Module: Public Management and Organization Development

Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management

Contents

Introduction 1 I. Local government leaders in Japan 2 1. Dual representation system 2 2. The election process 3 3. Independents, peoples’ candidates and reformists 4 II. Leadership types 5 1. Leadership based on mass appeal 6 1-1. Yukio Aoshima 6 1-2. Knock Yokoyama 6 1-3. Shintaro Ishihara 7 1-4. Hiroshi Nakada 9 2. Use of the manifesto 10 2-1. What is a manifest0? 10 2-2. The Masayasu Kitagawa manifesto 11 2-3. The Shigefumi Matsuzawa manifest 12 3. Leadership of the personnel management 13 3-1. Tokyo governor Shintaro Ishihara 14 3-2. Kanagawa governor Shigefumi Matsuzawa 14 3-3. Mayor of Osaka Junichi Seki 15 III. Crisis management 16 1. Natural disasters 17 1-1. Disaster prevention: the Kanagawa Prefecture Disaster Prevention Center 17 1-2. Preventing secondary disasters: Niigata governor Hirohiko Izumida 17 1-3. Evacuation warnings and declaration of disaster areas: Mayor Kan-ichi Kanegae of Shimabara 19 1-4. ‘Mamoru-kun’, the disaster prevention e-mail initiative in Fukuoka prefecture 21 2. Terror attacks 21 3. Bureaucratic scandals 22 4. Personal information 23 Conclusions 24 Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management

Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management

Introduction

When considering the question of what leadership is, it may be instructional to think of a certain type of political skill as something different from daily management. Internally, shifting internal power relations can go beyond the normal coordination of human relations; externally, there can be pressure for restructuring of social groups; and at the abstract level, there are changing value systems such as formation and establishment of new government policies. In the words of Philip Selznick, these are the times when administrators must make critical decisions that transcend the normal routine. In many cases, these decisions operate in conjunction with one another, and ultimately all must be dealt with — this is the essence of leadership. Leaders often have to deal with shortages of resources such as time, funding, special knowledge and political support. This is a close approximation to the true destiny of government, which embraces a pluralism of values. Nevertheless, leaders are obliged to make decisions under conditions that are less than ideal, and sometimes to institute major reforms such as realigning the general trajectory.

This Chapter examines the issue of leadership and crisis management. Section 1 considers the characteristics of those in leadership positions in local government in Japan. Section 2 looks at different leadership styles, citing actual examples, while Section 3 considers how different leaders respond to different types of challenges.

The concept of leadership conjures up images of innate leadership skills, natural charisma, and leader-follower relations within the organization. A common requirement of both business leaders and political leaders is the need for good interpersonal skills. An important difference is the fact that the head of a local government organization is generally elected by means of a voting process, which inevitably involves parameters such as character, personality and personal magnetism. Particularly in large metropolises such as Tokyo and Osaka where the field encompasses a large number of candidates, the candidate best known to voters will enjoy an advantage over his or her rivals. A leader who has years of political experience or is active in the media can use this public appeal to utilize the media more effectively once elected and to get his or her message across directly to the people. This, too, is leadership.

Partly in response to criticism of the idea of the popular vote, the notion of the manifesto election has been embraced in recent years. This calls for the head of

- 1 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management government to issue a ‘local manifesto’ setting out policies that he or she will implement if reelected. With new candidates it can be more difficult to obtain data for analysis, so coordination with the relevant departments is required, such as modifying numerical targets after election. The policies are set out clearly in the manifesto, which will effect citizens, local government employees, and the head of the local government. In this way, the manifestoo approach helps to encourage policy-based leadership.

Reforming leaders who use the manifesto as an agenda for reform often run into difficulty trying to exert leadership over the bureaucracy. Even a leader who has been elected with popular public support may not have the internal support necessary to push through reforms. Genuine dynamic leadership is manifested in the ability to incorporate policy into personnel and other changes to the organization. The type of organization that the leader wishes to create will influence the policy that is implemented, while policy in turn formalizes the organization. Here, we will consider leadership issues associated with personnel and look at examples of external recruiting and the problems that this can cause.

With respect to crisis management, the major cities of the world are now subject to the threat of terrorism, and Japan cannot afford to remain defenseless. The leadership displayed by New York mayor Rudolf Giuliani in the aftermath of the September 11 terrorist attacks was noted around the world. As the local government leader dealing directly with the crisis on the ground, he or she is effectively more responsible for the safety of the people than the leader of state. In earthquake-prone Japan, we need to learn from past lessons about which dangers we can prevent. Today’s leaders are also required to deal with scandals and deplorable events within the organization, just like the private sector, and this represents another facet of crisis management. Finally, we will consider how leaders deal with crisis in the area of information technology, where specialist expertise is often required.

I. Local government leaders in Japan

1. Dual representation system In Japan, the parliamentary system is used at the national level, while local government uses a dual form of representation, similar to a presidential-style system where both the governor or mayor and members of the assembly (council) are directly elected by the people. As with the federal Congress in the United States, which is elected via the presidential system, the political process functions smoothly when the leader (i.e., the governor) and the assembly members are from the same party, and

- 2 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management the ruling party of the members supports the leader. If the leader and the assembly members are from opposing parties, debate becomes increasingly difficult and the administration may be destabilized. At the local government level in Japan, it is not uncommon for the leader to have a different set of policies to the majority of the assembly or council. It seems that voters sometimes seek a political balance by, for instance, electing a leader on a reform ticket while choosing their assembly member on the basis of experience and stability.

2. The election process It is said in Japan that the three things needed to run in an election are name recognition “kanban”, a support base “jiban”, and money “kaban”. Given the restrictions this places on candidates, it is not uncommon for successive generations of politicians to come from the same family. However, this does not tend to apply to leaders at the local level. Former central government bureaucrats consistently appear in gubernatorial elections at the prefectural level. Often a bureaucrat from the former Ministry of Home Affairs will stand for election after serving time in senior positions such as deputy governor or deputy mayor. As mayor, a former bureaucrat can offer good connections with government at the national level, as well as an innate knowledge of the workings of the public sector.

