to east. They would first have gone along the inhospitable coast of New Guinea, but everywhere they would have found not only a hostile reception from the warlike Papuans, but also a climate that would not have agreed with them because of the Fig. 97 Weaver at work shaped device produced from tapa, which is never prevalent malaria. Both of these factors would have absent from any house, and is spread out in the urged them on further, until they finally settled on evenings to protect the sleepers from mosquitoes. the island groups to the east of New Gui­nea, while The central Polynesians arriving on the islands the majority finally found a permanent home on the did not find the customary material in their new islands that are to this day called, in the narrower homeland for making the tainamu, but found sense, the central Polynesian islands. woven mats from which they could make them, However, I do not believe that this was the route and the old term was retained. On Nukumanu the migrants took. The Polynesian elements that we find the designationtainamu for a completely we find today on most of the Melanesian islands different mat. Here a tainamu is a narrow, very are the result of later Polynesian migrations, after long, rough­ly woven mat which is laid on the they had already firmly established themselves in ancestral image Pau-Pau (fig. 85) as a belt, and in Polynesia; migrations which, favoured by wind and which sick people are wrapped amidst all kinds of tide, went mainly from east to west. incantations by the sorcerer. The woven material These migrations were in part voluntary and on Nuguria and Tauu which is used as tainamu conscious expeditions to legendary regions, and (mosquito netting) is about three times as long Polynesian tradition can tell much about them even as the clothing mats. If the same name is used on today. However, in part, they were involuntary and Nukumanu for other mats, it is possible that there by chance, when Polynesian seafarers were driven they learned to weave long mats, weaving with long far from their homeland by wind and current, and chains, from the islands to the west, and that the finally landed on Melanesian islands. This explains name given there to the item made by this weaving, why the Melanesian island groups adjacent to was transferred to the style of weaving. the central Polynesian islands, like Fiji, the New In the summary given on the opposite page, I Hebrides and the southern Solomon Islands show have listed in table form the names of the parts the most Polynesian influences. These migrations of the loom on the individual islands, as far as I took place since the time of settlement in central know them. Polynesia and extended over a time span of several The wanderings of the Polynesians from their centuries, since they lasted until recent times; for Asiatic homeland to the east form, on the whole, not a year passes that a Polynesian is not washed a still very dim chapter in the history of this people ashore on Melanesian islands. spread so far across the South Seas. Just as we are I believe that by the following observation I can unable to show the location of their homeland demonstrate that the Polynesians came into little if with anything approaching certainty, we cannot any contact with the Papuans on their migrations indicate with any accuracy the intermediate stops from west to east. which the wanderers made on their way to the east. It is known that the central Polynesians are a tal- If we look at the map of the Pacific Ocean, there ented folk, very advanced in development. We can are two main routes of migration. The southern assume that the present culture, or more precisely­ route passes via the Sunda Islands, New Guinea, the culture that was found by the European discov- the Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, New erers, was the remnant of an earlier higher culture Hebrides, New Caledonia and Fiji; the northern that had sunk progressively lower during a century via the Pelau Islands or the Marianas to the Caro­ of wandering, under countless tribulations and lines, the Marshall and the Gilbert islands and on privations and influenced by inferior tribes. The

240 the eastern islands (Nuguria, Tauu and nukumanu)

Table 2: Comparative summary of the names of individual parts of the loom on different islands

(The numbers at the head of the columns refer to the numbers on the diagram)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Island Tensioning Tensioning Shed Heddle Heddles Sword Shuttle Warp Weft The fabric Awl strap rod stick stick fibres fibres

Liueniua ku’u o api purugu ka’o u’a langa si’i’a hau ongo si’i’a — — Nukumanu to’o atu api poronu ta’o u’a langa siha hongo-himaro hongo siha mehau — Tauu or fa’o atu kabi poronu ta’o tounga lama sika songo hau popó fa — Marqueen a maro Nuguria tu’u katu kapi pulene ta’o — papa hika kano-mehau kano hika hau — Nukuoro setun atu und kapi tapa-nulu toro — raune sika burata rano sika rohau maro panule papa Lukunor or anoy pa’ap kabi ullut nun — apin asáp — * — — Mortlock Ruk — pa’ap atir anan auzuru — opop — — — — — Yap abáb — — — — — aviéw — — — — — Mogemok tal ülüt a viw tapang ngung ngung aupop sap ther ivach a ther — Sonsol tau páp tibád tápan ningir — aupoup kadápi mur ifák — — Mafia yar bäp — — — — kobab — — — — —

