Research Articles in Interpretation and Translation

KSU - COLT’s RAIT King Saud University Research Articles In Interpretation and Translation

@reemysn_art Issue 7 - Spring 2017

TO OUR DEAR READERS...

RAIT is a compilation of research articles in the fields of translation and interpretation. All the articles presented in this magazine are written by a new generation of researchers; students enrolled in "Research Methodology" offered at the College of Languages & Translation, KSU.

My deep gratitude to Dr. Najia and Dr. Reem for their continued support in such endeavors.

Happy reading! ~ Dina Al-Sibai, Course Instructor

2 3 Business Name

Translation of Collocations: Skills and Difficulties By Amjad Abdullah Al-Moraya

Collocations in general mean putting things side by side. It is the same as in the linguistic field that collocations are a combination of words that are often used together, in a way that sound correct to native speaker .According to Fernán- dez, Prahlad, Rubtsova, and Sabitov, 2009, "a collocation is an expression consisting of two or more words that correspond to some conventional way of saying things. The words together can mean more than their sum of parts" (p. 2). In fact, translation of collocations is very important, but it has some difficulties.

Collocations in English usually come as word pairs, but it can also take other elements, e.g., run out of sth the whole phrase will be considered as a collocation not just run out. However, collocation should be learned as single block or piece.

Therefore, it will be memorized and remembered by the mind effectively. Collocations learning helps non-native speakers to speak and write fluently. In addition, it will help us to express ourselves in various ways (Altuwairesh, 2016; "Collocations," n.d.;

Nesselhauf, 2005).

According to Fernández, Prahlad, Rubtsova, and Sabitov, 2009, "A phrase is compositional if the meaning can be predicted from the meaning of the parts (e.g.: new products). It is non-compositional if the meaning cannot be predicted from the parts (e.g.: hot dog, desktop publishing, soft skills)" (p. 2). Therefore, when it comes to the way we translate the collocation, usually it cannot be translated word for word to the target language TL. The translator needs to know the meaning in both languages.

Some can be translated literally and the others cannot. They also point out that idioms are observable examples of the non- compositional phrase.

There are two ways to check the meaning of the collocations. The first way is to look up the meaning in the dictionary, as there is a specialized dictionary for the collocations, for example, the Oxford Collocations Dictionary. The other way is look up the meaning by using the corpus: "the International Corpus of Arabic and the Leeds Arabic Corpus offer concordance searches, which are, as we seen, very useful for collocations" (Newman & Husni, 2015, p. 178).

More examples on the difference in translation of collocations between Arabic and English is seen in the verb "catch" in

يصاب بالبرد/ يلحق بالباص/ ,English, when it collocates with other words such as, catch a cold, catch the bus, catch a fish. In Arabic

in Arabic, when itضرب "It is clear that in Arabic it was translated using different verbs. And vice versa, the verb "hitيصطاد سمكة..

In English, Zaidhit Omar/ Aضرب زيد عمر/ ضرب المدينة إعصار/ ضرب المعلم عدة أمثلة. ,collocates with other words such as hurricane struck the city/ The teacher provided many examples. As you can see above, the same verb in Arabic was translated using different verbs in English: "The meaning of collocate depends on the word that is associates with" (Izwaini, 2016, p.

310).

On the whole, we need to pay attention to the words that combine with each, and we cannot put alternative words as we like. For instance, run the risk of we cannot use other words such as, run the dangerof or run the peril of, it is not possible or unusual (Nesselhauf, 2005). Just as, the word blonde is synonymous with fair, light, and bleach. However, it is right to say blonde hair, but you cannot say light hair. on the other hand, it is not correct to use blonde with door

(Fernández, Prahlad, Rubtsova, & Sabitov, 2009). For this purpose, we should deal with the translation of collocations very carefully to avoid misunderstanding and mistranslation.

References

Altuwairesh, N. S. (2016). Teaching collocations in EFL classroom. Arab World English Journal, 7(4), 13-30. Retrieved

from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Collocations. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collocations.htm

Fernández, R. F., Prahlad, S. R., Rubtsova, E., & Sabitov, O. (2009). Collocations in the vocabulary English teaching as a for-

eign language. ACIMED, 19(6), 1-5. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer

Izwaini, S. (2016). The translation of Arabic lexical collocations. Translation & Interpreting Studies: The Journal of the Ameri-

can Translation & Interpreting Studies Association, 11(2), 306-328. doi:10.1075/tis.11.2.09izw

Nesselhauf, N. (2005). Collocations in a learner corpus. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Newman, D. L., & Husni, R. (2015). Arabic-English-Arabic-English translation: Issues and strategies. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

5 Business Name

Machine Translation Problems By Bushra Ahmad alkhualaif

MT is an abbreviation used to refer to Machine translation, which is the most common computer-assisted translation method. It is based on computer software system that can do the process of translating texts from one language to another. How- ever, this translation method is sometimes not logical nor accurate to the context and has to be revised many times before assign- ing it. Also, human translation has similar problems as MT in translating; therefore, it is challenging as they stressed that "Human and machine translation each have their share of challenges" (Dhopavkar, Kshirsagar, & Malik, 2015). Therefore, MT has to be interfered by human translators to avoid its common linguistic, morphological, and syntax problems, while and after translating.

According to Eydne (2015),"A good translation is one which conforms to the rules and idioms of the target language, while at the same time preserving – as much as possible – the meaning of the original" (p. 1).In other words, to have a perfect translation, it is necessary to follow the rules of the target language as well as maintain the original meaning at the same time.

However, there are three knowledge types; monolingual, bilingual and linguistic which are considered to be the main issues for

MT. Therefore, not having these important types of knowledge which usually humans can have, MT may not always give us a very good translation without human interference.

In 2014, Shi, Ishida, and Lin emphasized that resolving the MT errors is an important step for the progression of machine translation. They stressed that, "In MT-mediated communication, translation errors lead to miscommunication" (p. 166). Hence, errors of machine translation may affect so many levels of communication, which will result in a weak or ambiguities communication, for example, at the phrase, sentence and dialog level.

Gobboreported that "the adaptivity feature of machine translation systems often requires human agents: what is difficult for machines is often trivial for humans" (p. 269). This explains that sometimes machine translation systems may need human help to adapt common errors in translating, as it is very easy for human translators to make the system translate properly. It was added that through persistent connection with the people using usage-based machine translation systems, it will help in the adaptivity feature of MT (2015).

It is not an easy task to find out the appropriate ways which will let machine translationsystems produce a perfect and error-free translation: "It is very challenging to discover ways how machine translation can produce acceptable/publishable quality of translations" (p. 127). Therefore, human revision of one individual translation is necessary when using translation machine to avoid errors that might disturb the translation semantically and morphologically (Dhopavkar, Kshirsagar, & Malik,

2015).

According to (Tanaka & Nagao, 1989), MT systems could produce many errors which may result in a weak translation, that is even when men and machines are working together in a closely coupled system, errors would occur. However, humans can recognize most small errors easily and having them will not increase further errors: "In a closely coupled system, a small error that is recognized by a human member of the team does not give rise to further errors" (p. 194). Moreover, MT systems are different in use, so now the best commonand reliable used system is the rule-based and the statistical approach:

“Nowadays, the most widely used MT systems (Hybrid) use the rule-based and the statistical approach" (Okpor, 2014, para. 3).

References

Dhopavkar, G., Kshirsagar, M., & Malik, L. (2015). Issues in automatic machine translation of natural language

text. International Journal of Mind, Brain & Cognition, 6(1/2). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.

Eydne, F. V. (2015). Linguistic issues in machine translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books?.

Gobbo, F. (2015). Machine translation as a complex system, and the phenomenon

of Esperanto. Interdisciplinary Description of Complex System, 13(2). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/

ehost/.

Okpor, M. D. (2014). Machine translation approaches: Issues and challenges. International Journal of Computer Science Is-

sues (IJCSI), 11(5), 159-165. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1617937023?accountid=142908

Shi, C., Ishida, T., & Lin, D. (2014). Translation agent: A new metaphor for machine translation. New Generation Compu-

ting, 32(2). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Tanaka, H., & Nagao, M. (1989). Machine translation summit. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books?

7 Business Name

English to Arabic Translation: Metaphors By Raghad A. Alduayj

A metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable. Many translators have deemed translating metaphors to be impossible. Therefore, not many translators convey the meaning correctly in other languages that include Arabic and often mistranslate an Arabic metaphor beyond the point of recognition in other languages. In fact, translators have proved to have several issues when it comes to translating metaphors from Eng- lish to Arabic.

According to Wang (2013), a metaphor was first defined by Aristotle as “The application to one thing of a name to be- longing to another thing” (p. 531) and is linguistically defined as the reflection of conceptual metaphor in language. Also, a close study of metaphor is important to understand the structure of language, thought, and discourse. She also points out that when it comes to translating metaphors into another language, "As long as the original meaning is not impaired, it is essential to give priority to literal translation, for it is able to maintain the basic structure of the original sentence and also the reproduce its artistic conception, image and intended meaning.” (p. 534).

Translating metaphors may present many issues to translators when it comes to how different cultures see different things. According to Hassan (2014), one of the issues translators face while trying to translate metaphors is the fact that “the image used in the metaphor or simile may be unknown in the receptor language" (p. 41) which means a translator must have a general knowledge of the SL’s culture; "I share the view that metaphoric and idiomatic expressions of a given culture empower us to understand how the members of that specific culture map out their experience of the world and record it into their mother

.(as “We’re mountains apart” (p.165انك في واد واني في واد” “ tongue.” (Popescu, 2015). For example, the translation of

In 2012, Ghazala discussed the description of originality in different discourse genres as the most specific feature that you can identify metaphors by. Also, this originality may be presented as another problem translators face. Translating a concept that doesn’t exist in the TL is challenging to many translators since it goes beyond translation style and into a new way of thinking. Ghazala stressed that an example of the translation of an original political idiom and literature can be cited by illustration by analyzing cognitively using the first domain of conceptualization and then by translating them into Arabic and discussing them appropriately.

Translating poetry imposes the same difficulties due to the fact that a poem generally relies on imagery and figures of speech such as metaphors. Often, many translators fear translating metaphors, especially the ones used in poetry, due to fear of translating the meaning while abandoning the SL's literal writing style. It has been noted that metaphors in poetry can be translated either by reproducing the same image in the TL, translating them as similes, translating them as similes plus sense or by reproducing the image in the SL with a standard TL image (Lahlali and Abu, 2014).

Al-Hasnawi (2007) discussed the difficulty that translators face while translating metaphors in holy books and the mistakes they make, such as translating "Harthunlakum” [Surat Al Bagarah, verse 223] to "a tilth for you”. He stressed that,

"Religion is considered the most common root metaphor since birth, marriage, death and other life experiences can convey different meanings to different people depending on their religious beliefs.” (para. 40). Out of fear for mistranslation, a translator has no other solution than to replace the SL’s image with an image that doesn’t culturally clash with the TL.

References

Al-Hasnawi, A. R. (2007). A cognitive approach to translating metaphors. Translation Journal,

11(7). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/

Ghazala, H. S. (2012). Translating the metaphor: A cognitive stylistic conceptualization (English – Arabic). World Journal of

English Language, 2(4). Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/

Hassan, B. -E. (2014). Between English and Arabic: A practical course in translation. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/

Lahlali, E. M., & Abu, H. W. (2014). Literary texts. Advanced English-Arabic translation: A practical guide. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa

Popescu, T. (2015). Translation of metaphors and idioms - Mission impossible? Journal of Linguistic Intercultural Education,

8. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=87cd9b1d-015d-4b4b-9006-

e5d87b3f1d5c%40sessionmgr120&vid=8&hid=116

Wang, L. (2013). Cultural functions in the translation of metaphor. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 4(3). Re-

trieved from http://www.academypublication.com/

9 Business Name

History of Translation in the Arab World By Shrouq M.Alrasheed

Translation is one of the most effective factorst hat help many people in many things in their life such as communication and education. Translation is not important just for now but even in the past especially for Arabs. According to Nady, 2014,

''Arabs started to pay attention to translation with the rise of Islam'' (para. 3). She also points out that Prophet Mohammed supported people to learn foreign languages and translate the Qur'anic verses and Islamic books.

In an article titled "History of Translation in the Arab World: An Overview'', it was reported that "the birth of Islam in seventh century was the turning point, this period was the most important one in the history of Arab people" (p. 685). It was added that the era of the prophet Mohammed was an important era because he was supported by people to translate the messages from

Arabic into many other languages in order to spread Islam all over the world (2014).

Prophet Mohammed encouraged people to translate not only Islamic books but also the holy Quran. In 2014, Mehawesh emphasized that the most important thing to the history of Arabic translation is translating the holy book Quran in order to let non-

Arabic speakers understand the meaning of the verses and the message of Islam. We have to know that not only Arabs were interested in translating the holy Quran but also foreign people. Bennison(2011) added that Robert Ketton from Europe was known for his interest in translating the Quran.

The Abbasid era is one of the most important eras of history in Arabic translation. According to Jaber, 2015, "the Abbas- id played a fundamental role in the development of the Arabic translation movement through translating books and works of different cultures such as Chinese, Persian, Indian, Greek, and Spanish" (p. 130). He also points out that the Abbasid Caliph Al-

Mansur promoted translating books from Arabic into different languages in many different fields such as science, philosophy, and literature and as such, the libraries during this era were full with many translated books and works.

One of the important markers during the Abbasid era is Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad. In 2001, Baker and Malmkjaer emphasized that there are 65 translators from all over the world working in Bayt al-Hikma,and as such, most of the translated books were authored during this era. They stressed that, "Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad, functioned as an academy, library and translation" (p. 320).

There were many famous translators during the era of Arab history. Freely (2009) stated that there are two well-known translators in Abbasid era: Thabitibn Qurra and HunaynibnIshaq. According to Baker and Malmkjaer, 2001, "one of the most

outstanding translators during this period is HunaynibnIshaq, who was paid by al-Mamun in gold, matching the weight of the books he translated" (p. 320). In addition, Arabic translation changed the history of translation to the best.

References

Baker, M., & Malmkjaer, K. (Eds.). (2001). Routledge encyclopedia of translation-

studies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Bennison, A. K. (2011). The great caliphs: The golden age of the 'Abbasid empire. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Freely, J. (2009). Aladdin's lamp. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Jaber, F. (2015). The landscape of translation movement in the Arab world: From the 7th century until the beginning of the

21st century. Arab World English Journal, 6(4), 130. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Mehawesh, M. I. (2014). History of translation in the Arab world: An overview. David Publishing, 12(8). Retrieved from

http://www.davidpublishing.com

Nady, H. (2014, October 10). Arabic translation history. Retrieved from http://resources.globalizationpartners.com

11 Business Name

Blocking Translator’s Success: Literary Translation Issues By Leenah S. Al-Dosary

Today, the fields of translation have been widely varied, and one of these fields is literary translation which is transferring the literature works from one language to another while keeping the parallelism in the correspondence of both form and context (Nida, 2001). According to Rao, 2009, literary translation is a unique field but cannot be accomplished easily or by applying a specific theory. In fact, many literary translators nowadays face issues and problems that have become an obstacle from having a great translation.

The greatest problem that translators face is coming across cultural features while translating literary texts. Nida (2001) stressed that there are a lot of cultural references in the literary works that could not be translated in a fulfilled way. Even though introducing some illustrative notes is acceptable, this will destroy the poetic character of the original poem. Furthermore, some texts have implicit meanings depending on the knowledge that both reader and writer share, but when the source language writer and the target language reader have different knowledge, this could be a huge obstacle to the translation process (Colenciuc,

2015).

In 2014, Lina discussed the difficulties that occur when the source and target language speakers have distinct cultures.

Meanings, feelings, and reactions will not be as same as those created in the audience of the source language. Zuber (2014) emphasized that sometimes translators face problems while interpreting to the target language audience when they do not have enough information about the rituals of source language speakers. Consequently, everyone will end up questioning the idioms, slang, tone, and style and having incomplete communication.

Rao (2009) accentuated that literary translation is a skill that needs practicing repeatedly and it is a kind of art that requires understanding both languages. Also, the most essential requirement to achieve in any translation work is to be enthusiastic about literary texts and interested in both source and target languages. He also added that “No translation is permanent when it comes to a literary text. A translation can be in currency only till the appearance of a new/better rendering” (p. 66).

According to Ghazala, 2008, although it could be difficult to translate a literature work such as poetry, it will be possible to do it properly by achieving come important things that are required. The first thing that should be kept in mind is being pas- sionate about translating literary works, also, having sense and knowing the poetic features such as rhyme and rhythm. Undoubt- edly if the translators cannot do any of them, they will never perform an impressive literary translation. Lastly, producing

a literary translation work will be much easier and possible when the translator becomes familiar with both languages and knows the prosody of the other language.

Finally, literature reflects other languages, cultures, and arts and literary translation helps us to transfer and share this kind of art among the world. In spite of the fact that literary translation is precise and difficult, it is important to show the translator’s capability of transferring a field of art from one language to another, passing all the challenges and succeed in solving the distracting problems.

References

Nida, E. A. (2001). Contexts in translating. Retrieved from https://books.google.com

Rao, V. V. (2009). Literary translation: Choices and predilections. ICFAI Journal of Earth Sciences, 3(3). Retrieved from

http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Colenciuc. (2015). Challenges of literary translation: Pragmatic approach. Intertext, 2015(1/2). Retrieved from http://

web.a.ebscohost.com

Iina, M. (2014, March 10). Difficulties of literary translation – translating between a rock and a hard place. Retrieved from

http://translation-blog.multilizer.com

Zuber, O. (2014). The languages of theatre: Problems in the translation and transposition of drama. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Ghazala, H. (2008). Translation as problems and solutions. Retrieved from http://www.atida.org

13 Business Name

Lexical Challenges Encountered by Arab Translators By Dalal K. Alshammari

The main objective of translation is to transfer the meaning from one language in- to another. Therefore, considering the semantic challenges, particularly at a lexical level, and the different approaches to meaning can be quite useful for translators. In fact, we can further argue that a wide range of challenges in translation are lexical, and that they commonly stem from the complex meanings of some words, the vast choice of words the translator has to choose from, the lack of equivalent words in the target language, etc. Surely, many Arab translators encounter various lexical challenges when translating from Arabic into English and vice versa.

Homonymy is a very common linguistic phenomenon found in most languages. Dickins, Hervey, and Higgins, 2016, define homonymy as the phenomenon in which words that have completely different senses happen to sound the same. And indeed, homonymy can arise problems in translation. In 2015, Rabadi explained that errors of homonymy in translation occur, in

.(taking a napقيل” )“ saying); or)قول” “ ,can have two rootsقال”“ some cases, as a result of multiple root morphemes; e.g. the word

,can mean (inبـ”“ Moreover, he added that the multiple functions of Arabic particles can also cause challenges; e.g. the preposition with, from, to, etc.) and therefore, should be treated according to its context.

Rabadi, 2015, further explained another linguistic phenomenon, which is polysemy. He defined polysemy as “one word

in theفتنة” “ lexeme) with a wide range of related meanings.” (p. 28). Additionally, Kalakattawi, 2005, explained that the word) holy Qur’an is polysemous. She examined the different translations of this word, and emphasized that the proper translation

p. 1,(2the word) َو َما يُعَ ِّ ل َما ِّن ِّم ْن أَ َح ٍد َحتَّ ٰى يَقُو ََل إِّ َّن َما َن ْح ُن... فِّتْنَةٌ َف ََل تَ ْكفُ ْر...” “ differs in various contexts; e.g. in the following verseفتنة” “ of

َأ َّن َما أَ ْم َوالُ ُك ْم َو َأ ْو ََلدُ ُك ْم ِّف ْت َن ٌة َوأَ َّن ََّّللاَ ِّعندَهُ أَ ْج ٌر َع ِّظي ٌم ” “ ,can mean temptation, but it can also be translated as test or trial in another verseفتنة” “ (p.17).

Errors due to synonymy are also very common. Alhihi, 2015, explained that errors of synonymy usually occur “when translators opt for incorrect or inappropriate choices when there are a number of options available to explain one lexical item.” (p. 325). Fur- thermore, in 1981, Palmer stated that our choice of words is restricted; i.e. we cannot use two synonyms interchangeably, either because each synonym is collocationally restricted, or because of their loose sense of synonymy.

325). Furthermore, in 1981, Palmer stated that our choice of words is restricted; i.e.

in the holy Qur’an are equalعبيد” “ andعباد” “ Additionally, Issa (2011) stressed that even though we might think the synonyms

is specifically used to refer to believers ofعباد” “ refers to all creatures of god, whileعبيد” “ ;in meaning, they have a distinction god.

Connotation can also arise problems in translation. Murphy, 2003, states that connotation involves associations people, or cultures, have with words. He adds that these associations do not change the overall meaning of a word. According to

Ilyas, 2013, connotation is very important in literature, as he further explained that it serves a function, and plays an artistic role. He also stated that many translators may translate without any consideration for the cultural connotation of some words.

p. 255), he explained that the color (white) has a connotation of old age)فرد شعورهن السود بيضاء” “ In the following line of a poem in Arabic, but that isnot true in English, as (grey) is more appropriate when considering the English connotation.

There is more to words than their basic dictionary definitions. Thus, it is necessary that translators acquire a sense of the language they are translating to/from. Moreover, Kalakattawi (2005) noted that “Translators should be aware of the lexical relations (sense relations of the lexeme) while translating the meaning especially in sensitive texts as legal and religious.” (p.

39). Aside from the lexical relations in the language, it is also important to note thatin order to convey the meaning adequately,words must not be translated individually, but in relation to other words in the text, and by considering the context, and culture of that text.

References

Alhihi, N. (2015). Lexical problems in English to Arabic translation: A critical analysis of health documents in Australia. Arab

World Journal, 6(2). Retrieved from

Dickins, J., Hervey, S., & Higgins, I. (2016). Thinking Arabic translation: A course in translation method: Arabic to English.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Ilyas, A. I. (2013). The important of connotation in literary translation. Arab World Journal, (1). Retrieved from http://

eds.b.ebscohost.com

Issa, H. (2011). Textually-mediated synonymy in English Arabic translation (Doctoral dissertation, American University of

Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates). Retrieved from https://dspace.aus.edu

Kalakattawi, F. (2005). Lexical relations with reference to polysemy in translation. Retrieved from http://www.kau.edu.sa

Murphy, M. L. (2003). Semantic relations and the lexicon: Antonymy, synonymy and other paradigms. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Palmer, F. R. (1981). Semantics. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Rabadi, R. I. (2015). Homonymy and its effect on students of translation at Jordanian universities. Arab World Journal, 6(4).

Retrieved from http://www.awej.org

15 Business Name

Problems or Difficulties in Translating Poetry By Entesar H. Alqurainy

Poetry is the art that shows the beauty of every language and culture. Translating poetry plays a great role in enriching our awareness of other nations’ cultures. Translating poetry is seen as impossible by the majority while others find it possible but very difficult. In addition, translating poetry is the most debatable issue among translators. There are difficulties that every translator encounters while translating poetry.

Translating poetry is difficult and that is a well known fact. Translating poetry is difficult because the style of poetry is very precise and specialized also because the message that poetry carries is not only about the meaning of the words but it conveys concepts, images, tones and emotions. Poetry should not be translated word-for-word because it will lose its exact meaning; "the difficulty is compounded when we are dealing with languages, cultures, and poetic traditions that are far apart" (p. 5). Translating poetry from one language to another can not be that easy because of the concepts, images and metaphors differ from one language to another as well as cultures (Sowayan, 1985).

The core of poetry would vanish away if it was translated into another language than the original. The reason is that it was meant to be read by those who speak the original language of the poetry. However, another reason makes poems untranslatable is that they would lose their harmony. Because if you merge two songs together, they probably are not going to sound like either. In other words, neither is going to sound the same anymore. And that is what happens when a poem is being translated into another language. The translator should have enough knowledge as the author who writes the poem. Furthermore, the difficulty of poetry is inversely proportional with the amount of knowledge a translator has (Bandia & Bastin, 2006).

When translating poetry, the main difficulty that faces a translator is the understanding issue. The translator usually would need to recreate the poem in another language, which is not far from recreating it in such a new world. That world would be the original language of the translator. However, the translated poetry should maintain a similar competitive level

of meaning beauty. There are levels where the poetry gets exposed to while being translated and it gets affected directly. The things that affect poetry translation are the phonological level, the linguistic level, the vocabulary level, the literary or aesthetic level, the syntactic level and finally the cultural level (Tisgam, 2014).

In 2008, Dastjerdi, Hakjmshafaaii and Jannesaari emphasized that there are important aspects that will be missing when we translate poetry from one language to another, since the phonology aspect, syntactic structures,

16 vocabulary, literary history are not the same. There are two types of poems usually. The first one is the easy type, where there is no deep meaning. And the other type is when the meaning contains deep idioms, imagery, intertextuality, complex tonalities and ambiguity. In the second type, a translator might have to sacrifice some parts of the meaning in the translation in order to deliver the closest meaning. Gaskell (1999) added that the emotional power of poetry can’t be translated easily from one language to another and can’t be accurately pictured.

In fact, translators usually translate the meaning of the language. And that does not take away the actual message that a poem might contain, simply because the sense of the words exists in all languages. However, the point is that poetry translation requires more care and more skills to keep a fixed format. Moreover, it is right that poems are being written for specific times and cultures. However, other cultures might not get the meanings which are tied to a certain time or a specific cultural aspect, also because it is influenced by the same aspects of time and culture as well (Radianshi, 2015).

References

Bandia, P. F., &Bastin, G. L.(2006). Charting the future of translation history (1st ed.).

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Dastjerdi, H., Hakimshafaaii, H., &Jannesaari, Z. (2008). Translation of poetry: Towards a

practical model for translation analysis and assessment of poetic discourse. Journal of

Language and Translation, 9(1), 124. Retrieved fromhttp://www.academia.edu/download/

37802826

Gaskell, P. (1999). Landmarks in classical literature(1st ed., p. 4). Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa/books

Radianshi, T. (2015, February 12). The poetics of poetry translation. Unravel, (2). Retrieved

from http://unravellingmag.com/articles/poetics-poetry-translation/

Sowayan, S. A. (1985). Nabati poetry (1st ed., p. 5). Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa/books

Tisgam, K. H. (2014). Translating poetry: Possibility or impossibility? Journal of College for

Education for Women, 25(2), 515-521. Retrieved from

http://jcoeduw.uobaghdad.edu.iq/uploads/Publications

17 Business Name

Toledo School of Translators By Malak Abdullah bin Madhi

Translation is a way of living, as someone would say, and it is massively important in almost every different field of study. In order to get out of your comfort zone and start learning foreign languages, you should try translating some simple texts as a start. Ever since the beginning of time, there have been many famous schools of translation. Indeed, Toledo, as described by

Zohar (2005) "was home to 'the school of translators'" (p. 146) that flourished in the 12th and 13th century in Spain, and its translations have had a great influence all over the world.

Toledo school of translators involved many scholars who worked together to translate a lot of philosophical and scientific works from Arabic and Greek besides other traditional languages. The school played an important role in translating knowledge from Arabic, Greek, and vice versa. Some chosen Arabic works were transferred to Latin, this was besides a massive number of classical works of prehistoric authors translated into Arabic. The school was an attraction for many scholars from all over the world, especially Europe "regardless of race, religion and nationality." (Al-Zubaidi, 2013, para. 4).

Perhaps one of the most critical roles played in Toledo was the one by the Spanish Jewish translators and their own

Judaic culture. The most important one was the ibn Tibbon family, a dynasty of translators. The founder named Yehudah ibn

Tibbon,, in fact has a monument of him in Granada till this day. His grandson, Moses, has translated some Arabic works in order to help broadcast Arabic and Greek all over Europe; indeed, "ibn Tibbon dynasty remains to this day the exemplary translators of

Judaism" (p. 27) due to their formulation of a famous translation theory (Sofer, 2006).

European Christians also had a notable influence on translations in the school of Toledo. Pym (1996) talked about the second great age of this school which was the region of King Alfonso X the wise. Alfonso was more into studies than wars; also he sponsored translation and made an introduction to the practice of translating romance, as well as encouraging translations in

Latin and dialects other than Spanish. Furthermore, the influence of translating the bible by King James on the English language and culture cannot be put into words (Lonsdale, 1996).

According to Mehawesh, 2014, "the Arabs undoubtedly are credited with initiating the first organized, large-scale translation activity in history." (p. 688). He also points out that this activity took a place sometime between the 10th and 11th centuries, which later provided a motive to develop all factors of knowledge in the

West, and that included natural sciences and philosophy. All of this would not have happened if it was not for the application of the intensive program of translation accomplished under the Abbasid Caliphs.

In conclusion, the era which held the school of translators of Toledo will forever be marked as one of the most important eras in the history of translation. And even though the school of Toledo era was famous for its Judaic culture, we should never forget the massive influences made by the Arabic (Islamic) and Christian cultures. In addition, if it was not for the efforts of translation during that era, a lot of important knowledge would have never come to light.

References

AL-Zubaidi, K. O. (2013.). Is Kalima project a new Arab think tank/ intellectual hub? Arab World English Journal (AWEJ).

Retrieved from http://awej.org

Lonsdale, A. B. (1996). Teaching translation from Spanish to English: Worlds beyond worlds. Retrieved from http://

books.google.com.sa

Mehawesh, M. I. (2014). History of translation in the Arab world: An overview. US-China Foreign Language, 12(8), 684-691.

Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net

Pym, A. (1996). The price of Alfonso's wisdom: Nationalist translation policy in thirteenth century castile. The Medieval

Translator, 5, 448-467. Retrieved from http://usuaris.tinet.cat

Sofer, M. (2006). The translator's handbook. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa

Zohar, Z. (2005). Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry: From the golden age of Spain to modern times. Retrieved from http://

books.google.com.sa

19 Business Name

Islamic Expressions: Translation Difficulties By Nora F. Almuqrin

A lot of people know that Islamic translation is more difficult than other fields, especially the translation of the holy

Quran. There are many reasons which make Islamic and Arabic translation in general difficult. The Arabic language has a different form from all languages in the world, as Arabic has a different structure, like to start a sentence with an object rather than a

.(Ebrahim, 2012,para. 5اَلستعارة" )" metaphors calledالتمثيل", " subject as in English and it includes analogies

In 2006, Alazb emphasized that many translators have problems in understanding and realizing the deep meaning of some Arabic words. Also, civilization and religion are affecting translators' translations. In addition to that, some Quranic terms

p. 47) as it is in Latin letters and thenسائبة و وصيلة و حام")":have no equivalent in English so translators should write the words explain them in the margins. Switching from verbal sentences to nominal sentences especially in the holy Quran will lose the text its structure which is connected with the meaning. We may not find equivalents for some Arabic emphasizing tools in English so the translators ignore them.

According to Ali, Alsaleh, Bin Nordin, and Ismail, 2012, in translation there are a lot of challenges which cause mistakes in translation. One of these challenges for Quran translators is lexical problems in showing some lexical items. We need to clear up that the lack of equivalence of some Islamic terms:

These terms have no direct counterpart in English, compelling the translator to convey them in a communica-

and shirkتقوى(, - tive manner. The following are some examples of these Islamic terms: taqwā (piety

The English translations of these terms only give approximateشرك ( . . . – associating other gods with God)

meanings They do not convey the full semantic and liturgical scope of the Quranic terms (p. 109) and the concept doesn't exist in the target language (Rahimkhani & Salmani, 2013).

Ali, Alsaleh, Bin Nordin, and Ismail, 2012, discussed that another difficulty is associated with syntactic problems; the tense is a clear problem in translating the Holy Quran to English: "Tense means the ‘grammatical realization of location in time and how location in time can be expressed in language", also describing something and show the similarity among them is called metaphor, it is a feature of the Quran: "Therefore, translators should not ignore its use when attempting to translate the Quranic text" (p. 109).

According to Asfoor, 2009,there are many strategies that help translators to improve their translation. Names that include prefixes and suffixes which we can use to find words such as adjectives, nouns, or adverbs which are associated with the root of the word for example;" preindustrial, postromantic, preromantic, postmodemy premodern" (p. 21). Arabization is

مبارك/ ";very helpful in translation too. Also, it is good to paraphrase Islamic expressions to get the closest meaning such as

Mubarak / (congratulation, make your life happy with this something" (Al Karak, 2015, p. 109).

Al Karak conducted a study on her students which is translating Islamic expressions to know the issues and work to find solutions for them. So, she noted that teachers should train the students to translate these types of expressions many times.

Also, "Teach students about the strategies should be used in Islamic cultural expressions" (p. 109) and design specialist dictionaries which help a lot. In addition to dictionaries, design special materials about cultural Islamic expressions (Al Karak, 2015).