From around 1985 there was a marked increase in the incidence of candidates supported by several political parties, including the Liberal Democratic Party. The support of multiple parties gives a candidate considerable strength and a greater chance of election victory. As with the national coalition government from 1993, candidates in regional politics were commonly supported by in concert with the Liberal Democratic Party. More recently, however, the number of candidates elected without support from any political party is on the increase. These candidates consider alignment with a political party to be a liability that sullies their image of being ‘one of the people,’ and their appeal to voters lies precisely with the fact that they are non- aligned. Most voters are independent (non-party), and do not have parties to support. The competition between independent candidates and candidates with cross-party support is becoming more intense, with independent candidates often emerging the victors.

During elections for members of the assembly or council, voters are more likely to look for positives such as experience and past performance, particularly regarding the candidate’s previous efforts on behalf of the local region. Voting patterns are quite different when it comes to local leaders, however. Voters tend to seek a clean image, a

- 3 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management person who is sufficiently innovative, different, or otherwise ‘outside the mold.’ Thus, a candidate with fewer perceived ‘negatives’ has a greater chance of being elected. A close connection with the local region is not seen as terribly important. Local government elections tend to involve debate over more immediate issues than the Lower House and Upper House elections, such as education and public safety at the municipal level. Yet, although these issues are of more immediate importance to voters, turnout to local government elections is typically quite low (around 30 to 50 %).

Given that leaders and members are elected for different reasons with different voter expectations, it is not unusual to see a situation where the leader does not have the support of the majority of the members. Sometimes policies have to be modified, proposals have to be withdrawn, deputy governor or senior aid nominations refused. On some occasions, the leader may even be presented with a vote of no confidence. The governor of Nagano prefecture, Yasuo Tanaka, was described as ‘dictatorial’ by the members of the assembly in a major political showdown in September 2002. Yet he has since been reelected. Voters believed that the governor had been bullied by the assembly. In the dual representation system, a governor bringing a fresh political outlook is often confronted with opposition from a hostile majority in the assembly. Thus, the leader has to recruit supporters in the assembly and exhibit strong leadership. Many politicians from the national stage become governors because of the considerable potential for leadership that comes with the position. As the push towards decentralization continues, local government organizations will be given greater decision-making powers, and their leaders will consequently have even greater responsibilities. Some local governments have started to place restrictions on reelection in order to prevent excessive concentration of power and/or misuse of authority.

3. Independents, peoples’ candidates and reformists The Japanese media is currently paying a great deal of attention to local government leaders labeled as independents, people’s candidates and/or reformists. At the national level, the spectacle of a leader confronting opposition forces within government has been shown to boost popularity ratings. At the local level, too, some government leaders will appeal for voter support on the basis of their reform agenda and their willingness to take on the opposition. The notion of seeking election through ‘people power’ rather than the party political system is becoming increasingly common in Japan. Delivering speeches in the streets of town alongside an established political figure or soliciting supporting speeches from politicians is not an effective election strategy, particularly in urban areas. Where a non-aligned candidate is supported by a politician or business leader, the candidate will make it clear that such support is

- 4 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management unsolicited and has not been provided on the basis of any deal or request. In this way, the candidate can maintain a discreet separation from specific interest groups and forces.

Reformist leaders are also supporting one another. In the 2003 gubernatorial election in Kochi prefecture, for instance, Nagano governor Yasuo Tanaka lent his weight to the election campaign of reformist governor Daijiro Hashimoto. First elected in December 1991, Hashimoto was one of the pioneer independent governors, paving the way for Yukio Aoshima (elected governor of Tokyo in 1995), Knock Yokoyama (Osaka, 1995), Shintaro Ishihara (Tokyo, 1999) and Yasuo Tanaka (Nagano, 2000).

Although people’s candidates are not necessarily reformists, most voters put them in the same category, along with independent candidates. It is widely felt that these governors could one day lead Japan. In the United States there are countless examples of former governors going on to become president: Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, to name a few. In Japan, a former governor of Kumamoto prefecture, Morihiro Hosokawa, later became Prime Minister, and market research surveys have found that governors are highly regarded as potential candidates for the post. The idea of changing Japan from the local government appears to have struck a chord with the public.

II. Leadership types

In this section we will examine different types of leadership such as appealing to the public, promoting a manifesto, or manipulating the internal organization. The democratic system imparts legitimacy to leadership because it is predicated on public support. Followers want to believe the myth of the all-knowing and all-powerful leader, a myth which exists precisely because people define leaders in terms of their name recognition, image and rhetoric. Naturally, leadership also requires actual ability, as well as management skills which are exhibited through interpersonal relations within the organization. Policy impacts on the relationships between communities and the government, between the general public and the staff. This is where the manifesto is an important concept. Reformist governors display leadership by using the public, their manifesto and their staff to manage the local government. They do not choose any one of these above the others.

Let us now examine different leadership styles in greater depth, citing several real-life examples for the purpose of explanation.

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1. Leadership based on mass appeal

1-1. Yukio Aoshima There can be no denying that in a democracy based on the appeal to the masses, well- known candidates are at an advantage. In 1995, Yukio Aoshima ran for the position of Tokyo governor as a member of the House of Councilors and won. Although he had served in the House of Councilors since 1968, as governor Aoshima was generally viewed as a former entertainment figure (he boasts experience as a performer, film director, lyricist and author) rather than a former politician. Aoshima began his entertainment career writing for television after winning a comedy script competition. Before long he was performing his own material in front of the camera, and was beamed into living rooms throughout the nation.

Aoshima is one of the foremost examples of a “celebrity politician” elected on the basis of widespread personal support prior to starting a political career. Aoshima was successfully elected without having to give a single curbside speech during the election campaign. During his 1995 campaign for the Tokyo governorship, Aoshima used his position as a member of the House of Councilors and ran on an essentially single-issue ticket: a promise to abort the planned World Expo at the new waterfront precinct in Tokyo. There was considerable public dissatisfaction with the waterfront precinct, a massive construction project conceived in the heyday of the bubble economy period that was considered to have lost its relevance, particularly as it was still under construction at the time. Aoshima won the election purely on the strength of his promise to halt the project if elected. His uncompromising stance stood in direct contrast to the other seasoned professional bureaucrats in the race, and his ability to break out of the traditional mold was applauded by the voters. Although he did not produce any policies of note during his reign other than halting the World Expo, Aoshima ran on a single-issue platform, met the expectations of the people that only Aoshima could overturn the planned event, and in doing so demonstrated an effective new leadership style.

1-2. Knock Yokoyama The year 1995 also saw well-known comedy performer Knock Yokoyama elected governor of Osaka. Yokoyama had enjoyed a successful entertainment career, trading on his Osaka roots. People from Osaka, and the Kansai region in general, use a different dialect to the standard Japanese spoken in greater Tokyo. The unique culture of the region, in part due to the different dialect, is based on laughter and making fun.