* kaleman lap, lizop, palpal, longlong are various types of mats. On Ponape the name for loom is tantar and on Kuschaie puos. intellectual abilities had, however, remained, and so we see with astonishment how Polynesians with careful education quickly reveal themselves to be the equal of the whites. During their wanderings these talented people would undoubtedly have adopted such arrangements as afforded obvious advantages. I want to present two of them here, which the Polynesians must have grasped as advan- tageous novelties during their wanderings along the coast of New Guinea, in the event that they took this route. The first is pottery. Along the entire previously described southern route the Polynesians would have encountered people who were expert at pottery and who used the clay vessels for their food preparation. I want to mention also that such a migratory­ journey originally would probably have consisted predominantly of men, and that during their wanderings they would often have taken native (that is, Papuan) women as wives or slaves. Fig. 98 Loom from It is known that in New Guinea and on several Nukumanu. (The Melanesian islands the manufacture of pottery is a numbers refer to task of the women. On their wanderings the latter Table 2, above) would certainly have continued to practise their skills, the more so since the raw material was found been shown to them. Their wanderings were not everywhere and the preparation of food in earthen overland but by sea in more or less seaworthy cooking vessels is far quicker than the Polynesian canoes. Now, it is obvious that the cooking of food style of cooking with glowing stones. Nevertheless in pots on extended sea voyages would have afford­ pottery has remained totally foreign to the central ed significant advantages over the original method Polynesians; nor did the earliest discoverers report with hot stones. Firstly, they would not need to anything about this art. We must therefore assume weigh the canoes down by transporting stones, and that the central Polynesians did not know pottery they would need far smaller quantities of ­flammable in their original homeland, nor did they come into material, two items that would need to be taken into contact with people who were familiar with this great consideration on long voyages in small canoes. craft. It seems beyond doubt that on grounds of Even today on the New Guinea coast we see small expediency the Polynesians would have adopted mud fireplaces on the vessels, serving as hearths cooking in earthenware containers had this method for the cooking pots; how enlightening would the