References

Alazb, M (2006). Eshcaliat tarjamat alquran alkareem (1st ed.) [Translation of the holy Quran

]. Retrieved from http://lisaanularab.blogspot.com/2016/08/blog-post_72.html

Ali, A., Alsaleh, B. M., Bin Nordin, M., & Ismail, S. (2012). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the holy Quran from

Arabic into English. ProQuest, 2(6), 588. doi:10.7763/IJSSH.2012.V2.178

Al Karak,, M. (2015). The problems in translating Islamic expressions in religious occasions. Journal of Education and Prac-

tice, 6(35), 106. Retrieved from http://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/viewFile/27892/28609

Asfoor, M (2009). Derasatfialtarjamah w naqdha [Studies in translation and criticism]. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Ebrahim, Z. (2012). Alakhtaalmanhajeiah fe altarjamah alesteshraqiahlema'ani alquran alkareem [Methodological errors in

orientalism translation for Quran terms]. Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com

Rahimkhani, M., & Salmani, B. (2013). Lexical gaps in translation of Qur'anic allusions in Hafez's Poetry: Strategies and diffi-

culties. PROQUEST, 3(5), 789. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com

21 Business Name

Translating Grammar: The Most Common Grammatical Mistakes in Translating English into Arabic and Vice-versa By Enaam Y. Al-Ali

Knowing two or more languages does not necessarily mean being able to translate. Zahri (2014) emphasizes the idea that translating is a complicated process that requires non-linguistics components (i.e., cultural background of the TL). Equally important, translators need to take into consideration the TL elements such as syntax, pragmatics, and semantics. Moreover, Arabic and English belong to different families, therefore, a lot of grammatical mistakes have been made while translating between these two languages.

.as one of the most frequent mistakes in translationَل Saraireh (2014) describes the misplacement of the negative article

modifies the elements that come before it. To illustrate, sentencesَل Unlike the English language, in Arabic the negative article

,p. 193). From my point of viewيجب ان َل نستسلم" )" and it should beَل يجب ان نستسلم"" like “We must not give up” mistranslated as these kinds of mistakes occur due to the structural differences between English and Arabic.

Shamsan and Attayib (2016) highlight several issues that translators have done, one of which is translating the “if

اذا عرف الحقيقة " clause”. For instance, this sentence “if he had known the fact, he could have told us what to do” was translated as

p. 291). No لو عرف الحقيقة سيخبرنا ما نفعله")" however, Shamsan and Attayib suggest the following translationيمكن اخبارنا ما علينا فعله", doubt, in this case direct translation cannot transfer the meaning correctly, therefore, translators should use other strategies in order to convey the intended meaning.

In 2014, Lahlali and Abu Hatab discussed several obstacles that might face translators working with English and Arabic texts, one of which is syntax problems. They stressed that, “both languages share some syntactic universals, many differences still challenge the translator” (p. 31). A translator must be aware of the structural differences between English and Arabic. English is a SVO, while Arabic is a VSO. Another noticeable difference between these two languages is auxiliary verbs. In English, auxiliary verbs are used in questions or negation. However; in Arabic different techniques are used to form a question or to negate a sentence.

Additionally, AL-Harahshehb and Obeidat (2014) pointed out that translators face challenges while translating grammar components (i.e., subject-verb agreement, tenses, prepositions, verb forming). I believe that translating syntax requires learning the grammar of both languages, also avoiding literal translation because such a technique will lead to incomprehensible sentences and utterances.

AlShehab, 2013, stated that students commit number of errors while translating verb to be; they tend to use substitution, addition, or omission methods in inappropriate ways. In fact, the verb to be “was” substituted in many texts by the verb to be “is” or “are” and vice versa. Additionally, some students tend to add the verb to be in almost every sentence, for example,

.was translated as “the man is arrived at Oman airport at seven” (pوصل الرجل مطار عمان الساعة السابعة" " in the Arabic sentence

144). Consequently, I totally agree that adding one element could change the whole meaning, therefore, translators must be precise while translating the verb to be.

In his 2013 article, AlSehab recommended several techniquesthat might help translators and enhance their performance. He highly recommended teaching the Issue of Translating textbook. In addition, he believes in e-learning inside and outside classrooms. Furthermore, I guarantee that reading is the most important step that helps translators enhance their performance; it allows translators to see how sentences are built and compare the two language structures, therefore, they can easily translate without any syntactic problems.

References

AL-Harahsheh, A., & Obeidat, M. (2014). Semantic and syntactic challenges in translating political news reports from English

into Arabic and vice versa: A linguistic approach. Arab World English Journal, 116-123. Retrieved from http://

web.b.ebscohost.com

Al shehab, M. (2013). Investigating the syntactic difficulties which encounter translation students at Irbid National University

in Jordan from Arabic into English. Arab World English Journal, 4, 129-148. Retrieved from http://

web.b.ebscohost.com

Lahlali, E. & Abu Hatab, W. (2014). Advanced English-Arabic translation: A practical guide. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/

Saraireh, M. (2014). Common practice errors related to syntactic structures in English-into-Arabic translation. Arab World

English Journal, 5(2), 187-205. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Shamsan, M., & Attayib, A. (2016). Investigating morpho-syntactic translation errors made by Yemeni EFL students. Arab

World English Journal, 7, 281-298. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/

Zhiri, Y. (2014). The translation of tense and aspect from English into Arabic by Moroccan undergraduates: Difficulties and

solutions. Arab World English Journal, 5(4). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

23 Business Name

Problems in Brand Names Translation By Reem S. Almutawaa

Translation is a broad field. Different texts determine the way of translating you will be using. In the field of business, translation should be suitable and correct because if one translated a brand name wrongly, it will affect marketing the brand. In addition, translating the brand name in a weird way might be considered as stealing the rights of that brand since the meaning or the concept of that brand name has gone through the process of translation. Unfortunately, numerous brand names lose their value or actual meaning when they are translated to another language.

According to Dong and Helms (2001), to translate a brand name perfectly, “consideration must be given to such factors as language, local culture, history and consumer attitude and beliefs.” (p. 114). Furthermore, Hong, Pecotich and

Shultz (2002) stated that it is debatable whether to translate the brand name or not because most brands think of that as if it will make their brand popular or not beside the different languages.

Hong, Pecotich and Shultz (2002) found that writing the product's both original and translated brand names is the finest way of translating. Also, they suggested adding the phonetic translation as a third and best option. In addition, they stated that literal translation is not professional because foreign people usually prefer the Western name. Finally, they concluded by saying that "We emphasize the importance of cultural linguistic factors in a cross-cultural and international branding decision as well" (p. 43).

In addition, Byrne (2014) discussed that translating the brand name is not an easy matter. He also added that when translating a brand name, we have to be aware of every element or part of that brand name. For example, if the brand name consists of two words or the first letter is not capitalized, we have to leave it as it is. Furthermore, Dong and Helms (2001) emphasized that the brand name is really important and is one of the matters that can affect the company.

Sometimes when we translate the brand name, we translate one or more of its products. Considering translating the product name of that brand, Frith and Mueller (2010) stated that different cultures have different degrees of formality. They also said that it affects the brand name marketing and how the target language will receive the meaning. Furthermore, they emphasized that some languages force their translators to translate every brand name to their language such as the Korean language. In addition, as

Bouziane (2010) said, the translated brand name usually carries heavily the culture of the original language.

Finally, people have different opinions when it comes to translating brand names, yet, a rule that almost all translators agreed upon is, as Eshreteh (2016) noted, that while some cultures prefer the correctness of the brand name’s translation, others see that it must have feelings or relate to their culture somehow. He also emphasized that if we are going to translate the name to the target language, we must make it easy to understand.

References

Bouziane, K. (2010). Cultural transfer in the translation of brand names in advertising: The case of cosmetics. Scientific Bulle-

tin of the Politehnica University of Timisoara. Transactions on Modern Lan-

guages / Buletinul Stiintific al Universitatii Politehnica din Timisoara. Seria Limbi Moderne, 9(1/2). Retrieved

from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Byrne, J. (2014). Scientific and technical translation explained: A nuts and bolts guide for beginners . Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Dong, L. C., & Helms, M. M. (2001). Brand name translation model: A case analysis of US brands in China. Journal of Brand

Management, 9(2). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Eshreteh, M. K. (2016). The translatability of brand names in cosmetic advertisements. Arab World English Journal, 7. Re-

trieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Frith, K. T., & Mueller, B. (2010). Advertising and societies: Global issues. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Hong, F. C., Pecotich, A., & Shultz, C. J. (2002). Brand name translation: Language constraints, product attributes, and con-

sumer perceptions in East and Southeast Asia. Journal of International Marketing, 10(2). Retrieved from http://

web.a.ebscohost.com

25 Business Name

Arabic Translation History By Renad Awad Al-qhtani

Translation was a significant turning point in the Arab and Islamic world. It was the path for all different kinds of knowledge. Translation began since prophet Mohamad's era when Arabs translated and communicated the messages of Islam to non-Arabs.Translation development changed the political, cultural and linguistic map of the area forever and this is partly why,

"this pushed the prophet to look for translators and translate the message from Arabic into other languages and encourage Mus- lims to learn other languages as well" (Jaber, 2015, p. 2). In fact translation added many benefits to the Arabic language.

In 2014, Alabi emphasized that translation was only for Islamic purposes. The translator only translated the Holy Quran and AL hadith. However, in the Abbasid Ruling era, people developed Arabic knowledge and scientific research, which benefited the Arabic language in many ways. In addition, in this era, the translators adopted philosophy and literature, which was the Arab's desire to learn from other nations. However, The real beginning came after the Abbasid era (p. 48).

According to Baker andSaldanha(2009),"the Arabs are credited with initiating the first organized, large-scale translation activity in history," (p. 3) and this activity started during the reign of the AL-Ma'mun, known as the Golden Era of translation because of the enormous translations being carried out. The centre of this activity was Baghdad. It was named that because of theHouse of wisdom which was established in the Abbasid era and flourished in Al-Ma'mun era. Moreover, translators started to get more interested in translating Greek works of medicine and philosophy.

From one point of view, the history of translation into Arabic depended on the standardization of the Arabic language as a written form, which began with "the need to standardize the text of Qur'an the status of Arabic as lingua franca" (Suleiman,

2009, p. 43). Since then, Arabic has become the official language of all Muslims,even those whose native language wasn'tArabic.

Therefore, Hunayn was the best translator in the House of wisdom, as he teaches his students more than one language so they can transfer it to many non-Arab Muslims.

Elgood (1951) said the translators "began to a huge campaign to acquire the learning of the nations under their rule and naturally to translation as the means by which the new souses [sic] of knowledge could be accessed," (p. 48)that encouraged translators to adopt more than one language like Syriac and Greek. More importantly, every translator translates only the books that he has enough background in or in his major, and why is that important? Because the more knowledge he had, the less mistakes he made.

It has been emphasized that HunayninbIshq was one of the greatest translators in Arabic history and one of the reasons is he tried to stick to the original manuscript when he translated it and revised it to make sure the translation is clear of any mistakes. Lastly, the purpose of translation was to improve Arab knowledge in language, culture and politics. Arab scientists believe in the importance of communication and the translation was the only way to communicate with non-Arab people

(TEDx Talks, 2014).

References

Alabi A. (2014). House of wisdom - How the Arabs transformed western civilization. Taylor and Francis online, 34(3). Re-

trieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13602004.2014.946763

Baker, M., &Saldanha, G. (2009). Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books?

Elgood C. (1951). A medical history of Persia and the Eastern caliphate: From the earliest times until the year A.D. 1932. Re-

trieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books?id.

Jaber F. (2015). The landscape of translation movement in the Arab world: From the 7th century until the beginning of the

21st century. Arab World English Journal, 6(4). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?

vid=8&sid

Suleiman K. (2009). Translating the Pittsburgh sleep quality index into Arabic. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books?id.

TEDx Talks. (2014, December 8). The importance of translation | BasheerZendal | Tedxsanaa [Video file]. Retrieved from

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8x8p-1guhqw

27 Business Name

Islamic Translation Movement in the Islamic Era By Ameerh Hamad AL-mousa

The Islamic translation movement flourished in the 8th century in the Abbasid Caliphate when Muslims centered in Baghdad. Translation included many sciences and I can say that they were affected by Greek philosophy. The word philosophy stands for love of wisdom and it means to search and to make sense of things around us like the natural world by reasoning and giving perspectives (Gerrit, Michael, & Joseph, 2014; M, 2011). Truly, it is beautiful to know how Islamic translation had developed in the Islamic era.

In 2005, Meri stated that the true translation efforts started in the creation of the Abbasid caliphate after the foundation of Bagh- dad in 762. Translation was encouraged by members of the Abbasid society: caliphs, scholars, and merchants. They translated numerous works like astrology and medicine, which were the beginning of it, also arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy.

Lorch (2001) and Meri (2005) pointed out that Muslims did not know Greek philosophy until the establishment of the Umayyad

Caliphate when the Arabs dominated Damascus, therefore the Muslims enlightened Christian culture. Several astronomical and bibliographical mathematical texts were translated, however studying these texts were not easy because of the analyzing and multiple translating.

The actual translators of Greek philosophy were not Muslims or Arab, but they were Christians who speak Syriac. Obviously, they spoke and understood both Greek and Arabic. Furthermore, many people were an important part of translation, specifically two families; first, the Bukhtishu family who were working before in a hospital and then later the Caliphs called them to be physicians in the palace. Second, the Barmakid family who came to Bagdad as Caliph’s viziers. From that time they started to love

Greek philosophy and were exposed to it more and more. Lastly, Ibn Sina was interested in Greek thoughts on medicine (Meri,

2005; S, 1997).

In fact, Ibn Sina was interested in studying Greek philosophy. He was very effective as some of his works were incredible for his time. He wrote books and discovered concepts, and all this is in the field of medicine. Among his observations are theoretical and practical concepts in medicine, and he stated the effects of medicine in the body and discovered illnesses that were unknown to Greeks (S, 1997).

In the year 900, the stunning philosophical traditions were found not in Europe, but in the Middle East. A new program had been made by Islamic scholars to improve the traditions of Greek philosophy, especially Aristotle works, and they were translated and made acceptable with the Quran. In conclusion, Muslims considered Greek science and philosophy as foreign sciences, however; scholars have done a great contribution to the Islamic world by translating and studying knowledge throughout the centuries (Grant, 2008; P, 2011).

References

Gerrit, B. (2014). Introduction: The Arabic translation from Greek by HunaynIbnIsḥāq. Transactions Of The American Philo-

sophical Society, 104(5). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Grant, E. (2008). The fate of ancient Greek natural philosophy in the middle ages: Islam and western Christianity. Review Of

Metaphysics, 61(3). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Lorch, R. (2001). Greek-Arabic-Latin: The transmission of mathematical texts in the

middle ages. Cambridge University Press, 14(1-2). Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa

Meri, J. W. (Ed.). (2005). Medieval Islamic civilization: An encyclopedia. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa

M, S. (2011). Greek philosophy- Simple guides. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

P, R. (2011, November/December). The Islamic scholar: Who gave us modern philosophy. Humanities, 32(6). Retrieved from

http://search.proquest.com

S, H. (Ed.). (1997). Encyclopedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa

29 Business Name

Does Machine Translation Supplant Human Translation? By Mashael M. Al-Hazzaa

In the past, human translation (HT) was the only tool to communicate with others from many different languages and countries. Few years ago, a new technology was invented to interact with others known as machine translation (MT). MT spread widely and fast all over the world as it seems easier and faster than HTand it might be sometimes lower in cost than HT. In fact, human translation is a complicated process that cannot be replaced with any machine translation system.

In 2015, Racoma emphasized that translation is a complicated process especially in written documents that only humans are able to do perfectly since HT cares about the meaning while MT translates based on the structure of each language, not the meaning. Also, another difference between HT and MT that is HT can understand the difference between cultures and try to translate the text to fit into the target culture whereas MT cannot differentiate between what is suitable and what is not to translate among cultures. Finally, she stressed that "The process involves the work of a professional linguist/translator, usually a native speaker or one who has studied the target language extensively" (para. 2).

Sofer(2011) discussed the machine translation software for translating technical and scientific data that has a high price and has been sold to many international organizations and governments, to show machine translation software accuracy. The author pointed out that the software could only achieve 60 percent accuracy out of 100 percent. He stressed that “machine translation does not replace human translation” (n.p.). It was added that a human translator could post-edit the MT to achieve full accuracy.

It has been noted that the use of MT and HT differ. MT could be used for informal translation or personal use as there is no audience. On the other hand, HT is used for formal documents such as books, reports and formal communications (Sharp,

Carl, Zock, & Jakobsen, 2011). Kai (2014) added that HT is essential to use for critical projects that will be shown to the audience since it is much more reliable than MT and to makes sure the audience understand the message.

In 1998, Rao emphasized that natural language has several levels (i.e., syntactic, lexical, semantic and pragmatic). These levels are a difficult problem for MT because of two reasons. The first reason is the ambiguity of the natural language. Some words can have more than one meaning or the meaning is not clear. The second reason is that machines do not have enough knowledge about the world; unlike humans when using natural language to translate, they use “an enormous amount of common sense, and knowledge about the world, which helps to resolve the ambiguity” (p. 66). He also pointed out that MT systems

need a lot of effort for development.

The quality of the machine translation systems is much less than human translation. The output of a machine translation system will never be used for a professional work such as a “CV or a corporate Web site” (p. 135) unless human translators revise it. The writers emphasized that human translation aims is to produce high-quality machine translations and also works as a developer of machine translation systems. So, if MT and HT combine together they will produce a perfect work

(Casacuberta et al., 2009).

References

Casacuberta, F., Civera, J., Cubel, E., Lagarda, A., Lapalme, G., Macklovitch, E., & Vidal, E. (2009).Human interaction for

high-quality machine translation. Communications of the ACM, 52(10). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Kai. (2014, October 20). Why machine translation cannot replace human translation. Retrieved from http://

www.oneworldlanguage.com

Racoma, B. (2015, January 26). What is human translation and why is it important?. Retrieved from https://

www.daytranslations.com

Rao, D. D. (1998). Machine translation. Resonance, 3(7). Retrieved from http://link.springer.com.sdl.idm.oclc.org

Sharp, B., Carl, M., Zock, M., & Jakobsen, A. L. (Eds.). (2011). Human-machine interaction in translation: Proceedings of the

8th international NLPCS workshop. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Sofer, M. (2011). Translator self-training-Spanish: A practical course in technical translation (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

31 Business Name

The Advantages of Machine Translation By Munira Mohammed AlJebreen

Translation, in general, is not an easy task. Languages keep changing over time. Furthermore, in the past when we had to figure out the meaning of a word from another language, we made use of a dictionary. Not only was this a very time consum- ing task, but it was kind of irritating owing to the fact that it was difficult to interpret the meanings. Moreover, when an entire paragraph or note had to be translated, this could be very difficult because one word had several meanings, so what can we do?

That is where the machine translator came into the picture (Wilks, 2009). However, there are many advantages of using machine translation.

Since the advent of the 21st century, there have been a lot of developments and new technologies introduced which have made life more convenient and simple. A case in point, "A machine translator is such a small yet useful device. Machine translation, which is also known as Computer Aided Translation, is basically the use of software programs which have been specifically designed to translate both verbal and written texts from one language to another" (Kerr, 2014, p. 3).

Errens found that in the face of rapid globalization, such services have become invaluable for people and you just cannot think of any disadvantages of machine translation. Nevertheless, like everything has its pros and cons, so does machine translation. One of the most important advantages of machine translation is time, "When time is a crucial factor, machine translation can save the day. You don't have to spend hours poring over dictionaries to translate the words. Instead, the software can translate the content quickly and provide a quality output to the user in no time at all" (Errens, 2010, p. 2).

The second benefit of machine translation is that it is comparatively cheap. Initially, it might look like an unnecessary investment, but in the long run, it is a very small cost considering the return it provides (Oliveira, 2016). This is because if you use the expertise of a professional translator, he will charge you on a per page basis which is going to be extremely costly while this will be cheap.

In addition, Schottenstein (2017) stresses that confidentiality is another matter which makes machine translation favora- ble. Giving sensitive data to a translator might be risky while with machine translation your information is protected. Finally, a machine translator usually translates text which is in any language so there is no such major concern while a professional translator specializes in one particular field (Oliveira, 2016).

In conclusion, according to Chan 2004, machine translation is simple substitution of words in one language for words in another. And there are many methods we can use to create a good translation, and one of the most important methods is machine translation. And these are the primary advantages of using machine translation for a document regardless of language.

They can be weighed and the right decision can be made depending on the information and the quality that is required.

References

Chan S. (2004). A dictionary of translation technology. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books?

id=3gwOFvbxMGcC&pg=PA160

Errens, J. (2010). The past, present and future of machine translation. Monotype, 2. Retrieved from http://www.monotype.com/

blog/articles/the-past-present

Kerr, P. (2014). Translation and own-language activities. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books?

id=3tnSAgAAQBAJ&pg

Oliveira, L. (2016, December 15). What free online translation means to translation companies. Retrieved from http://

www.omniglot.com/language/articles

Schottenstein, Y. (2017). New technology offers translation on the go. Omniglot, 1. Retrieved from http://omniglot.com/

language/articles/translationonthego.htm

Wilks, Y. (2009). Machine translation. Retrieved from http://www.springer.com/in/book

33 Business Name

Translation as a Cognitive Process By Hadeel F. Alabdullatif

By the end of the twentieth century, many scholars have been investigating a number of issues in the field of translation; one of which is the translation cognitive processes. In 2016, Cherry defined cognition as the mental processes one uses in learning and comprehension including thinking, remembering, problem-solving, etc. Therefore, the main focus of cognitive process translation studies is to understand how the translator's mind works during the task of translation. Indeed, translation as a cognitive process has captured the interests of many researchers among the translation studies (Christensen, 2011).

As stated by House, 2014, this growing interest in this aspect of translation is due to the improvement of technology. A number of methods and instruments have been developed such as think-aloud protocols (TAPs). Using this method, researchers ask the subjects to verbalize whatever goes on in their minds while performing the task of translation and analyze the data in a later time. Another procedure is a “direct observation with a video camera” (p. 62); in this process, the researcher could be present to observe and take notes, or he could just use the recorded video and analyze the event later (Lauffer, 2002).

One recent method, according to Lauffer, is the computer program called Translog, which “was developed to obtain quantitative reinforcement of assumptions about translation” (p. 63). It is perfect for collecting and analyzing data like the ratio, number of electronic dictionaries the translator used, and more. The translators must translate into Translog in a split display that shows the source text on the top of the target text. The program records the whole process as a video that can be analyzed in a later time (2002).

Using such observational methods, researchers have come up with a number of suggested views about the cognitive translation process. One viewis proposed in 2005 by England, and expresses the cognitive task of translation as a very sophisticat- ed one “that involves comprehension in one language, production in another language, text production, use of aids, and problem- solving and decision-making” (p. 6)and compares it to a writing task in one language. Therefore, the suggested models of the monolingual writing process assume that the task includes “planning, text generation, and revision” (p. 4); these are also suggested for a translation process.

Lauffer,2002, assumes that translation is a three-phase process that includes “understanding and reasoning; searching; and revising” (p. 68). The strategies can overlap and co-occur several times during the process. Furthermore, the cognitive process of translation can also be seen as a three-phase process as noted in Carl, Dragsted and Jakbson’s article (2011), but with different steps that includes “initial orientation, translation drafting, and final revision” (para. 32).

The variety of the observational methods gives different points of view about the translation process. However, the subjects i.e., translators, should translate in a familiar everyday situation to get better and precise results. In almost every study, researchers follow different methods of observation which could give diverse views about the process. Irrespective of the number of studies that have been made, researchers encourage more modern studies and improved technological observational methods (Lauffer, 2002).

References

Carl, M., Dragsted, B., & Jakobsen, A. L. (2011, June). A taxonomy of human translation styles. Retrieved from http://

translationdirectory.com/articles

Cherry, K. (2016, September 5). What is cognition? Retrieved from https://www.verywell.com

Christensen, T. P. (2011). Studies on the mental processes in translation memory-assisted translation – The state of the art.

trans-kom, 4(2). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com

Englund, D. B. (2005). Expertise and explicitation in the translation process. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

House, J. (2014). Translation quality assessment: Past and present. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Lauffer, S. (2002). The translation process: An analysis of observational methodology. Cadernos de traduçao, 2(10). Retrieved

from https://scholar.google.com

35 Business Name

Legal Translation Difficulties By Reema Abdullah AlAjlan

The aim of this study is to list all the challenges faced when translating legal texts. In general, translation is not an easy process and it is even more difficult when it comes to translating legal texts. Sonawane (2015) has discussed that legal translation has several elements that the translator has to pay attention to. He stressed that "Translators should not only possess general knowledge of legal terminology, they should also be well versed in statutory requirements and the legal intricacies of foreign cultural and legal systems” (para. 1). Indeed, there are so many difficulties that appear when translating legal texts.

The translation of legal texts needs accuracy and comprehensive understanding of the terms used and the legal systems.

Each country has its own legal system and legal terminology, and that is the reason why legal translation is considered to be the hardest among other translation work. Chirilă (2013) has listed three main areas that legal a translator must be knowledgeable of starting with competency in the target’s language particular writing style, knowledge with pertinent terminology, and general background of the legal systems for both source language and target language. She emphasizes that “There is no room for word for word translation when translating legal document” (p. 487).

Culture plays a huge role in legal translation, as each legal system has its own history, cultural values and political contexts, and has a reflection of the features of its own nation, which no doubt is different from one country to another. A particular concept in the American legal system doesn’t necessarily exist within the framework of the Saudi legal system. Mistranslating in the legal field may lead to a serious repercussion, losing a case or causing liability issues is one of them.

Legal translation takes a place in multilingual countries with one legal system such as Russia, Finland and others, or multilingual countries with different or mixed legal systems such as India, Canada, South Africa and others, in addition, translators have to cope with linguistic differences. As a result, legal translation within the same legal system is less complicated because the source and target legal systems are the same. According to Šarč ević (2000), in such countries the main difficulty is establishing and standardizing the terminology in all the official languages. The authors claims that “This task should not be underestimated, particularly in federal states where there exist simultaneously a federal or central government” (p. 15).

Under the umbrella of style we can discuss a lot of characteristics that cannot be accounted in the category of legal lexicon. There are some main features in a text that allow us to differentiate between legal style and the style of the common languages, such as the use of old-fashioned syntax, complex and long sentences, and other lists of words. Tiersma (2015) concluded that the basic preference of complex and long sentences in English is the “desire to place all information on a particular topic

into one self-contained unit” (p. 56). The author is nevertheless worried about choosing this approach in order to rid the language of the supposed ambiguity caused by the use of separate sentences.

The area of legal translation is highly demanding; it requires a lot of knowledge not only in translation but also in legal terms, culture, and legal systems, requiring more skills, knowledge, and time. Apart from all this difficulty, legal translators must have professionalism and confidentiality. The translator is usually conversant with secret documents, so he must be trustable and committed to his profession ethics.

References

Chirilă, C. (2013). Errors and difficulties in translating legal texts. Management Strategies, (3). Retrieved from http://

www.strategiimanageriale.ro/english.html

Dumitrescu, A. (2014). Difficulties and strategies in the process of legal texts translation. Management Strategies, 1(3). Re-

trieved from http://www.strategiimanageriale.ro

Šarč ević, S. (2000).New approach to legal translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Sonawane, A. (2015). Difficulties faced in legal document translation. Omniglot. Retrieved from http://www.omniglot.com/

language/articles/legaltranslation.htm

Stolze, R. (2001). Translating legal texts in the EU. Perspectives, 9(4), 301-311.doi:10.1080/0907676x.2001.9961426

Tiersma, P. M., In Solan, L., In Ainsworth, J., & In Shuy, R. W. (2015). Speaking of language and law: Conversations on the

work of Peter Tiersma.

37 Business Name

Humor Translation By Sara Ali Al-Mutaiwea

Translators face some difficulties when translating humor because of the lack of information about the culture of the source language or what kind of humor they used or like. Translators should practice translating humor and try to know the culture and linguistic of the source language. In fact, humor translation is a challenge for translators because misunderstanding the joke can cause errors and mistakes in their translation.

According to Chapman and Foot, there are a lot of activities to communicate with each other, one of them is being funny or by using humor. Jokes show how people think about themselves and how they interact with others (as cited in González

&Mejias, n.d.). Dorman and Biddle (2017) added that humor can be used in a formal situation such as job interviews, also it can be used with friends in everyday interaction (as cited in Chiaro, 2010b)

In 2010a, Chiaro emphasized that "Verbal humour travels badly. As it crosses geographic boundaries humor has to come to terms with linguistic and cultural elements" (p. 1). Verbal humor sometimes transfers badly. Humor might indicate words and phrases that have more than one meaning, and special references to people, customs, etc. of a specific culture are the characteristics that are often the basis of pun. People who are trying to tell a joke in another language or translators of comedy films, as professionals, find that a difficult challenge because of its combination of linguistic and culture-specific features.

Translating from ST to TT does not require using the same linguistic structures, but some people think it has to be nearly identical to each other. The same joke can be told in 10 different ways because of a lot of adaptation. It is hard to measure funni- ness because of that, the joke in the TL does not have to be funny as it is in the SL. Translators have to translate humor and make it clear as humor to entertain people (Low, 2010).

Pun is a word that has two meanings. Understanding and using puns are difficult sometimes because to understand it, you have to know both meanings of the word. Knowing vocabulary words will help you to get or understand the joke. An example of a pun is "Korea has soul" (0:57) in this sentence soul means energy, and Seoul the capital of Korea has the same pronunciation (Shaw English online, 2014).

Translating humor is different from translating other types of translation. It is non-practice-oriented, the evidence provided by practice-oriented and cultural and linguistic analyses. It does not exhibit challenges of reproduction for translators, but the complication of humor as a concept may dishearten translation researchers.

From a practice-oriented perspective, one of the four elements is the effect of humor as meaning has an expressing we can call it smiling and uncertainty (Vandaele, n.d.).

References

Chiaro, D. (Ed.). (2010a). Translation, humour and literature: Translation and humour.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Chiaro, D. (Ed.). (2010b). Translation, humour and the media: Translation and humour.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

González, L., & Mejias, G. (n.d.). The interpreter´s ultimate challenge: Humor in conferences.

Retrieved from http://www.translationjournal.net/

Low, P. (2010, December 8). Translating jokes and puns. Retrieved from

http://www.tandfonline.com

Shaw English online. (2014, January 28). English puns [Video file]. Retrieved from

https://www.youtube.com/

Vandaele, J. (Ed.). (n.d.). Translating humour. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa/books.

39 Business Name

Translation and Technology: Translation Applications on Smartphones By Asal M. Al-Amri

In the technology era, everything has become much easier than it was before. And the translation process is one of the most notable things that have been influenced by technology. According to Jacko, 2012, the first step of translating a document used to be done by machine translators, then a human translator does the editing to complete the translated document. In time, machine translation gets easier to use by creating translation applications on smartphones. And they are easily accessible not just by professional translators, but for everyone. Surely, translation applications on smartphones have played an important role in fast translations instead of traditional dictionaries and other tools for translating.

Kleinman (2015) has divided translation technology into three types: "visual translators, verbal translators and human translators" (para. 2). She also stated that the situation you are facing determines which category of translator you need. There are a lot of apps and sites that can do many tasks; e.g., Google Translate's app is able to translate the words you say and type; also, it can translate words on pictures that cannot be copied. Fortunately, there will be only few problems you face while communicating with others in a new place if you use some of these apps.

Indeed, it is normal to face some problems while using these apps. Jacko (2012) believed that finding uncertain translation of words and phrases is one of the biggest problems that users of these apps could face, therefore, these apps should not be used in formal fields such as forlegal and medical texts. Krasnova and Vanushin, 2015, added that it is a difficult task for computer programs to identify the most appropriate meaning of each word in the sentence and how to link their meanings together.

In 2011, Pym argued that machine translators depend on the paradigmatic sense relations more than the syntagmatic ones, therefore, poor choices of selections could occur. However, the blessing of these technologies may collaborate with the human power in translation and find its own place in the field. He continued, “The regime of the paradigmatic may thus be embed- ded in the new modes of social exchange, where translation becomes one of the five basic language skills.” (p. 1).

Lee (2016) gave an example of a translation app, which is Google Translate. She emphasized how this application helps mutually unintelligible speakers to communicate with each other easily. Furthermore, she added that using such a way of translating is changing the practices of intercultural communication. She, also, gave an example of how much this app helps people in their daily life. A Japanese study conducted on nurses and nursing

students in 2012 by Anazawa et al., found out that these nurses and students are highly reliant on Google Translate and other similar apps since they are required to read international research literature published in other languages they do not speak.

For this particular app, Google Translate, Tedeschi (2011) pointed out the app’s biggest drawback is that it relies on a network connection. However, the app lets you store and retrieve what you had translated without a connection. He advises the users of the app to plan ahead and think of all the possible needs if they face such a problem in a foreign trip for example.

That was just simple advice from Tedeschi. But so much can happen on trips and you will never know what exact things you would face.