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By trading in jokes and stories, Yokoyama was able to strike an immediate rapport with the people. Under the motto “A Happier Osaka,” he gave the public some light during a gloomy period of economic recession.

Knock Yokoyama was reelected in 1999. He had read the mood of the people well, realizing that they wanted a bright and optimistic leader during the recession, even one who clearly had few genuine policy initiatives to offer. Whereas a conventional political figure would have appeared privileged, Yokoyama was a likeable character with instant public appeal. He was also considered to be a person who would maintain and promote the culture of Osaka, and was seen as operating with an approachable style that ordinary politicians could never match. The leadership demonstrated by Yokoyama was based on his considerable public support. Although his image as one of the people was purely a product of the television, it struck a chord with voters.

1-3. Shintaro Ishihara When there are many different candidates jostling for position, the well-known leader with broad public appeal has a distinct advantage. When the then governor of Tokyo Aoshima announced in 1999 that he would not be seeking reelection, the enormous field of candidates included an international political analyst, a former Foreign Affairs Minister, a former Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations and a former deputy head of the Democratic Party. Amidst considerable confusion in the selection process and in the minds of voters, rumors persisted that Ishihara was about to join the race. As the election campaign began to hot up, and with only a couple of weeks left in which left to formally register his nomination, Ishihara announced that he would indeed run for office. He was the last candidate to state his hand. Waiting until nearly all the other candidates had appeared was seen as something of a last-minute gamble, but candidates who are well-known can afford to spend less time campaigning. Ishihara had three main things in his favor: he was already a well-known author as well as politician; he boasted experience as a genuine politician, not an entertainer- turned-politician; and he surrounded himself with interesting and influential friends and acquaintances.

As a writer, Ishihara won the prestigious Akutagawa prize for Season of the Sun, and also wrote the best-selling The Japan That Can Say No. He continued writing while serving as governor.

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As a member of the national Diet since the age of 35, Ishihara played a pivotal role in government, including a stint as Minister, over a period of 25 years. His power was such that at one stage he ran for the presidency of the Liberal Democratic Party.

Another important defining characteristic of Shintaro Ishihara is his relationship with his younger brother Yujiro (now deceased). The book Little Brother, which was made into a television program, was based on his real-life younger brother, who was a leading actor in Japan. Yujiro set up a production house called Ishihara Production. His actors, commonly known as the Ishihara Army, were quick to lend public support to the election campaign of elder brother Shintaro.

Given his film and television background, Ishihara the governor was highly adept at dealing with the media. He presented his political ideals and principles with clarity, and though he sometimes caused a stir, he also won considerable praise. The fact that his opponents were never able to force his resignation is testimony to the strength of his appeal. He was feted as a typical hawk, but in questions of foreign policy he never wavered, with his insistence that Tokyo was responsible for changing Japan becoming an ongoing slogan for action. Ishihara was criticized by the assembly for turning up only two or three days per week to his place of employment. His response was that the job of governor did not require attendance at the government building every single day. Instead, as he explained directly to the public via the media, he was busy meeting people in connection with the business of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government and its relationship with the government of the nation.

Governor Ishihara took advantage of every opportunity to use television and radio to get his message across. He made regular appearances on the Tokyo Boy show on MXTV every Sunday. And being a writer himself, Ishihara was in a position to make regular contributions to magazines and newspapers. While most governors are bombarded with requests for interviews and appearances, few if any are asked to write regular articles for a newspaper. There was even a column called ‘Ishihara Sayings,’ which only goes to demonstrate the unparalleled level of media interest hanging on his every word. That was because as the leader of Tokyo, the capital of Japan, Ishihara had considerable power and influence. News of his achievements and his personal pronouncements were posted regularly on the Tokyo Metropolitan Government official website and his own personal website for the benefit of the entire nation, not only residents of Tokyo. The fact that even the younger generation with little interest in politics had heard of Shintaro Ishihara can be attributed to his consummate skill as a leader and his ability to utilize a variety of media, including the internet, to keep

- 8 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management sending his message out to the masses. The Ishihara leadership style was predicated on the need for media exposure.

1-4. Hiroshi Nakada Yokohama mayor Hiroshi Nakada is another politician with a powerful leadership style that is predicated on using the media. The three defining characteristics of his leadership are his youth, his willingness to use the media, and the fact that he is the mayor of a designated major city.

Nakada was elected to the House of Representatives just four years after graduating from university. He became mayor at the age of 37. Thus he has always been a younger candidate. In Yokohama, Nakada has capitalized on his youth to present an image of agility, flexibility and innovation for the city. Voters elected him in the belief that youth would work to his advantage.

With regards to media, Nakada produced and appeared in programs on the local television station TV Kanagawa (TVK). He used the programs to tell the 3.5 million people of Yokohama about events and developments in their town, including the occasional location report by the mayor himself. The idea was to present information through the eyes of the people, and this extended to information about outdoor events, museums and art galleries in the city.

Finally, it is instructive to examine Nakada’s leadership as mayor of a major designated city. The city of Yokohama not only boasts equivalent power and influence to the prefecture of Kanagawa in which it is located, it also stands as a monument to the modernization process. Nakada has gone to great effort to promote Yokohama around the world. The history and culture of Yokoyama have been shaped by the city’s role in the opening up of the country (Yokohama was one of the first ports to be officially opened to the outside world in 1859 when Japan emerged from a prolonged period as a closed country.) The residents are rightly proud of their longstanding status as a designated city, and by choosing a reformist mayor they have helped to drive innovation in the city.

Mayor Nakada is currently throwing his leadership behind a bid to host the 2008 Summit. A consortium of cities in the Kansai region led by Osaka is also interested, but Nakada hopes that Yokohama’s unique status as the origin of the modernization process in Japan will lead it to victory. The year 2009 marks the 150th anniversary of the opening up of Japan in 1859, and Nakada sees the summit as a fitting

- 9 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management commemoration of 150 years of international exchange. This young, energetic, can-do mayor speaks to the people of Yokohama in plain language and uses their expectations and support to drive change and reform in the city. He is also featured in international media as the very public face of an international city.

These local government leaders are concerned with public appeal and are adept at using the media to get their message across. They use their name value to produce policies that are symbolic of the times while accurately gauging the mood of the people, and their influence is felt throughout the nation. Often they are supported by voters’ image as policy experts. Let us now examine the notion of leadership predicated on policy in more detail.