241 Thirty Years in the South Seas

1. Peschel in his advantage of such an arrangement have been to the not have been able to take this route. I must ­object Völkerkunde asserts ancient Polynesians, had they had the opportunity to this, for after many years in the South Seas and that in earlier times the of becoming acquainted with it. On these grounds supported by numerous observations, neither Polynesians knew about I conclude that they did not take the southern route currents nor wind would have been an obstacle. bows and arrows and via New Guinea and the Melanesian islands. Admittedly the direction of both these factors is that their use as a child’s A second point, which would have been predominantly east-west, but there are times of the toy is a throwback to adopted as an important innovation by such a year when both are not only very weak but even take that time. He expresses talented and also warlike people as the Polyne- the opposite direction. On many occasions between the opinion that bows sians, is the use of bows and arrows as weapons. the equator and the Carolines I have encountered and arrows must have On the journey along the New Guinea coast and currents setting from north-west to south-east, and disappeared wherever further eastwards, the Polynesians would have many sea captains have had the same experience, hunting no longer been dealing almost continually with tribes who whereas handbooks give an east-west direction. served as a means of used bows and arrows as weapons. Since contact Knowledge of the oceanography of the Pacific obtaining food, or between the travellers and the local population Ocean is still far from precise; so much is certain, where no hunting is was as a rule hostile, one can regard this as certain. that the currents in particular do not repeat con- available. As one travels In my opinion the Polynesians would very quickly stantly, from year to year. Where one encountered an east, north and south- have grasped the advantage of the bows and ar- easterly flow one year, the following year at the same east of New Guinea, rows over the club and the spear, and adopted the time one often rode into a strong westerly current. A hunting ceases. To me better weapon. However, we can produce no case people who were skilful seafarers, certainly found no both these grounds among the central Polynesians where bow and difficulty in pushing on from east Asia towards the seem untenable. On arrows are used as weapons. They have stuck to east, especially when they were driven by boundless their journeyings, the weapons of their original homeland, the spear expectations of the beauties and bounties that the the Polynesians may and the club, because on their wanderings they east seemed to promise. possibly have become have not encountered peoples from whom they Of course the journeys scarcely ran precisely superficially acquainted could have learned the use of a more consum- along the same route. Storms occurred, adverse with bows and arrows mate weapon.1 currents set and the travellers wandered here and and copied them as In my opinion, only the northern route remains there. Many would have been sacrificed, paying playthings, while they as a path of migration, via the Carolines, the Mar­ for their daring with their lives, and finding their never grasped their great shall and Gilbert islands, and the available facts death in the depths of the ocean. advantage as weapons corroborate this route. In spite of all the difficulties, we see that the of war. Today the war However, I want to premise here that I set the wanderers­ finally attained a goal and settled on weapon of New Guinea immigration of the Polynesians into the South the islands that they still inhabit today. Even today, is and remains the bow Seas in two completely separate periods, which through numerous small traits and habits of the and arrow. Their use in I differentiate as the immigration of the original central Polynesians, the remnants of characteristics hunting is very small. Polynesians whose remnants are the central Poly- that were adopted during the years of migration are On the great kangaroo nesians of today, and the far later immigration of revealed to the observer. Having, for the most part, hunts in parts of British a closely related tribe, who expanded through the to rely on the sea, the wanderers became superb New Guinea, and in Carolines, the Marshall and Gilbert islands, and fishermen; but when driven by hunger they also pig-hunting universally, then in later centuries were succeeded by a new learned to value all other sea and reef inhabitants the spear plays a major invasion with central Polynesian elements. as food as well as the tastier fish; and in ­Samoa, for role but not the arrow, The migration of the central Polynesians most example, we still find today that scarcely a creature because, above all, probably took place much further back in time than exists in the sea or on the coral reef, that does not the Papuans of New one usually believes, although there is no possibility serve wholly or in part as a source of food, no mat- Guinea can scarcely of fixing the time precisely. Percy Smith, in his book ter how unappetising the outward form might be. be called a hunting Hawaiki, the Original Home of the Maori, specifies The far inferior Melanesians still look today with folk but are much a genealogical tree of the rulers of Raro­tonga that disgust and shuddering at how the Samoans, for more, and primarily extends back to 450 BC. However, such traditions example, consume with great relish reef animals an agricultural people are to be treated with caution and should not be that they themselves would only touch reluctantly, who in part harvest the regarded as absolute historical documents. let alone use as food, although they otherwise great wild stands of We can hardly err if we assume that the migra- ­enjoy their food. sago, but for the most tions did not begin suddenly, like a downpour, and The inconstancy in the character of most part obtain the fruits then stop. They probably extended over longer Polynesians, their restlessness and the little- of the field essential periods; the tribes set out on their migration to developed sense for steady methodical work, is, to support them, by the east at a favourable time each year, and gradu- in my ­opinion, a consequence of long years of regular farming. Besides, ally reached the place where they finally settled in wandering. Accumulating property, sacrificing in New Guinea there present-day central Polynesia. oneself for one’s neighbours, were hardly possible are also vast districts On the other hand, somebody will introduce the on their journeying. Everyone looked after that do not know bows direction of the ocean currents and the prevailing themselves, provided for the current day; it was and arrows but only wind as evidence that the original Polynesians would uncertain what tomorrow might bring. Whoever

