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Importance of Forests Outside Protected Area Networks for Large University of Arkansas, Fayetteville ScholarWorks@UARK Theses and Dissertations 12-2018 Importance of Forests Outside Protected Area Networks for Large-seeded Tree Species and their Large-bodied Avian Frugivores--a Study in Vazhachal Reserve Forest, India Aditi Achyut Lele University of Arkansas, Fayetteville Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd Part of the Forest Management Commons, and the Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecology Commons Recommended Citation Lele, Aditi Achyut, "Importance of Forests Outside Protected Area Networks for Large-seeded Tree Species and their Large-bodied Avian Frugivores--a Study in Vazhachal Reserve Forest, India" (2018). Theses and Dissertations. 3061. https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/3061 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UARK. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UARK. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Importance of Forests Outside Protected Area Networks for Large-seeded Tree Species and their Large-bodied Avian Frugivores--a Study in Vazhachal Reserve Forest, India A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biology by Aditi Achyut Lele University of Pune Bachelor of Science in Microbiology, 2002 University of Pune Master of Science in Biodiversity, 2006 December 2018 University of Arkansas This dissertation is approved for recommendation to the Graduate Council. Douglas James, Ph.D. Dissertation Director Steven Stephenson, Ph.D. Ragupathy Kannan, Ph.D. Committee Member Committee Member J. D. Willson, Ph.D. Committee Member Abstract Western Ghats, the mountain chain running along the west coast of India, is one of eight global hotspots of biodiversity and is particularly notable for its endemic flora and fauna. Yet only 10% of this land enjoys the protected status. Vast forested lands exist outside the protected network of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in the form of reserve forests, community forests, and private lands. The present study sought to understand the role of such forests in the context of ecological system involving large-seeded tree species that depend on large-bodied avian frugivores for seed dispersal. I conducted a study over two and half years in Vazhachal Reserve Forest to collect information on the fruiting phenology of large-seeded tree species consumed by sympatric hornbills, the role that hornbills play in transporting the seeds of these trees to their nest sites, and rates of encounters with the large-bodied avian frugivores in these forests: Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) Linnaeus, (1758), Malabar Grey Hornbills (Ocyceros griseus) Latham, (1790) and Mountain Imperial Pigeons (Ducula badia) Raffles (1822). The analysis of fruiting phenology showed that lipid-rich fruits are generally available during the peak hot and dry season that coincides with nesting period of the Great Hornbill and the Malabar Grey hornbill. A significantly higher number of seedlings-saplings belonging to large- seeded tree species were documented in front of the hornbill nests compared to behind the nests, indicating that hornbills may be helping these species by removing their seeds from host- specific seed predators and fierce resource competition beneath their parent trees. Both hornbill species showed higher encounter rates than those recorded in a 2008 survey from Vazhachal Reserve Forests. Vazhachal Reserve Forest juxtaposes with Parambikulam and Anamalai Tiger Reserves and potentially acts as a link between these habitats for long-ranging species such as the Great Hornbill and also provides food resources outside the protected area network. The data on fruiting collected during this study can be added to that collected by the hornbill nest monitoring program currently run by Kerala Forest Department and tribal community members to inform the design and implementation of local conservation policies and lay the groundwork for future long-term studies. Acknowledgements I have realized that academic journey of graduate student takes an army to finish and every little contribution counts towards the end goal. I cannot emphasize enough how deeply grateful I am for all the support I have received from women of all ages in my life. My deepest gratitude to my mother who never gave up on me especially when situations made it almost impossible to work in the field. Field work especially for women can pose challenges that no one prepares you for and emotional support that I received from my mother got me through toughest times. I am thankful to my sister who has cried for me and with me but did not let me give up even when I was posed with unforeseen