2. Use of the manifesto

2-1. What is a manifest0? The manifesto as used in Japan is modeled on the idea of the party policy manifesto in the United Kingdom: a booklet that sets out in structured form all the policies of the party during an election campaign. Political parties are expected to produce manifestos detailing the policies they intend to implement if elected. In addition to specific numerical targets, the manifesto describes the progress of policies set out in previous manifestos and provides detailed information about how policies are to be implemented. In this sense, it is more than a mere wish-list. The manifesto includes timing and funding details, numerical targets and schedules, and is therefore more binding than standard election promises, which have more to do with trite catchphrases, ad-hoc verbal promises and agreements that are later broken.

The idea of the manifesto first took hold in Japan in April 2003, when governors were elected on the basis of their manifestos in nationwide local elections. In fact, the phenomenon of the manifesto-driven election campaign can be said to have started at the local level. For reformist governors in particular, a manifesto setting out policy timing and funding details provides an extremely effective tool once in office. The purpose of the manifesto is to determine whether or not policies have been implemented as promised, so the manifesto remains relevant long after the election campaign. Voters expect the manifesto to be faithfully implemented by the leader they voted for and his or her administration. Policies that might have encountered opposition from within the bureaucratic structure or might have been postponed in order to evade responsibility must be carried through as detailed in the manifesto.

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Today, there are two types of manifesto: the party manifesto, which speaks on behalf of the political party as a whole, and the local manifesto, which applies to a specific local government body. The local manifesto is a more realistic proposal, since it can be pushed through by the leader, whereas the party manifesto requires coordination of different interests within the party. The dual representation democratic structure of local government in Japan, with the leader separate from the assembly, provides a proper system of checks and balances against the possibility of a mayor attempting to promote a self-indulgent manifesto. General policy programs at the prefectural level are already in place before the governor is elected, so the targets set out in the manifesto may or may not coincide with the numerical targets in the general program. Thus, the assembly considers how best to bring the two sets of targets together to create a more realistic and effective set of policies.

2-2. The Masayasu Kitagawa manifesto Masayasu Kitagawa served for three terms as a member of the prefectural assembly in Mie prefecture before joining the House of Representatives at the national level. He then returned to Mie prefecture and became a leading reformist governor, noted for his dedication to government reform and information disclosure from the standpoint of the everyday citizen. Kitagawa advocated the importance of a manifesto detailing targets, methodologies and funding sources, and he continued to promote the manifesto in many local governments. His pioneering stance has had an enormous impact on government at the national level, and has been translated into a general push for the establishment of a periodical cycle for the evaluation of public promises, such as local manifesto evaluation conferences and local manifesto promotion summits. The former governor is now lending his expertise in the belief that every candidate in a gubernatorial or mayoral election should produce a local manifesto. The basic underlying principle is that the leader is elected on the basis of the local manifesto, and that working towards the policy targets set out in the manifesto is an important process in building up the infrastructure of democracy.

The first Local Manifesto Evaluation Conference, organized by former governor Kitagawa in September 2004, was attended by five reformist governors. Saitama governor Kiyoshi Ueda spoke of his success with the use of three deadline categories: immediate, within one year and within four years. Kanagawa governor Shigefumi Matsuzawa described the manifesto as a form of information disclosure for policies, signaling a shift towards policy-based local government. While the manifesto allows citizens to share information with their leader, it also requires voters to shoulder some of the responsibility for the future of their local government. The manifesto is an

- 11 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management agreement of trust between the leader and the people, and the latter are expected to fully understand and check the contents of the manifesto.

2-3. The Shigefumi Matsuzawa manifest Kanagawa governor Shigefumi Matsuzawa has instituted a two-tiered approach to evaluating the progress of implementation of the manifesto. This consists of self- evaluation combined with third-party evaluation. The self-evaluation is based on the findings of the third-party evaluation committee, called the Matsuzawa Manifesto Evaluation Committee, which was commissioned directly by the governor.

The policies set out in the manifesto are implemented by the relevant sections of the prefectural offices in a process known as incorporating the manifesto into the new general program. A table summarizing the policy pronouncements in the manifesto and how they have been incorporated has been released to the public. A pledge in the manifesto to double the number of NPOs, for instance, has been taken on by the Citizens’ Bureau, which is working to encourage and promote volunteer activity in the prefecture. A policy pronouncement about upgrading Haneda Airport to international status and introducing 24-hour operation has been adopted by the Planning Department in the form of the Haneda Airport Expansion and International Status Upgrade project.

Another two manifesto pledges — supporting venture businesses and new industries via closer exchange with Asia and university tie-ups, and helping high-tech small and medium businesses to become more competitive — have been combined into a single project by the Commerce and Labor Department, which is working on an exchange conference for regional economic experts as a means of promoting exchange initiatives in the East Asia region. Although Matsuzawa was elected in 2003, the fiscal 2003 budget had been prepared by his predecessor and so the budget for implementing manifesto policies has had to be put forward to the following year.

It is important to discuss with all departments of the government bureaucracy the manner in which the manifesto will be linked to the government’s administrative program. Numerical targets in particular were hotly debated. The assembly felt that priority had been given to presenting the manifesto as the new general program, placing unreasonable demands on the policy development timetable and leading to unfeasible numerical targets at the expense of important regional development programs. Further, it was felt that the plan overall lacked a concrete, persuasive vision for the prefecture, without any attempt at a study or analysis of, for instance,

- 12 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management fundamental shifts in the social structure such as population decline. The general program was roundly criticized as incomplete and not properly thought through.

In February 2004, the regular session of the assembly passed a motion calling for the formulation of a genuine general plan designed to properly serve the people of Kanagawa. The governor responded at a press conference by announcing that the plan (including targets) would be revised on the basis of the various opinions, in line with legal and socioeconomic developments. Policies in need of further attention (such as revised targets) were divided into three categories: those where the manifesto was insufficient or not properly thought through; those where the targets were unrealistic; and those where the one-sided approach was incorrect.

In this way, the manifesto can be an effective leadership tool for campaigning and for pushing a bureaucratic reform agenda. But the manifesto should be based on an accurate understanding of current conditions; if not, modifications or deletions may be required. The manifesto should be an accurate reflection of reality rather than a collection of catchy slogans, because the governor or mayor is expected to carry it out once in office. The manifesto is a policy package, a deliberate policy choice made by voters via the election process. The author of the manifesto must exhibit leadership within the organization in order to pursue and achieve the numerical targets, as well as leadership in the wider social sense to encourage citizens to make decisions regarding the development of their local region.