242 the eastern islands (Nuguria, Tauu and nukumanu) had something, shared it with his friends as far as of extraordinary extent, especially volcanic erup- clubs and spears, as on it would go. If there was a surplus it was indulged tions, had caused the migrations. Even today on New Caledonia. I tend to the utmost squandering, even when one could the Gilbert Islands there are legendary traditions3 to maintain that the expect the most severe want the following day. We which establish that an initial immigration took Polynesians, at least in still find all of these characteristics in many central place from Samoa, and that these immigrants main- earlier times, were a Polynesians. tained connections with their home island until a far more warlike folk After the arrival of the central Polynesians at their mighty volcanic catastrophe lead to settlement of than the Papuans have present home, a second, much later, great stream of all the Gilbert Islands. Likewise on Ponape they ever been, and would migration from the west poured over the equatorial have traditions of invasions by central Polyne- certainly not have islands, the Carolines, the Gilbert Islands, and so on. sian people who followed a route via the Gilbert suffered from a lack of These migrants mingled with the earlier arrivals­ and Islands and overthrew the old dynasty on Ponape, practice in the use of from this mixture arose the group recognised today established new rulers and brought in new customs bow and arrow. Use of as Micronesians. This later migration brought to the and institutions. the spear requires just east a people who were far more closely related to This latter, intentional emigration of the original as much practice, if not the present Malayans and Tagals than to the original Polynesians, sending its waves as far as Ponape, more, than archery, Polynesians. Even today­ on many of the Carolines probably coincides with the emigrations that found together with an we are astounded to find almost pure Tagalish or their goal in . adroitness and rapidity Malayan types. Natives of Amboina and natives of That powerful volcanic eruptions of relatively in body movements the Ruk Islands, for example, are similar to the point recent date have taken place in the Samoan Islands, only acquired through that they are very easily mistaken. This migration are witnessed by the mighty, bare lava flows on the extensive use. On Buka stretched eastwards but not beyond the Gilbert island of Sawaii, stretching from the centre of the and Bougainville where Islands; to the south, one branch found its way to island, as far as the north coast. Many years ago, we find bows and the Greenwich Islands (Kapingamarangi), Nuguria, not without great effort, I traversed this huge lava arrows in use today, they Tauu, Nukumanu, Liueniua, Sikaiana, as far as the flow to its source; during a strenuous excursion are also the principal New Hebrides. This branch brought the loom with taking several days. Everywhere one strides over a weapons of warfare. it and the art of weaving. field of solid lava, which gives the impression that There are few wild This southern migration also reached the coast it had only just assumed a solid form. Numerous animals for hunting, of the current New Ireland2 as well as the outer large and small craters, just as bald and naked as mainly pigs, which islands offshore, and the many traces of Micronesian the laval fields, indicated the source of the latter. In are hunted as in New elements that we still find there today can therefore many places I could clearly trace, for long stretches, Guinea by means of be explained. Of course the wanderers encountered the parallel lava flows of individual craters. The dogs, which hold the pig a very large Papuan population on these large is- small eruption on the island of Sawaii in 1902 at bay; only occasionally lands, on whom they were unable to impose their demonstrated that the volcanic activity has still not does the hunter use an characteristics to such a great degree as on the small been extinguished. arrow to kill the animal, islands; for the most part they lost their characteristic Many things previously unclear to us, can in my in most cases he uses a features and attributes in the gradual intermingling, opinion be explained by the preceding hypothesis. spear. Bows and arrows and adopted the characteristics of the people in their Let us reach back, for example, to the genesis are certainly used in new homeland. On the small islands further to the of the mighty stone structures at Matalanim on New Guinea to kill the west, Luf, Kaniet, Ninigo, Wuwulu and Aua, they Ponape. bird of paradise but this remained closer to the original state. On Wuwulu It is beyond doubt that these came from a highly is only incidental. and Aua we find the group maintained in its purest sophisticated people. Such a people were the first form, but on the other islands strong Melanesian Polynesian settlers. Ponape was one of the first 2. More direct evidence influences have, over time, become important. larger oceanic islands that they encountered on of migration from the That a continued migration southwards was not their migration, and we can probably assume that Indonesian islands seems able to leave significant traces, I ascribe above all to a main settlement was founded here. The mighty to me to stem from the climate. Further southwards lay New Guinea, structures whose extent and magnificence have to several discoveries made , the Solomon Islands, all areas where be personally witnessed for their full significance recently at the northern malaria is endemic, and since even today a Caroline to be appreciated, would most likely have served end of New Ireland. Islander who goes to this region is quickly laid low for religious purposes. They served the same func- Several years ago I by malaria, the same would certainly occur in that tion until the introduction of Christianity, and, in was given a stone sphere distant past. secret, are still used for this purpose today. How- (fig. 100) with a broken On their wanderings to the south-east this Poly- ever, the additional purpose that they had in later handle, that had been nesian group was held up by the centra or original years, namely as a burial site for the high chiefs of found during clearing Polynesians, who had decamped once more, from Matalanim, would hardly have been the original of a site at Nusahafen their barely chosen homeland, and undertaken new one. The island of Ponape offers so much of in- in Kavieng. In 1904, migrations. The reason for these new migrations is terest today, that it would probably be rewarding during an excursion unknown to us. Possibly they were a consequence to undertake more detailed investigations there, on the small island of of the inbuilt wanderlust of the central Polynesians. especially excavations. Nusa opposite, I found However, it is not impossible that natural events Huge stone structures are also found on several a fragment of a worked