References

Jacko, J. A. (2012). Human computer interaction handbook: Fundamentals, evolving technologies, and emerging applica-

tions (3rd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Kleinman, A. (2015, February 20). How to use your smartphone to translate just about anything. The Huffington Post. Re-

trieved from https://cse.google.com

Krasnova, T. I., & Vanushin, S. I. (2015).Machine translation error analysis. Young, 9(89). Retrieved from https://

scholar.google.com

Lee, C. (2016). Multilingualism online. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Pym, A. (2011). What technology does to translating. Translation & Interpreting, 3(1). Retrieved from https://

scholar.google.com

Tedeschi, B. (2011, February 16). When in Rome, let your smartphone do the translating. The New York Times. Retrieved

from http://cse.google.com

41 Business Name

Translation and Islam: Difficulities in Translating Islamic Texts By Sara A. AlQadi

Islamic translation is one of the most important translations through history since the first translation work was a religious book. In his 2016 article, the author points out the fact that the importance of translating Islamic texts lies in carrying the message and values that many people might misunderstand them (AbuSa’aleek). Without a doubt, there are many difficulties that people may face while trying to convey the meaning of terms with over 1400 years of history in translating Islamic texts.

I believe that every translator should ask him/herself: How can one translate successfully without committing any mistakes? Using synonyms is an effective way in translating. However, knowing that many languages lack synonyms will make you

عمرة aware while translating from the SL into the TL and try other methods to convey the meaning. For example, “the word

And complete the Hajj or Umrah in the service ofو أتموا الحج و العمرة هلل (Umrah which occurs twice in the Quran (Q2:158, 196

God” (Long, 2005, para. 104).

According to Faiq, 2004, “Arabic words and concepts are transliterated but not translated. This includes key concepts such as jahiliyya and din” (p. 69). He also points out that it would be hard for non-Arabic speakers to distinguish the meanings from the context. Also, they might misunderstand the word completely for instance the word ‘din’ might be understood as noise though it means in Arabic the way of life covering all the practical aspects of man’s life is the vital message that mankind lacks.

There is no doubt that lacking knowledge of both SL and TL will cause many problems in translating especially in translating religious texts. Translators are supposed to discriminate between Arabic and English and know how each language functions. More- over, “only if the translator has a solid understanding of the culture of the target language, and its specific linguistic rules and differences, can he or she interpret the implied meaning and translate it correctly” (Globalization Partners International, 2016, para.

10).

According to Pratt, 2016, "The literary problems of translation give evidence of the excellence of Quranic Ara- bic" (n.p.). As the writer says, the difficulties of Quranic Arabic has advantages in stressing the excellence of Arabic Quran’ic even though Arabic hearers may not understand it fully. He also points out that the fluency of Arabic words confirms that the

Quran is a stable and steady source for Muslims because humans are not able to use or imitate such a unique language and makes it clear it has been derived from a celestial origin.

In the article titled “The Impact of Translations of Muslim Sciences on the West”, it was reported that “Scholars from all Christian lands rushed to that place to translate Muslim science, and thus start the scientific

awakening of Europe” (para. 20). It was added that westreners have translated Muslim science works in many aspects including Medical Science, Pharmacy, Chemistry, and Optics despite all the difficulties they could translate and transfer the knowledge into many other languages (n.d.).

References

AbuSa’aleek, A. (2016). The adequacy and acceptability of machine translation in translating the Islamic texts. International

Journal of English Linguistics, 6.Retrieved from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal

Faiq, S. (2004).Cultural encounters in translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com

Globalization Partners International. (2016, October 27). Challenges of translating Arabic into English. Retrieved from http://

resources.globalizationpartners.com

Long, L. (2005).Translation and religion. Retrieved from https://books.google.com

Muslim Heritage. (n.d.). The impact of translations of Muslim sciences on the west. Retrieved from http://

www.muslimheritage.com

Pratt, D. (2016). Routledge revivals: The challenge of Islam (2005). Retrieved from https://books.google.com

43 Business Name

Problems in Translating the Holy Quran By Reem A. Al-Abdulmonem

Translating the holy Quran requires not only the deep understanding of the Arabic language and culture but also the faith of Islam.

AlQinai (2012) noted that even professional translators face challenges when translating the Quran. Sometimes the problems revolve around the language because it contains words that sometimes get lost in the translation. Also, the culture is strongly related to the Arab’s culture, so you need to understand fully the culture and the language. Indeed, translators of the holy Quran from the Arabic to the English language encounter numerous problems.

In 2001, Abdul-Raof emphasized that translators of the Holy Quran translate the meanings not word for word. Translating the meanings of the Quran is highly significant because it helps the humanity. Even if the translation is very precise and perfect, it shouldn’t be looked at as a replacement of the original. The words, expressions, and collocations in the Quran cannot be reproduced for they are meant to affect the readers. In addition, the Arabic language is the miracle of the Quran that explains why it is difficult to produce a perfect translation.

Allaithy (2013) discussed the problem of the illusion of synonyms. There are many words in the Quran that some translators think are

Q16: 80) when َو ِم ْنأَ ْص َوافِ َها َوأَ ْوبَا ِر َها َوأَ ْشعَا ِرها”(“ synonyms, yet they should consider the invisible meaning. Abdul-Raof (2001) added that the verse translating, we should render to a singular/plural form. Also, we should describe the words because the target language does not have equivalence, so it was translated as “and out of their (rough) wool, and their soft, fury wool and their hair.” (p. 10).

While reading the holy Quran you may notice that some words have multiple meanings, which is usually related, and these words are

which is translated differently. It can mean “invoke” in theدَعا” “ called polysemy. Sadiq (2008) illustrates the three verses that contain the word verse number (Q3:38), “call” in (Q8:24), and “invite” in (Q33:53). Therefore, we should understand the verse deeply before translating because the meanings of a word differ according to the context (p. 38).

AlQinani (2012) explores the challenges in translating the repetition of words. Several verses contain two words that occur beside

َك اَّلإِذَا ُد اكتِا ْْلَ ْر ُض َد ًّكا َد ًّكا” “ each other, which hinders the translator from conveying the deep meaning of the verse in the Arabic language. The verse

(Q89: 21) “was translated as ‘crushing upon crushing’ . . . the mere repetition void the grammatical and semantic function.” (p. 88). As a result, the translator should read the meaning in the Arabic language rather than translating the mere repetition.

(Q14: 43) َوأَ ْفئِ َدتُ ُه ْم َه َوا ءٌ” “ Translators of the holy Quran face difficulties in translating the quranic metaphors. The metaphor in the verse

“was translated into English as ‘their hearts void’ . . . gives the same meaning without clarification.” (p. 302). Moreover, in the verse

” . . . ’was translated as by Al Hilali and Khan as ‘the eyes grow wild and hearts reached to the throats“ َوإِ ْذ َزا َغتِا ْْلَ ْب َصا ُر َوبَ َل َغتِا ْلقُلُوبُا ْل َح َنا ِج َرٌ” )33: 10) “ This translation does not express the true meaning of the metaphor entirely (Alshehab, 2015).

There are many expressions in the Quran that contain irony. The translator should translate the meaning while considering the

which contains a quranici rony. Theابٍألي ٍم َفبَ ِِّش ْر ُه ْمبِعَذ” )purpose of the written words. In his 2016 article, the author points to the verse“ (84:24

is used for good news, yet it is followed by the word punishment. Therefore, we should translatet he irony to the target text toبَشرهم” “ word convey the verse’s invisible meaning. Some translators fail to interpret the meaning by translating it as news (Sideeg).

In conclusion, the translator of the holy Quran should steer away from the word for word translation to translating the meaning, especially when translating synonyms, polysemy, and repetition words. In addition, as for the challenges of metaphor and irony, the translator should read the verse carefully and understand its purpose, history, grammar, and counterparts. Then, explain its meanings not just translating word for word.

References

Abdul-Raof, H. (2001).Qur'an translation: Discourse, texture and exegesis. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books?id=uwzfxM7y

-3oC&dq

Allaithy, A. (2013). Qur'anic term translation. A semantic study from Arabic perspective. https://books.google.com.sa/books?

id=Fn5fAgAAQBAJ&dq

AlQinai, J. (2012). Convergence and divergence in the interpretation of Quranic polysemy and lexical recurrence. Journal of Pan-Pacific

Association of Applied Linguistics, 16. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer

Alshehab, M. (2015). Two English translations of Arabic metaphors in the Holy Qura’n. Arab World English Journal, (4). Retrieved from

http://awej.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article

Sadiq, S. (2008).Some semantic, stylistic and cultural problems of translation with special reference to translating the glorious Qur'â n. Say-

yab Translation Journal, 1. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/353549

Sideeg, A. (2016). Translating invisible meanings: A critique across seventy versions of the Qurān in English. Arab World English Journal,

7. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail

45 Business Name

The Problems of Literary Translation By Renad Khalid Alomyreni

According to Bush and Malmkjaer, 1998, it is important to give a general definition of a literary or poetic text which is a text has a style and meaning, and both should be covered in translation. It could very well include historical, legal, philosophical texts and song. France, 2000, explains that the growth of literary translation in the 1960s can be attributed to two factors: political and institutional, but in 1964 the translation workshop concept originated to develop training in literary translation. Although the literary texts play an important role in every culture and attract many translators, they could prove to be problematic during translation.

Wilson (2014)discussed the international circulation of literature and how it depends so far on translations and it is a way to know what other cultures are and how to interact with them. Also, it transfers knowledge in its broad sense. However, Khrais

(2017) emphasized that "cultural differences have created untranslatable cultural-bound words and phrase" (p.80). One problem the translator may face is when he or she finds terms that have a meaning related to the culture. In this case, the researcher suggests that the translator should expand his knowledge specially in literary prose because many translators lay more emphasis on the translation of poetry.

According to Xiaoshu, and Dongming, 2003, translation is an art of reproduction and re-creation. So, it depends on the theoretical knowledge and practical skill of the translator. The translator should translate the thought, feeling and style of the source text faithfully, flexibly and satisfactorily. There are two steps to the translation process. First, the translator should determine what kind of style it reflects from both the literary and linguistic points of view. Second, he starts translating the whole text, keeping in mind the reproduction of the original style.

According to Hassan, 2011, "Translations are either faithful without being beautiful or beautiful without being faithful" (p. 19). So, transferring from one language to another is not enough; the translator should keep the effect and function of the source texts and find an equivalent in the target texts to fit the society. On the other hand, Wechsler (1998) stressed that

"translating poetry loses what poetry is" (p.51). We could keep the basic ideas or images, but not for the multiple meanings or resonances of the words. In other words, poetry works with the original language which it was written in.

The translator may encounter untranslatable texts; "it can be that the text is a poem that contains a certain kind of music and internal rhythm that cannot be transformed into the other language". In this case, he\she either decides to abandon it or creates

an equivalent version of it, but it requires the ability to write poetry because it needs capturing the magic and transporting the spiritual experience of the text. (M. Al-Dhabaa, personal communication, March 26, 2017)

To sum up, Fernanda, 2013, emphasized that we are in a world that is increasingly globalized, so the translator's job is not only to translate or understand the complexity and meaning of the original literary work, but he\she should analysis, develop and be capable of carrying on the message from one culture to the other. However, the most important is eliminating all language barriers and inserting the text into another cultural context.

References

Bush, P., & Malmkjaer, K. (Eds.). (1998). Rimbaud's rainbow: Literary translation in higher education. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Fernanda, M. (2013, August 22). What are the obstacles of a literary translation? Retrieved from http://translation-

blog.trustedtranslations.com

France, P. (2000). The oxford guide to literature in english translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Hassan, B. A. (2011). Literary translation: Aspects of pragmatic meaning. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Khrais, S. (2017). Literary translation and cultural challenges: JhumpaLahiri's the namesake. International Journal of Compara-

tive Literature & Translation Studies, 5. Retrieved from http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/

Wechsler, R. (1998). Performing without a stage: The art of literary translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

Wilson, R. (2014). Exchanging views: Knowledge transfer through literary translation. International Migration, 52(4). Re-

trieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi

Xiaoshu, S., & Dongming, C. (2003). Translation of literary style. Translation Journal, 7. Retrieved from http://

translationjournal.net/journal

47 Business Name

Poetic Translation Difficulties By Norah S. Al-Sultan

Poetic translation can be defined as relaying poetry into another language. Translators must face some difficulties while translating poetries. In 1985, Sowayan emphasized that translating poetries in general is difficult and translators may face some problems due to many reasons. He stressed that, "The difficulty is compounded when we are dealing with languages, cultures, and poetic traditions that are far apart." (p. 5). In fact, many translators face difficulties in translating poetries.

Translating poetries needs an inspiration and innovation because it must be done in an artistic way. Some authors classified that poetic translation is the most difficult, most demanding and the most difficult type of literature in translation. In his 2013 article, the author points to the fact that translating poetry to poetry needs a great talent and special techniques and it is exhibits a special relationship between form and meaning (Sekhri).

According to Kenesei, 2010, "The difficulties in translating poems range from the formal requirements including scan- sion (the analysis of metre by noting how it is stressed and how many syllables it has) and rhymes to the semantic level." (p. 42).

Most poems contain ambiguity or polysemy. For this reason, the translator faces some difficulties during its translation. He also points out that the seizure and transmittance of the micro- as well as the macro-metaphorically expressed content is the greatest challenge in poetic translation. Also, one of the reasons why translating poems is difficult is that there is unity in poems.

Vinute (2000) emphasized that no one can avoid the basic difficulties of translation, especially in the translation of poetries. The relationship between the form and content might be one of the basic difficulties to translators while translating poetries and sometimes a lot of translators cannot understand the meaning poetry due to the hard forming or the vague content. He also points out that the conflict between formal and dynamic equivalences is one of the main basic difficulties in rendering poetries.

There are some special and clear difficulties that make the translation or paraphrase of poetry problematic. One of those is that a word might be used to express several ideas at once, so the ambiguity here is pursued rather than avoided. In his 1986 article, the author points out that there is often tension between sound and meaning in the nature of poetic language. Sound is associated with meaning more than in prose, so the tension is either in imitation or opposition (Burns).

In conclusion, not any translator can translate poems in a professional way because they needs an artist or conversant translator. Khatibi, 2015, points to the fact that literary or poetry translation is regarded as the most difficult and challenging type of translation. In addition to all problems in all translations, literary translation also has to deal with artistic aspects of the literary

text and requires special competence and skill of the translators.

References

Burns, T. L. (1986). Problems in poetic translation. Cadernos de Linguística e Teoria da Literatura. Retrieved from http://

dx.doi.org/10.17851/0101-3548.8.16.23-30

Kenesei, A. (2010). Poetry translation through reception and cognition: The proof of translation is in the reading. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Khatibi, M. E. (2015). Challenges of literary translation: Kahlil Gibran's the prophet as a case study. Arab World English

Journal, 6(1). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Sekhri, O. (2013). The art of translating poetry between myth and reality. Arab World English Journal, 4. Retrieved from

http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Sowayan, S. A. (1985). Nabati poetry: The oral poetry of Arabia. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Vinute, L. (2000). The translation studies reader. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

49 Business Name

Translating Arabic Literature into English By Reema M. Alwabel

The word “literature” may not have the same definition or characteristics in all languages as stated by Taylor and Francis

(2000), which is one of the factors that did not help translated Arabic literary texts gain much popularity in the western world.

Also, the writers have reported that the concerns of the western audience are not, most of the time, literary, which plays another rule in its unsuccessfulness among westerns. As a matter of fact, a deeper look into most of the translated works in the western countries may support the argument discussed above.

In 2014, Bustani stated that the difficulty of literary translation lies in it being an expressive type of text, which focuses on the aesthetic form of the text. And that makes the job of the translator harder, for he/she has to carry the beauty of the form in his/her translation. He emphasized that “it is very difficult to translate puns, figures of speech, and rhymed poetry” (p. 19). He also added that the literature of any language carries its culture, which makes the process of literary translation more complicated than translating other types of texts.

Al-Mahrooqi and Denmen, 2016, have discussed that cultural translation is not easy, and that these literary works are usually translated in a way that confirms the stereotypes that the audience already have of the source culture. The writers gave an example of the translation of the title of Nawal AlSaadawi’s novel The Hidden Face of Eve, which is originally in Arabic The

Naked Face of the Arab Woman, noticing that the translation reflects the idea or the “stereotype” westerns hold of the eastern culture and women.

In his 2011 article, Bahaa-eddin reported that literary texts differ from other kinds of texts in that they involve linguistic, pragmatic and cultural elements, which makes it challenging for translators. The writer also pointed out that translators usually consider the linguistic and cultural aspects in their translations more than they do for the pragmatic aspects. Khatibi (2015) emphasized that structuralism is an important approach in the field of literary translation, which focuses on the form of texts rather than the contents. Therefore, the intentions and the contexts of the poet are not a place of concern for translators in this approach.

According to Altoma, 2010, “There is no doubt that the current literary taste, in targeted Western languages, is not recep- tive to such traditional poetry for a number of reasons, including its topical orientation and reliance on rhetorical devices and allusions or usages spanning more than fourteen hundred years of Arabic poetry” (p.6). The writer also mentioned Johnson-Davies's opinion about translating some historically important Arabic

poems, who thought that these poems mostly depend on figures, which makes them not so enjoyable when translated.

In conclusion, we can notice that literary translation is a very argumentative field which has many conflicting opinions, and it is the only field that some researchers even oppose its translation. Nevertheless, a professional translator can most of the time find a way to translate literary materials, but I believe that some texts cannot be translated since they can never create the same impact as the original text, especially if they depend on the beauty of their form like most Arabic poems.

References

Al-Mahrooqi, R., & Denman, C. (2016). Arab identity and literature in translation: The politics

of selection and representation. Arab World English Journal, 7. Retrieved from

http://eds.b.ebscohost.com

Altoma, S. J. (2010). Iraq's modern Arabic literature: A guide to English translations since

1950. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl

Bahaa-eddin, H. A. (2011). Literary translation: Aspects of pragmatic meaning (1). Retrieved

from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl/home.action

Bustani, A. (2014). Culture in Arabic to English literary translation (Master's thesis, University

of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE). Retrieved from https://dspace.aus.edu

Khatibi, M. (2015). Challenges of literary translation: Kahlil Gibran’s the prophet as a case

study. Arab World English Journal, 6(1). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Taylor, & Francis. (2000). Encyclopedia of literary translation into English. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa/intl/en//googlebooks/about.html

51 Business Name

Some Linguistic Difficulties in Translating the Holy Quran from Arabic into English By Hadeel Ibrahim Asulaim

Translations of the Qur'an are interpretations of the scripture of Islam in languages other than Arabic. Qur'an was originally written in the Arabic language. Translation of the Qur'an has always been a problematic and difficult issue in Islamic theol- ogy since Muslims revere the Qur'an as miraculous and inimitable. However, it is a necessity due to the large number of Muslims who do not speak Arabic. In fact, there are some linguistic difficulties in translating the Holy Quran from Arabic into English.

First of all, Farghal and Shunnaq subscribe that the Holy Quran and the Hadith have the most difficult collocations in religious texts (as cited in Dweik & Abu Shakra, 2011). Dweik and Abu Shakra (2011) believe that the cultural setting of the

English language is very different from the Arabic language which reflects the differences between lexical items. They clarified the reason for the difference as ”Most of the problems encountered are due to the specificity of certain lexical items, which are rooted in the structure of the language and are deeply immersed in Arabic culture." (p. 8).

Second, one of the issues in translating the Holy Quran is translating collocation, which is a linguistic phenomenon found in different languages. Alshaje'a (2014)definedthe collocation as, “Collocation is basically a lexical relation between words which combine orderly with other particular words to shape one semantic unit.” (para. 1). He ended that the translators' difficulty does not lie in recognizing an SL collocation; only in finding an acceptable TL equivalent which leads to an appropriate translation.

Third, English and Arabic are structurally very different, so it is one of the issues that faced Islamic translators.

Arabic is Semitic while English is Endo-European. According to Elimam (2013(,“Of all the linguistic differences between the two, word order in English is relatively fixed and the meaning of the sentence depends on the order in which its elements are ar- ranged. Arabic, on the other hand, has fewer restrictions on word order thanks to its elaborate verb inflection system and case marking.” (p. 3).

Fourth, one of the major problems that translators encountered is the problems of ijaz. Muslim scholars unanimously agree that any translation of the Holy Quran can never replace the original text and in order to fully enjoy and understand the

Quran, it has to be read in its language, Arabic. Alhaj (2015) discussed that the Muslim scholars believe that the beauty, charm and effect of the Holy Quran are very much related to Arabic. This simply means that if the Holy Quran is translated into any language, it ceases to be itself; that is the Quran loses much of its effect.

Finally, the linguistic and rhetorical features of the Holy Quran continue to challenge translators who struggle to convey the intended meaning of the Quranic verses. In 2012, Abobaker and Shaikismail emphasized that the translator must depend on a number of dictionaries in both Arabic and English to determine the specific meaning of the words. Based on the unique qualities of Qur’ān texts, “a translation of Islamic religious texts into a language other than Arabic would require translators possessed of certain qualities, not least being mastery of the Arabic language, strong grounding in Islam, understanding of context, and mastery of the TL.” (Hassan, 2016, p. 132).

References

Abobaker, A., & Shaikismail, S. (2012). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the holy Quran from Arabic into English.

International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 2(6). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com

Alhaj, A. (2015). New theory of the Holy Qur'an translation. A textbook for advanced university students of linguistics and

translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Alshaje'a, H. (2014). Issues in translating collocations of the holy Qur'an. Language in India, 14(8). Retrieved from http://

web.b.ebscohost.com/

Dweik, B., & Abu Shakra, M. (2011). Problems in translating collocations in religious texts from Arabic into English. The Lin-

guistics Journal, 5(1). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Elimam, A. S. (2013). Marked word order in the Qurān and its English translations: Patterns and motivations. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa

Hassan, S. (2016). Islamic religious terms in English-translation vs. transliteration in Ezzeddin Ibrahim and Denys Johnson-

Davies' translation of An-Nawawī's Forty Ĥadīths. The International Journal for Translation & Interpreting Re-

search, 8(1). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

53 Business Name

Royal Titles Translation into Arabic By Nourah Al-shahrani

I believe that the translator should be careful in some translations especially political translations. I am talking here about translating royal titles, as I have done extensive research, and I have not found many articles or books that deal with this subject, I see it is a subject to focus on. It is out of politeness that the translator knows what the rank of the person is who is speaking to him and whether his title is royal or nobility. Samarah (2015) explains that ''we must choose what sentence types, words, and even sounds best unite the what with the how. How we say something is at least as important as what we say'' (p. 1).

Royal titles vary from one country to another and from one family to another, but most of the titles I will discuss are in Europe and Britain. Throughout history, many have differed in the question of titles; some of them are no longer used at all, while others have become honorary titles only. In his 2013 article, the author points to the fact that these are titles of nobility that rank differently in seniority (Rae).

Many people mingle between royal and noble people. Royal people are people who somehow belong to a royal family either they were born in royal family or they did married royal person. Noble people are people who do not belong to the royal family but are considered the highest class of society and may acquire a normal person the title of noble but no ordinary person acquires a royal title ("Difference between royalty," n.d.).

We all know that the translator must translate carefully and that his translation affects the situation. In general a political translator works at embassies and consulate or TV channels and meets a lot of VIPs. Some of them are royals and nobles. The translator must translate these titles probably. For example, in the CNN channel, in an interview with Sheikh Mohammed, we can see how the interviewer knows how to translate the title of Sheikh and his pronunciation is correct. Here lies the importance of this research. What are the titles? How do we call them? Several terms are shown in the tables below. The titles are many and different from state to state but here are some examples of how to address.

Table 1.How to address royalty (''Royal and noble'', p.2)

Title Address Salutation Closing

Emperor His Imperial Majesty Name Sir: or May it please Your I have the honor to remain of Emperor), Emperor of Majesty Your Imperial Majesty's (Country) obedient servant The Queen Address Her Majesty the Madam: or May it please Closing I have honor to Queen Your Majesty remain, Madam, Your Maj- esty's most humble and obedient subject

Royal Prince His Royal Highness The Sir I have honor to remain, Sir, Prince of Your Highness's most humble and obedient subject

Table 2. How to address nobility *''Royal and noble'', p.3)

Title Address Salutation Closing Duke His Grace The Duke of My Lord Duke Yours faithfully,

Baroness (wife of a Baron) The Rt Hon. The Lady Dear Madam Yours faithfully

Earl The Rt Hon. The Earl of My Lord Yours faithfully

When translating these titles from Arabic into English, we see first if there is a term that is sufficient use. For example the word (king) has a syno-

-Elالدوق(.) but when we do not find a synonym, we mention the title as it in English, for example the word (the Duke) we translates itملك( ) nym in Arabic

Farahaty (2016) he said ''also agrees with keeping the English term as there is no equivalent in Arabic legal systems that can convey the same meaning clearly. At times, ‘the comparatist may resort to the methodological instruments of substitution and transposition, in order to find equivalents for untranslatable terms in his own legal terminology.’'' (p. 65).

In his 2015, Samarah emphasized that addressing people who are from different cultures and levels of society requires you to follow certain rules of addressing people. So we can say that it depends on your situation. Any person who you are going to translate for, whether he or she is royal or noble, you should search and ask for him or her and then see what is appropriate for the translation. By doing this you keep your politeness, and save and maintain your reputation as a professional interpreter or translator.

References

Banat Zayed. (2010, June 25). CNN's interview with Sheikh Mohammed Bin Rashid [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=IYjQz0dxFog

Difference between royalty and nobility | royalty vs nobility. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-royalty-and-vs-

nobility/

El-Farahaty, H. (2016). Translating Lexical Legal Terms Between English and Arabic. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law - Re-

vue internationale de Sémiotique juridique, 29(2), 473-493. doi:10.1007/s11196-016-9460-2

Rae, J. B. (2013, March 14). What is the difference between a duke, an earl, a lord, a marquis, a baron and a count? - Quora. Retrieved from https://

www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-a-duke-an-earl-a-lord-a-marquis-a-baron-and-a-count

Royal and noble ranks. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nobility-association.com/royalandnobleranks.htm

Samarah, A. Y. (2015). Politeness in Arabic Culture. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5(10), 2005. doi:10.17507/tpls.0510.05

55 Business Name

Translation of Arabic Verb Repetition By Rawabi H. Alqahtani

According to Hassan, 2015, "Translation is a process on a language with the aim of producing meaning in another language" (p.2). When it comes to translating Arabic verb repetition into English, translation students often find difficulty rendering these verbs into the target language which is English, so they might add or omit the verbs. In fact, they are many translation theories that can help translation students deal with Arabic verb repetition when translating into English.

Some studies have explored one of the most fundamental issues in the field of translation and focused on presenting theories that might help translation students deal with Arabic verb repetition when translating into English. Verbs in Arabic are mostly repeated to assert or indicate a particular situation or to remind the hearer or reader of a previous situation designated by the main verb (Hassan, 2015).

The Arabist Wright, 2011, studied repetition and he stated that repetition involves the addition or reiteration of lexical items which are used to strengthen and reinforce the meaning of the utterance. Also, he emphasized that repetition in Arabic is mostly used for stylistic purposes. While Hole, 2004, stated that translating verb repetition is sometimes difficult because languages differ in their lexical manifestations.

Repetition is generally discussed under lexical cohesion. In their book cohesion in English, Halliday and Hasan, 1976, defined lexical cohesion as "the repetition of lexical items in order to achieve a cohesive effect in a text" (p. 282). For them, there are four strategies of lexical cohesion: substitution, ellipses, reiteration and collocation. In addition, these strategies are used when translating Arabic verb repetition into English, particularly, substitution and ellipses.

According to Munday, 2001,most translation students use these four strategies: literal translation, free translation, addition and omission. Atiq, 1974, has set the four following categories in his translation theory to show how to handle Arabic verb repetition when translating into English, particularly, for students who usually find difficulty translating these verbs. The first category is general-specific, according to Atiq, 1974, "the stylistic purpose of this category is to draw attention to the specific word and give it priority over the general meaning, mentioned along with the general word in the same sentence, the specific word provides a focus on a particular meaning" (p. 146).

The second category which is specific-general, when you mention the first verb specifically to include and give further emphasis to the general one. The third category is assertion which is the repetition of a verb to reinforce the meaning.

While the forth category is the deletion of a verb as it is mentioned previously and understood to avoid repetition (Atiq,

1974).For example:

وإذ قال يوسف ألبيه يا ابت إني رأيت أحد عشر كوكبًا والشمس والقمر رأيتهم لي ساجدين""

Joseph said to his father: “Father, I dreamt that eleven stars and the sun and the moon were prostrating themselves before me.” (p. 148).

In the above example, the verb dream has been mentioned twice in Arabic while in English it has been mentioned once, this indicates that verb repetition in Arabic is best avoided in English (Hassan, 2015).To sum up, the translation theories of Arabic verb repetition can effectively help students deal with the Arabic verb repetition when translating into English. It is stating the obvious that a verb in Arabic is mostly repeated whereas in English, it is generally avoided.

References

Atiq, A. (1974). AlmAlmaani [Science of Meanings]. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Halliday, M., &Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Hassan, A. (2015). Translating Arabic verb repetition into English. Arab World English Journal, 6(2). Retrieved from http://

web.b.ebscohost.com

Holes, C. (2004). Modern Arabic: Structures, functions, and varieties. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Munday, J. (2001). Introducing translation studies: Theories and Applications. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

Wright, W. (2011). A grammar of the Arabic language. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

57 Business Name

Issues in Translating Collocation By Haya F. Al-Musharraf

One of the obstacles in the field of translation is collocation. According to Firth, collocation is "the company words keep." (as cited in Sadeghi, 2010, para. 3). He believes that collocation is not a paradigmatic level but actually is syntagmatic level because collocation is about commonly combined words used in language to give different meanings and not necessarily give the original meaning of these words. Leech refers to collocation as "consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meaning of words which tend to occur in its environment." (as cited in Sadeghi, 2010, para. 3). Undoubtedly, translating collocations from English to Arabic and vice versa show main issues in the translation process.

One study asked University English language majors to define the limit of correctly using English collocations. The results proved that all Arab learners have difficulties with English collocations. They must take care of being qualified enough in using collocation as native speakers do (Raji Zughoul & Abdul-Fattah, 2003). Darwish (2010) noted that we should illustrate clearly the difference between the source and target language collocation by considering the dimension of their meaning.

In 2016, Mughazy stated that a profound understanding of collocation concepts is crucial to translating them correctly. He men-

which conveys to us directly a meaning of a sensitive person, but when we get deeper into theرقيقالحال" " tions an example of

is used to show an excellent manner. Inرقيقالحال"" concept, it will show a poor person. Although "poor" is right, the collocation this case, the best translation is "from a humble background" (p. 61).

Ghazala (2008) discussed two problems of translating collocation from English to Arabic. The first issue is the difficulty of

بشرةناعمة" generalization. Many English words used for various collocation, which might not be alike in Arabic, e.g., "soft skin is

andيقترفجريمة" " p. 123). Moreover, we translate "commit a murder" toمياهناعمة")" notمياه عذبة", in Arabic whereas "soft water is

p. 122). Surely, translators must distinguish between the difference of featuresيرتكبانتحاراً")" notينتحر" " commit suicide" to" between Arabic and English collocation.

The other problem Ghazala, 2008, presents is a problem of variability of collocation from English to Arabic. It shows several English collocations that convey one meaning while Arabic has only one collocation and meaning in describing these col-

and "hard task/daunting task" isيقومبزيارة" " locations. For instance, "go on a visit/pay a visit" carry one meaning, which is

.p. 124). It illustrates that different meanings are not a principle for various collocationsمهمةشاقة")"

Finally, translating collocation in the wrong way widely happens especially for beginner translators. To avoid untranslatability, translators must realize the collocation more deeply because it is part of the language and without it, we are not professional translators. We should always focus on the ideal translation of collocation rather than just acceptable translation because it shows a stronger, easy comprehensible, high quality and smooth translation. Furthermore, collocation is influenced by related factors such as text type, everyday language, religion, etc. As Izwaini (2016) reveals, collocation is a phenomenon that expresses the way language is used and its culture.

References

Darwish, A. (2010). Elements of translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books?

Ghazala, H. (1995). Translation as problems and solutions (2008 ed.). Retrieved from http://fes-edu.com/2016/01/18/166

Izwaini, S. (2016). The translation of Arabic lexical collocations. Translation & Interpreting Studies: The Journal Of The

American Translation & Interpreting Studies Association, 11(2), 306-328. doi:10.1075/tis.11.2.09izw

Mughazy, M. (2016). The Georgetown guide to Arabic-English translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books?id=gU8sDAAAQBAJ&dq

Raji Zughoul, M., & Abdul-Fattah, H. (2003). Collocational strategies of Arab learners of English: A study in lexical seman-

tics. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED479746

Sadeghi, Z. (2010). The importance of collocation in vocabulary teaching and learning. Translation Journal, 14(2). Retrieved

from http://translationjournal.net/journal/52collocation.htm

59 Business Name

Cultural Problems of English-Arabic Translation By Hind M. Aljibreen

Zimmermann (2015) defines culture as "the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, defined by everything from language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts" (n.p.). According to this definition, people in the same culture share not just the same language but also the same religion, social habits, etc. and all these concepts are important when we translate from one language (culture) to the other. In fact, we cannot translate something well if we do not understand the culture because translation is related to culture.