3. Leadership of the personnel management Leadership is also exhibited through personnel affairs. Local government leaders normally have the power to choose their executive team. Personnel decisions constitute a management tool in the policy implementation process. Individual decisions such as selection and discipline are the way in which the leader sends a message to the organization. Even when there are no political appointments from outside the organization, an analysis of the personnel setup in the organization provides evidence of the policy priorities of the leader.

Reformist leaders often have to appoint outsiders to the bureaucracy if they do not have a support base in government to allow them to implement the manifesto on the basis of which they were elected. Leaders are often criticized for political appointments of aides, but it is not always easy to win the approval of the assembly for special- purpose appointments. The post of deputy governor is traditionally held by someone from within the organization, or occasionally by a former official from a nation

- 13 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management government ministry or agency. Similarly, senior aids in the same city are most commonly appointed from within the organization, or otherwise from the prefectural government or a national ministry such as the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport in order to provide direct access to higher levels of government. But governors are increasingly putting their own confidantes in key posts, in what are considered to be politically motivated appointments.

3-1. Tokyo governor Shintaro Ishihara Takeo Hamauzu, the deputy governor appointed by Tokyo governor Shintaro Ishihara in 2000, had been Ishihara’s private secretary back when he was a member of the national Diet, and was often referred to as “the brain” or the right-hand man. All bureau and department heads at the Tokyo Metropolitan Government were required to submit their proposals to his office for approval. Since the governor was often away, Hamauzu essentially had responsibility for policy and personnel decisions. While Hamauzu was clearly a trusted aid of the governor, the fact that an unelected official was able to wield such enormous power attracted considerable opposition, including calls for his resignation.

The Metropolitan Assembly was also critical of the arbitrary manner in which Ishihara had flouted the normal bureaucratic convention, leaving his deputy in charge of the day-to-day operations of the city. The deputy governor was eventually forced to resign, to be replaced by the head of the Labor Bureau, while the Education Director was appointed the senior deputy governor. Through a reshuffle that involved promotion of officials from within the organization, Ishihara managed to contain the unrest in his administration; however, he was obliged to reconfigure decision-making processes in line with the personnel change. Hamauzu had had responsibility for a wide range of policy decisions and had been involved in many disputes. Ishihara now had to re- introduce administrative procedures predicated on discussion and consultation among senior government officials. The changes provided an opportunity to alter the decision- making processes and the exercise of power within the organization.

3-2. Kanagawa governor Shigefumi Matsuzawa Similar criticism was directed at politically motivated appointments by the governor of Kanagawa prefecture, where the governor put personal acquaintances from outside the organization in positions of responsibility in the government. Political appointments are often used to shore up the power base of the leader, but often invite a confrontation with the assembly too. Overuse of political appointments should be avoided as the end result is a group of compliant “yes-men” around the leader, which

- 14 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management creates an atmosphere that inevitably affects staff morale and the efficient working of the bureaucracy.

After winning the gubernatorial election in Kanagawa, Matsuzawa wasted no time in appointing two members of his election campaign committee as temporary aids, a move which was criticized by the assembly as little more than a reward for their services during the campaign. Kanagawa prefecture has a longstanding requirement that the post of deputy governor be shared among three people, but Matsuzawa wanted to reduce this to two, citing fiscal constraints. On the contrary, he proposed appointing one of the election campaign officials as his chief advisor (with the status of department head), and the other, a former member of the Hachioji city council, as his private secretary. The assembly opposed the appointments on the grounds of insufficient information.

Thus, personnel management are a tool which the leader can make use of, but which can often generate friction between the leader and the assembly. In order to consolidate the organization, the leader should try to pursue his or her policies using a team that has been selected from within the organization.

3-3. Mayor of Osaka Junichi Seki Osaka is one of the three largest cities in Japan. Its mayor, Junichi Seki, carried out a major restructuring of senior aid positions by appointing the well-known female lawyer and best-selling author Mitsuyo Ohira. The Osaka city administration had long attracted criticism for the way that the mayors were always former officials from within the administration, for the enormous influence of the workers’ unions, and for the generous salary levels and welfare benefits that were effectively guaranteed by the powerful labor union. Governors and mayors can change vicious practices through initiatives such as seeking advice from private-sector consultants on management practices and decision-making processes and appointing outsiders to important positions such as deputy governor and senior aid.

Mitsuyo Ohira started as a senior aid at the City of Osaka in December 2003. Her appointment was bound to create a stir. She had an interesting history, having attempted suicide by disembowelment in her second year at junior high school due to entrenched bullying and married a yakuza boss at the age of 16, before turning over a new leaf and successfully passing her bar exams to become a lawyer. Her autobiography So Can You, which covers her turbulent life story in detail, made her a household name in Japan. She is currently the senior aid in charge of educational

- 15 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management affairs at the City of Osaka, where she handles applications for the teacher employment examination. In her “message to prospective teachers,” Ohira writes that she also conducts examination interviews herself.

The city of Osaka has two other senior aids besides Ohira; one has responsibility for general affairs and finance, and the other for planning and coordination and the urban environment. Appointing outsiders to key posts in the bureaucracy can be difficult in the face of a strong opposition presence in the assembly. The leader must be careful to strike an appropriate balance between bringing in new faces with fresh ideas, even where the appointee has minimal experience of government bureaucracy, and promoting career bureaucrats in cases where their experience is more relevant to the needs of the organization. A single personnel change can make an enormous difference to a leader’s capacity to pursue his or her agenda.

This concludes our brief study of leadership styles. Leadership geared exclusively towards winning mass support runs the risk of focusing solely on policies and initiatives with mass appeal. Meanwhile, the use of a manifesto helps protect against false democracy. Finally, leadership involves the art of personnel management. Thus, leadership is a combination of three elements: mass appeal, the manifesto, and personnel management. In the next chapter, we will consider leadership in the form of crisis management in critical situations.