challenges that I did not have control over. I am immensely thankful for the support from my father and brother who came and stayed with me when I need them the most. I am also grateful to my partner who has loved me and tolerated my mood swings through this entire journey and it won’t have been possible without her. I am very thankful for all my friends in India and at University of Arkansas who have cheered me up and made me laugh when going got really tough. I would like to thank all my committee members for helping through and giving me meaningful feedback. I am extremely grateful to Dr. James who gave me this wonderful opportunity to explore the world of hornbills and to Dr. Kannan who let me work on his ideas of hornbill research. I am more than grateful to Dr. Stephenson who stood by me and understood difficulties and limitations of the project. I am thankful to Dr. Willson for stepping up and agreeing to serve on my committee and giving me valuable guidance and encouraging me to do best with what I had. I will always be thankful to Dr. Smith who left us so unexpectedly this year for the encouraging words he always had for me. A special thanks to my dear friend Auriel who listened to all my questions intently and never once hesitated to help me understand the difficult world of statistics. I owe my gratitude to Dr. Gbur who also helped me with understanding the intricacies of statistics and importance of descriptive statics without getting lost in complex analysis. I am thankful to my tribal brothers Suresh and Manoj with whom I have learnt life lessons of how to be happy with what you have in life and make the most f it. I am deeply grateful to them for putting me before them in most dangerous situations in the field and saving me on occasions from charging elephants to sloth bears. I literally would not be able to finish them without both of them. My gratitude to Devana chechi who took care of me when I was not camped out in the field and fed me most delicious food. Working in remote tribal areas have their own challenges but ‘Kadar’ community welcomed me with their open arms and I will always be thankful for this gesture. I thank Kerala Forest Department and its staff for allowing me to conduct my research in Vazhachal Reserve Forest. I am grateful to Western Ghats Hornbill Foundation for helping in the initial periods preparing me for fieldwork. I am thankful to Amitha and his family for letting me stay in their house and for so humble. I am especially thankful to Anitha, Shenthilkumar, Nalini and Arun for helping me out in the beginning. Dedication This work is dedicated to my parents and tribal brothers, Suresh and Manoj for making me believe that all sweat, blood and emotions invested in this project would be worth one day. Table of Contents Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Fruiting phenology of hornbill diet tree species that are large-seeded and produce lipid rich fruits in Vazhachal reserve forests of Annamalai hills in Western Ghats, India. 1.1 Abstract 5 1.2 Introduction 6 1.3 Study Area 12 1.4 Study Species 16 1.5 Methods 20 1.6 Results 22 1.7 Discussion 31 1.8 Literature Cited 59 Chapter 2: Regeneration and survival of large-seeded tree species under Great Hornbill and Malabar Grey Hornbill nests in Vazhachal Reserve Forest, Western Ghats, India. 2.1 Abstract 65 2.2 Introduction 66 2.3 Study Area 71 2.4 Study Species 73 2.5 Methods 78 2.6 Results 81 2.7 Discussion 84 2.8 Literature Cited 102 Chapter 3: Encounter rates of Great Hornbill (Buceros bicronis), Malabar Grey Hornbill (Ocyceros griseus) and Mountain Imperial Pigeon (Ducula badia) in Southern Western Ghats, India 3.1 Abstract 108 3.2 Introduction 108 3.3 Study Area 115 3.4 Study Species 117 3.5 Methods 120 3.6 Results 121 3.7 Discussion 124 3.8 Literature Cited 138 4. Conclusions and Synthesis 142 5. Plates 150 List of Figures Chapter 1: 1. Figure 1. Map of the Vazhachal Reserve Forest Division showing all forest ranges, with a box highlighting the Sholayar Forest Range, where the present study was conducted. 14 2. Figure 2. Monthly rainfall (mm) in Vazhachal Reserve Forest, Anamalai Hills, Kerala, from January 2013 to March 2015 15 3. Figure 3. Locations of 1-hectare plots (white solid dots) used for monitoring of large-seeded tree species in Vazhachal Reserve Forest, Anamalai Hills, Kerala, India. 22 4. Figure 4. Average tree density for each species per hectare in “Close” and “Far” sites in Vazhachal Reserve Forest, Western Ghats, India. 39 5. Figure 5. Distribution of the heights of all tagged trees across all species during monitoring period, from January 2013 to May 2015. 40 6. Figure 6. Girth at breast height of all six large-seeded tree species in Vazhachal Reserve Forest, from January 2013 to May 2015.
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