Bermann (2014) discussed translation in human history and he points out that it played a big role in it. It was attend at the conquests of kings and movements of empires, the routes of trade, and human migration from the past time to the present. We found translational so in the information technology of the twenty-first century. He stated that "Wherever people have brought new languages and cultures, translation has been there, variously transforming societies, texts, and traditions" (p. 1).

Mareş, (n.d.) explains the problems of Arabic-English translation. He said:

Translation from English to Arabic is normally bound to be into Standard Arabic rather than colloquial Arabic.

Although Arabic has colloquial equivalents for many English terms, Standard Arabic has limited terms. Stand-

ard Arabic is also intrinsically formal in register terms. So, there are almost no informal terms available in Ara-

bic to relay informal English ones. Some of the translation problems involve the interaction between cultural

and linguistic problems. They often involve the lack of equivalents in Standard Arabic for certain English terms.

It is the role of the translator to understand the applications and connotations of words and determine suitable

equivalents in specific contexts (p. 4).

Durdureanu emphasizes that sometimes we cannot translate some words because every language has its own structure (as cited in Saiper, 1956). He supports that by an example which shows how the Arabic language has many synonyms for camel. In addition, each culture has its own characteristics in eating, drinking, cooking, dancing, time division, and some kinds of sports, clothing, and coins which sometimes are impossible to translate because there are no equivalents in this language or culture.

that Arabic is a complexـــــIn addition, Sultanova, 2016, discussed another problem of Arabic-English translation language especially when we translate from or to English because Arabic is from the Semitic family and English is from Indo-

European family, so some linguistic problems we find are in lexicon, morphology, syntax, text differences, rhetorical differences, and pragmatic factors. In addition, we find some cultural problems for example:

tayammum) which means "theتيمم ) and pragmatic factors. In addition, we find some cultural problems for example: the word

Islamic act of dry ablution using a purified sand or dust, which may be performed in place of ritual washing if no clean water is readily available" (n.p.), but in English we do not find a corresponding word for it.

According to Abbasi and others, 2012, "translators must be both bilingual and bicultural if not multicultural . . . A proper translation makes the reader to ponder over the cultural context of the source language. Cultural borrowing is one of the advantages that transfer ideas, customs, and social behaviors from another culture" (p. 86). We have learn both the language and the culture if we want to be good translators. Also we do not have to accept any culture, but we have to respect it by not trying to make any changes or distort it.

References

Abbasi, A., Zadeh, S. S., Assemi, A., & Dehghan, S. (2012). Language, translation, and culture. International Conference on

Language, Medias and Culture, 33. Retrieved from http://www.ipedr.com/vol33/017-ICLMC2012-L00062.pdf

Bermann, S., & Porter, C. (2014). A companion to translation studies: Introduction. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/

sdl/detail.action?docID=10829282

Durdureanu, I. I. (2011). Translation of cultural terms: Possible op impossible? AlexandruIoanCuza. Retrieved from http://

www.uab.ro/jolie/2011/4_durdureanu_irina.pdf

Mareş, R. (n.d.). Cultural difficulties in translation from English into Arabic. Retrieved from http://aflls.ucdc.ro/en/doc1/6%

20CULTURAL%20DIFFICULTIES%20IN%20TRANSLATIONS.pdf

Sultanova, S. (2016, October 27). GPI [Challenges of Translating Arabic into English]. Retrieved from http://

resources.globalizationpartners.com/blog/challenges-of-translating-arabic-into-english-

Zimmermann, K. A. (2015, February 19). What is culture? Retrieved from http://www.livescience.com/21478-what-is-culture

-definition-of-culture.html

61 Business Name

The Difficulties in Poetry Translation By Abrar Khalid Al-Amri

According to Temirov, 2012, Poetry is a separate world where the feelings of a poet and his or her heartfelt expressions reside. By means of the correspondence of meaning, word choice, rhyme, rhythm, and some other poetic devices in the poem a poet intends to express his or her ideas of a certain thing or a situation, experiences they or other people had, humane feelings as well as descriptions of certain things they may experience. (para. 3). In fact, translators help translate poems from the source language to the target language to serve various purposes, but they may face some difficulties and problems due to several reasons.

Dryden (1920) discussed that poetry translation is known to be the hardest to translate due to its creativity and what makes it hard is that the translators must not only translate the meanings of the original, but also feel its words and be able to understand it meanings, then transfer them to the target language by making it sound like a poem without affecting its meaning. He stressed that “No man is capable of translating poetry besides a genius to that art” (p. 6). Dryden emphasized that poetry is translatable. He believed a translator needs to be more like a poet while translating poetry. On the other hand some believe that “Poetry cannot be translated.” (as cited in Miremadi, 1991, p. 34).

In 2013, Al-Jabri emphasized that language and culture are the most effective elements in translating poetry. Translators must have much knowledge about both cultures to be able to clarify the poem by using the suitable word in the target language without affecting its meaning. He adopted some strategies in translation of poetry “either to maintain cultural heterogeneity or acquaint the reader with some elements of the SL culture or to abandon the SL culture entirely and concentrate instead on the TL of the reader.” (p. 447).

Another difficulty in translating poetry is the grammatical elements; due to the fact that there are differences between the grammatical systems in every language, there are quite a few differences in rules which may makes the translator’s job a little difficult. For example, the English language has twelve tenses and the Arabic language has only two, so a translator must master both languages, source and target grammar, to save time.

Sounds are also considered as another problem that a translator faces. Sound is defined as anything that has rhythm, rhyme, assonance, onomatopoeia. Rhythm and rhyme gives a poem an interesting touch, it attracts the readers. This makes poetry translation challenging for the translator: “the translator should balance where the beauty

of a poem really lies. If the beauty lies more on the sounds rather than on the meaning (semantic), the translator cannot ignore the sound factor.” (Hariyanto, n.d, para. 12).

To conclude, a translator should know that there are two ways of poetry translation; “one which directly renders the thought of the author, and the second, which is based on the original, but transfuses some new spirit” (p. 108). When a translator does well in understanding the format of the poem beside the content, this will make his or her translation very successful.

A translator needs to be creative while translating poetry texts and all good translators can be involved in this process

(Naghiyeva, 2015).

References

Al-Jabri, S. (2013).Translation of poetry between the ‘self’ and the ‘other’. Bable.

Doi:10.1075/bable.59.4.04jab

Dryden, J. (1920). The poems of John Dryden. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/

Hariyanto, S. (n.d.). Problems in translating poetry. Retrieved from https://translationdirectory.com/article640.htm

Miremadi, S. (1991).Theories of ttt and interpretation. Retrieved from https://openlibrary.org

Naghiyeva, S. (2015). Does poetry lose or gain in translation. English Language and Literature Studies, 5(3), 107. Retrieved

from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com

Temirov,M. (2012, October 9). Difficulties in poetry translation. Retrieved from http:/jltpolinema.org/?p=213

63 Business Name

Subtitling Strategies By Nourah A. Alduraihem

Subtitling is one of the audiovisual translation modes that is extremely popular nowadays due to its role in connecting languages, cultures and nations worldwide. Cintas and Remael (2014) define subtitling as, "a translation practice that consists of presenting a written text, generally on the lower part of the screen" (p. 8). Sometimes, subtitling can be a very difficult process once one gets started with it, but that is not for all. In fact, subtitlers have their own strategies to deliver the correct message.

In 2016, Linde and Kay mentioned that subtitling has two kinds which are "intralingual subtitling (for deaf and hard-of- hearing people) and interlingual subtitling (for foreign language films)." (p. 1). However, our main focus here is going to be on interlingual subtitling and its strategies. First, subtitling has some special features, for instance, the exhibition of subtitles on the screen has to be minimal from "1.5 to 2 seconds" and a max of "6.5 to 7 seconds" (Han & Wang, 2014, p. 2).

In addition, subtitles can be one or more lines and as it was stated in a thesis that a screen can be full of subtitles which can be senseless. The author also clarifies that "Normally a subtitle consists of one or two lines (referred to as a one-liner or a two

-liner, respectively)" (p. 8). But, in Japan, it can be 3 lines and in a vertical position (Pedersen, 2011). Moreover, according to

Gottlieb, "ten strategies which are used by subtitlers, including: 1) Expansion, 2) Paraphrase, 3) Transfer, 4) Imitation, 5)

Transcription, 6) Dislocation, 7) Condensation, 8) Decimation, 9) Deletion, and 10) Resignation." (as cited in Hosseinnia,

2014, p. 130).

First, "Expansion" (p. 18) is to explain what is said in the source language to make it understandable to the foreign viewer. Second, "Paraphrase" is when the syntactic structure of the source language is different from the target language, so the subtitler needs to paraphrase it in a way that the foreign viewer understands. Third, "Transfer" is rendering accurately into the target

is the translation ofستيف جوبز ,language. Fourth, "Imitation" (p. 19) is to render names of people, cities and products, for instance

Steve Jobs in Arabic. Fifth, "Transcription" (p. 20) is translating odd words/expressions (Simanjuntak, 2013).

Sixth, "Dislocation" (p. 20)has to do with songs in films where the focus is on the rendering of the songs' impact. Sev- enth, "Condensation" is to find a solution for having limited lines for translation; therefore, reducing repetition. Eighth,

"Decimation" (p. 21) is removing words/expressions that are necessary but might confuse the viewers. Ninth, "Deletion" is removing taboo words and some parts that are not important. And finally, "Resignation" (p. 22) is when the subtitler can't find a way to transfer the meaning into the target language (Simanjuntak, 2013).

As you can see, subtitling is not an easy task, as speaking a second language does not mean one can be a subtitler/ translator. A subtitler needs to know the language and culture of the target language to deliver the message accurately and make it understandable to the foreign audience. Therefore, following the previous strategies will help the subtitler achieve his/ her goal and have a complete understanding of the language and culture he/she is working on.

References

Cintas, J. D., & Remael, A. (2014). Audiovisual translation: Subtitling. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa

Han, C., & Wang, K. (2014). Subtitling swearwords in reality TV series from English into Chinese: A corpus-based study of

The Family. The International Journal of Translation and Interpreting Research, 6(2). Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/

User/Downloads/Documents/271-1262-1-PB.pdf

Hosseinnia, M. (2014). Strategies in subtitling English cartoons or animations. International Journal of Language Learning

and Applied Linguistics World, 5(3). Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Documents/

finalversion5311_3.pdf

Linde, Z. D., & Kay, N. (2016). The semiotics of subtitling. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Pedersen, J. (2011). Subtitling norms for television: An exploration focusing on extralinguistic cultural references. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa

Simanjuntak, N. V. (2013). Subtitling strategies in "Real Steel" movie (Master's thesis, Dian Nuswantoro University , Sema-

rang, Indonesia). Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/User/Desktop/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%

20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%AB/sutitling%20strategies.pdf

65 Business Name

Difficulties in the Translation of English Collocations into Arabic By Sara A. Zawawi

Translating texts from English into Arabic are sometimes easy for translators, but when it comes to translating, collocation the translators make some mistakes. The question is what is collocation? “Collocations are two or more words which have a strong tendency to co-occur in a language as prefabricated combination of two or more words in a particular context” (Nmvar &

Ibrahim, 2014, para. 2). In fact, translating collocation from English to Arabic has some difficulties during the translation process.

Many students do not know the importance of collocation and what the types of it are and that will make their translation from

English to Arabic very weak in the target language. In 2014, Namvar and Ibrahim said “collocations play an important role in second language learning” (para. 1). Also in 2011, Dweik and Shakra stated that “collocation plays a vital role organizing relations within the text” (p. 6). In my opinion, if the translator understood collocation and how to translate it very well, his translation would be beautiful, powerful and agreeable.

Types of collocation are also important to help in the meaning and to keep the spirit of the target language. In 2013,

Faris and Sahu emphasized that understanding the types in English help the students to know the right grammatical rule of any collocation and it helps them to distinguish between the word classes according to their occurrence together in language use. For example, (Adjective + noun collocation), (great pleasure) its translation could be difficult for those who did not know the types of

and that isتقديرعظيم( ) ,collocation and may translate it like

.so translators should pay close attention to these mistakesسعادةغامرة(, ) wrong, as the correct translation is

All the translators should know the difficulties to avoid them in the future. There are some difficulties that Lahlali and Abu Hat- ab, 2014, have mentioned, such as translation based on culture and misunderstanding the collocation. In addition, in 2013, Faris and Sahu emphasized that some translators face some difficulties when they translate collocation from English into Arabic, and one of the difficulties is generalization, as they said “some English words collocate with one and the same word, but they are not necessarily in Arabic” (p. 64). Also we have another difficulty which is variability of collocation which could be fixed in English but in Arabic it may change.

Let us see how collocations have different meaning when translators translate them incorrectly. For example, Faris and

Sahu (2013) tested some students to see their translations, they put many examples one of them is “essay bank” translators trans-

this may change the meaning of the text. In 2015, Salih said collocation mistakesمصرف المعلومات” “ instead ofمصرف المقالة”“ late it could breakdown the communication between the source and target language Finally, there are some solutions that could help the

translators to avoid these difficulties.

As Fanit (2009) said “Tracing the identical collocation in Arabic if and when available” (p. 33). Also she stressed to keep away from literal translation and to understand the text very well or the translation will be funny, misunderstood and lose its original spirit. I agree with her because one of the translator duties is to keep the spirit of the text so these strategies may help them to have a professional translation.

References

Dweik, B. S., &Shakra, M. M. (2011).Problems in translating collocations in religious texts from Arabic into English. The Lin-

guistics Journal, 5(1). Retrieved from http://www.linguistics-journal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/June-2011-

bd.pdf

Fanit, R. (2009). Problems in translating collocation (Master's thesis). Retrieved from http://bu.umc.edu.dz/theses/anglais/

FAN1152.pdf

Faris, A. A., &Sahu, R. A. (2013). The translation of English collocations into Arabic: Problems

and solutions. Journal of the College of Arts, (64). Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=71617

Lahlali, E. M., & Abu Hatab, W. A. (2014).Advanced English-Arabic translation: A practical guide. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Namvar, F., & Ibrahim, N. (2014).Construction of collocations in the writing of postgraduate students. International .Journal of

Arts and Sciences, 7(2). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1644633275?pq-origsite=summon

Salih, G. E. (2015). Difficulties in learning English collocations at secondary level (Master's

thesis). Retrieved from http://repository.sustech.edu/bitstream/handle/123456789/12477/Difficulties%20in%

20Learning...pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

67 Business Name

Is Any Bilingual a Translator? By Fatima Salem AL-Jabri

In the past, there was not a special field for translation, instead it was a part of studying languages in general. It was enough to know two languages to start translating and it was donated only to the languages. Even though translation now has de- volved to be a special field with special requirements, most people still think that all bilinguals are translators and most bilinguals think that studying translation is useless if they have the language. In fact, it is not the case to have two languages; translation requires many things beside the language, and not all bilinguals can translate in the way proficient translators do.

How can we define bilingualism and translation? Hung (2002) states that the word translation is a metaphor of carrying something from somewhere into another; that is like an object that can be picked up from where it is and dropped in a new place.

While the definition of bilingualism differs according to the purpose of stating it, some say that we can call a person a bilingual if he can speak the two languages as the native-speakers of these languages do. Others think of bilingualism as the ability to speak two languages about 50% of a day, and this is the most common one that is used in researches (Atagi, 2012).

It is an indisputable fact that bilingualism is necessary and every translator needs to be first a bilingual but when we talk about translation it is not sufficient for proficiency, since nature ability, training and cultural knowledge are other requirements that each bilingual needs (Kolawole, 2012). From this point of view, we can differentiate between translation and bilingualism.

Translation is never literal as to replace a word in a source text with its equivalence in the target text, we may face texts that do not have an equivalence in the target language or its equivalence may have a different cultural meaning.

Since each language has its own style of writing, we can't follow word-for-word translation pattern or we will probably distort the intentional meaning and we might end up with a prosaic translation. Translators who have an excellent knowledge of both the TL and SL will have the ability to represent the target text in a well-written way. Also, proficient translators will know how to dealwith local idioms whose literal translation could lead up to quite different meanings. For example, "while 'Break a leg' is a well-known to mean 'Good luck' in English, a literal translation into another language could imply that you wish someone harm!" (ACCESSIBLETRANSLATIO, 2014, para. 3).

In 2012, Kolawole stated that most bilinguals face the issue of balanced bilingualism; they often have a language that is dominant so evaluating equivalence is an obstacle as far as translation is concerned. Beside the language

meanings, also a proficient translator has to study the linguistics fields in order to know how to translate each style of writing correctly. Biculturalism in a translator is also focused because it refers to the translator specialty, for example, in a world of translation to translate literature you have to be a writer, or you may misunderstand the intended meaning or the text may lose its aesthetics (Johnson, 2008).

Consequently, bilinguals have to be native-speakers like in the source language and the target language, should be exceptional readers in all life fields in the source language, should have expert training in linguistic skills and finally they must know the cultural setting for the text they are translating to be translators or to work as translators (NĂZNEAN &Cuza, n.d.).

This is how actual translators are and this is the only way bilinguals can be translators or we will probably destroy the concept of translation.

References

ACCESSIBLETRANSLATIO. (2014, November 11). Common misconceptions about translation. Retrieved from http://

accessibletranslations.com/translationspeak /?tag=being-bilingual-is-not-enough-to-be-a-translator

Atagi, N. (2012, January 17). What do we mean when we say ‘bilingual’? Retrieved from http://

www.psychologyinaction.org/2012/01/17/what-do-we-mean-when-we-say-bilingual/

Hung, E. (Ed.). (2002). Teaching translation and interpreting 4: Building bridges. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

Johnson, F. (2008, July). Being bilingual is not enough. Retrieved from http://www.atanet. Retrieved from http://

www.atanet.org/chronicle/3707_22_johnson.pdf

Kolawole, S. (2012). Is every bilingual a translator? Translation Journal, 16(2). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/

journal/60bilingual.htm

NĂZNEAN, A., & Cuza, A. (n.d.). Bilingualism versus translation. Retrieved fromhttp://www.upm.ro/facultati_departamente

69 Business Name

Challenges in Legal Translation By Wejdan M. Almaziad

The process of translation is about looking for words into another language that express the same meaning of the source language in the target language. According to Welther (2014), '' Something that can prove difficult and result in translation errors'' (p. 5). There are two kinds of text: general and specialized. In an article titled ''Types of legal documents and difficulties of their translation'', it was reported that ''Specialized text consists largely of specific vocabulary and elements of common vocabulary'' (p. 54). It was added that the most important task of a legal translator to create a text that will have the same legal effect

(2012). In this paper a deeper look into some challenges and obstacles that face translators in legal translation.

In 2016, Way emphasized that the law controls our lives in many ways, for example, when we want to download an app, we should accept the terms and conditions. We spend our time completing administrative forms. He stressed that, ''the law-and

[sic], as a consequence, the legal system of any country-is [sic] a results of historical, political, and cultural development of its people. Legal text are intricately connected to this development and reflect the complexity of the legal they represent'' (p. 1).

Legal translation is difficult due to the differences between legal systems. According to Al Aqad (2014), ''Legal translation differs from other types of translation in two basic components: the legal system and the term associated with that system, thus understanding the legal term and its translation into another language depends on the understanding of its locus in the legal system to which it belongs".

One of the difficulties of legal translation is that the legal documents have a certain structure. In 2012, Azmanova emphasized that legal documents have a certain translation connected with the legal field. He stressed that, ''Law text is usually formal, and contains a fair amount of legal jargons, but it does not have inordinate amount of legalese'' (p. 108). According to

Chromá, 2004, ''The language of law is rather formalized language at all levels: lexical, syntactic, textual and generic'' (p. 47).

In 2014, Alcaraz and Hughes emphasized that legal terminology is considered one of the difficulties of legal translation that we should focus on. They stressed that, ''The technicalities of legal vocabulary present a serious challenge to the translator or interpreter'' (n.p.). We should pay attention to law terminology. According to Azmanova, 2012, ''Sometimes we even need know the term's origin in order to translate it in a correct way'' (p. 108).

To conclude, we should focus to the difficulties of legal translation to avoid them when we translate. The important advice before you translate legal translation is to know more about different laws. According to Cao,

2007, ''It is commonly acknowledged that legal translation is complex, and it requires special skills, knowledge, and experience on the part of the translator produce such translation" (p. 3).

References

Al Aqad, M. H. (2014). Translation of legal texts between Arabic and English: The case study of marriage contracts. Arab

World English Journal, 5(2), 118. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Alcaraz, E., & Hughes, B. (2014). Legal translation explained. A. Pym (Ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Azmanova, N. (2012). Difficulties in the usage and translation of the law terminology in the specialized

texts. TRADUCEREA JURIDICĂ:DIFICULTĂğI ùI SOLUğII, 6(23/24). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Cao, D. (2007). Translating law. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Chromá, M. (2004). Legal translation and the dictionary. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

RÂBACOV, G. (2012). Types of legal documents and difficulties of their translation. JURILINGVISTICA ùI TRADUCEREA

ÎN CONTEXTUL PLURILINGVISMULUI, 6(23/24). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Way, C. (2016). The challenges and opportunities of legal translation and translator training in the 21st century. International

Journal of Communication, 10, 1. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Welther, B. (2014). Difficulties in translating legal terms. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

71 Business Name

Cosmetics Trademarks Translation By Al-anoud A. Al-ajmi

In 2014, Wang emphasized that the perspective of beauty cares about knowing the operation of cosmetics trademarks. She stressed that, "the source name and the target name of a cosmetics trademark are born in different cultural context.” (p. 626). The source name and the target name are created to swap between two languages and make it easier for the cus- tomer to understand more about the product in his own language. She also points out an example of the Chinese market which studies successfully trademark cosmetics translation.

In 2012, H L and K S stressed that cosmetics that we daily apply on our whole body or some part of it needs a special knowledge of what it is made of. The components of each cosmetic should give the required positive result. All cosmetic products need to be heat resistant and stay beneficial for a long period of time. Also, they must check for changing in color, smell, and stickiness. On the other hand, products must care about how it can be pollution after opening the pack and how to prevent this problem.

According to E P, Merk and Maibach, 2012, they include a good example of controlling the consumer product claims in the US, by representations governed by federal and state law. By this kind of controlling they can avoid disingenuous advertising.

The advertising in the US must have reasonable rules and be able to prove claims. Finally, controlling the consumer product will prevents errors and damages.

R H, 2016, stressed that females are affected by cosmetics advertising. In all the areas of the world they all agree about a strong point which is there is a strong connection between females and charming looks. He also stressed that, “From Disney prin- cesses to reality television makeover shows, female appearance from childhood through to adulthood tends to be foregrounded in a way that male appearance is not.” (p. 1).

In 2016, Steiling emphasized that in nowadays it is important to take advantage of technology to check carefully each individual ingredient. He also mentioned how important it is to check the skin sensitization before being displayed on the market.

Because if they did not check each ingredients of the cosmetics they sell, it will cause danger and harmful results. It should also be kept in mind that a single test result for the skin sensitization is not enough to give a good and clear result about allergies.

According to H P and B B, 2012, they stressed that culture these days underlies all facts of social attitude and interaction, which is used in everyday life and has become a style of communication in a community. Cosmetics are a widespread element especially between women that is resulting in the emergence of a consumer culture and cosmetics which

has become one of the important things for women of this age. The most important topics to women these days are beauty and physical attractiveness. Finally, all women around the world should get a good awareness about how to read cosmetics trademarks plus to understand every sign on any product, and also to be more aware of consumer culture.

References

Wang, S. (2014). Translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Cosmetics Trademarks, 5

(3). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=3&sid=c74d61bc-83b5-45c6-9980-

bb27d4dd5f61%40sessionmgr4008&hid=4101

H L., & K S. (2012). Formulas, ingredients and production of cosmetics: Technology of skin- and hair-care products in Japan.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

E P., Merk, & Maibach, (2012). Cosmetics: Controlled efficacy studies and regulation. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

R H. (2016). The language of cosmetics advertising. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Steiling, W. (2016). Safety evaluation of cosmetic ingredients regarding their skin sensitization potential. Safety Evaluation of

Cosmetic Ingredients, 3(2). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics3020014

H P., & B B. (2012). The influence of culture on cosmetics consumer behavior. Cosmetics and Consumer Behavior, 3(4). Re-

trieved from http://iosrjournals.org/iosr-jbm/papers/vol3-issue4/F0344147.pdf?id=5469

73 Business Name

Translation Manipulation: When Text Is Placed in the Wrong Hands By Lujain Mohammed Alnofal

In 2016, Lefevere emphasized that the act or process of rewriting authentic content is translation. Every rewriting, no matter what the authors' intent, reproduces a certain ideology and a poetics. He stressed that "Rewriting is manipulation, under- taken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (p. 1). New concepts, new styles, new devices will appear when someone practices the process of rewriting. Translation has formed power of one culture upon another because the history of translation is attached to the history of literary innovation. In fact, after an intensive search of manipulation in the translation phenomenon, a myriad of issues and enquiries should be discussed.

It is popularly believed that all translation implies an amount of manipulation of the ST. Manipulation School representa- tives and expert translators as well have stated that both readers and translators are manipulated. Therefore, they stated that from the standpoint of the target literature, for a certain reason all translation implies an amount of manipulation of the ST. Translations are a result of manipulation of the ST which is governed by the target culture and it is considered that in literary translation, manipulation is impossible to be avoided which is regarded by the manipulation scholars. (Klimovich & Климович, 2015).

Translation is never the same as the original text. This is the reason why Kramina claimed that translation is manipulation: "Manipulation is one of the most controversial and blurred phenomena in Translation Studies. Although it has been at the centre of attention of a number of scholars since at least the 1970s." (2004, p. 1). You can notice that while reading translated newspapers, books, magazines, and even periodicals, whereby you must read the original text first to compare the validity.

New ideologies have appeared while manipulating. Jeremy (2007) points out that ideology has primarily been linked to manipulation and other relations. He believes that ideology is elevated from the knowledge, awareness, faith and value systems of the people (the translator) as well as the community in which they engage. In 2009, Lu wrote about a translator who manipulated a story of women from classical Chinese literature for his own religious beliefs and ideologies, so he misrepresented the Chi- nese originals. This is negative transfer and manipulation of cultural images.

Klimovich and Климович (2015) set methods from the Bible to prove that all translation implies an amount of manipulation. For example, In the extracts the names of Biblical characters Jesus H. Christ and God Almighty are translated with черт in the first extract and А черт in the second one. This technique allowed substitution of Biblical expressions, so the fact of manipulation is clear. Therefore, Dukate, 2009, stressed that "To be able to conceptualize translational manipulation, it is necessary

necessary to look first at manipulation as a phenomenon in general, and the way it has been perceived in other spheres of life and sciences." (p. 69).

There is no strict definition of manipulation. It has both positive and negative aspects. The translator is the only one who can determine the required aspect. However, some people consider it to be manipulation of translation while others do not. The view adopted on translation as manipulation might depend on people's way of perceiving translation. I believe that manipulation has a direct impact on reader’s perception. Also it may affect their point of view.

References

Dukate, A. (2009). Translation, manipulation, and interpreting. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Jeremy, M. (2007). Translation and ideology. The Translator, 13(2). Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13556509.2007.10799238

Klimovich, N., & Климович, H. (2015). Manipulation in translation. Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities &

Social Sciences. Retrieved from http://elib.sfu-kras.ru/handle/2311/16671

Kramina, A. (2004). Translation as manipulation: Causes and consequences, opinions and attitudes. Kalbų Studijos, 7(6). Re-

trieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265098651

Lefevere, A. (2016). Translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

Lu, F. (2009). Translation, manipulation and the transfer of negative cultural images. The Translator, 15(2). Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13556509.2009.10799284

75 Business Name

Problems in Translating Literary Texts By Ghaida M. Alzeer

According to Hassan, 2011,”Translation plays an important role in increasing awareness and understanding among diverse cultures and nations. Literary translation in particular help these different cultures reach a compromise” (p. 2). And literary translation has so many difficulties because there are so many things other than the meaning the translator has to transfer from SL to TL like the writing style of the author. Hassan also said that the aesthetics value of literary texts make translating them harder than any other type of texts.

Sanchez talked about the problems in literary translation and the difficulty in the semantic and stylistic field that are found in literary texts. So how can the translator transfer these meanings to the target language? In order to solve this problem,

Sanchez said that the translator needs to find the relationship and similarities between SL and TL to convey the meaning. And here we can see the difference between translating non–literary texts like (technical, scientific, advertising, and etc.) and literary texts (2009).

Khatibi discussed the difficulties in translating poetry and the challenges that face the translators in translating literary texts, and he mentioned that the aesthetic value in this type of texts is the hardest thing. He studied three translations for Kahlil

Gibran's books in Arabic and French. The main aim of his study is "to see what extent those translations have managed to assert and preserve the artistic essence of the original text" (p. 1). And he ended up saying one translation was better (2015).

Guessabi discussed the main challenges in translating novels, and what is special about novels is that sometimes people think you just translate them word for word. Others say that the translator needs to have the capacity to be creative and convey the meaning without following the original text. So the answer for the question, which approach is correct, is not definite (2013).

Arabic literature is rich with novels and poetry from the very old times before Islam and there are so many famous works that had been translated to different European languages. The nature of the Arabic language is not easy so the translators have to work hard to transfer the meaning in an appropriate context (Al- Mahrooqi, 2016).

In 2000, Schäffner emphasized that the translator must be efficient enough to solve any problem that may face him\her in translating and he talked about the most common challenges in this field. Some of these challenges are: first the vocabulary problems and Schäffner said that most problems are associated with them, so the same word might have more than one translation according to the type of text, like a word in a legal text will not be the same as in a

literary text. Secondly, the translator should be fluent in the two languages and use them perfectly-the foreign and the mother.

Then he advised the translators to read the full text before starting the process of translation. And finally bilingual dictionaries are very useful.

Finally at the end of this paper I want to emphasize the importance of the translation field because it is related to every science when we want to transfer our knowledge and our culture to the world. It is the way that makes this huge world in contact with one another. So the translator has a tough job and he\she must be trustworthy because the responsibility is very big; if he\she translate something wrong, that can cause many problems and misunderstandings among people and even countries.

That leads us to think about the qualities of the translator that makes him\her efficient enough to face the diverse problems and challenges and solve them appropriately.

References

Al-Mahrooqi, R. (2016). Arab identity and literature in translation: The politics of selection and representation. Arab World

English Journal, 7(5). Retrieved from http://awej.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=884:

Guessabi, F. (2013). The cultural problems in translating a novel from Arabic to English language a case study : The Algerian

novel. Arab World English Journal, 4(2). Retrieved from http://awej.org/index.php?

option=com_content&view=article&id=302

Hassan, B. A. (2011). Literary translation: Aspects of pragmatic meaning. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa/books

Khatibi, M. (2015). Challenges of literary translation: Kahlil Gibran’s the prophet as a case study. Arab World English Journal,

6(1.2015). Retrieved from http://awej.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=622:

Sanchez, M. T. (2009). The problems of literary translation: A study of the theory and practice of translation from English into

Spanish. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Schäffner, C., & Adab, B. (Eds.). (2000). Developing translation competence. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

77 Business Name

Problems Concerning Machine Translation and the Need for Development By Amal Mohammed Aon Al-Mshawi

Machine translation started as early as the 1930s, and it was widely known to transfer words from the source language to the target language automatically with no regard to the meaning represented by this process. According to Henisz-

Dostert, Macdonald and Zarechnak in 1978, idiomatic expressions were given in a general form and the specifics of analysis were not expressed. They emphasize that “Translation machine was an automatic dictionary which required pre- and post-editing by an editor” (p. 8). In other words, the only thing that matters in the past was the process of translating words literally.

Idioms are a good point to start discussing problems concerning machine translation. As represented in Steffens’ book,

”synonyms are words denoting the same type of objects” (p. 13). He represented in 2009that translating idioms, which usually contain words that cannot be replaced with their synonyms, is one of the problems concerning machine translation. This means that it is hard for MT to differ between idiomatic and non-idiomatic expressions, and this leads to substituting words that should not be replaced with their synonyms. As a result, readers of the target language might not understand the final translation.

There are, in general, four problems as represented in the article “Problems with Machine Translation”. The first issue is the problem of quality, which is the biggest problem concerning machine translation. The article emphasizes that “it is impossible for a computer program to understand context” (para. 2), and almost everyone knows that the meaning of a word differs based on the context. In addition, there is the problem of not being able to receive feedback, lack of creativity, and lack of sensitivity.

The case of ambiguity can be added to the four problems that are listed before, according to Wilks in 2009. He emphasized that a human translator can usually understand the meaning of a sentence based on his knowledge of the world around him beside his linguistic knowledge, which means that he can resolve syntactical and semantical ambiguities. On the other hand, machine translation leaves them unresolved or transfers words automatically which results, almost all the time, in a wrong translation.

As an answer to the question “why is it so hard to automatically translate texts?”, Rubens states in his article that scientists and academics were trying to make computers learn languages by learning their grammar and vocabulary, but it turned out to be an unsuccessful try. The reason for this unsuccessfulness is that languages are too complex. In addition, new vocabulary is always added, and rules are not always useful when it comes to understanding meanings represented by some sentences (2014).