III. Crisis management

The real value of leadership becomes evident in times of crisis. When people feel that their safety is under threat, the words and deeds of the leader take on extra significance. A leader who is seen to be concerned and listening to important developments can build a stronger bond of trust with the public but can also run the risk of causing offence. The issue of primary importance is the safety of the citizens, including evacuation procedures where required, and in times of crisis the leader is inevitably dependent on the private sector (especially for medical specialists) and volunteer resources. There is nothing like a crisis to galvanize individuals and organizations into action. A crisis also enhances the authority and integrity of the leader. Similarly, with respect to approaching events such as an impending funding crisis a sense of crisis may pervade the power structure, with the eventual appearance of the crisis helping to strengthen the foundations of power and authority.

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There are many different types of crisis. Some are unavoidable, such as natural disasters, but others can be predicted or forecasted. Dealing with crises if and when they arise (and having strategies in place beforehand) is a major function of local government. Large metropolitan regions such as Tokyo are subject to other forms of crisis that should be treated a “not if but when” proposition, such as terrorism. Meanwhile, the public is very wary of scandals and improper dealings in local government. Finally, proper information management is just as important for local government as it is in the private sector, both in Japan and overseas. Leaking of personal details is a major crisis that requires leadership.

1. Natural disasters 1-1. Disaster prevention: the Kanagawa Prefecture Disaster Prevention Center Japan is a land that is perpetually prone to major earthquakes along the length and breadth of the country. Even Kyushu, which was always regarded as safe from earthquakes, was hit by a major earthquake off the coast of Fukuoka prefecture in March 2005. Every local government throughout Japan must be fully prepared for this eventuality. The emergency response plans and preparations are vital in ensuring a rapid and accurate response in the event of crisis. If the everyday preparations are in place, then the emergency response capability will be enhanced. Disaster prevention training is also vital. Every citizen should know how to protect themselves and their homes in an emergency, and should be prepared to help their neighbors if necessary. Local government should encourage entire families to participate in disaster training drills in order to instill an awareness of disaster prevention from an early age.

The Kanagawa Prefecture Disaster Prevention Center has an Earthquake Experience facility where visitors can experience simulated earthquakes and wind and rain storms, and practice evacuating through thick smoke and even try their fire-fighting skills. The Center also produces booklets called Is my family Safe from Disaster? It encourages people to familiarize themselves with evacuation points and communication methods, and provides handy reference lists of emergency supplies such as food and water, fuel, helmets, portable radios, flashlights, valuables, clothing, household items and first aid kits.

1-2. Preventing secondary disasters: Niigata governor Hirohiko Izumida The October 2004 earthquake in Niigata prefecture occurred shortly after heavy rains and was accompanied by a large number of aftershocks, which greatly increased the potential for landslides and mudflow. This danger, combined with the cold and snowy

- 17 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management climate of Niigata, proved a significant obstacle to disaster response efforts. At times like this, it is doubly important for the leader to send out a clear message in order to prevent the possibility of secondary damage. To this end, Izumida issued a warning statement to the people of Niigata about snow damage, which was posted on the official website of the prefecture and also appeared in newspapers. Safety checks were conducted on all public facilities such as prefectural buildings, accommodation and welfare facilities, hospitals and schools, as well as detailed emergency response procedures. In addition to high priority tasks such as repairing destroyed roads and ruptured supply lines and attending to the needs of isolated villages, it is also necessary to prevent secondary damage. One way to achieve this is through the use of simulation, for instance, determining the priority response order based on a study of previous earthquakes.

Special inspectors assess the emergency danger level following a major earthquake where requested by specific cities, towns, and villages. First, both prefectural and municipal governments set up emergency response centers, which decide whether the emergency danger level assessment is required. If it is, then an emergency danger level assessment office is set up to formulate an implementation plan and the assessment begins. If local inspectors are unable to complete the job, the municipal government will request assistance from the prefectural government, and will request a dispatch from unaffected villages in the prefecture.

If there are not enough inspectors in the prefecture, a wider request goes out to neighboring prefectures. In the case of the Niigata earthquake, inspectors from Kanagawa prefecture contributed their expertise. Some 98,000 earthquake danger inspectors are registered throughout Japan. Their job is to inspect buildings in order to determine the level of damage and assess the potential for collapse in the event of aftershocks — in other words, whether the building is safe to use. A color-coded assessment report is physically attached to the building for all to see. A red sheet denotes an unsafe building, which is declared off limits. A yellow sheet denotes limited entry, meaning that caution should be exercised when entering the building. A green sheet means that the building has been inspected and declared safe to use. This inspection procedure has been used in several major earthquakes, after the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake of 1995.

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1-3. Evacuation warnings and declaration of disaster areas: Mayor Kan-ichi Kanegae of Shimabara There were many lessons to be learned by local government in the aftermath of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake. But some local government leaders were already well advanced in their emergency response procedures even before the earthquake. In 1990, Mt. Unzen in Shimabara in Nagasaki prefecture erupted after lying dormant for 198 years. The municipal government responded by setting up an emergency response center and declaring a state of alert. The pyroclastic flow associated with the eruption descended into the valley, claiming 43 lives and destroying villages, houses, fields and forests. The impact on the municipality of Shimabara was immense. Mayor Kanegae declared a state of alert and took to wearing an emergency protection suit, even on formal ceremonial occasions, so that he could be ready to respond at any time. Later, he was remembered as the forever bearded mayor, but his beard was his prayer for a speedy end to the Mt. Unzen disaster.

At times, depending on the state of the volcano, all municipal employees were placed on permanent standby in their homes. Every effort was made to provide information to the public. Broadcast vans circulated throughout the municipality, relaying news and warnings of volcanic activity. Also, elementary and junior schools in Shimabara are required to prepare student evacuation plans in preparation for a major earthquake, and all elementary schools in the municipality conduct regular evacuation drills. Leaflets have been produced telling people to watch out for signs of impending natural disaster and contact city hall immediately if they notice anything unusual (such as water bubbling forth from the ground or drying up unexpectedly, unusual changes in plant life or unusual behavior by animals), and providing the contact number for the Citizens’ Bureau Transport and Disaster Prevention Section. Evacuation plan notices show the location of evacuation points in each ward, along with advice about evacuation procedures and things to take.