243 Thirty Years in the South Seas

Fig. 99 (Top left) Stone bowl found on Mount Varzin, Gazelle Peninsula (about one-quarter actual size) Fig. 100 (Top right) Stone pestle, found on Uatom (one-third actual size) Fig. 101 (Bottom left) Stone bowl found on Nusa (one-third actual size) Fig. 102 (Bottom right) Stone vessel found on Nusa (about one-eighth actual size)

stone utensil, and I central Polynesian islands, structures about which was eventually able the existing traditions give no clues. Thus great to find several further well-designed streets run through the island of fragments that all Sawaii, and in parts of Upolu as well; these could be matched one another so opened up to modern traffic without great difficulty that the original shape were the vegetation covering to be removed. On of the object was easily Sawaii these structures are particularly large; like recognizable, namely the Roman roads of southern Europe they lead lava flow, where it is suddenly interrupted by the a stone bowl about 29 over mountain ridges and along steep slopes, deep latter but without much difficulty it can be found centimetres in diameter valleys have been bridged by pouring in huge lava again on the other side. and 18 centimetres rocks, and on the plains the remains of stone walls However, these are not the only remains of a high (fig 99). The are seen, enclosing the sides of the road. pre­vious era about which nothing is known today. shape was roughly The present Samoans trace these roads back to In 1877 the plantation of Mulifanua on Upolu was hemispherical; more the time of the Tongan invasion and call them ala extended inland; the forest was felled and the fallen conical at the lower end toga; that is, Tonga road. It is hard to believe that trunks and brushwood burnt. It was discovered and ending in a peg the Tongans built these roads; if road construction that great stretches of ground were covered with that was unfortunately had been carried out by subjugated Samoans, one layered stone walls. These formed small rectangles broken off. The bowl- would certainly hear something about it in the of a few square metres, surrounded by a system shaped hollow was traditions, but this is not the case. of roads that were also enclosed by stone walls. 6.5 centimetres deep That the Tongans made strategic use of this Centuries had not enabled the outlines of these and the stone knob road network at the time of their invasion seems structures to be totally destroyed, although only found years before more plausible, and the name may be based on here and there did a few metre-long sections of wall fitted exactly into the this. However, the mighty structures were already remain in relatively good condition. The expanse hollow, so that I had to in existence at that time and the history of their of rubble attracted my attention, and I enquired assume that both pieces establishment lay so far back in time that nobody from old Samoans who were acquainted with the belonged together and now knew anything about it. These roads were legends and traditions, whether anyone perhaps were separated only by evidently already present when the previously knew anything of the purpose of these structures. accident, so that one mentioned great volcanic eruption occurred on However, nobody could give me an explanation. piece, the bowl, got to Sawaii, as the lava flow has broken through a large One old man from Manono, a descendant of a the island of Nusa, while section of one such road and destroyed it; at one faitaulanga (heathen priest) did know that the the other, the spherical place it can still be traced right to the edge of the mountain Afolau, not far from the ruins, had, in

244 the eastern islands (Nuguria, Tauu and nukumanu)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Plate 36 Clubs from Buka and Bougainville