In 2016, Smith, Azizy and Specia emphasized in the summary of their findings that although the coherence models were not able to score the human translations for all of the documents, there is actually a good basis to make future improvements. They pointed out that ''Some models are clearly more heavily affected by the use of methods that disregard ties'' (p. 16). However, the trend in the ranking of models is still the same as usual, and according to what they found, with no regard to ties, GRAPH is the best model.

References

Henisz-Dostert, B. Macdonald, R. & Zarechnak, M. (1978). Machine translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa

Rubens, P. (2014, November 18). Building Bable: Lost in machine translation. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/future/

story/20120306-lost-in-machine-translation

Smith, K. Azizy, W. Specia, L. (2016). The trouble with machine translation coherence. Baltic Journal of Modern Compu-

ting, 4(2). Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com

Steffens, P. (1993). Machine translation and the lexicon. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa

The problems with machine translation. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.inwhatlanguage.com/blog/the-problems-with-

machine-translation/

Wilks, Y. (2009). Machine translation: Its scope and limits. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa

79 Business Name

The Difficulties of Translating Literature By Sheikha Saleh Al-Quait

Translation study focuses on how translators should translate and how they can be trained to produce a proper translation of the text. Literary texts were the center of many translation studies and the question of how good the translation arises and why the source language literary text is better than the target translation literary one. As Zuber mentioned, "It also dabbled in linguistic philosophy and in linguistic psychology, producing many an [sic] analysis of A as translator of B, in which a few memora- ble things might be said about either A, or B, or both, but not too many about translation" (2014, p. 153).Indeed, many translators face some problems when they are translating literary works.

In 2015, Colenciuc emphasized that the receiver or the reader of the target text should get the same effect that the reader of the source language receives from the original text and link it with her or his background knowledge. He explained that, "The impression the reader gets when she/he reads is defined as the effect" (p. 130). The effect should be the same in both the source language and the target language.

Wechsler (1998) discussed that there are many steps included in the process of literature translation. The first step is knowing about the author's works, life, culture, and background. The second step is trying to understand what the author's works really means and what are the basics of his or her works and then choosing the best alternatives and making many judgments upon it.

In 2012, Haque mentioned that translators have a lot of complicated issues when they translate and the content and the style of the original text is important. Some of the common problems that translators face are illegible text, vague terminology, ambiguous acronyms and abbreviations, and missing references. In addition, some theorists say that literal translation is not applicable in literature translation.

GRIȚAC (2016) discussed that literature translation is a kind of an art. Although it is considered as an art, it is problematic because the translator should be as creative and skilled as the author of the original text, so that he or she can make an adequate poem. Also, translation of poems requires the translator to be a poet in order to make a poem in the other language or the target language.

The question of what makes a translation correct or proper is a question that almost every translation student has and this concept changes with time. The translator has to consider the cultural, and historical orientation of the source text before starting

to translate any text. The translation of any translator is a different version of the original text even if the translator tried to make it as the same as the original (Mueller-Vollmer& Irmscher, 1988).

References

Colenciuc, I. (2015). Challenges of literary translation: Pragmatic approach. Intertext, (1/2), 128-132. Retrieved from http://

web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?

GRIȚAC, T. (2016). Particular challenges in teaching literary translation: The process of translation. INTERTEXT, (1/2), 174.

Retrieved from http://icfi.ulim.md/volume/INTERTEXT

Haque, Z. (2012). Translating literary prose: Problems and solutions. International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(6), 101.

Retrieved from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php

Mueller-Vollmer, & Irmscher. (1988). Translating literatures, translating cultures. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books?

Wechsler, R. (1998). Performing without a stage: The art of literary translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books?

Zuber, O. (Ed.). (2014). The languages of theatre: Problems in the translation and transposition of drama. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa/books?

81 Business Name

Political Translation Problems By Nardeen S. Al-Rajhi

In this text, Mardirosz (2015)identifies the various problems related to political texts translation and their discussion.

There are four main concepts involved in political translation. They include politics and language, translation of political texts, the adaptation of political texts and the challenges involve in the translation of political texts. Since translation does not only involve translation procedures and transfer operations application, but also involves the understanding of historical, political and cultural conditions as well as the significance, it has been widely concluded that there is no particular method of translating a political speech. As a result, misinterpreting or translating a political speech or text could lead to disastrous consequences; clearly political translators face many difficulties, pressure and restrictions.

Moreover, Bánhegyi(2015), paper gives a description of research dealing in text linguistic of political texts. There are six categories of classification presented. They are case of political conflict, translators act as mediators, the roles and politics of the translators, the roles and responsibilities of the translators and their strategies, how the literary texts, as well as other text types, are manipulated, the social, cultural and historical background of the translators and their inferences and finally, the awareness of the critical discourse in the translation process. As a result, there has to be an analysis of target texts and the corresponding source texts in order to adequately describe the features of translated materials and translation.

Further, Baker (2011) points out the benefits of training translators in a systematic manner. This ensures that a syllabus is provided in order to indicate some of the major perplexities involved in translating a particular text from one language to another.

It also examines the pertinence of the major areas of the current linguistic theory. On top of that, it gives an overview of the modern research in various areas to avoid problems during translation. Such areas include pragmatics which helps to give a continuous connection between translation, language and the cultural and the social environment where translation and language work in unison. Other areas are text linguistics and lexical studies.

Conversely, in this section, the author Malkawi (2012)deals with translating political discourse in news media. It provides analysis of translation for two networks including Al-Alam and Aljazeera. In the Aljazeera text, the main scope is the Iraq war, the general responsibility for both the army and the British government and the messy Basra situation. Covering of the texts aids in shaping the mind of the reader in order to understand how the Brits failed to completely invade Iran and the achievements in terms of conflict and chaos in Iran and the entire region. In addition to that, the journalists from Aljazeera presented rather sub- jective opinions, by quoting accusatory statements of Sir Jock as well as the shady situation of Iraq, Basra that was caused

by the attack by the British, revealing translation problems.

Also, one of the major problems faced during translation of political texts is literary translation. This is because political-cultural factors are sometimes directly translated using other forms. There has been a reproduction of actual and cultural inferences and they have been manipulated in the translation of political texts from Arabic to the English language. Over time, a number of political texts that were applied were restricted and the findings only indicated one particular approach in translation. It was also noted that the most common method used in political text translation is direct translation and the various challenges faced included inability to identify the contexts to which the meanings of political terms can be used.

In addition, Nazzal (2016) presents the challenges that were encountered by students in interpreting the political language as well as political speeches. The author noted that during translation students experience difficulties in political rheto- ric, the unfamiliarity with both the foreign culture and political language, and students not paying attention to transfer pragmatic equivalence in the source content. Besides, the translators make translation mistakes due to improper language equivalents, as well as restoration to improper translation tactics like the literal translation strategy. This translation failure encourages distortion of the intended meaning leading to miscommunication.

References

Baker, M. (2011). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. New York: Routledge. Retrieved from https://

books.google.co.ke/books

Bánhegyi, M. (2015). Translation and Political Discourse. The Journal of "Sapientia" Hungarian University of Transylvania, 6

(2). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1515/ausp-2015-0011

Hatim, & Mason, I. (2014). Discourse and the Translator. New York: Routledge. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.ke/

books

Malkawi, R. (2012). The Ideological Stamp: Translation of Political Discourse in News Media. Patterson Lakes, Australia:

Writescope Publishers. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Mardirosz, S. (2015). Problems related to the translation of political texts. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Ohilogica, 6(2), 163.

doi:10.1515/ausp-2015-0012

Nazzal, A. R. (2016, January 21). Analysis of Political Language and Translation: A Case Study of Obama's Two Political

Speeches (in Cairo 2009 and in Jerusalem 2013. Retrieved from An-Najah Staff: https://staff-old.najah.edu/anazzal/

supervision/analysis-political-language-and-translation-case-study-obamas-two-political-spee

83 Business Name

Challenges of Translating Arabic vs. English Collocations By Shahad A. Al-Otaibi

In 2016, Izwaini argued that a language can be identified by how its words are formed into collocations. He stated "Being a linguistic phenomenon, collocation is one manifestation of culture" (p. 315). Since different cultures shape and help structure different collocations, we conclude that collocation is an important aspect of any culture. Judging by how its collocations reflects the influence, the Arabic language is expressly influenced by the Islamic culture. Surely, cultural and sociolinguistic factors offer many challenges for translators when translating Arabic vs. English collocations.

The term ‘to collocate’ means to frequently occur in close proximity with; thus, a collocation in linguistics means words that tend to occur in close proximity to one another. For instance, ’pretty’ and ‘handsome’ have the same sense of ‘good looking’ in English. However ‘pretty’ collocates with words such as ‘girl’, ‘flower’ ‘color’, while ‘handsome’ collocates with ‘man’, ’car’, ‘airliner’ and so on (Dickins, Hervey& Higgins, 2016, n.p.).

It should not be understood that calling them “collocations“ means that all phrases stick to one state and not another, as Atallah argued in

2014. He mentioned that some collocations have flexibility especially in a language rich with synonymy like Arabic. Therefore a sentence like “he drew

even if it isسحب” “ But that does not negate the existence of another equivalent which isاستل سيفه”. “ his sword“ has an equivalent in our language that is less eloquent and beauteous (2014, para.6).

Nonetheless, there are some cases of equivalence in which only one word can work, such as phrases that describe the voices of animals:

,is of the horse, and so on (para.6). Also, there are the original traits of colorsالصهيل” “ ,is of the catالمواء’ “ “ ,is of the wolfالعواء’ “ “ ,is of the lionالزئير” “

.(the wall is vivid blue” and so on (Atallah, 2014, para.6الجدار أزرق زاه” ,“the flower is bright yellowالزهر أصفر فاقع “ :we say

Moreover, in 2016, Mughazy argued that things are complicated when it comes to translating collocations that have no direct equivalent in

importance” the phraseاألهمية “ which literally means terminal point, when it collocates withمنتهى, English, such as the open collocations with metaphorically describes extreme importance, which is an equivalence with the English collocation “of the utmost importance“. But this pattern doesn’t

and gets translated as “utmost strangeness“ it sounds strange and nothing like an Englishالغرابة collocates with منتهى work all the time because when collocation (p. 62).

Husni and Newman (2015) proposed the there are three levels in which the problems of translating collocations occur: recognition, comprehension, and reproduction. They suggested that the translator has to overcome these three obstacles in order to produce the perfect collocation in the target language. They maintained that some of these stages are easier to overcome than others. For instance, a translator can use a dictionary to get a complete comprehension of the collocation. But for recognition, it is harder to grasp especially if the combination has a figurative meaning to it (p. 15).

According to Dweik and Abu Shakra, 2011, translating metaphoric collocations can be difficult for its specificity and the emotions that they imply. He further explained that the common mistake that students make when translating collocations is ignoring the collocational meaning and merely translating collocations word for word by finding the direct equivalent in the target language, which leads to failing to communicate the meaning behind the collocation itself. Similarly, Hatim and Masom noted that “There is always a danger that, even for experienced translators, source language interference will occasionally escape unnoticed and an unnatural collocation will flaw the target text” (p. 61) (as cited in Brashi, 2005, p.61)

Armstrong suggested that recognizing the collocations from the SL is not difficult but finding a proper equivalent in the TL is (as cited in Bani-

Younes, 2015). Moreover, Bani-Younes in 2015 emphasized “It has been long argued that rendering any suitable equivalent that is culturally acceptable in the target society’s language might, most often, be problematic. Specifically, if the term which is chosen as an equivalent in the TL has, totally or partially, a different way of use from that of the SL” (p. 56). That is to say, the function of the translated collocation may differ in both languages even if it has equivalent words.

Summarizing, as noted by Mughazy (2016) “Collocations have an arbitrary nature that makes it difficult to establish translation rules” (p. 62).

However, since translators cannot mistranslate or misinterpret collocations, they should be more exposed to Modern Standard Arabic as that enhances their ability to distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable collocations (Brashi, 2005).

References

Atallah, M. (2014, October 11). Almutalazimat allafthyiah - Ru'yat mutarjim. Retrieved from http://www.proz.com/doc/4069

Bani-Younes, M. A. (2015). Cultural and sociolinguistic issues in English-Arabic translation of collocations. Studies in Literature and Language, 10(6). Re-

trieved from http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/sll/article/viewFile/7017/7561

Brashi, A. S. (2005). Arabic collocations: Implications for translations (Doctoral dissertation, Western Sydney university, Australia). Retrieved from http://

researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:2509

Dickins, J., Hervey, S., & Higgins, I. (2016). Thinking Arabic translation: A course in translation method: Arabic to English (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://

books.google.com

Dweik, B. S., & Abu Shakra, M. M. (2011). Problems in translating collocations in religious texts from Arabic into English. The Linguistics Journal, 5(1).

Retrieved from http://www.linguistics-journal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/June-2011-bd.pdf

Husni, R., & Newman, D. L. (2015). Arabic-English-Arabic-English translation: Issues and strategies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com

Izwaini, S. (2016). The translation of Arabic lexical collocations. Translation and Interpreting Studies, 11(2), Retrieved from https://benjamins.com/#catalog/

journals/tis.11.2.09izw/details

Mughazy, M. (2016). The Georgetown guide to Arabic-English translation.) Retrieved from https://books.google.com

85 Business Name

Professional Interpreter Services to Reduce Language Barriers By Moneerah A. Aljadaan

A lot of patients suffer from a language barrier and most frequently the communication between doctors and patients fail and result with misdiagnosis. Foreign patients are dissatisfied and desire less to revisit the clinic because of the lack of professional interpreter services at hospitals and the using of an ad hoc interpreter, or a patient's family or friends which leads to inaccu- rate treatment. According to Manson, "communicating to patients in their own language improves patient compliance and understanding of their disease" (as cited in Jacobs et al., 2001, p. 468). Without a doubt, instituting interpreter services at hospitals is crucial for foreign patients.

In 2012, Ingleby emphasized that the quality of service that the patients receive determines its satisfaction. Unsur- prisingly, foreign patients are showed to be unsatisfied with the service. Also, there was study that included 2,300 patients in which of whom would unlikely visit the emergency department again. The result showed the dissatisfaction and discomfort to foreign language patient speakers to revisit the emergency department. He stressed that, "They were also significantly more likely to report overall problems with care, communication, and testing" (p. 133). This shows the importance of professional interpreter service at hospitals and how language barriers could result with misdiagnosed symptoms and patients dissatisfaction.

Angelelli (2004) discussed the role of an interpreter in the medical field, which was defined by many researchers. Some see an interpreter as one who transfers the information from the patients to the doctors and is restricted to the language only (as cited in Bolden, 2000). On the other hand, he argued that one of the studies provided Spanish native speakers an interpreter for

Spanish patients. It resulted with miscommunication due the lack of knowledge of the field and of course they were not professional interpreters. Indeed interpreters do not just study the language, also take into account cultural matters.

Could a patient’s family be a sufficient substitute to professional interpreters? Giordano (2007) compared the benefits and the drawbacks of using children of the patients as interpreters. Unsurprisingly, professional interpreters resulted with many advantages in the quality of service, patient’s satisfaction, and accurate information. However, he argued that there were some drawbacks such as being unconfident and uncomfortable for some patients to use professional interpreters and the difficulty of understanding the unique dialect of some patients.

Informed consent is really important before procedures which sometimes is the right of foreign patients

86 . In addition, a study was conducted to see the differences after implementation of interpreter services. Even after using interpreter services, the English language speaking patients were more likely to have full documentation than non-

English speaking patients (Schenker, Wang, Selig, Ng, & Fernandez, 2007). However, there were small differences between the two groups which proves that interpreter services are necessary, but cannot be compared to the patients who can speak directly to their doctors (University of California, 2007).

The role of a professional interpreter service is important at hospitals since language barriers could result with various misdiagnoses. Therefore, the University of California (2007) found out that patients who do not have the same language as their doctors are less likely to receive advice about their lifestyle and how to deal with their problems. Hospitals should take some sort of action and start to recruit professional interpreters to each clinic.

References

Angelelli, C. V. (2004). Medical interpreting and cross-cultural communication. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

Giordano, S. (2007). Overview of the advantages and disadvantages of professional and child interpreters for limited English

proficiency patients in general health care situations. Journal OF Radiology Nursing, 26(4). Retrieved from http://

www.ctmhp.org/

Ingleby, D. (Ed.). (2012). Inequalities in health care for migrants and ethnic minorities. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Jacobs, E. A., Lauderdale, D. S., Meltzer, D., Shorey, J. M., Levinson, W., & Thisted, R. A. (2001). Impact of interpreter ser-

vices on delivery of health care to limited–English-proficient patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(7).

Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com?

Schenker, Y., Wang, F., Selig, S. J., Ng, R., & Fernandez, A. (2007). The impact of language barriers on documentation of

informed consent at a hospital with on-site interpreter services. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(2). Retrieved

from http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/268/art%253A10.1007%252Fs11606-007-0359-1.pdf?

University of California, I. (2007, November 14). Language barriers adversely impact health-care quality. Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071113132304.htm

87 Business Name

Common Mistakes in Arabic to English Grammar Translation By Ashwag H. AL-Sarieei

As addressed by the critic Khuddro(2014) the major challenge encountered during interpretation is not the mere meaning of the word but the functionality either in a sentence or even a phrase in the source language (SL), and also understanding the expression or word meaning before interpreting into the target language (TL). When the translator fails to understand this, the intended meaning is not presented. According to the author, “when a translator overcomes this challenge, he or she has the capability of moving to the next level” (p. 27). In fact, a deeper look into the common mistakes in Arabic to English grammar translation will help to reduce the appearance of mistakes.

Furthermore, in Atawi (2014) article, the author conducts a research analysis by collecting materials, such as translated texts, dubbed movies as well as documentaries, to have a better understanding of the common errors encountered by students during translation. As a matter of fact, the author noted common errors such as the impact of dialects, incompetence in the source language, target language, or even both languages, the interpreter's attitude, ignorance of the context and the interpreter having minimal encyclopedic knowledge. Additionally, the author asserts that misunderstanding of modification is also a noted mistake that occurs during the translation, whereby the translator is unable to distinguish “what constituent modifies what” (p 187).

According to Scott (2006), the New Y ork Times newspaper highlighted the biblical narration of Babel which takes up a trickle of verses in accordance with the 11th chapter of Genesis. In fact, to undertake such task necessitates an ambition of the ancient architects, and translators to ensure that the film will be a success. However, it is noted that the movie entailed four different stories which contained cultural, linguistic as well as geographical distances among the actors. The languages used by the astoundingly diverse case are Berber, Japanese, Spanish, sign language and English. As a result, misunderstandings occur and multiply during the translation of the film in different languages.

Conversley, Bennoudi (2007) argues that Arabic students encounter challenges when translating and writing English content. In fact, they are unable to express their ideas as convincingly and accurately in English. The common mistake they make is the lack of learning texts, which are semiotic and signs constructs in translation. Texts reveal the assumptions, convention as well as presumptions that reflect how a particular culture partitions and constructs reality (Bennoudi, 2007). For instance, Arabic argumentation often uses repetition to ensure emphasis and also stylistic effectiveness, however, in English such repetition weakens the translated text or argument.

As noted by Al-Sohbani and Muthanna (2013) even if the translation research field has proposed theories and insights regarding the issue of translation challenges, these barriers have not been fully addressed. This is because upon a thorough research analysis, there were major mistakes experienced by students during Arabic-English interpretation like lexical knowledge insufficiency by the translator, inadequate knowledge as well as the practice of grammar. As a result, the students encountered common errors such as inappropriate use of various vocabularies, gender and preposition, meaningless use of words, incorrect use and spelling of English words, as well as incorrect use of grammatical forms (p. 443).

Also, Sultanova (2016) holds that cultural and linguistic aspects result in common mistakes during Arabic-English translation. This is because Arabic is a complex language, thus translating Arabic content becomes challenging. According to the author, the common mistakes include pragmatic factors, morphology, syntax, lexicon, rhetorical dissimilarities as well as text differences. For instance, Arabic sentences are too long, Arabic words and term may have multiple meanings, and Arabic sentence structures are too complex. These mistakes are likely to occur due to the translator's unfamiliarity with the cultural expressions or even ambiguity of various cultural expressions.

References

Al-Sohbani, Y., & Muthanna, A. (2013). Challenges Of Arabic-English Translation: The Need For Re-Systematic Curriculum And Method-

ology Reforms In Yemen. Academic Research International, 4(4), 442-450. Retrieved from www.savap.org.pk/journals/ARInt./

Vol.4(4)/2013(4.4-47)

Atawi, M. (2014). Common Practice Errors Related to Syntactic Structures in English-into-Arabic. Arab World English Journal, 5(2), 187 -

205. Retrieved from http://www.awej.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=493:mohammad-atawi-

saraireh&catid=49&Itemid=152

Bennoudi, H. (2007, August). Lost in Translation: From Arabic to English and back again. The Monthly Webzine of the Macmillan English

Dictionaries(46). Retrieved from http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/August2007/46-ArabictoEngl.htm

Khuddro, A. (2014). Arabic - English Syntax in Translation: Equivalence at Word and Sentence Levels. Al Manhal. Retrieved from https://

books.google.co.ke/books?

id=Bt8sDAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Arabic++English+syntax+in+translation:+Equivalence+at+word+and+sentence+l

evels&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Arabic%20%20English%20syntax%20in%20translation%3A%20Equivalence%

Scott, A. O. (2006, October 27). Emotion Needs No Translation. Retrieved from The New York Times: https://

mobile.nytimes.com/2006/10/27/movies/27babe.html

Sultanova, S. (2016, October 27). Challenges of Translating Arabic into English. Retrieved from Global Partners International: http://

resources.globalizationpartners.com/blog/challenges-of-translating-arabic-into-english-

89 Business Name

Challenges of Translating Poetry By Reema K. AlOthman

Poetry translation isn’t any type of translation. Many linguists classify it as the hardest field of translation because the translator will probably face many challenges while he/she is translating literature. Ray (2008) explained many poetic translation challenges including that the translator sometimes simply doesn’t know how translate the illusions and rhymes the poem contains.

Indeed, there are many difficulties and challenges that the translator faces while translating poems.

According to Sowayan, 1985, "The difficulty [of poetry translation] is compounded when we are dealing with languages, cultures, and poetic traditions that are far apart" (p. 5). He also mentioned that there are many idioms that don't have an equivalent phrase from the other language, whether it was English or Arabic. In addition, the cultural background definitely affects the translation. For instance, Arab culture is based on deserts and nomadic life. The translator would really struggle if he/ she wanted to translate an Arabic cultural poem to English because there aren’t any equivalent culture and environment found in the Western culture.

In 2014, Tisgam discussed how interpreting the main text affects the difficulty of translating poetry. Obviously, more difficulty relies when the there is less interpretation of the text. If the translator doesn't understand the main text properly, he/she wouldn't be able to translate it. Therefore, rearrangement and shifting of words in the translated text is most likely going to occur. Hence the final translated text is going to be inconsistent, incoherent and illogical.

Also, there are many factors that make poetry translation more difficult. Firstly, most likely there will be some morphological differences between the two languages which will hinder the translator to produce a proper translation. Since new different words are being produced in many languages, there must be some dissimilarity in terms of equivalency among languages.

Secondly, cultural background can play a huge role in affecting poetry translation. When a translator wants to translate a poem from Arabic to English or vice versa, he/she has to know the cultural background of the poet. Moreover, cultural background also reflects and shows word borrowings that have happened in the language (Maloku-Morina, 2013).

In addition, Creativeblogger (2016) sheds light on a huge difficulty that encounters almost every translator while translating poetry. Keeping the consistency in terms of rhythm and rhyme between the texts is a huge challenge. He points out that

"While it is clearly possible to find words that rhyme in the target language, being able to fit these into the puzzle of meanings of the whole poem is, on the other hand, a difficult task" (para. 11). Consequently, rhythm will affect the sound of the poem. The sound of the poem is a huge element that should be translated fairly because the sound of the poem is what makes a poem a poem.

Finally, poetry translation is never restricted to a certain difficulty that the translator should keep in mind. A translator should always remember that not every poem is translatable because in certain cases, the translator or the target language doesn’t have the required linguistic taste or an equivalent environment for translation. If the translator translates a poem that doesn’t have these requirements, his/her translation will not succeed (House, Rose, & Shiyab, 2010).

References

Creativeblogger. (2016, September 30). Translating poetry – What are the main challenges?. Retrieved from http://

creativetranslation.com/blog-post-translating-poetry-main-challenges/

House, J., Rose, M. G., & Shiyab, S. M. (Eds.).(2010). Globalization and aspects of translation. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Maloku-Morina, M. (2013).Translation issues. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 2(4). Retrieved from http://

www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/ajis/article/view/118/274

Ray, M. K. (Ed.). (2008). Studies in translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Sowayan, S. A. (1985). Nabati poetry: The oral poetry of Arabia. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Tisgam, K. H. (2014). Translating poetry: Possibility or impossibility? IASJ, 25(2). Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?

func=fulltext&aId=91622

91 Business Name

Difficulties in Translating The Holy Quran By Nouf M. Al-Arifi

Translation of the holy Quran is one of the most important translations because it is useful for Muslims who do not speak

Arabic. It is not restricted to Arab Muslims, but it is for all Muslims. Translating it into English is the bestbecause English has become the world's first and most widespread language around the world. The translation of this is considered a religious necessity, which is called by Islam in order to convey the call of God to all people.

In 2010, Sadiq emphasized the importance of translating the holy Quran to other languages, and that English must be the first language to translate to it. He mentioned that English these days is the first language spoken all around the world; he also said about English "it is held as a language of high esteem and prestige, being the official language of many politically influential countries such as the USA and the UK and the second language of many other significant countries as China, India, etc." (p. 3).

So because English is spread around the whole world, the holy Quran must be translated to English so that Muslims who don’t speak Arabic can read and benefit from it.

Alhaj (2015)said it is important to understand the meaning before translating and that the holy Quran is the main source of the Islamic faith and the book of worship. The following verse indicates the importance of the Holy Quran:

" َو َهذَا ِّكتَا ٌب أَن َز ْلنَاهُ ُمبَا َر ٌك ُّم َص ِّ د ُق ا َّل ِّذي بَ ْي َن يَدَ ْي ِّه َو ِّلتُن ِّذ َر أُ َّم ا ْلقُ َرى َو َم ْن َح ْو َل َها َوا َّل ِّذي َن يُ ْؤ ِّمنُو َن بِّاآل ِّخ َرةِّ يُ ْؤ ِّمنُو َن ِّب ِّه َو ُه ْم َع َلى َصَلتِّ ِّه ْم يُ َحافِّ ُظو َن And this is a Book which we have sent down, blessed and confirming what was before it, that you may warn the Mother of Cities and those around it. Those who believe in the Hereafter believe in it, and they are maintaining their prayers"(Quran 6:92,

Dar Albayan Alhadith).

Ali, Brakhw, Bin Nordin and Shaik Ismail(2012) stated that the translation of the Holy Quran into English has many linguistic difficulties because there are no identical languagesin the meaning given to the corresponding symbols. The translator faces some difficulties because the Quran usesstylistic, linguistic and rhetorical features that result in an effective and sublime style, and the main difficulty that comes across the translator of the Quran is the difficulty in translating some lexical items. One of the lexical problems is that there is no equivalence of some Islamic terms.

Al-Jabari (2008) pointed out that the Quranic text is very sensitive and no one can change any letters. A small mistake in translating the meaning might be disastrous as it may mislead many. Unclear meaning leads to different interpretations, perhaps resulting in serious consequences. Also, Abdul-Raof (2001) adds that Quranic words can be rich with emotive meaning

that are language and culture-specific. Quranic lexical items are generally characterized by semantic compression where lengthy details of semantic features are compressed and encapsulated in a single word, as in:

.(Q55:35] : a flame of fire without any smoke" (p. 81 َشواظ" ]

In conclusion, translating the Holy Quran is such a great honor but it is a difficult task at the same time, and the translator should try to deal with the difficulties he faces as much as possible. Rashid and Abdelaal (2016) added that translating the Ho- ly Quran seems to be more difficult to translate than other types of texts.

References

Abdul-Raof, H. (2001). Qur'an translation: Discourse, texture and exegesis. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Alhaj, A. (2015). New theory of the holy Qur'an translation. A textbook for advanced university students of linguistics and

translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Ali, A., Brakhw, M. A., Bin Nordin, M. Z., & Shaik Ismail, S. F. (2012). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the holy

Quran from Arabic into English. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 2(6). Retrieved from http://

search.proquest.com/docview/1441402849?pq-origsite=summon

Al-Jabari, R. (2008). Reasons for the possible incomprehensibility of some verses of three translations of the meaning of the

holy Quran into English (Doctoral dissertation, University of Salford, Salford, Manchester, England). Retrieved

from http://usir.salford.ac.uk/14918/1/494753.pdf

Rashid, S. M., & Abdelaal, N. M. (2016). Grammar-related semantic losses in the translation of the holy Quran, with special

reference to surah Al a’araf (the heights). SAGE Open, 6(3). Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/

pdf/10.1177/2158244016661750

Sadiq, S. (2010). A comparative study of four English translations of sûrat Al-dukhân on the

semantic level. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

93 Business Name

The Significance of Medical Interpretation in The Field of Psychiatry By Reem K. Alheji

Medicine is a significant field in our life. It has many branches that are equally important, and focus on all parts of the body; however, according to an article titled "What Is Psychiatry?" (n.d.), Psychiatry is the branch in which the focus is on the mental and psychic health. Doctors diagnose patients through talk sessions, and laboratory tests when needed. Consequently,

"Psychotherapy, sometimes called talk therapy, is a treatment that involves a talking relationship between a therapist and patient" (para. 7). Indeed, the practice of medicine would be non-functional in the absence of communication (Woloshin, Bickell,

Schwartz, Gany, & Welch, 1995).

Communication is a necessity that we can not live without. There are many forms of it, and there are also many different languages in the world. This is a normal characteristic of human diversity, but it can cause a huge problem in the field of Psychia- try, which completely relies on language. As Steltzer and Tseng, 2004, stressed, when a "language barrier" (p. 25) occurs, the role of medical interpretation must take place. Interpretation is known as the transference of words including their implications, and cultural sense from a SL into a TL (International Medical Interpreters Association & Education Development Center, Inc, 2007).

The process of sessions is troublesome enough. Many patients can not express their feelings and explain the symptoms they are suffering from to their psychiatrists, not to mention the difficulty of the jargon doctors try to simplify, in order to clarify the disorders to their patients, even when they speak the same language. Thus, having this process when they do not share the same language is risky and almost impossible without having a skilled interpreter, who must be familiar with the psychiatric and medical terminology, can understand patients and explain their exact feelings, and who has a perfect knowledge of both languages

(Miletic et al., 2006).

One of the clearest examples of the importance of interpretation is the role it plays in the refugees mental health. They have a lot of complicated feelings and unstable mental situation because of what they have been through. Indeed, they may need immediate psychic care which can be described as "critical" (p. 4). As Loue, 1998, emphasizes, the language forms an obstacle in front of them that they no more can benefit from this care. However, psychiatrists nowadays may use technology for explaining and understanding. Also, due to the current refugees’ dilemma around the world, professional and volunteer interpreters have recently started helping.

According to Farooq and Fear, 2003, there is an essential aspect that must be taken into consideration while working through interpreters in sessions, which is the accuracy in transferring the content. Patients can suffer from very bad consequences because of the lack of correctness. For instance, two Spanish-speaking patients whose sessions were with English- speaking psychiatrists committed suicide due to ill transferring and underestimating their condition. Therefore, we can conclude that the significance interpretation must be accurate, clear, and trustworthy.

In summary, Psychiatry is a field that mostly relies on talking and communication, so whenever the medical staff and the patients do not speak the same language, the hospital needs to provide them with a medical interpreter who has a perfect knowledge of both languages and the medical jargon, to help in the continuation of the session. Interpreters also must not underestimate the patients feeling and be accurate with the terms they are using. Finally, the whole process would be completely useless if they can not understand each other.

References

Farooq, S., & Fear, C. (2003). Working through interpreters. BJPsych, 9(2). Retrieved from http://apt.rcpsych.org/

International Medical Interpreters Association & Education Development Center, Inc. (2007). Medical interpreting standards of

practice. Retrieved from http://www.imiaweb.org/

Loue, S. (Ed.). (1998). Handbook of immigrant health. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Miletic, T., Piu, M., Minas, H., Stankovska, M., Stolk, Y., & Klimids, S. (2006). Guidelines for working effectively with

interpreters in mental health settings. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/

Steltzer, J., & Tseng, W. S. (2004). Cultural competence in clinical psychiatry. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

Woloshin, S., Bickell, N. A., Schwartz, L. M., Gany, F., & Welch, H. G. (1995). Language barriers in medicine in the United

States. JAMA, 273(9). Retrieved from http://jamanetwork.com

What is psychiatry?. (n.d.). American Psychiatric Organization. Retrieved from http://www.psychiatry.org/

95 Business Name

Arabic Translation Difficulties and Its Effect upon Arabic Culture By Wala'a Alrashood

The Arabic translation movement started elementary in 99\101 Hijri when Muslims had the desire to acquire the knowledge from the Greeks and Romanians especially in Medicine, Mathematics and Astronomy. They even reached a high stage of translating Philosophy and other sciences. Although translation existed thousand of years ago, it was not called translation and they studied it as a branch of English knowledge. Then, they began to study it as a separate field. Arabic translation has inten- sively affected the Arabic culture; however, this movement faced many difficulties.