While the location of evacuation points may change depending on the circumstances, it is difficult to determine when to issue the all clear order to citizens who have evacuated in accordance with an evacuation warning. Evacuation warnings are issued on the basis of information such as heavy rain and flood warnings and alerts. But when the rain stops it may not necessarily be safe to issue the all clear, and it can be difficult even for experts to predict when mud flows might occur as a result of the rain. Although it is the government which is ultimately responsible for issuing and subsequently lifting the evacuation warning, the understanding and cooperation of citizens is vital. While an evacuation warning is not compulsory or binding, the

- 19 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management declaration of a state of emergency means that the affected area can be completely closed off, with residents obliged to evacuate. Both the evacuation warning and the state of emergency are designed to save lives, and there is no compensation for losses associated with the property or livelihood by those forced to evacuate.

For instance, a poultry farmer can return to his farm during the day while an evacuation warning is place, but not if the area is subject to a declaration of emergency. He is therefore unable to continue working as before, and the poultry that represent his products for sale will be lost. Given the level of inconvenience to citizens, it is most important that these measures have the support of the local community. In the end, Kanegae chose to declare a state of emergency. It was a sensible and reasoned decision. Local government must provide evacuees with counseling or equivalent services to compensate for the stress of living in an evacuation centre, while also providing proper meals to prevent outbreaks of food poisoning. It can be very onerous. Meanwhile, the mayor must exhibit leadership in keeping the people informed and listening to their concerns, a process that can continue for many years.

In his diary of the experience, Fugen Never Sleeps, the former mayor opposes the by- the-book approach to emergency response procedures. After the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, for instance, there was much criticism of the government for being too slow to order out the Self-Defense Forces. The governor of Hyogo prefecture maintains that he was unable to get in contact with mayors in the affected region to determine the extent of the disaster. (Under the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Law, the request for assistance from the Self-Defense Forces must be issued by the prefectural governor.)

Kanegae argues that in the event of a major disaster on the scale of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, where the lines of communication are disrupted between the governor’s residence and the prefectural government offices and between the prefectural and municipal authorities in the affected region, the Self-Defense Forces should be mobilized regardless. In the case of the Mt. Unzen eruption, telephone lines between the city of Shimabara and Nagasaki prefecture were rendered inoperable, so Kanegae placed the request himself to the nearest Self-Defense Forces facility in the town of Omura.

Following the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, the procedure for ordering out the Self- Defense Forces in the event of a disaster has been reviewed, including the rights and authority required. The Self-Defense Forces can now mobilize independently (i.e.,

- 20 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management without a formal request from the governor) to render assistance in cases where more information is required, or where the governor is unable to issue the request, or where there is deemed to be a genuine danger to human life. The Self-Defense Forces have mobilized independently after a number of earthquakes in recent years in order to gather more information. There have been calls for closer ties between the Self- Defense Forces and local government authorities on an ongoing basis, and these have been achieved through greater participation in the development of liaison systems and local government emergency response training procedures. Meanwhile, the private sector is increasingly committed to regional participation, and with the concept of CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) gaining increasing credence in the business world, companies can be expected to contribute some form of assistance in times of disaster.

1-4. ‘Mamoru-kun’, the disaster prevention e-mail initiative in Fukuoka prefecture Fukuoka prefecture, which was struck by an earthquake off the western coastline in 2005, has launched a disaster prevention e-mail service called ‘Mamoru-kun’ whereby citizens can register for updates on disaster prevention and meteorological phenomena such as earthquake, tsunami, typhoon and heavy rain reports. For instance, a weather warning might warn residents to stay indoors because of an approaching typhoon. ‘Mamoru-kun’ extends to evacuation orders where appropriate, as well as safety warnings such as reports of suspicious persons in the area. The service can also be used to contact family members and provide information about personal whereabouts and safety. In this way, ‘Mamoru-kun’ helps to boost awareness about disaster prevention.

2. Terror attacks It is estimated that in the event of a major earthquake in Tokyo, some 7,000 people would be killed and a further 18,000 injured, with 1.5 million displaced from their homes. In such a situation, proper coordination and cooperation between the fire and police services, the Self-Defense Forces and citizen volunteers is vital. Ships and helicopters would need to be mobilized for evacuation and assistance operations.

There are many elements of similarity in the emergency response operation required in the aftermath of a natural disaster such as earthquake, major flood or volcanic eruption, and a terrorist attack. For instance, in the event of such a crisis Tokyo would need medical facilities such as mobile surgery vans. In the case of a terrorist attack, however, it is more difficult to predict the scale of damage and injury, so the assistance of the ground Self-Defense Forces would be required.

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The greatest threat at present would appear to be from a chemical or biological attack, for instance involving sarin or anthrax. A chemical attack is confined to the location where the chemicals are released; there is no threat to people outside the immediate area. With a biological attack, on the other hand, affected people can then infect others at homes and in the workplace. In this sense, a biological attack rivals the nuclear bomb in respect of the amount of damage it can potentially cause.

The Tokyo Fire Department has a special team for training drills involving radioactive and nuclear weapons. In the event of a biological attack, immediate analysis and identification of the biological substance is of paramount importance. To this end, a system for providing assistance while working to identify the substance has been put in place.

It is very important that Tokyo, as the capital of the nation, has a special team and special training operations. While local governments may be the first to respond to a crisis, the development of vaccines and drugs must be left to government at the national level, in conjunction with related areas such as the hospital isolation system.

A coordinated response is required across the greater Tokyo region, which encompasses the adjoining prefectures of Kanagawa, Saitama and Chiba as well as the Tokyo metropolis itself. In terms of complementary functions in the teeth of a crisis, neighbors should help one another, not just prefectures and local governments. Local communities display their true qualities when a crisis occurs. Communities must strive to build cooperative relations on a day-to-day basis. And for citizens battling a crisis, the leadership of their local government head in saving lives and quelling the confusion is vital.

3. Bureaucratic scandals Investigative reporting uncovered a scandal in the city of Osaka on a scale that nobody outside the bureaucracy could have imagined. An internal problem that had been festering for many years, it was borne of an improper relationship between the municipal administration and the unions.

The worst manifestation of this improper relationship was the case of the false employees — union officials who were receiving full wages from the municipality while actually employed full-time by the labor union. The municipal administration would

- 22 - Public Management and Organization Development Sub-Module5 Leadership and Crisis Management even collect signatures from the fake workers in the office of the labor union to put in the attendance register.

The practice of verbally requesting permission from the superior to leave the office on union activity had remained in place for a long time. Without physical evidence, any investigation was based on voluntary admissions. The municipality had long been giving tacit approval for this practice in order to maintain harmonious worker- management relations. Had it not been exposed by the reporters, it is quite possible that no attempt at reform would ever have been made.