1. to 3. old chief’s clubs; 4. to 6. dance clubs long forgotten times, been the dwelling of a god planted wide distances apart, allow a better view. pounder, was carried (probably a special cult). He also alluded to an old In the whole arrangement of the stone walls, off to Kavieng opposite. stone wall that even today bears the name pasa which I regard as the foundations of the old struc- Not long after, from a (holy wall), and, running inland from the beach, tures, there is an astonishing similarity to the stone district of New Ireland between the villages of Tifitifi and Satapuala, had buildings at Matalanim on Ponape. On the latter somewhat far removed, gone from one side of the island to the other, but island the basalt columns offered a suitable material I was able to obtain two neither he nor other old people who were asked for building structures, but in Samoa they had to other similar objects knew anything about this old cultural site. Yet a be satisfied with lava blocks of irregular form lying which were somewhat busy life must have predominated here in times about in great quantities, probably in combination different in shape but past, as indicated by the numerous stone axes found with wooden structures which understandably undoubtedly had served here by the plantation workers. Unfortunately an have long since disappeared, so that today we are the same purpose. One extensive investigation was not possible for me. confronted with only the very rudimentary remains of these objects was a Soon the large field was planted out in cotton and of the old structures. stone bowl (fig. 101) in within a short time the luxuriant shrubs shooting It is not my intention to give an extensive pres- the shape of a segment upwards made any surveys impossible. Today one entation of my hypothesis on the migrations of of a sphere without might still successfully search there, as the cotton the Polynesians, supported by numerous observa- a peg at the lower bushes have been gone for a long time and have tions over the years. The preceding was given with end; the other was a been replaced by coconut palms which, being the sole intention of clarifying the occurrence of columnar stone block

245 Thirty Years in the South Seas

Polynesian similarities in Melanesia, not only in out especially in the New Zealanders, but less so those areas where we see today a strong Polynesian in Tongans and Samoans. element remaining undisturbed or more or less In conclusion I quote an assertion by Kubary in intermingled with Papuan components, but also in discussing the custom of the artistic moulding of those areas where externally the Polynesian element infants’ skulls by four flat stones, practised earlier has been completely absorbed by the Papuan, but in Samoa. has left behind unmistakable traces in the speech and in many traditions and customs. What is generally the actual reason for the Samoan, somewhat tapering Already by the time the original Polynesians respectively Polynesian, shaping of the skull? Why downwards, with a were leaving their east Asian homeland, they was the ideal found in a round brachycephalic skull bowl made from the undoubtedly formed a mixed race. A further and not in an ulu toi (ulu = head; to’i = stone axe; ulu same stone block (fig. dilution occurred on the migration, probably toi therefore = axe-shaped head) that we have already 102). The natives do with a people who were very close to the present discovered in the neighbours, the Viti, like the not know where these Arafurans. In support of an interbreeding, and Melanesians in general? The former Polynesians were objects came from, and quite a considerable one at that, with a Mon- certainly short-skulls who, in comparison with a long have no use for them. goloid people, there is, for example, the blue skull, found their skulls more handsomely formed Such items are unknown birthmark of the Polyne­sians, which Dr Bälz has and wanted to retain them. But if the Polynesians both in New Guinea demonstrated also in the Mongols, as well as were a pure people they need not expect any long and in the Melanesian the more or less strongly occur­ring Mongoloid skulls among their descendants if they did not islands; they were crease in the upper eyelid, which we encounter, interbreed with a long-skulled people. But from the brought in probably for example, frequently in Samoa,­ occasionally in great eagerness that the Samoans displayed for the from Indonesia, and, the Carolines, and also on Wuwulu and Aua. The retention of their head form, which must have been as the block depicted remnants of the dark people reveal themselves in very pronounced at that time since it communicated in figure 102 weighs the hair and the skin shade, and in many cases itself to all other groups of Polynesians­ deriving from over 20 kilograms the in the broad nose. Then there are those slight Samoa, one can conclude that the then Polynesians canoe that transported features that indicate a people like the one settled or rather the original Samoans often found long it could not have been in the Mediterranean area today, and which stand skulls among their descendants and, clinging to their too small or flimsy. [Figs original homeland form, sought to suppress them. 99 to 102 are drawn from pieces that are in the Berlin Museum für Völkerkunde and are just the same as the specimens described by Herr Parkinson, although the provenances might not be the same throughout. The items in figs 101 and 102 come from Nusa; the bowl depicted in fig. 99 is from the Varzinberg area on the Gazelle Peninsula; and the stone hemisphere, fig. 100, is from the island of Uatom. Editor’s note.]

3. See ‘Beiträge zur Ethnologie der Gilbertinsulaner’ by R. Parkinson, Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie vol. II.

246