It is hard to mention all the difficulties that face a translator especially in Arabic; here are some challenges in translating to Arabic. Spell checking the typed document is the first obstacle due to the non-availability of good Arabic spell checkers, which parallel the performance of spell checkers for other languages. In addition, Arabic sentences are commonly long, so when translating into other languages the result will be many short sentences, which make the parallel among Arabic and non-Arabic sentences and words harder contrasted to many other languages. In 2015, Izwaini added, "Another major obstacle is that some non-

Arabic sentences can be translated into a single Arabic word" (p. 248).

Muhaidat (2009) discussed that onomatopoeia, rhymes, and alliteration in novels are styles authors use to build a relationship with their readers. So, they will face different issues when they are rendering them into Arabic. Some translators such as

Al-Ba'albaki succeeded in transferring some onomatopoeic expressions which have coordinators in Arabic but this does not work every time, hence in this case, you will be obliged to paraphrase or explain the onomatopoeia which leads to losing their values.

Translating onomatopoeic expressions may be confusing since it could be conveying different meanings from the SL.

Many translators have fallen in such cultural mistakes thus these mistakes are considered the most common problems that face a translator. First, the geographical culture is to have two different cultures vary in an environment, engaged in transitional functions and linked to subjects such as animals and plants, which contained terms, have very different meaning from each other.

Second, religious culture may have profound roots in a few different societies and may uncover how people of social orders talk and play out their standards and act. Third, social culture beliefs may bring about a few troubles; the difficulties may incorporate the methodologies of different social orders toward affection, marriage and the idea of good norms (Almubark, 2017).

Furthermore, two problems appear: one of them is metaphor and the other one is translating names. Metaphor can give rise to challenges in translating between any two languages but where the languages concerned are as moderately unique socially

and linguistically as English and Arabic, the challenges are sometimes very articulated (Higgins, Hervey, &Dickins, 2002).

For instance, translating many wrong English expressions, all containing the sound D. Glover and Knight (1998) explained the point with an example: "For example, the Arabic sequence two possible English sources, Freeman, and Friedman" (para.

فريمان .(5

On the whole, we cannot disregard the Arab's efforts to transfer the full meaning into Arabic but sometimes you cannot find a solution every time unless you keep trying all your best to find a suitable one. In 2002, Molina emphasized that

"Whatever method is chosen, the translator may encounter problems in the translation process, either because of a particularly difficult unit, or because there may be a gap in the translator’s knowledge or skills" (p. 12).

References

Almubark, A. A. (2017). The influencing factors of cultural knowledge in translating cultural specific concepts from Arabic

into the English at Jazan university in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Applied Linguistic & English Litera-

ture, 2200(3452). Retrieved from http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/IJALEL/article/

Glover, B., & Knight, K. (1998). Translating names and technical terms in Arabic text. USC information sciences institute, 34-

41. Retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?

Higgins, I., Hervey, S., &Dickins, J. (2002). Thinking Arabic Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Arabic to English.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Izwaini, S. (2015). Studies in language and translation. Retrieve from https://books.google.com.sa/books?

Molina, L. (2002). Translation Techniques Revisited: A Dynamic and Functionalist Approach. Cet article estdiffusé et préservé

par Érudit, 47(4). Retrieved from https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/meta/2002

Muhaidat, F. M. (2009). A tale of two cities in Arabic translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books?

97 Business Name

The Difficulties of Translating Collocation from English to Arabic By Rawan E. Al-Rushoody

There are numerous problems translators face while translating text from the source language to the target language. And one of the most challenging things to translate is collocation, which is defined as “a combination of two or more words that always occur together consistently in different contexts in language” (p. 52). Hence, there is no doubt that translators face some

difficulties in translating collocation from English to Arabic (Faris & Sahu, 2013) .

The obstacles of translating collocation start with the students` lack of awareness about collocation knowledge, due to the difficulty of teaching them in the first place. Because they are numerous, if they want to teach them to students, which collocation they should teach is a never ending question. Moreover, linguists didn’t give collocation much interest. Consequently, there aren’t enough studies about them for students to rely on when translating collocations from English to Arabic, or to become interested in them as grammar or vocabulary (Shraideh & Mahadin, 2015; Lackman, n.d.).

Collocations as matter of fact are affected by culture, and what is important to people of that culture. Therefore translating them is really difficult because translators do not just transmit words from one language to another, they also transmit meaning, function, and they try to have the same influence on the target language readers as the influence that is made on the source language reader by the author. And this is the most difficult part in translating English collocation and finding the most appropriate Arabic equivalence (Shraideh & Mahadin, 2015; Faris & Sahu, 2013).

In 2016, Jaback, Abdullah and Mustapha mentioned that students’ dependency on bilingual dictionaries make translation collocation very problematic because they tend to translate collocation literally and this leads to weak translations. Moreover, students don’t know a lot about collocation, and according to Shammas, 2013, most of the collocations need to be memorized es-

p. 2) which students face difficulties with when)خوار البقرة، ثغاء الحمل” “ pecially the name of certain things, e.g. animals’ sound like translating them because they do not know them.

Rabehb (2010) discussed the most general problem that makes collocation translation difficult for students which is

generalizing the translation because some English words have different, multiple equivalences in Arabic which change according to what collocate with it. Another difficulty he mentioned is when two or more different English collocations have one equivalence in Arabic. Moreover, some English collocations get separated by words which make translating them difficult and knowing that they are collocations in the first place.

Translators must know the source language grammar and word order, and know the strategies the authors used and the readers he/she had in mind, also the translators need to know the target readers` language. Source language collocations might not be normal to use in the target text when translating them because collocations have a certain meaning in the source language but when translating them, the target language readers might not know the meaning behind them. So translators need to understand the collocations and their function in the source text in order to replace them with appropriate equivalence in the target text “to communicate the same meaning in the receptor language” (Meidasari, 2007, p. 12).

References

Faris, A. A., & Sahu, R. A. (2013). The translation of English collocations into Arabic: Problems and solutions. Journal of the

College of Arts. University of Basra, (64). Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=71617

Jabak, O., Abdullah, S., & Mustapha, N. (2016). The difficulty of translating collocations from Arabic into English encoun-

tered by a sample of Arab students. Retrieved from http://journal.kuis.edu.my/jsass/images/files4b/4_025-Omar.pdf

Lackman, K. (n.d.). Teaching collocations. Retrieved from http://www.kenlackman.com/files/Collocations11A4.pdf

Meidasari, V. E. (2007). Strategies of translating collocation. Majalah Ilmiah: Faktor Penentu Obyektivitas. Retrieved from

file:///C:/Users/Anteka/Downloads/Strategies_of_Translating_Collocation.pdf

Rabeh, F. (2010). Problem in translating collocations the case of master i student of applied languages (Master's thesis, Men-

touri University-Constantine, Constantine, Algeria). Retrieved from http://bu.umc.edu.dz/theses/anglais/

FAN1152.pdf

Shammas, N. A. (2013). Collocation in English: Comprehension and use by MA students at Arab universities. International

Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(9). Retrieved from http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/

Vol_3_No_9_May_2013/12.pdf

Shraideh, K. W., & Mahadin, R. S. (2015). Difficulties and strategies in translating collocations in BBC political texts. Arab

World English Journal (AWEJ), 6(3). Retrieved from http://s3.amazonaws.com/

academia.edu.documents/39017157/21.pdf

99 Business Name

Filling the Gap: English to Arabic Subtitling By Munira Saud Al-Nashmi

Our world had stepped up in the technological methods of translating global films into different languages (i.e. subtitling). Panek, 2010, emphasized that cinematic translation is becoming dominant in recent translation studies. However, this type of development as will be discussed further, had brought a lot of difficulties especially in English to Arabic subtitling, which is my focus in this paper, that can make the process quite challenging for the subtitlers of both languages.

The linguistic gap between Arabic and English made a lot of obstacles in terms of subtitling. The article shed the light on some major concerns in the field of subtitling English movies to Arabic. For instance, finding an equivalence for a certain word that has the exact same meaning is considered nearly impossible due to the socio-cultural, historical, regional and situational varieties (i.e. dialects and accents) of both languages, and “This is even more so due to characteristics of the source text that consists mainly of speech and is therefore likely to include evidence of linguistic variation, irrespective of its being real-life or fictional discursive interaction" (Gottlieb & Gambier, 2001, p. 214).

The Arabic language and the Arabic world was greatly impacted by Islam which mostly shaped its culture and ideas.

Alkadi (2010) points out that one major hindrance when subtitling is translating swear, religious words and taboos to the target text which is, in Arabic, not accepted especially on the screen. This, therefore, forces the subtitler at most times to omit these words and this in turn will seriously affect the message of the source text when translated to the target text (i.e. The Arabic language).

In 2011, Thawabateh discussed another issue that needs to be mentioned, and that is the difference in sound and writing systems between English and Arabic. The varieties of vowel sounds systems found in Arabic can sometimes cause misunderstanding and confusion for the subtitlers in translating proper nouns due to the fact that the Arabic language has two types of vowel sounds, long and short. Most subtitlers do not take this step seriously and that is simply because they believe that they are not required to translate proper nouns but rather transliteral them which results in confusion most of the times.

Some difficulties also contain technical issues. The duration of the subtitles on the screen concerns a lot of subtitlers as the duration with the scene may be too fast or too slow and thus causes loss of content unity. The subtitlers aim to protect the unity of the content and not produce only basic translated dialogues. This is due to the importance of the activity of subtitling as it is a combination of reading, hearing, and seeing into one single activity.

100

The author concludes that, "What you read is what you hear, and what you hear is more often than not, what you see" (Nornes,

1999, p. 18).

The debate of subtitling related issues for English to Arabic movies is yet to be fully solved. However, Alharthi

(2015) suggested some useful strategies for such an issue. For instance, paraphrasing, explication, substitutions, addition, and generalization in order to minimize the obstacles and help in producing proper subtitles that gives the viewers a good filmic experience. It is never too late for you to make your way and come up with new modern ways or solutions to help in advanc- ing the subtitling field and produce the best subtitles you can.

References

Alharthi, A. (2015). Strategies of subtitling satire: A case study of the American Sitcom Seinfeld, with particular reference to

English and Arabic. Arab World English Journal (Awej), 4, 22-41. Retrieved from http://awej.org

Alkadi, T. (2010). Issues in the subtitling and dubbing of English-language films into Arabic: Problems and solu-

tions (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/326/

Gottlieb, H., & Gambier, Y. (Eds.). (2001). (Multi) Media translation: Concepts, practices, and research. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa

Nornes, A. M. (1999). For an abusive subtitling. Film Quarterly (ARCHIVE), 52(3), 18-19. Retrieved from http://

sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com

Panek, M. (2010). Subtitling Humor - The analysis of selected translation techniques in subtitling elements containing humor.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Thawabteh, M. A. (2011). Linguistic, cultural and technical problems in English-Arabic subtitling. Skase Journal Of Transla-

tion And Interpretation, 5(1). Retrieved from https://works.bepress.com/mohammad_thawabteh/4/

101 Business Name

Traditional Translation vs. Mechanical Translation By Rahaf A. Al-Mohammed

When we think about translation, we find that we coexist with it unconsciously. We translate our thoughts by expressing them into words, and we interpret our feelings into actions. Thus, translation plays a huge role in our lives. It leads the communication to be achieved towards the different nations, and it spreads the multiple sciences. However, it has two main methods which are human translation (i.e., transmitting a message from a language to another), and machine translation which Axelrod defined as translating from the source language to the target language via engines and with computers' procedures (Axelrod, 2014). Without a doubt, there are notable differences between traditional translation and mechanical translation.

In 2011, Sharp, Carl, Zock and Jakobsen admitted that there are clear differences between human translation (HT) or (HMI) process, and machine translation (MT). One of the differences is HT translates formal texts, while MT translates informal texts.

Secondly, HT usually has highly repetitions because of huge volumes. However, MT has the ability to treat great volumes but not for all implementation. Thirdly, there is no security in MT sources because it can be improved by any developer. Finally, MT is based on data, while HMI is based on work-flow, and "Due to the lack of standardization in HMI work-flow, pipelining or sharing of the task becomes difficult" (p. 17).

Also, there is an obvious difference between HT and MT and that is ambiguity. According to Jurgens (2014), if a word leads to multiple senses, a human can understand its meaning by context, while machines usually cannot get the meaning correctly.

Consequently, machines might translate these words with its wrong meaning via splitting the words' meaning into units and choosing one of the meanings without depending on the context. However, people found a solution to this mechanical issue which is making Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD) systems that help to get the appropriate meaning in different contexts

(Jurgens, 2014).

To make the human translation be correct, we should focus on some parts which Tuleja calls the QAM which are made by a group of translators. QAM has three parts; the first part is the cultural references. This part helps to understand the sense culturally by using free translation. Secondly, grammatical constraints; it avoids most grammatical problems. So, when we translate from one language to another, we should look at the grammar of the target language. For example, using the double negatives while translating to a language that does not use it, which leads to not understanding the meaning of a word. Finally, the questionnaire form to check whether the responses of people is successful (Tuleja, Bamber, Shum, & Chan, 2011).

102

However, to decrease the translation mistakes of machines translation, we should first introducing how coherence will be evaluated by machine translation. Smith (as cited in Smith, Aziz, & Specia, 2016) confirmed that will be evaluated by machine translation. Smith (as cited in Smith, Aziz, & Specia, 2016) confirmed that a text will be translated in its source order.

Secondly, the translated text might have ungrammatical problems since the source language follows some grammatical rules which are not used in the target language. Thirdly, the source text might influence the decision of the translation coherence.

Subsequently, machines are based on literal translation that leads to many issues, like "incorrect co-referencing, inadequate discourse markers, and lack of lexical cohesion" (p. 178).

Nirenburg suggested the KANT architecture that has three main characteristics to improve machine translation. The first characteristic is semantic preciseness that must get the ambiguity in the sentences and edit them to be semantically correct.

Also, it removes any incomplete concepts of the source sentences. Secondly, the syntax accuracy which expresses some grammatical rules of the source language and substitutes them according to the target language rules. Through KANT system, their

"grammars include rules to handle both the basic sentential syntax of the language and discourse-level markers" (p. 114).

Thirdly, the high-quality output; by this features, we can generate more complex sentence structures (Nirenburg, 1993).

References

Axelrod, A. (2014). Data selection for statistical machine translation (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://

digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/26146/Axelrod_washington_0250E_13736.pdf?

sequence=1

Jurgens, D. (2014). Making the word most of it: Word sense annotation and disambiguation in the face of data sparsity and

ambiguity (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc

Nirenburg, S. (Ed.). (1993). Progression in machine translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Sharp, B., Carl, M., Zock, M., & Jakobsen, A. L. (Eds.). (2011). Human-Machine interaction in translation: Proceedings of

the 8th international NLPCS workshop. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Smith, K. K., Aziz, W., & Specia, L. (2016). The trouble with machine translation coherence. Baltic Journal of Modern Com-

puting, 4(2), 2016. Retrieved from https://

pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7d6e/4613c73f519dd5b4c49c82ff25964d56abd3.pdf

Tuleja, E. A., Bamber, L., Shum, C., & Chan, E. K. (2011). Designing and developing questionnaires for translation tutorial.

IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 54(4). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/

Cass_Shum

103 Business Name

The Power of Film Traslation By Ghada N. Alateeq

Lovji (2013) discussed the development of cinema nowadays, and how good international movies are allowed to come in to our markets. When you translate a movie, you have to translate the script to the target text as well as translate the cultural background of the source text. Sometimes there are mistakes that happen in the translation. These are considered as carelessness in translation and you have to avoid them. The author stressed that ”This is because a film script consists almost entirely of everyday conversation that is nonliterary” (p. 263). Without a doubt, most people love watching these movies which often requires the film to be translated in their native language.

There are two ways to translate international films according to O'sullivan (2011); first, by dubbing and this is the complex way because the scripts have to go through many people and operations before giving to the audience. In addition, like any translation method, we must keep in mind the same order when we translate, but in dubbing, we also have to follow the same rhythm. The steps of dubbing is the same everywhere, but it could have some change according to the country or studio. Barreau

(2016) mentioned the goal of dubbing which is to match the local version sound to the domestic one. For example, in Hollywood they use microphones to match a human voice and perspective of scene unlike the microphone that is used in Europe.

Gilbert and Kenneth, 2009,discussed the second way which is known as subtitling and it is like when you translate a newspaper or book, but this is in films and you have to transfer the scripts of actors to the audience as translated text and place it between sequences of the film. This is the most common way, and Pagani, Goldsmith, and Perracchio (2015) pointed to this fact because of the growth of internet-based videos and there are lots of TV channels that subtitle and the interviews of celebrities.

According to Koolstra, Peeters, and Spinhof, 2002,both dubbing and subtitling television programmes have lots of advantages for people whether they are young or adult to learn and acquire the language, for example, when you are watching the dubbed programmes, you can learn the meaning of the words through the pictures or videos, as well as when you are reading the subtitles in the programmes you can also know the meaning of foreign words, learn how to read and develop your decoding skills.

They stressed that "A disadvantages of subtitling, however, is that the own language may be polluted by the foreign languages heard on television" (p. 343).

O'sullivan (2011) stated that subtitling is more preferable than dubbing and this is due to the many factors, one of which is cost. Dubbing is more expensive and it costs much more money than subtitling. Another factor is because of time. The dubbing process takes more time than subtitling. In addition, it requires more effort and causes much fatigue. The biggest

104

Reason because of habit. Everyone knows that people prefer to listen to the voice of the original actors than the dubbed one.

According to Szarkowska, 2005, countries have been classified by the way they use translation. For example, first, there are the dubbing countries because of the historical influences which they are speaking French, Italian and Spanish. It is well known that when you travel to these countries, it is hard to find English subtitles in the cinema. Second, there are subtitling countries such as Denmark and Greece and they usually speak two languages. Third, there are source-language countries because most films are not imported and these are countries like the US and UK. We can conclude that to watch these movies they have to be translated in our native language and there are two ways to do that whether via subtitling or dubbing.

References

Barreau, J. (2016, March 1). Dubbing localization in Europe. MultiLingual, 27(2). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/

ehost

Gilbert, C. F., & Kenneth, K. L. (Eds.). (2009). Dubbing and subtitling in a world context. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Koolstra, C. M., Peeters, A. L., & Spinhof, H. (2002). The pros and cons of dubbing and subtitling. European Journal of Com

munication, 17(3). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323102017003694

Lovji, K. N. (2013). Constraints in screen translation: The socio-cultural dimensions of dubbing

and subtitling. Media Watch, 4(3). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost

O'Sullivan, C. (2011). Translating popular film. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Pagani, M., Goldsmith, R., & Perracchio, A. (2015). Standardization vs. Adaptation: Consumer reaction to tv ads containing s

subtitled or English dubbed ads. International Journal of Advertising, 34(4). doi:10.1080/02650487.2015.1009349

Szarkowska, A. (2005). The power of film translation. Translation Journal, 9(2). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/

journal

105 Business Name

The Impact of Culture in Translation By Abeer Al-Yemni

According to Maclean, 2007, language can be used in several ways and with different groups which are formed by people depending on their interaction with their surroundings. Language is not the only obstacle. Understanding the other language negotiation, impasses and resolutions are important too. Language is a tool and a main resource to understand social reality on participants’ term. In fact, learning about the culture or having a general idea will affect the way of translation.

In language, there are different approaches when it comes to translation. The two approaches culture and linguistic, differ in many ways. The linguistic approach is all about the word, phrase, sentence and text, but for the culture approach, culture takes an important role. It shows how culture in translations is treated as a “micrographic cultural shift” (p. 4). When we translate the text from the source text to the target text, we transfer the author’s words to the readers and the source culture to the target one

(Chen Yan, 2014).

According to Al Mubarak, 2017, culture translation it concerned with the writer’s ability to see the problems and the relation- ships between the writer and the reader. Linguistic culture is when the use of the language is changed due to the way which people see the world and how it can reflect their language. For example, the Arabic and English language has similarities when it comes to numbers for plural and singular, but the Arabic language differ in dual form. For linguistics, there are three important language functions based on text, relations between individuals, and intellectual factors. Translators need to be careful to avoid such mistakes to have a high-quality translation.

Al- Rushaidi and Ali (2016) explained that the Arabic language has plenty of idiom expressions, which is not hard to find unlike in other languages, especially in English. However, we can find in Arabic and English that they have similarity in mean-

has an equivalent in English whichيصيب كبد الحقيقة" " ings, but they don not have same formats. For example, the Arabic expression

and its equivalent inيبلع لسانه"” is “to hit the nail on the head”. They also have the same meanings and formats such as in Arabic

English “to swallow your tongue” (p. 192)which means to keep silent. Translators should be careful when they translate especially with idiom expressions because idioms might have close meaning, but there are might be slight differences.

Bandia, 2005, stated that when we translate a text, we must consider the author’s text standard. If a translator has good experience in the target text or if he lived in the same country it will give a better translated text regarding to his knowledge. A translator should keep attention on how he/she can manage the text level and deliver it to the other receiver from the other culture without changing the author’s text level. Such as if an African translated a text with African language it will be much easier due to

106

his familiarity with the language and his cultural background.

Hung (2005) discussed that as translators we always want for our translation to be translated with high proficiency, but there are some obstacles like culture differences. We, as translators, when come upon such as this problem, we sometimes use genuine translation, which pseudo-translator is a part of. We usually use this sort of translation whether we translate a text in general or a specific type from a specific source. Pseudo-translators can help translators to translate without causing any doubts.

References

Al- Rushaidi, S. M., & Ali, H. I. (2016). Translating idiomatic expressions from English into Arabic: Difficulties and strate-

gies. Arab World English Journal, 7(4). Retrieved from http://www.awej.org/images/AllIssues/Volume7/

Volume7Number4Decmber2016/13.pdf

Almubark, A. A. (2017). The influencing factors of cultural knowledge in translating cultural specific concepts

from Arabic into the English at Jazan university in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Eng-

lish Literature, 6(2). Retrieved from http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/IJALEL/article/view/2909/2450

Bandia, P. (1993). Translation as culture transfer: Evidence from African creative writing. Traduction, Mixité, Politique, 6(2).

Retrieved from http://www.erudit.org/en/journals/ttr/1993-v6-n2-n2/037151ar/

Chen Yan, J. (2014). The culture turn in translation studies. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 4(4). Retrieved from http://

file.scirp.org/pdf/OJML_2014100910303613.pdf

Hung, E. (Ed.). (2005). Translation and cultural change: Studies in history, norms, and image projection. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Maclean, K. (2007). Translation in cross-Cultural research: An example from Bolivia. Development in Practice, 17(6). Re-

trieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09614520701628287?scroll=top&needAccess=true

107 Business Name

Problems in Medical Translation By Hajar A. Alazeeri

Translation is understanding a text and transferring it into another language without changing the meaning. Medical translation is a type of translation that shares a lot of common features with other types of translation e.g. legal or literary translation considering it as a professional activity because you should, as a translator, care about the cultural differences: “good medical translation can be done by both medical professionals and medically knowledgeable linguists” (p. 35). Without a doubt, medical translation is extremely important, however, there are many problems that we could encounter during the process (Montalt &

González, 2014).

In 1997, Trosborg emphasized that the history of medical translation is widely known as a long history and old field.

Medical translation could pose problems more than any type of translation for many reasons. He stressed that, “the medical vocabulary is almost universally based on Greek and Latin roots” (p .160). However, physicians are still using difficult vocabularies for many reasons such as” to records”. In addition, the beginning of modern Western medicine in Greece were translators writing in Sanskrit and other languages.

Argeg (2015) explains that one of the most obvious problems in translating medical texts is the demanding increase in translating lexical words and trying to have an equivalence of that word. So, grammatical and cultural equivalence are considered as problems since the source and target language are quite different from each other. The problem of non-equivalence is one of the problems that may face the translator, especially Arabic translators, because they usually find difficulty to find lexical equivalents for English words.

According to Olga, Anna, and Natalia, 2015, “the main problem of medical abbreviations translation is that the same abbreviations may have different meanings, depending on the disease, anatomy, or procedure being discussed” (p. 548). Abbrevi- ations and acronyms especially from Latin are most widely used in written and oral medical communication. Many long terms such as names of diseases and chemical compounds are preferred to be abbreviated reaching an efficient communication and it is needed for emergency situations. The authors also point out that medical abbreviations appear in modern English which they are not listing in dictionaries.

Like any specialized field, medical translation needs training, knowledge of the subject and linguistic skills. One other problem is specialized terms because the word could have more than one meaning. In addition, it is necessary to not have any mistakes or ambiguities when translating it. However, if the text was informative, the specialized terms will be

108

clarified and defined. Although some medical terms may have issues with ambiguity, this was not the point: “the main difficulty was whether acronyms should be translated or not” (Buzarna, 2015, p. 19).

Using modern technology is needed in many translations as well as in medical translation. However, using for example, Google translation to translate a medical term is not always correct and safe. In their 2016 article, the authors point to the fact that Google translate is perfect in translating general texts but not specialized and sensitive translations like medical and law translations. An error with medical translation can lead to serious consequences on the patient’s health so the correct transferring of the message between the translator and the patient is very important (Wolk & Marasek).

References

Argeg, G. (2015). The problems of translating medical terms from English into Arabic (Doctoral dissertation, Durham Univer-

sity, Durham, England). Retrieved from http://etheses.dur.ac.uk

Buzarna, A. T. (2015). Several aspects regarding the specialized translation of medical texts. from theory to prac-

tice. Ovidius University Annals, Series Economic Sciences, 15(2). Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com

Montalt, V., & González, M. (2014). Medical translation step by step: Learning by drafting. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Olga, K. D., Anna, F. D., & Natalia, A. A. (2015). Problems of the English abbreviations in medical translation. Procedia -

Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com

Trosborg, A. (Ed.). (1997). Text typology translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Wolk, K., & Marasek, K. P. (2016). translation of medical texts using neural networks. International Journal of Reliable and

Quality E-Healthcare, 5(4). Retrieved from http://www.igi-global.com

109 Business Name

Machine Translation vs. Human Translation: Advantages By Najd M. Al-Ayed

Nowadays, people cannot manage without translation and many aspects of life rely on it, especially in getting extensive knowledge. Translation contains several types and strategies which vary according to the context. According to Trujillo, 2012,

"Translation is a difficult art requiring skill in both the source and target language" (p. 4). He also pointed out that choosing the best translation is one of the most significant elements.

In 2014, Okpor emphasized that we need to recover the original text meaning to the target text in order to check the translation to see either if it is human translation or machine translation. The writer also mentioned that translation sounds easy to the readers, yet it is more complicated than it seems to them. In addition, the author also described the main steps of human translation; the first step is "Decoding the meaning of the source text", the second one is "re-encoding this meaning in the target language" (p. 159).

Hadla, Hailat, and Alkabi (2014) discussed how the machine translation system has become so popular around the world whereas the statistical machine translation (SNIT) is used. The SNIT is based on a large group of translation examples in both source language and target language to take advantage of them while translating properly. The writers stressed that "Generally the manual (human) evaluation of machine translation (MT) systems is better than the automatic evaluation" (p. 68). This means that we cannot avoid human translation even in such cases.

Translating terminology is well-done when it comes to machine translation rather than human translation; add to that, the translation in the corpus which has been collected from several translators. In his 2016 article, the author points to the fact that, "it becomes easy to see how an MT [Machine Translation] engine can do a better job in terminology than a single human translator" (p. 49). The writer also added that brands and product names cannot be translated correctly by an MT engine that will leave some untranslated words unlike human translation. He also stressed that an MT engine depends on a "popularity contest" (p. 49).

That will give you the most popular translation of a word (Silvio).

In 2011, Lee and Liao emphasized that machine translation can never match human translation and it is more popular with its failures than its success, yet it can help the translator by offering some suitable word choices. Nevertheless, some word choices might be wrong. The author also mentioned the post-editor system which is provided by some machine translation engine. This system checks and edits human translation by correcting mistakes. He stressed that "MT PE [Machine Translation Post

-editing] is a type of translation service that is offered as an optional parallel process to HT [Human Translation]" (p. 112).

110

According to Vitek, 2011, "Machine translation will probably never replace human translators" (para. 5). The author claimed that he, sometimes, uses machine translation which is faster and might save his time. He also pointed out that he sum- marized an article by using human translation and another hard copy by using machine translation to make sure that he did not skip any line, as everybody knows machine translation translates every single line while human translators could be forgetful sometimes.

References

Hadla, L. S., Hailat, T. M., & Alkabi, M. N. (2014).Evaluating Arabic to English machine translation. International Journal of

Advanced Computer Science and Applications, 5(11), 68.Retrieved from http://thesai.org

Lee, J., & Liao, P. (2011).A comparative study of human translation and machine translation with post-editing. Compilation

and Translation Review, 4(2). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Okpor, M. D. (2014). Machine translation approaches: Issues and challenges. International Journal of Computer Science Is-

sues, 11(5), 159. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com

Silvio, P. (2016). Errors in machine translation and human translation. MultiLingual, 27(5). Retrieved from http://

web.a.ebscohost.com

Trujillo, A. (2012). Translation engines: Techniques for machine translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Vitek, S. V. (2011, September). Reflections of a human translator on machine translation. Retrieved from http://

www.translationdirectory.com

111 Business Name

Methods of Proverb Translation By Banan M. Alsalhi

Proverbs are elements of culture's saying about all sides of life; "They may carry themes related to religion, God, family, marriage, men and women, education, health, friendship" (para. 2). Following translation methods is very important since they allow translators to succeed in dealing with problems that may face. However, culture distinctions cause more difficulties for the translator than language styles because there are some proverbs that have special traditional meanings in the source language that are not in the target language (Bader, Dweik, & Thalji, 2016). In fact, there are several translation methods to translate proverbs from English to Arabic.

To translate proverbs efficiently, translators need to know both languages fluently and their cultures, traditions and religions, so they can translate proverbs effectively to the target language without creating nonsense meaning. There are many different features of proverbs in both languages so translator should follow one of three main methods of proverbs translation which deal with the whole text. The first one is the literal method and the second one is the literary method and the last one is the equivalence method (Abo Altimen, 2015).

According to Newmark, 1988,” The goal of a literal translation is to reproduce the form of the source text as much as possible into the target text since no translation is 'ever too literal or too close to the original” (p. 137). In addition, translators should translate English proverbs that have the same meaning and structure in Arabic by using word –for- word translation. For

,Husni & Newmanالحب اعمى (,love is blindعصفور في اليد خير من اثنين على الشجرة, ,example,a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush

2004). Some proverbs cannot be translating by this method because they have a special meaning in the source language.

Landers (2001) stated that the literary translation method is where translators must understand represented meaning of proverbs in English to transfer it successfully to Arabic. This is the best method that is used to translate proverbs, idioms and wis- doms between two languages because there are some proverbs that cannot be translated literally.This way we can translate the

في التأني السَلمة وفي العجلة الندامة. ,same meaning of the original proverbs in different images,e.g., Better to be safe than sorry

The equivalence translation method is used when translators have SL proverbs related to cultural aspects or lexical contents that cannot be found in the TL. So, when we translate from English to Arabic, some cultural or lexical proverbs should

In thisحكيم كلقمان. ,be substituted as close as possible in meaning that we have in Arabic proverbs, for example, As wise as an owl example, the translator used this method because an owl does not mean anything in the Arabic culture. According to Robinson

112

(1997(, “culture will always be more productive and effective than a focus on abstract linguistic structures or cultural conven- tions” (p. 137).

In conclusion, “Proverbs are the transmission of people's linguistic phrases and cultural manners from one generation into another” (Abo Altimen, 2015, para. 13). So that is the translation of proverbs should very carefully transfer the exact meaning from the original proverb. Furthermore, there are several methods that are used to transfer proverbs from English to Arabic.

These three methods can we use it according to the meanings and structures between SL and TL proverbs.

References

Abo Altimen, F. A. (2015). An analysis of translation methods for English proverbs: Literal, literary or substitution. European

Academic Research, 2(11). Retrieved from http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/36729690/proverbs

Bader, S., Dweik, B., & Thalji, M. B. (2016). Strategies for translating proverbs from English into Arabic. Academic Research

International, 7(2). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/

Husni, R., & Newman, D. L. (2004). Arabic-English-Arabic-English translation: Issues and strategies. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books?id

Landers, C. (2001). Literary translation: A practical guide. Great Britain: Cromwell Press ltd.

Newmark, P. (1988). A textbook of translation. Retrieved from http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents

_by_Peter_Newmark.pdf

Robinson, D. (1997). Becoming A translator: An accelerated course. London: Oxford.