It was reported that the scandal ran to ¥44 million over four months, but the wastage of taxpayer’s money may well have been even greater. According to the city of Osaka, the regulations allow for negotiation and preliminary preparations while receiving salary payments from taxation revenue, so the practice was within the broad definition of the extent of union activity considered permissible.

There has since been much reflection on the fact that the city was being run with the approval of the unions, even to the extent of things that were unnecessary, and a change was made to a mode of operation based on the leadership and judgment of the mayor. The leader should be free to exercise his or her own judgment, unconstrained by conventional customs and practices.

4. Personal information Information security and privacy protection, although different in nature to disasters, is also subject to considerable debate. These days, reports concerning leakage of personal information appear in the news almost on a daily basis. Although this is generally from the private sector, protection of private information in the public sector is viewed even more harshly by the general public, particularly with respect to local government, which presides over considerable stores of personal data.

The nationwide residential information network, launched in August 2002, gives local governments throughout Japan access to four types of personal information (name, sex, address and date of birth) and individual resident codes for identification purposes. This initiative, seen as the basis of a range of e-government services, involves local governments assigning every resident an individual resident code. The standardized code offers a number of benefits: copies of the resident register can be issued by any local government authority anywhere in the country; the procedure for moving house has been simplified; and it can be used as proof of ID.

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However, there has also been widespread criticism that having the national government in control of all the resident data was tantamount to a centralized numbering system extending to every citizen. Certainly, unauthorized access to the nationwide residential information network and leakage of information is of concern. Even surveys conducted among local governments have revealed poor security practices and inadequate security standards, problems which can be attributed to the need for advanced expertise and technology in the area of system operation and security.

People perceive a range of risks subjectively. The public have a vague, undefined concern about whether their personal information is properly protected under the nationwide residential information network. A number of mayors have responded to these concerns by refusing to join the network. In April 2003, the city of Yokohama announced that it would refuse to pass on to the prefecture of Kanagawa the personal details of residents that specifically registered their concerns, until such time as the overall security of the network could be properly verified. Thus, although the system was introduced at the local government level as an e-government initiative of the national government, an autonomous response is required at times when the local government leader adjudges that crisis management is required. The city of Yokohama has gone to the extent of passing a bylaw in relation to the protection of personal information used for identification purposes associated with the nationwide residential information network. In this way, leadership extends to crisis management in relation to information, including strategies designed to alleviate public concerns and ensure the safety of citizens’ information.

At times of crisis, it is important that the leader is open with the people about what needs to be done. The leader must be seen to be doing that which needs to be done, otherwise he or she risks losing the trust of the electorate. People expect their local government leader to exhibit strong leadership in the face of crises such as natural disasters, terrorism, bureaucratic scandals, and information privacy breaches.

Conclusions

Risk management in the private sector can provide a useful reference point for consideration of leadership and crisis management issues in government bureaucracy.

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We present below the Risk Diagnostic Tool developed by Safety Policy Research Division of Mitsubishi Research Institute. In the private sector, risk management is confined to risks within the organization rather than wider social risks. Nevertheless, this includes issues relevant to leadership at the local government level. The simple diagnosis is divided into top executive, executive and general duties.

The top execitive diagnosis (at consists of 30 questions, such as: • Do you have a department or official in charge of risk management? • Do you take notice of information with negative implications about the operations of the organization? • Have you considered scenarios which might place your organization in a crisis situation? • Are you sometimes unsure about whether to release negative information about your organization into the public domain? • Are you confident that you have the capacity to lead the organization calmly through an emergency? • Do you personally have a set of guidelines that you can consult in an emergency? • Do you worry about the idea of holding a press conference in the event of a scandal in your organization? • Have you considered medium to long-term crisis response strategies such as communication structures and mechanisms for deputizing roles and duties? (http://safety.mri.co.jp/shindan/diagnose.php)

In an emergency situation, the first to respond are local government leaders who are close to the scene. True leadership is displayed through a constant state of readiness to deal with critical situations. There are many ways in which leaders must ensure that they are properly prepared: by formulating guidelines, ensuring all relevant information is at hand, proposing scenarios and nominating officials to key posts.

Leadership styles can be defined according to the way in which leaders prepare for and respond to crisis situations.

Local government leaders who appeal to the masses and are elected on the basis of their name value rarely talk of crisis management during the election campaign. However, showing commitment to good crisis management demonstrates to the people that a leader provides a common bond among residents. A leader who promotes a manifesto sees crisis management as one aspect of overall policy planning.

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There is a need to switch to effective policies for ensuring the safety of citizens and guaranteeing them the ability to live fulfilling lives within the framework of local government.

Leaders who use personnel changes to exhibit leadership are expected to exert their influence over the organization through orders and command chains. By nurturing internal staff structures and promoting employees as well as appointing outsiders, the leader can create a cooperative atmosphere and improve communication within the organization and enhance the structure for responding to crisis situations. There are many basic behavior patterns that are common to crisis management leadership, such as preparing guidelines and implementing training drills. At the same time, the different aspects of different leadership styles — appealing to the masses, promoting a manifesto, using personnel — can be used to earn the trust of the citizens in times of crisis.

Bibliography Takako Kishima, Political Life in Japan, Princeton University Press, 1991 (This book offers understandings of contemporary Japanese politicians and Japanese political process. Characteristics of Japanese political culture are also described. Kishima shows interactions between Japanese politicians and the public in a typical Japanese context. )

Michael A. Ledeen, Machiavelli on Modern Leadership, St. Martin’s Press, 1999 (Ladeen sees the same parallels today between human nature of power, and the state of our institutions that Niccolo Machiavelli established in classic works as the Prince five centuries ago. Characters of leaders introduced here are applicable in any type of political background.)

Philip Selznick, Leadership in Administration, University of California Press, 1957 (This compact book on leadership is based on the sociology of organization. The focus is the role of leadership in a large organization in its dynamic change from a mechanical too to a more organic institution infused with values.)

S.N. Eisenstadt and Eyal Ben-Ari, Japanese Models of Conflict Resolution, K. Paul International, 1990

Tokyo Metropolitan Government http://www.metro.tokyo.jp/ENGLISH/index.htm

Diagrams

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Tokyo NBC Disaster Response Manual, Overview Edition, March 2004 (revised November 2004), http://www.soumu.metro.tokyo.jp/04saigaitaisaku/14siryou/nbc_manual.pdf (third page)

(Takashi Nishio and Karen Makishima)

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