113 Business Name

Translating Collocations in Religious Texts By Juhaina Ahmed Al-Katheri

Collocations impose constraints on how words can be used together to produce natural language. In other words, it is which words tend to appear together. Collocations are extremely important in improving thought processing and lead to effective communication; it makes your language sound a lot more natural and it helps in predicting how a conversation is going and how it should be responded to. Quranic collocations are one of its most common examples and they are difficult to translate. Indeed, there are some strategies in translating Quranic collocations.

According to Alshaje'a, 2014, "collocation is defined as the combination of lexical items at a certain distance that differentiate between frequent and non-frequent collocations" (p. 58). He also adds that collocation is described as a type of word combination that is frozen to a specific degree, but not completely. And among the many and different points of view in defining the term collocation, these were the two main opinions; they are known as the statistically oriented approach and the significance oriented approach. However, researchers of the second view usually work in the areas of lexicography.

There are some problems in translating Arabic collocations into English in religious texts such as the specificity of certain lexical items that are stable into the structure of Arabic "most collocations in religious texts such as collocations in the Holy

Quran, the Hadith and the Bible carry unique linguistic and semantic features that are culturally specific, yet so comprehensive in meaning that equivalents in TL do not exist" (as cited by Fraghal & Shunnaq, 1999, p. 8). And translators might face difficulties in translating collocations in religious texts (Dweik & Abu Shakra, 2011).

In 2014, Alshaje'a emphasized that translation of collocations in the Glorious Quran has numerous issues and the most problematic one is how to deal with collocations. In spite of the restriction that stops words co-occurring in ways that produce nonsense, it fills to make a great extent difference between near-synonyms. He stressed that, "collocations has relations with arbitrary restrictions which do not obey logically the propositional meaning of the word" ( as cited in Amstrong, 2005, p. 97).

According to Dweik and Suleiman, 2013, “Abdelwali has referred the issues of translating the Holy Quran to the fact that Quranic features are alien to the linguistic norms of other languages” (as cited by Abdelwali, 2002, p. 4). The set of semantic, rhetorical, phonetic and cultural qualities aren’t only distinguished from the TL but also distinguished from other types of Arabic prose.

114

And they point out that Quranic lexemes and styles weren’t caught in most of the English interpretations of the Holy Quran.

There are numerous differences between Arabic and English that cause several semantic problems in the Holy Quran translation. In their 2013 article, the authors point out to the fact that there are also many grammatical problems that translators might face when they translate the Holy Quran to English (Ali, Brakhw, Nordin & Shaiklsmail): “in the Quran, there’s a shift from the past tense to the imperfect tense to achieve an effect, which can pose some problems in translation” (as cited by Abdel

-Haleem, p. 2).

as clarifying things whether they're religious or not. And it alsoوالكتاب المبين" " inالمبين" " In 2013, Alhaj defined that means that is shining so that is why it shows things extremely clearly. Another name of the Quran is "hikma" in

and it means mature wisdom. He mentioned that there are, "other names like alNur 'the light', alحكمة بالغة فما تغن النذر" "

Mubarak ‘the blessed', alShifa 'that heals', alHuda 'that which guides or makes one attain the goal', alTanzil 'the revelation', alRahma 'the mercy'" (p. 49).

References

Alhaj, A. (2016). New theory of the holy Qur'an translation: A textbook for advanced university students of linguistics

and translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Ali, A., Brakhw, M. A., Nordin, M. Z., & ShaikIsmail, S. F. (2013). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the holy Quran

from Arabic into English. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity. Retrieved from http://www.ijssh.org

Alshaje’a, H. (2014a). Issues in translating collocations of the holy Qur’an. Language in India, 14(8). Retrieved from http://

www.languageinindia.com

Alshaje'a, H. A. (2014b). Translation of the collocations in the holy Quran into English a comparative study. Retrieved from

http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in

Dweik, B. S., & Abu Shakra, M. M. (2011). Problems in translating collocations in religious texts from Arabic into Eng-

lish. The Linguistics Journal, 5(1). Retrieved from http://www.linguistics-journal.com

Dweik, B. S., & Suleiman, M. (2013). Problems encountered in translating cultural expressions from Arabic into Eng-

lish. International Journal of English Linguistics, 3(5). Retrieved from http://web.ccsenet.org

115 Business Name

Translators and Interpreters in War Zone By Shatha F. Al-Otaibi

The interpreters and translators role can be distinguished in many ways. One range of potentials is that the interpreter can consider being more than just a technical relay, and that is important because they should transport the information from one language to another (Carr, 2007). So they offer different methods of communication and create a trust and a considerative environment in very difficult situations (Baker, 2014). In fact, translators and interpreters play a huge rule in war zones.

Translators and interpreters have a major role in defining any war. Therefore, forming the stories and the events that happened during the war. They are liked and respected and sometimes hated by many people for different reasons. They have a special relationship with different workforces that they receive respect and compassion from. However, they are discharged from the military and political institutions considering them a threat. The writer points out that "By and large, the military and politi- cians treat locally hired interpreters as cannon fodder and refuse them basic protection." (Baker, 2014, p. 27).

Their role requires quick responses and accomplishing the tasks, it is always fixed and sorted despite the unsafe and highly dangerous surroundings. For example, for two post world war court interpreters in crime trials in Britain, the writer emphasizes that their employers "did not tend to question the loyalty and ethics of interpreters" (Tobia, 2014, p. 292). Mainly with any ethical issues that may have happen while working on matters of conflict declaration in an occupied kingdom (Tobia, 2014).

Many translators and interpreters are told what they should do and should not; they have only expected transfer of meaning from one language to another, but this is against the translators' ethics and morals. Their performance can be affected and their life can be put into danger (Tymoczko, 2014). As a result, the lack of professionalism interpreting and translation services may well give unfair trial results in many ways (Taibi & Martin, 2012).

Inghilleri (2010) mentioned that although they are working at the same time as a war is happening, some of them are way far from the actual physical violence of war, for instance, interpreting in court for victims, translating intelligence data or war poems. While this work is happening outside the war zone itself, it directly and indirectly impacts the way the war is carried and remembered.

116

According Inghilleri and Harding, 2010, the nature of war demands translators and interpreters to accept an opposed friend/enemy difference from its participant. They also add, "These judgments, and the decisions that go with them, provide clear and strong evidence for the lead role in the construction" (p. 171). All acts of translation hold the odds for the translator and interpreters to be affected in ways that they did not expect (Carr, 2007).

References

Baker, M. (2014). Interpreters and translators in the war zone. The Translator, 16(2). Retrieved from http://

www.tandfonline.com/

Carr, M. S. (2007). Translating and interpreting conflict. Retrieved from https://books.google.com

Inghilleri, M., & Harding, S. (2010). Translating violent conflict. The translator, 16(2). Retrieved from http://

www.tandfonline.comInghilleri, M. (2010). Translation and violent conflict. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Taibi, M., & Martin, A. (2012). Court translation and interpreting in times of “the war on terror”: The case of Taysir Alony.

Translation & Interpreting, 4(1). Retrieved from http://www.trans-int.org

Tobia, S. (2014). Crime and judgement. The translator, 16(2). Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com

Tymoczko, M. (2014). Enlarging translation, empowering translators. Retrieved from https://books.google.com

117 Business Name

The Impact of Translation on Dying Languages By Lama H. Shehab

Stolze (2009) defined texts in all forms as “carriers of messages” among cultures and languages around the world (p. 1).

The author pointed out that these messages that hold valuable and important information about languages and cultural back- grounds must be carefully transferred. This, however, illustrates the translators’ significant role in treasuring these texts and understanding their cultures to transfer them to others, and therefore save them from dying.

You may wonder, how could languages possibly disappear? In an article titled “Language Death and Disappearance:

Causes and Circumstances” it was reported that “over five thousand languages are known to exist or to have existed in the world, but hundreds of these are no longer living languages used by speakers and speech communities in their day-to-day activities and lives.” (p. 1). It was added that the reason behind these languages disappearing was the unclear way that they are written or noted with; so odd that we cannot extract any detailed information from them, which stresses how important it is to never neglect sacred texts in any way.

In 2016, Fawcett emphasized that translation can be an essential factor for saving endangered languages from disappearance and make them grow, as translators face different social challenges and work very hard on learning them and keeping them in their translation. He stressed that, "The importance that we attach to language as identity poses considerable delicate problems for translators, and translation can be one element in the struggle to develop and defend languages threatened with disappearance." (p. 116). He also pointed out the main social elements that affect our use of languages, which has often contributed to many catastrophes.

Evans (2008) discussed how some small societies strongly value their cultures and knowledge that they work so hard to carry them through their languages. He stressed that “Many aspects of their traditional knowledge are still unknown to western science, and in fact languages are arguably the most important and distinctive of the [cultural resources].” (p. 20). Such societies encourage language learners such as translators to fight any obstacles and search for information in these societies’ languages that need to be transferred, in order to preserve them.

Moreover, Anderman and Rogers (1996) associate bilinguals and second language learnerswith translators as they all work with languages in a similar way, “each must identify new words, record them, recall them, work out their relationship with other words and with the real world, and be able to use them appropriately.” (p. 69). However, others believe that it is only the translator’s job to transfer knowledge in other languages especially when it comes to specialized terms, since they are not easily

118

established and usually have a subculture that a second language learner hasn’t learned about, “Therefore, it is not enough for translators to be bilingual, but they should be bicultural as well.” (Al-Hasnawi, 2007, p. 11).

References

Al-Hasnawi, A. (2007). A cognitive approach to translating metaphors. Translation Journal, 11(3). Retrieved from http://

translationjournal.net/journal/41metaphor.htm

Anderman, G., & Rogers, M. (1996). Words, words, words: The translator and the language learner. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Evans, N. (2011). Dying words: Endangered languages and what they have to tell us. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Fawcett, P. (2016). Translation and language. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Stolze, R. (2009). Dealing with cultural elements in technical texts for translation. The Journal of Specialised Translation, (11),

1. Retrieved from http://www.jostrans.org/issue11/art_stolze.pdf

Wurm, S. (1991). Language death and disappearance: Causes and circumstances. Sage Journals,

39(153), 1.Retrievedfromhttp://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/039219219103915302

119 Business Name

Legal Translation: Lexical Differences in English vs Arabic By Najla A. Albrithen

Translation is one of the important factors that help people to learn and know other languages and cultures. The author added that, ''translation has the prefix 'trans', which means 'going across'.'' (p. 3). The term translation means the transfer of ideas, opinions, and feelings from one language to the second language. Translation is the skill that encourages a system of communication among different nationalities. The types of translation are many, such as medical, military, and legal translation etc. Legal translation is the most difficult type because it has different technical terms from one language to another. Indeed, there are various lexical differences in legal translation in English vs Arabic. (Shastri, 2011).

In 2016, El-Farhaty reasoned that legal translation becomes more complicated from English into Arabic, due to different systems in both Arabic and English legal language. It is common that Arabicand the English language are linked to distinct families. Arabic being derived from Semitic language, however, English being derived from Indo-European language. The writer stressed that, ''Thus, translators from and into Arabic face difficulties on different linguistic levels, be they terminological (i.e.

Sharia Law vs Common Law terms), syntactic (i.e. modals and passive structure' incongruities), or textual (i.e. lexical repetition and punctuation marks).'' (p. 475). So these legal systems are notably various.

According to Elewa(2014), ''The legal language uses two types of lexical items common words and technical words.'' (p.

401). He explored that a number of lexical terms in legal language in both English and Arabic may be uncommon to the junior translators. This is because these terms are only used in legal texts. Translators read many common words used in legal contexts and they will not recognize these words as technical words; they will certainly recognize them as general words. He emphasized that by giving one example of the 'Assignment'. The word assignment means in legal context, transport of right. But the novice translators who are unfamiliar with legal terms would understand it as, the mission to complete.

The legal language uses special old terms called 'Archaic terms'. They belonged to Old and Middle English and are only used and found in legal passages among lawyers. These old terms referred to certain places concerning documents. Among these terms, the writer listed a few examples of them. Such as, hereto, hereof, hereinafter and etc. Hereto means in English 'mentioned

Hereof means, 'associated with the contract and in Arabic treat itبهذا العقد'. ' in the same part of the contract and in Arabic it means

فيما بعد من هذا العقد'. )',Finally, the word hereinafter means,' recorded later on this contract' while in Arabic meansمن هذا العقد '. ' as

Najeb, 2005).

120

In the article titled ''Translation of Legal Texts between Arabic and English: The Case Study of Marriage Contracts,'' it was stated that equivalences in Arabic and English regarding marriage contracts in legal language are not the same meaning

Mahr, Sadaq-(dowry).'' (p. 4). It was explained that،صداق،مهر .''at all. The writer gave one example to confirm what he said the word 'Mahr' is not the equivalent of the word 'Dowry'. Because the word 'Mahr' known as the amount of money that the groom gives to his bride before the wedding; while the word 'Dowry' is known as the amount of money that the bride gives to her groom.

Legal translation is difficult to understand. It is considered as technical terms with the aspect of law. In addition to that, there are differences between two legal systems when translating lexical terms from Arabic into English. Because of having these different legal systems, many barriers will occur when translating any legal passage. In his 2008 article, the author pointed to the fact that legal translation is simple to those who are familiar with the language of law. (Bouharaoui).

References

Al Aqad, M. H. (2014). Translation of legal texts between Arabic and English: The case study of marriage contracts. Arab

World English Journal, 5(2). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Bouharaoui, A. (2008, November). Some lexical features of English legal language. Retrieved from http://

www.translationdirectory.com

Elewa, A. (2014). Levels of translation (3rd ed.). Cairo: Qalam.

El-Farahaty, H. (2016). Translating lexical legal terms between English and Arabic . Revue Internationale de Sémiotique Jurid-

ique, 29(2). Retrieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com

Najeb, I. M. (2005). Translation from English to Arabic and vice versa (5th ed.). Cairo: Ibn Sina library.

Shastri, P. D. (2011). Fundamental aspects of translation. Retrieved from https//books.google.com.sa/books

121 Business Name

Problems in English Translation of the Quran By Ebtehaj S.Al-suekit

Translations of the Quran into English are becoming the most read books in the world. Many translators share the same method for translating the holy Quran, which is a fresh translation, and some have asserted that list the difficulties culture was in the first (Aydelott, n.d.). However, that kind of translation is not satisfactory for one reason or another (Allaithy, 2014). In fact, some linguists faced many difficulties in translating special verses from Arabic to English because of cultural differences.

Azzam, Ahaydib and Huqail (2015) discussed there are some problems in translating some verses from the Quran. One example was infanticide because in pre-Islam people buried young girls, but it is difficult for people in the modern day to accept it.Azzam,AhaydibandHuqail(2015) emphasized that when translators translate the Quran, they have to explain and give more details about different cultures to avoid misunderstanding. The authors stressed “the translation doesn’t reflect enough cultural and social allusions of this custom”(Azzam, Ahaydib & Huqail, 2015, p. 31).

There are many difficulties that a translator could face in normal texts; but these difficulties are further impacted when texts are religious, such as the case with the holy Quran which is the word from God and there are some verses that translators could struggle to understand because of cultural differences. In addition, many sociologists have agreed that culture and language are interwoven elements. In his 2013 article, Shikhbabayev points to the fact that in addition to differences in the writing rules between Arabic and English, there is the dissimilarity between the two cultures.

In 2015,Azzam, Ahaydib and Huqail emphasized that translating the Quran requires many steps for a correct translation.

One of the most important is that translators must be acquainted enough with this religious discourse to have a better translation in style, linguistics and culture. They add, as an example, different translations by three translators—Al-Hilai and Khan(1996), Ali

الطفل الذين لم يظهروا على عورات النساء’’and Pickthall(1953)—for this verse (2006)

Al-Hilaiand Khan (1996) translated the verse as “small children who have no sense of feminine sex” (p. 471). Ali (2006) translated the verse as “small children who have no sense of the shame of sex” (p. 423). And Pickthall (1953) translated the verse as

“children who know naught of women’s nakedness” (p.255).

According to Jabari, 2008,” literal translation for Quran poses many problems in different levels. That is, in the Quran there are many difficult words and styles that cannot be translated literally because of the difference on culture” (p. 55). Ctford states that:

122

Translation fails - or untranslatability occurs- when it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situa-

tion into the contextual meaning of the TL text. Broadly speaking, the case where this happens fall into two catego-

ries. Those where the difficulty is linguistic and those where is it cultural (as cited in Jabri, 2008, p. 55).

In 2002, some researchers tried to find solutions to the issue of translating some problematic verses: “Ghazala suggested using six types of equivalents to translate Islamic Terms: functional equivalent, explanatory equivalent, cultural equivalent, religious equivalent, referential equivalent, and connotative equivalent” (p.52). Translators will use these six types for non- equivalents verses. For example, for the word zakat, a translator will use ‘charity’ or ‘alms’ in the English language, but this is not the right meaning that Zakat refers to. So, whoever wants to translate the Quran must give enough of an explanation for this kind of word and thus the verses might be understandable (Kashgary, 2011).

References

Allaithy, A. (2014). Qur'anic term translation. A semantic study from Arabic perspective. Retrievedfrom from https://

books.google.com.sa/book

Aydelott, N. (n.d.). Diversity in language: Contrastive studies in Arabic and English theoretical and applied linguistics. In Z.

Ibrahim (Ed.), . Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Azzam, B., Ahaydib, M., & Huqail, E. (2015). Cultural problems in the translation of the Qur’an. International Journal of Ap-

plied Linguistics and Translation, 1(2), . Retrieved from http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/

pdf/10.11648.j.ijalt.20150102.12.pdf

Jabari, R. (2008, October). Reasons for the possible incomprehensibility of some verses of three translations of the meaning of

the holy Quran into English (PhD's dissertations, University of Salford, Salford, UK). Retrieved from http://

usir.salford.ac.uk/14918/1/494753.pdf from http://article.sciencepublishinggr

Kashgary, A. (2011). The paradox of translating the untranslatable: Equivalence vs. Non- Equivalence in translating from Ara-

bic into English. Journal of King Saud University, 23(11), . Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/

article/pii/S2210831910000068

Shikhbabayev, N. (2013). Sociolinguistic approach to translation problem: in the example of Dede Korkut and

the Quran. Ulakbilge, 1(2), . Retrievedfrom http://www.ulakbilge.com/makale/pdf/1407439027.pdf

123 Business Name

Challenges in Translating and Dubbing Animation in the Arab World By Rand A. Aljenaidel

Since the earliest of the twentieth century, animation became one of the biggest industries in our world. As González (2007) said globalisation helped to spread this kind of entertainment outside their countries. However, there are two famous countries in this field; the United States and Japan. Their animation spread in the world by either dubbing or subtitling. In the Arab world, dubbing is very famous more than subtitling for many reasons. In fact, almost all our childhood animation series and movies such

,are Japanese animations. Yet, there are some challenges the studiesعدنان ولينا( ) and Adnan wa Lenaعَلء الدين( ) as AlaaAldeen translators, and professionals dubbed in the Arab world might face in dubbing and translating animation process.

Rosa Agost defines dubbing by saying that “dubbing is a question of words, voices and images, and the relationship between all those elements in the message is far from being simple” (as cited in Luque, n.d, p. 132). On the other hand, Bendus (2012) stated that there are some main challenges in dubbing, and could differ from one country to another but often it is the same. He sees that the operation between lip and body movements, suppression, cultural issue, spectators, time and the response are the main challenges. In my opinion, these are the main aspects why dubbing into the Arabic language is not as high quality as the other countries.

Elena. (2016) mentioned a good example of a struggle thata translator might face when he or she translates into Arabic “in episode

14 ]AlaaAldeen[ . . . Jasmine yet has to face yet another rival: Sadira. The latter has had Jasmine captured by a huge . . . Sand

Best, . . . Jasmine shouts at Sadira, telling her she has no hope as far as Aladdin is concerned” (p. 10) shown as follows:

The original English dia- MSA dubbed version Back translation from

.I won’t leave her -أطلقي سراح ياسمين ، لن .Aladdin I love her

,I won’t leave you either وأنا أيضا لن أتركك. .Jasmine I love you too, Aladdin

Oh, Aladdin, maybe for عَلء الدين ! بالنسبة لكما هذا مهم Sadira Oh, Aladdin, maybe for

you this is important. And ، ولكن بالنسبة لي ليست إَل لعبة. -you is true love. And may

be for me it’s all just a maybe for me it’s all just a

cruel game. cruel game.

124

Figure 1.A conversation from AlaaAldeen shows the difference between translations

As shown above, both Jasmine and Sadira mentioned love. The translator replaced the world to adapt the conversation to the Arabic and Islamic culture. McComb (2011) points out to this fact that dubbing conceal the source script and ad- justs the aims of the writers to familiarize them for different spectators. Nevertheless, Orero (2004) said that synchronization is a very important stage in the dubbing proses. He stressed that Synchronization, in any spoken language in the world, is the process of recording a translation, matching the translation with the screen actors’ speech sounds movements and the body actions. At the same time, it is a widely accepted idea among professionals that Synchronization remains with the conversation writers. Though, there is another struggle that dubbing studios face like if the actor who is going to dub is available or not or the room where the actors dubbing and recode (Orero, 2004). On the other hand, he believes that there are some very close and strong stages involves in the dubbing and translating process, and these processes need to follow a recognized instructions and rhythm; you can see it as a production line, as one small problem on the production line can disturbed all the stages.

As you can see, the role of the translator as important as the whole process. Orero (2004) beliefs that the translator is like the sole of the dubbing process, he or she is the only one who know the both languages, and can make important changes. There is no doubt that animation is a huge international industry. Finally, as a fan of animation, I hope to see in the future more improvements in the quality of dubbing from the talented translators and the studios.

References Bendus, M. (2012). The semantics and pragmatics of translating culture-bound references in film dubbing (Doctoral disserta tion). Retrieved from http://media.proquest.com Elena. (2016). Dubbing and redubbing animation: Disney in the Arab world. AltreModernità. Retrieved from http:// ri viste.unimi.it/index. González, L. P. (2007). Fansubbing anime: Insights into the ‘butterfly effect’ of globalization on audiovisual translation. Per- spectives, 14(4), 260-277. doi:10.1080/09076760708669043 Luque, F. (n.d.). Dubbing and manipulation: The name of the rose, a case study (Master's thesis, Universidad de Valladolid). Retrieved from https://periodicos.ufsc.br McComb, D. G., Ferrari, C. F., & Straubhaar,, J. (2011). Since when is Fran Drescher Jewish?: Dubbing stereotypes in the Nanny, the Simpsons, and the Sopranos. Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com Orero, P. (2004). Topics in audiovisual translation. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl/reader.action? docID=10067167

125 Business Name

The Difficulties of Translating the Holy Quran By Atheer A. Al-Arifi

Ali, Brakhw and Ismail (2012) confirmed that the prime problem the translator faces when translating the Quran is the difficulty in translating lexical terms. One of the lexical problems when translating the holy Quran is the lack of equivalence of some Islamic terms. These terms have no direct coordinate in English, which forces the translator to convey them in an explicit

–and "kufr (disbeliefتقوى(" –way. There are some examples of these Islamic terms, such as: "taqwā (piety

.pتوبة(" ) – and " tā wbah (repentanceمعروف(" – and " ma‛rū f (charityشرك(" –and "shī rk (associating other gods with Godكفر("

588).

In 1981, Ilyas emphasized that the most problematic thing when translating the religious books is the mystery of some lexical terms. And this happened because of the very old historical language that is used in the religious texts. Also metaphors is a semantic problem that the translator faces since the languages have various metaphors to express different meanings, which makes the translator translate them literally, and this makes the translation not include the meant meaning (Ahmed, 2006).

البرهان في Ahmed (2006) added that since the Arabic language based on metaphors, the holy Quran is like that; "In his book

p. 256) lists twenty six types of single metaphor in the Quran. Once the metaphorical expressionالزركشي ) Az-Zarkshiعلوم القرآن passes into common use, it becomes an idiom or a proverb and in both cases it cannot be translated literally. For instance, the

is not to be rendered into "cool your eye" for the intended meaning of the verse is "comfort yourselfوقري عينا )Quranic verse (9:26 and be glad" (as cited in Ahmed, 2006, p. 66).

Sadiq (2008) discussed that lots of Arabic words are polysemic , and holy Quran has many polysemic words, such as; the verb

da'a) which is found in different verses with different meanings (p. 38). Indeed, there are differences between the world'sدعا " )" languages because of the social and cultural differences which effected every language; "the term "culture" in this context embrac- es the whole way of life of a given society including language, art, thoughts, customs and beliefs." (Alhaj, 2015, p. 10).

In 2008, Sadiq emphasized that the importance of the cultural background, and the translator has to be aware of the cultural background of the idioms to translate them as well, or else he or she will tend to translate the idioms incorrectly. Indeed, the author pointed to that the translator in this case has to look at dictionaries which will be helpful to get the correct meaning in order to translate idioms correctly and not translate them literally.

Al Azzam, Al Haydib and Al Huqail (2015) emphasized that errors in the cultural and social meanings make the translation lose its real meaning. As cultures, "polygamy" is not found in the western culture, so the readers of the

126

text will understand it negatively, especially the females. For sure they will understand the meaning as abstract meaning without its cultural and social sides. Islam allowed "polygamy", but with special conditions and with a fair system. As an example, a husband can marry more than one wife if she is barren and he wants sons. Although, he should be very fair with each wife in everything.

References

Ahmed, M. F. (2006). Investigating some semantic problems in the translation of the holy Quran. Adab AL-Rafidayn, 43, 66.

Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net

Al Azzam, B., Al Haydib, M., & Al Huqail, E. (2015). Cultural problems in the translation of the Qur’an. International Jour

nal of Applied Linguistics and Translation , 30. Retrieved from http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com

Alhaj, A. (2015). New theory of the holy Qur'an translation. A textbook for advanced university students of linguistics and

translation, 10. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Ali, M., Brakhw, A., Nordin, M., & Ismail, S. (2012). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the holy Quran from Arabic

into English. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 588. Retrieved from http://www.ijssh.org

Ilyas, A. I. (1981). Linguistic and extra-linguistic problems in the translation of the Holy Qur'an. St Andrews Research Reposi

tory, 1. Retrieved from https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk

Sadiq, S. (2008). Some semantic, stylistic and cultural problems of translation with special reference to translating the glorious

Qur'ân. Sayyab Translation Journal, 1, 38, 50. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu

127 Business Name

Ensuring Quality in Legal Translation By Raneen M. Alsubaie

Hara (2017) discussed the process of legal translation as it could be challenging and difficult; for example, courts and translators should cooperate together to guarantee a quality of the translation; also the government is one of the main factors that affects the result. He stressed that "The best laws will be ineffective if they are not followed by translators, the best efforts of translators can be thwarted by lack of cooperation from the courts, etc." (p. 19). In fact, many factors play a main role in the process of ensuring quality in legal translation.

One of the main roles in the process is the government which means the political way and monitoring exercised over the actions of the societies, states, etc. The government has to use a translator as quickly as possible to start the process. Believing that the translation job is assigned to a translator with the appropriate competence to provide a product of the highest possible quality (Ramos, 2015).

As a translator you must have enough good knowledge in legal translation to send the message; furthermore, if the translator faces any confusing words, he has to check the dictionary and not explain it by himself. According to Bajčić and Basaneže,

2016, mistranslation can lead to differing consequences in practice and are hazardous in all legal and justice matters also, some problems arise when cognate terms are used that refer to specific national legal concepts and institutions.

Cheng and Sin, 2016, assert that legal translators should overcome cultural obstacles between the source language and the target language. In addition, linguistic differences found between two specific legal languages may be solvable as most translations need grammatical transformation. Bajčić and Basaneže, 2016, discussed credible translations must be legally reliable also, the same qualities should be conserved throughout the translated text.

Hara (2017) reports that courts and translators should work together, for example, giving important files about the case and enough time. Deadlines are an obstacle to make the translation successful. It has been noted that in some states, translators are required to swear an oath to show that translations of such documents are the legal equivalents of the source texts. In addition, the translator should keep the words precision and accuracy (Lan, 2017).

According to Sonneveld and Loening, 1993, it is understandable that the problems are not all placed at the same level and he added:

128

and what is called 'legal translation' comprises quite an array of sub-disciplines, each with its own

terminology and its own discourse: judicial translation (the judgements), legislative translations (the

laws), national translation (deeds…(, as well as the documents down up at one time or another by law-

yer (contract, letters, legal opinions expressed in a letter or in a memorandum, briefs…( (p. 83).

Each of those sub-disciplines has its own peculiarities and the translators must know both the target and the source languages perfectly.

References

Bajčić, M., & Basaneže, K. D. (Eds.). (2016). Towards the professionalization of legal translators and court interpreters in the

EU. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Cheng, L., & Sin, K. (2016). The Ashgate handbook of legal translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Hara, M. (2017). Ensuring quality in legal translation by 3 parties – Governments, courts and translators. The Journal

of Specialised Translation, (27). Retrieved from http://www.jostrans.org

Lan, Y. (2017). Accuracy and precision of polysemous judgment terms in legal translation: A corpus-based method and discus-

sion. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 8(1). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/publication/

publications_136091?accountid=142908

Ramos, F. P. (2015). Quality assurance in legal translation: Evaluating process, competence and product in the pursuit of ade-

quacy. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law, 28(1). Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/

article/10.1007%2Fs11196-014-9390-9

Sonneveld, B., & Loening, L. (Eds.). (1993). Terminology: Applications in interdisciplinary communication. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa

129 Business Name

Strategies of Technical and Proper Noun Translation By Najla M.Al-mojil

In the translation field, translators must face some difficulties in their translation process. Because of our industrial world and the leap of technology, the amount of technical text and proper nouns have increased tremendously. Consequently, a technical translator should have solid knowledge of the technical field and be aware of the strategies to translate technical texts correctly. As Byrne (2014) pointed out in his book “technical translation should not be regarded just as a type of translation but as part of the broader field of technical communication” (n.p.). Definitely, different sound systems and alphabets in different languages show us how translating technical terminologies and proper nouns need specific strategies to translate them accurately (Stalls & Knight, 1998).

Byrne, 2006, stated that using specialized terminologies is not sufficient to have obvious technical translations. Text style, content, register, usability and communicative function also play an important role in the success or failure of translated texts. As technical translators, our role is to guarantee that reader shave effective and clear communication texts. As the author stressed “Looking at technical translation as a communicative activity opens the door to a variety of new and interesting avenues of investigation” (p. 253).

In the translation field, there are two approaches commonly used by translators. Domestication which is concerned with the TL text to reduce the foreignness, and foreignization, which is concerned with the SL text. These two approaches were discussed by an

American translation theorist, Venuti. Moreover, since the English language is the dominant language, it is preferable to use some of the

to facilitate having an obviousانترنت(( and Internetنيويورك((English terminologies using transliteration technique such as, New York technical and proper nouns translation (Mohseni & Mostafavi,2013).

Another effective technique as Falih discussed, is to replace technical and proper nouns with native language equivalents that have already been existent and commonly used in the TL. The cultural equivalent shave dissimilar form whatsoever to the English such

The author also pointed out to the Arabization technique whichاَلنجيل(. ) and The bibleشباط(, ) Februaryالزهرة(, ) Venusمصر((, as, Egypt

البرلمان(, )the Parliamentسويسرا (,) means “subjected to the Arabic phonological/orthographic rules” (p. 44). For example, Switzerland

.(This technique facilitates reading and pronouncing these translated words(2009المانيا. ))Germany

Because of the diverse types of audience and translator’s opinions, Van Coillie’s model implies ten strategies of translating proper and technical terms, so translators have the opportunity to choose the appropriate technique to have a coherent and understandable text.Van Coillie’s model conveys extremely effective strategies that facilitate translating proper names and technical texts for translators. The table below represents Van Coillie's model of translating proper nouns.

Table 1: Van Coillie's model of translating proper names (2006, p.123)

130

Types of strategy Character of translation

1) Reproduction Leaving foreign names unchanged

2) Nontranslation plus additional explanation Adding explanations, either in the form of a note or in the text itself

3) Replacement of personal name by a common noun Replacing a proper name by a common noun that characterizes the person 4) Phonetic or morphological adaptation to the target language Turning to phonetic transcription or morphological adaptation 5) Exonym Replacing a name by a counterpart in the target language 6) Replacement by a more widely known name from the source culture or an internationally known name with the same function Opting for recognize ability without Abandoning the foreign context

7)Substitution Replacing a name by another name from the target language 8) Translation of names with a particular connotation Reproducing the connotation in the target language, when names 9) Replacement by a name with another or additional connotation have specific connotations

10) Deletion Adding or changing the connotation of a name

Omitting all proper names

In the scientific and linguistic fields, and because of the industrial world, new terminologies are being created. Therefore, technical translators should pay close attention to these new terminologies. Good experience and solid knowledge about the SL field are necessary for translators in order to translate a text precisely. Moreover, professional translators choose the right technique that suits the audience and their age, education, etc.

References

Byrne, J. (2006). Technical translation: Usability strategies for translating technical documentation. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Byrne, J. (2014). Scientific and technical translation explained a nuts and bolts guide for beginners. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Coillie, J., & Verschueren, W. (2014). Children's literature in translation: Challenges and strategies. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Falih, H. (2009). Some problems in the translation of English proper names into Arabic. Journal of the College of Arts. University of

Basrah, (50). Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=53092

Mohseni, A., & Mostafavi, S. (2013). Technical translation, foreignization and dominance of technical language. American Journal of

Translation Studies, 5(2). Retrieved from http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?

q=cache:E4RKkO8WDmoJ:scholar.google.com

Stalls, B. G., & Knight, K. (1998). Translating names and technical terms in Arabic text. Proceedings of the Workshop on Computa-

tional Approaches to Semitic Languages - Semitic. Retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfmid

131 Business Name

Can Human Translation Be Replaced by Machine Translation? By Ghada K. Al-Khourayef

These days, we can say that many human beings were replaced by machines in many fields but we cannot tell for sure if this is possible in the field of translation. According to Lee and Liao (2011), we can simply define machine translation as

"computerized systems responsible for the production of translations with or without human assistance" (p. 107). However, in the field of translation, there are many studies that are concerned with machine translation and its abilities. In fact, with the development of technology, many people would think that machine translation can efficiently replace human translation.

The role of machine translation cannot be denied or ignored since it facilitates the translation process for many translators; however, comparing machines' abilities to humans' is unfair. The writers emphasized that machine translation has certain limits and it can be as good as a brain "A computer may do well on a controlled-language text and very poorly on a slightly more general text" (p. 1). So, the limits of machine translation can be one of its major problems and why it cannot be as good as human translation (Melby& Warmer, 1995).

In the article titled "Can Google Translate Replace Human Translation Services in the Future?", it was stated that human translation cannot be replaced by machine translation because languages are determined by changeable rules which only human beings can understand. It stressed that the main difference between machine and human translation is that human beings "have a high level of intellect that enables them to play with words, expressions and meaning of certain sentences" (para. 1). It was also added that the lack of ability to understand the main purpose of a sentence correctly is one of the most significant problems with machine translation (2015).

The decision whether to choose a human translation or a machine translation depends on the objective of the translated text. In his 2002 article, the author pointed out that, "If the purpose is simply to obtain a rough indication of the source text content and not a careful, finished translation by human standards, then fully automatic machine may be in order" (p.148). It was added that these kinds of translation, which are insufficient, are called indicative translation (Newton).

Sharp, Carl, Zock, and Jakobsen (2011) discussed the experiment that was done to 22 students to see the difference between translating with a translation machine and without it, i.e. human translation. The authors pointed out that there was a great impact of the influence of machine translation on the students' translation. It was added do a better job in their translation process.

132

The role of humans in the field of translation is significant and cannot be replaced with machines because they "can never be accurate substitutions for a good human translation" (para.1). When we translate, we do not only translate words and ideas, but also the context and the target language's culture. On the other hand, if humans combine their translation with machine translation, we will most likely have a perfect result (Zakaria, 2016).

References

Can Google translate replace human translation services in the future? (2015, June 23). M2 Presswire. Retrieved from https://

search.proquest.com/docview/1690355472?accountid=142908

Lee, J., & Liao, P. (2011). A comparative study of human translation and machine translation with post-editing. Compilation &

Translation Review, 4(2). Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com

Melby, A. K., & Warmer, C. T. (1995). The possibility of language: A discussion of the nature of language, with implications

for human and machine translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Newton, J. (Ed.). (2002). Computers in translation: A practical appraisal. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Sharp, B., Carl, M., Zock, M., & Jakobsen, A. L. (Eds.). (2011). Human-Machine interaction in translation: Proceedings of the

8th international NLPCS workshop. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Zakaria, S. (2016, October 20). Google translate can never replace humans: UAE minister. Khaleej Times. Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rps&AN=2W6918330286&site=ehost-live

133 Business Name

The Influence of Technology on Translation By Noura S. Alrasheed

Technology and translation has a strong connection these days. Technology now has a major effect on both translation and translators. O'hagan (2016) reported that, “It is challenging to find an appropriate theoretical framework in which to critical examine technology and to elicit its significant impacts on translation” (p.933). However, there is no denying of the benefits of technology, yet it is still a concern since it interferes and complicates the choice of words. In fact, technology influences translation in the education field in many ways.

The main focus of technology should be to help us do what we need to do. It is a tool that allows us to extend our reach to new grounds. These days, there are many types of translation tools which help the translator in translation practice. As Cassar and Hutchins (as cited in Chan, 2004), mentioned that, “(1( data-capture tools; (2) inputting tools; (3) dictionary tools; (4) terminology tools; (5) dictation tools; (6) source-analysis tools, etc.”. (p. 260).

The mother of all the user friendly technological tools is the World Wide Web (Internet). Internet contributed to translators in many ways. Kokturk and Odacioglu stated that, “The internet has numerous resources, even online terminology databases or applications which can help translators in the translating process” (para. 20). There are some advantages of using the online tools such as: Saving time and increased productivity. However, some of Internet websites offering erroneous contents can be misleading as well, especially the free ones or others whose developers may be unknown.

Pym (2011) suggested that we narrow our view on the matter to the actual process of translating and that the effect to discuss is actually memory. Technologies have offered an extended external memory to use. Cognition in this case is most affected. Case in point, if we try to translate a certain word from our own memories, intuition and experience can lead to the correct choice, but using translation machines can lead to more confusion since it can generate more than needed in meaning for the exact same word.

He emphasis that, “Using technology isn’t necessarily easier or more efficient. Nonetheless, it does enrich their terminology” (para. 5).

Every translator must understand the foreign language which he/she will translate before he/she translating. Under- standing a foreign language is getting easier with the range of translation apps for your smartphone and computer. In 2014, Stuart emphasizes that, “Microsoft, for example, has shown off an app, Skype translator, which provides translation as people speak to one another in different languages.

134

It will launch for windows 8 devices later this year and has been compared to the universal translator gadget in Star

Trek.” (para. 4).

Finally, “Technology has undoubtedly had a crucial role in most professional activities” (Carrió-Pastor, 2016, p.

50). Even though technology diminishes dialogue, it still opens new social areas for translating, especially in the common non- professional areas. Also, the quality of written language in both the source and target text will be perfect so, using the two will allow professional translators to have a deeper look into the different cultures through the translation in social spaces.

References

Chan, S. W. (2004). A dictionary of translation technology. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Carrió-Pastor, M. L. (2016). Technology implementation in second language teaching and translation studies: New tools, new

approaches. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Kokturk, S., & Odacioglu, M. (2015, July 25). The effects of technology on translation students

in academic translation teaching. Retrieved from https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet

`O'hagan, M. (2016). Massively open translation: Unpacking the relationship between

technology and translation in the 21st century. International Journal Of Communication, 10929-946(19328036). Re-

trieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

Pym, A. (2011). What technology does to translating. Translation & Interpreting, 3(1), Retrieved

from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?

Stuart, D. (2014, July 6). Understanding a foreign language is getting easier with the range of

translation apps for your smartphone and computer. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com

135 Business Name

The Effect of Machine Translation on Traditional Translation By Raghad A. Albugami

Can online and machine translation (MT) exchange their human equivalents? Perhaps most translators have been afraid until recently. Many are afraid of the idea that machines can take their jobs and careers in the current cycle of technology development. Also, the role of marketing plays the biggest factor in this phenomenon by establishing that they will provide a good deal of money to the business owners if they switch from human to MT.

Starting with definitions, the definition that has been stated for MT in Martínez (2003) “as it is an automatic translation system that makes use of an advanced computational linguistic analysis process source documents and automatically create target texts” (p. 13). And adding to that in2000, Gallardo, Gambier and Chesterman MT could state to any translation done by a machine. For the definition of the human translation (HT) it is the traditional way of translation done by a human.

There are no clear studies that shows that one way of translating is better than the other, but for sure each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Starting with the advantages of HT, humans can understand the original use of language, for example metaphors, puns, slogans. HT can afford a quality process and analysis of their work. Machines can do some of the jobs involved in turning out a translation extremely well, it can arrange and assist reinsert the data, it can find words in glossaries and it can search the text for other requests of a word or phrase (Nagao & Tanaka, 1989). Adding to that in Patenttranslato, 2015, “MT tools are everywhere, easily accessible for free from any computer, tablet or smartphone” (para. 7).

Alternatively the disadvantages are quit equal and reasonable for each; for the HT, the biggest disadvantage is that it more expensive and the time spent on the process is longer. On the other hand, the disadvantages for MT are level of accurateness can be very low and machines cannot translate context, and in 1989, Nagao and Tanaka emphasized that it cannot separate subtle differences of meaning, find the referents of pronouns and definite noun phrases, recognize irony, or interchange a metaphor by a culturally more proper one.

After reviewing the definitions and the pros and cons, could the machine replace the human in the business? Or is it going to impact on the chance of getting employed? Looking at some statistics in Koehn, 2007, said that an educated person may read 3.5 million words a year, 300 million words a lifetime, but soon computers will be able to see more translated texts than a human reads in a lifetime. For some translators, this could be a threat but as we know, a good translation needs more than just fast work.

136

In conclusion, if MT were able to take over translation work they would have to cover all capacities; of HT they would have to set a pragmatical balance between the source text and the target text (Täuschel, 2008). I believe that machine work needs to be looked at by a human translator especially if it is official work so, or else it would be considered an incomplete work. Unlike the HT which could be done and looked at while processing at the same time as a one-step, sure it will take longer but the result would be satisfying. To put it briefly, there is not a chance that MT could be able to impact HT in a huge way at the meantime.

References

Gallardo, S. S., Gambier, Y., &Chesterman, A. (2000). Translation in context: Selected contributions from the EST Congress,

Granada 1998. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Koehn, P. (2007). Statistical machine translation. The International Journal of Translation. Retrieved from http://mt-

archive.info/MTS-2007-Koehn-3.pdf

Martínez, L. G. (2003). Human translation versus machine translation. Journal of translation, Dublin City University. Retrieved

from http://www.sceuromix.com/enlaces

Nagao, M., Tanaka, H. (1989). Machine translation summit. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Patenttranslator, D. (2015, August 25). The impact of machine translation on human translators. Retrieved from https://

patenttranslator.wordpress.com/2015/08/26/the-impact-of-machine-translation-on-human-translators

Täuschel, A. (2008). Linguistic aspects in machine translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

137 Business Name

The Difficulty of Sign Language Translation By Khawlah S. Alarifi

Sign language is a language used among deaf people and those who have a speech sounds disorder. It is kind of similar to spoken language because of its implementation of the same purpose which is communicating; and according to Kent, 2012,

“Sign language are made up of words and concepts that are expressed using the hand, face and body.” (p. 11). Sign language is also kind of different from spoken language on account of the variation of performance in each language and this is what helped make the sign language translating difficulties. In fact, a deeper look into the difficulty of translating sign language shows this is due to several reasons.

If someone wants to translate from one language to another, he\she must be aware very well of both languages or else, he\she won’t be able to transfer words appropriately. In case of sign language, it is hard to translate because it is a very difficult language to learn, according to Stokoe "Further, there is little to suggest that sign language is physically any more difficult to learn than any other language" (as cited in Kyle &Woll, 2000, p. 35).

Sign language is very accurate and complicated. Any slight mistake in functioning the hand shape will lead to produce the wrong word; for example “’often’ and ‘all the time’ can involve using the same hand shape, but the frequency of occurrence is differentiated by the speed of signing and facial expression; the more often something happens, the faster is the sign and the more severe is the facial expression” (Roger, Young, Lovell, & Evans, 2013, para. 18).Sign language is complicated because one form can express a variety of meanings and one meaning can be expressed in a variety of forms: “These complex configurations of form and meaning present a challenge to individuals translating or interpreting between languages” (Erting, 1994, p. 457).

Another difficulty in translating from spoken language into sign language is that the performance of both languages are different as well as the speed. For example, we can talk and produce sounds way more faster than gesture or making signs with our hands; according to Tabak, 2006:

translating from spoken to signed language ... They [interpreters] are even able to slow down somewhat in order

to occasionally fingerspell words – during which time the speaker moves ahead of the interpreter - and then re-

vert to signs and quickly catch up. This indicates that there is more to signing that the production of isolated

signs (p. 141).

138

In sign language as Jepsen, De, Lutalo-Kiingi, and McGregor, 2015, discussed that there are two characteristics of morphology that widespread which are “heavy use of compounding (both sequential and simultaneous) and a large variety of different types of inflectional (e.g., marked by changes in location, speed, repletion, and nominal features)” (p. 11). As a result of that, it is difficult to distinguish between morphology and syntax in sign language which may lead to translation difficulty as well.

As mentioned above, translating sign language is difficult because it is hard to learn, precisely, it has a different performance, it has got a heavy compounding similarity also it is widely influenced by the surroundings of the performer. As we know, translation has a beneficial impact on all people around the world. I hope someday those who are deaf or have a hearing disorder can get these benefits as the translation of sign language becomes easier.

References

Erting, C. (1994). The deaf way: Papers from the international conference on deaf culture. Retrieved from https://

www.google.com.sa.

Jepsen, J. B., De, C. G., Lutalo-Kiingi, S., & McGregor, W. B. (2015). Sign Languages of the world: A comparative handbook.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa.

Kent, D. (2012). What is sign language? Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa.

Kyle, J. G., &Woll, B. (2000). Sign language: The study of deaf people and their language. Retrieved from https://

www.books.google.com.sa.

Rogers, K. D., Young, A., Lovell, K., & Evans, C. (2013). The challenges of translating the clinical outcomes in routine evalu-

ation–outcome measure (CORE-OM) into British sign language. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 18(3).

Retrieved from http://jdsde.oxfordjournals.org/content/18/3/287.short

Tabak, J. (2006). Significant gestures: A history of American Sign Language. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa.

139 Business Name

Challenges in TranslatingPronouns between Arabic and English for Novice Translators By Rawan Abdullah Al-Duaide

Translators around the world have helped connect cultures and nations and made the limits of borders and languages fade away. However, a huge responsibility lays on the translator's shoulders when it comes to conveying the accurate and authentic meanings. Furthermore, there are many challenges that hinder the translation process especially for novice translators, and one of them is the mistranslation of pronouns between Arabic and English, which this research will be taking a deeper look at.

In 2016, Dickins, Hervey and Higgins discussed the differences between English and Arabic second-person pronouns.

Unlike English, which has one second-person pronoun (you), Arabic has five; anta, anti, antma, antona and antom. Thus, a novice translator will probably be thrown into confusion about which one to use. The authors explained how Arabic pronouns differ

''Arabic has five second-person pronouns involving distinctions between singular, dual and plural, as well as masculine and feminine" (n.p.). Knowing when and how to use them is crucial to translators because mistaking between them will lead to partial loss of meaning in the translated text.

Another challenge would be the translation of the dual. The Arabic language makes a distinction between the pronoun donating two entities and refers to it as the dual(antoma) and the pronoun denoting more than two entities and refer to it as plural

(antom or antona) while in the English language there is no such thing. Since the English language does not have a dual form, a novice translator will have a problem interpreting an English text to Arabic, and he or she might translate the pronouns donating dual into plural or single, which is a huge shift in meaning (Al-Ajlouny, 2014).

Furthermore, another problem that might hinder the translation process for novice translators is the grammatical gender in the Arabic language. The authors emphasized this variation between Arabic and English;' 'The Arabic language on the other hand, (in contrast to English) pays more attention to sex since it determines the selection of grammatical forms" (p. 3). Novice translators do not pay attention to this which causes incoherency and inadequacy (Dawood& Mohammed,2008). Al-Qinai(2000) further states "The problem is compounded by the fact that determiners, adjectives, and verbs in Arabic agree with the nouns and pronouns in number as well as gender" (p. 515).

Additionally, another phenomenal challenge with regard to sex is the non-existence of neutral gender in the Arabic language. Everything in Arabic is either masculine or feminine, whether it is an animate or inanimate being.

140

This massive linguistic variance affects the translation process profoundly, especially for non-native speakers of Arabic, since there isn’t a clear-cut rule to which object is considered feminine or masculine. Thus, the translation of the neuter pronoun ''it'' to Arabic is definitely problematic (Muttalib, 2008;Al-Qinai, 2000;Hateb,2017).

Indeed, there are many challenges in translating pronouns between Arabic and English. Hence, translators especially the novice ones should read more, so they can get familiar with both language systems. I would recommend reading the book

Translation Through Space and Time as well as Translation from A to Z. I found these books to be valuable and helpful as I am sure it will be for others.

References

Al-Ajlouny, D. K. (2014). Gender in English and Arabic. International Scientific Publications, 8. Retrieved from https://

www.scientific-publications.net/get/1000006/1408971702165160.pdf

Al-Qinai, J. (2000). Translation quality assessment strategies, parametres and procedures. Meta: Journal des traducteurs, 45(3).

doi:10.7202/001878ar

Dawood, M. A., & Mohammed), M. J. (2008). The ambiguity of gender in English - Arabic translation. Adab Al-Rafidayn, 52.

Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=32936

Dickins, J., Hervey, S. G., & Higgins, I. (2016). Thinking Arabic translation: A course in translation method: Arabic to Eng-

lish. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Hateb, W. A. (2017). Translation across time and space. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Muttalib, N. A. (2008). Gender in English and Arabic with reference to translation. Al-Mustansiriya Journal of Arts, 49. Re-

trieved from http://iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=33991

141 Business Name

Issues of Medical Interpretation By Ghadah Khalid Al-Musaimiry

Medical interpretation is essential to almost every hospital. Each hospital should have enough number of certified medical interpreters. Those interpreters are hired after taking a specialized course for medical terms and wide diseases such as flu, vi- ruses and diarrhea and how to deal with emergencies. According to Black,2016, "Medical interpretation is a specialty that requires extensive knowledge of medical terminology, in addition to cultural humility and sensitivity to the needs of the patient" (p.

146). In fact, medical interpreters are facing challenges everyday due to the increasing numbers of medical terms used by healthcare (HC) providers.

Samovar, Porter, McDaniel and Roy (2017) emphasized that the patient cannot be comfortable with an interpreter who is not specialized in medical translation, and being bilingual is not enough, and the same goes for the family members which will be more troubling and invading privacy. They also mentioned that medical terms are quite important to be known by the interpreter and he/she should be capable to explain it well to the patients. They said "even a linguistically proficient translator can encounter difficulties if she or he is not trained in medical terminology. To guarantee proficiency, healthcare providers should always try to use a certified medical interpreter" (p. 372).

The need for a medical interpreter is greater in main cities' hospitals such as Riyadh, London, Paris., etc. because they are destinations for tourists and they should be well prepared for any case.For instance if an Arabic person travelled to London, then he/she had an accident and was taken to the hospital and that person cannot speak English, he/she won't be able to understand the doctor and likewise the doctor. Here is where the interpreter plays a big role in determining the quality of the HC provided to the patient, as well as his/her life because the interpreter is simply the connection between the doctor and the patient.

Medical interpretation hasa major effect on the patient's life. That is why the medical interpreters are always under pressure; they try to be aware of almost every term in this field. They have to read books, articles and reports in order to increase their vocabulary and to help the HC provider in an efficient way. Their career is not easy, as they combine between medicine and translation and other skills such as human communications. Scatolini and George (n.d.). discussed that interpreters should study a course with HC students and medicine students. They also emphasized that "terminology and idiomatic expression, doctor-patient interaction and dialogues, and a variety of HC settings" are essentials to interpreters. (p. 157).

142

One of the factors that make the medical interpretation a hard mission is culture differences. If the patient's culture is different from the doctor's, misunderstandings can happen. The interpreter should take that into consideration and try as much as he/she can to make the patient comfortable to tell everything he/she suffers from. According to Paauw (2015) "giving the high stakes of medical interpretation and its inherent difficulties of accurately conveying meaning across language and culture, using a trained interpreter is essential" (p. 1041).

Challenges are endless for medical interpreters since the interpretation depends on the time. Cordella and Poiani

(2014) explained that the interpreter could face some difficulties to catch up with the doctors speech and interpret it to the patient and explain it in the same time. Mistakes and misunderstanding can happen then, which have "serious consequences" (p.

361). As we can see, medical interpreters are irreplaceable as Angellei (2009) explained "attempts to encourage mutually shared understanding require the health care interpreter to engage in explanation, culture brokerage, and mediation when these actions are necessary" (p. 17).

References

Angelelli, C. V. (2009). Revisiting the interpreter's role: A study of conference, court, and medical interpreters in Canada,

Mexico, and the United States.

Black, B. (2016). Professional nursing - E-book: Concepts & challenges. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Cordella, M., &Poiani, A. (2014). Behavioural oncology: Psychological, communicative, and social dimensions. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa

Paauw, D. S. (2015). Comprehensive care of the patient with chronic illness, an issue of medical clinics of north America. Re-

trieved from https://books.google.com

Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. E., McDaniel, E. R., & Roy, C. S. (2017). Communication between cultures. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com

Scatolini, S. S., & George, M. A. (Eds.). (n.d.). Language, culture, and education(2015 ed.). Retrieved from https://

books.google.com

143 Business Name

Difficulties Arabs Face in Translating English Novels By Shahad K. Al Zahrani

English novels throughout the years have gained their popularity in the Arab world. Consequently, translating them is in constant demand. While it is true that translated English novels can be found almost everywhere now, it does not mean it is a piece of cake to translate them. From cultural aspects to linguistic ones, a translator goes through quite the hustle to make the finished translated product a fine one. Indeed, translating English novels is quite difficult because of many reasons.

Aldebyan said that culture is one of the major elements that determine the end result of the translation. It goes without saying that the differences in culture between the Arab world and the west are tremendous which in turn hinders the translating process. For example, expressions that may have a great impact in English may not have an equivalent in Arabic, so the translator has to either metaphrase, paraphrase, or use one of the many types of translating (2008).

Also, in 2004, Faiq emphasized that some terms may arouse dispute amongst readers. Terms that have an association with violence and terrorism will most likely be associated with Islam which leads to further dispute and disagreement. Further- more, it is the translator’s duty to translate while keeping in mind cultural appropriation. What to translate and how definitely adds to the pressure of a translator who merely wants to do what he\she wants and not worry about ending up the starter of a never ending fight.

According to Alshammari, 2016, truly understanding the text internally and externally is crucial. Many linguistic aspects of English are next to impossible to find a literal equivalent for in Arabic, so a translator has to work his\her way around them and do their best to get the meaning, which is most important, through to the reader. In addition, the reader of a translated text should not find the work prosaic and lose all interest in reading it.

Moosa (1997) discussed that sometimes the translated work can be considered poor due to the translator’s inability to correctly transfer the wanted meaning of the original. Consequently, translators must go through any means possible to insure the accuracy of their work as stressed by Mostafa (2015), where he went about how going through a corpus is a habit for translators and for those who do not check it are messing on authentic and legit information.

To conclude, when reading a translated work, readers usually do not realize the long hours and hard work put into translating that novel. Many factors are put into consideration when attempting to translate as stressed by Al-Dabbagh (2015) where he

144

voiced his concern on what type of novels are culturally appropriate for Arabs. So, from now on, when reading a translated

English novel to Arabic, know for a fact that the translator has put his\her all into translating it.

References

Aldebyan, Q. A. (2008). Strategies for translating Arabic cultural markers into English: A foreignizing ap-

proach (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Arkansas.

Faiq, S. (2004). Cultural encounters in translation from Arabic. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Alshammari, J. N. (2016). Analyzing Arabic translation methods of English similes: A case study of the old man and the sea

by Ernest Hemingway. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 6(3). doi:10.17507/tpls.0603.05

Moosa, M. (1997). The origins of modern Arabic fiction. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Mostafa, M. M. (2015). Translating Le Monde and El País English business loan terms into Arabic: A corpus-

based analysis. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 6(1). doi:10.17507/jltr.0601.07

Al-Dabbagh, U. K. (2015). Patrons and the translation of Arabic fiction into English: Guilty until proven otherwise. Theory

and Practice in Language Studies, 5(4). doi:10.17507/tpls.0504.15

145 Business Name

Challenges That Face Religious Text Translators By Haya Bin Aftan

Translation these days plays a significant role in the whole world. Catford (1978) defined translation as "an operation performed on languages: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another" (p. 1). It extended to all fields of knowledge; therefore, there are specialized translation in every science. One of the hardest types is religion translation because the translator is basically translating words of God. There is a huge responsibility on religion translators; if they miss explaining one word, it could be a major problem. The texts have its own holiness and they are highly sensitive. In fact, some translators face many challenges in translating religious texts from Arabic to any other language.

Muslims are known to be very sensitive when it comes to their religion and beliefs. Therefore, the translators feel the pressure when translating the Quran. Cosman and Jones stated that one of the first who translated directly From Arabic to English was the British scholar George Sale in the 18th century, whose work was published in 1734. They said "The Muslims believed that a proof of the Quran's divinity was its miraculously beautiful and inimitable style. Therefore [sic] some theologians argued that the Quran could not be translated into other languages because translation would be a desecration, a blasphemy" (2009, p.

408).

One of the challenges that religion translators face is that sometimes there is no equivalences for some terms in the TL.

Dwiek (2011) stated that "most collocations in religious texts such as collocations in holy Quran, the Hadith and the Bible carry

simply do not exist inصَلة اَلستخارة" " andالتيمم" " unique meaning that equivalents in TL do not exist". For example, terms like

English – speaking cultures which cause a difficulty to translators (p. 8).

Ideology has an important role in translation, especially on Muslim students, because they tend to add expressions after prophet Muhammad's name and the other prophets that express more honor. Muslim students also add words after sacred

Mecca, the sacred city. They also omit some words or phrases that may offend their religionمكة المكرمة" " books and places such as to get the translated work to be more appropriate in terms of their religious, cultural ideology. The author described CDA as "a method in exploring the hidden meanings and strategies used in translation studies. It is a pivotal tool in exploring the social, cultural and ideological practices surround the processes of producing and translating texts" (Al-Harahsheh, 2013, p. 114).

The sensitivity of religion translation is high. There is no room for mistakes or misunderstanding. To avoid making mistakes, translators need to have a good knowledge of the special terms and of the TL's culture.

146

Studying, searching and attending religion classes help a lot to accomplish a perfect translation. It is not impossible to

ا ْدعُ ِّإ َلى َسبِّي ِّل " transfer the right meaning out of complex texts like the holy Quran, it just simply needs more effort. As Allah said

so it is important for Muslims to try to َرب ِّ َك بِّا ْل ِّح ْك َم ِّة َوا ْل َم ْو ِّع َظ ِّة ا ْل َح َسنَ ِّة َو َجا ِّد ْل ُه ْم بِّا َّلتِّي ِّه َي أَ ْح َس ُن إِّ َّن َربَّ َك ُه َو أَ ْع َل ُم بِّ َم ْن َض َّل َع ْن َسبِّي ِّل ِّه َو ُه َو أَ ْع َل ُم بِّا ْل ُم ْهتَ ِّدي َن " call to Islam in affective words (Quran 16:125, KSU Publishing).

Finally, there is no doubt that religion translation is hard and complex, but in order for us as Muslims to transfer Al- lah's words to the whole world we definitely need to learn and put a great effort. Alhaj argued that Quran is a message, and a direct communication between Allah and human. It is more than the sum of its words, grammatical construction and rhythms.

It is literary a miracle that no one can ever imitate (Alhaj, 2015). To use the proper words when translating is something very

to transfer his message, and that'sالحسنى" )important. Allah Almighty taught prophet Muhammed to use good words " (7:09 what we need to do (Allah, 2011).

References

Alhaj, A. (2015). New theory of the holy qur'an translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Al-Harahsheh, A. M. (2013). Translation of Islamic texts and ideology. Arab World English Journal, 4(2). Retrieved from

http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Allah, S. A. (2011, December 10). Problems in translation to English language [Video file]. Retrieved from http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=XeaPVWOFnI4

Catford, J. C. (1978). A linguistic theory of translation: An essay in applied linguistics (10th ed.). Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Cosman, M. P., & Jones, L. G. (2009). Handbook to life in the medieval world. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Dweik, B. S. (2011). Problems in translating collocations in religious texts from Arabic into English. Linguistics Journal, 5(1).

Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

147 Business Name

Idioms Translating Difficulties By Hanadi M. Alotaibi

According to Dixon, 2011, “Idiomatic expressions have long played an important role in the English language” (p. 1).

He also pointed out that the understanding of expressions is important for communication to succeed whether in listening, speaking, reading, or writing. Without a working knowledge on idioms, a student's speech would sound ordinary. Idiomatic expression are a type of informal English expressions that have a meaning different from the meaning of the words themselves. It is simply an expression or phrase whose meanings cannot be inferred from the meaning of the words that make it up. Without a doubt, translators faced a lot of difficulties when translating these expressions.

Baker, 2011, discussed that once the idiom or the expression is recognized clearly, the second step is to know how to translate it, which is an important step that you must consider when translating into the target language. He said that "the difficulties involved in translating an idiom is totally different from those involved in interpreting them" (n.p.). As he stated, the difficulties in translating idiomatic expressions are different and distinct from those in normal interpreting.

Hassan, 2011, mentioned that "translators should use monolingual dictionaries of idioms or consult native speaker of the language" (p. 60). a translator's ability in generating or interpreting idioms hardly matches a natives', so it is important for the translator in order to get to the right translation to use solid sources like the once mentioned above or the translated text would seem weird or even understandable. Translators sometimes are not able to recognize an idiom in the source text, so it's important to use a monolingual dictionary in order to get to the right interpretation or sometime an equivalence that matches the idiom in the source text.

Panou, 2014, stated some difficulties involved in translating idioms. And he also poses strategies on how to deal with those difficulties. He suggests that if there is no equivalence in the target language, the translator's duty becomes only on the meaning of that expression regardless the metaphor that would occur in an expression. He said that sometimes there is an equivalent but it does not suit the context, so in this case a translator should only focus on meaning rather than form because most of the time the form in the target text seems unsuitable.

According to (2011),"idioms can be considered as a part of everyday language" (p. 879). From that quote we could conclude that it is a must for any translator to be aware of the fact that a translator should consider idioms as a part of their everyday learning process. Because idioms are highly used especially in western area in their speech, and the translator would be able to translate then freely without any confusion if he or she knows what idioms are.

148

It has been stressed that "all languages have phrases that cannot be understood literally. Even if we know all the words in a phrase and understood all the grammar of the phrase completely, the meaning may still not be apparent"(Sadeghpour, 2012, p. 98). The fact that he said that is deeply depends on the cultural way of speaking and expressing feelings or anything else. Sometimes a translator notices that it is fine to use an idiom in the English text while on the other hand, in the Arabic text they find that there will be some ambiguity if they used an expression even if the text is the same in both languages.

References

Adelnia, A. (2011). Translation of idioms: A hard task for the translator. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1(7), 879.

Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hossein_Vahid_dastjerdi

Baker, M. (2011). In other words (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Dixon, R. J. (2011). Longman essential idioms in English (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://abiiid.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/

essential-idioms-in-english-phrasal-verbs-and-collocations.pdf

Hassan, B. A. (2011). Literary translation (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Panou, D. (2014). Idiom translation in the financial press (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Sadeghpour, R. (2012). To translate idioms: Posing difficulties and challenges for translators. The Iranian EFL Journal, 31(4),

98. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/download/13998392/1027317.pdf#page=97

149 Business Name

The Importance of Culture in Translation By Bashaeer F.Aldawas

Translation is an essential tool for the world to communicate. There are a lot of methods to translate but if the translator doesn’t know the culture of the target language or source language, he or she will not be able to translate correctly since culture creates language. There are many experiences related to the culture, so all translators must learn the culture while learning the language. This research focuses on the importance of culture in translation in several ways.

We translate to communicate. Basically we use language as the most important way of communication, and language is influenced by peoples’ cultures and beliefs. For that reason, translation involves both language and culture even though most translation definitions don’t include culture expression (Dweik& Suleiman, 2013). In addition, language and culture are bound together as culture is learned through language and not inherited. Language, culture, and communication are inseparable since culture and communication are linked and language transmits culture. In contrast, interaction becomes more difficult when different language communities interact (Sheikh, 2014).

Faull (n.d.) discussed that one of translation first theorists suggests that since texts are the items of subjectivities within a linguistic area, a translator cannot only find an equivalent in the target language. Preferably, the translator should keep the linguistic and cultural context of the mother tongue text in the target text to as great an extent as possible and this was preached by

Schleiermacher. In his argument to keep the "otherness" within translation, he proposes an act that would not, however, be appropriate to the act of interpretation, the concept of "foreignizing" the mother tongue, it was added that "as he has defined it (although readers of instructions manuals may claim that also here there is a high degree of "foreignizing")." (p. 15).

In 2007, Hisa and Burke emphasized that if translators apply the domestication strategy or foreignizing, if they understand the text or not, the activity of translation must involve both decontextualizing and recontextualizing. However, the close study of what is lost is one of the most successful ways of determining differences between cultures. Because of that, the study of translation must be central to the practice of cultural history.

According to Dweik and Suleiman, 2013, several techniques were provided by Gaber to translate culture-bound words.

One is “cultural equivalence” which is to give an equivalent. Second is “functional translation” which is using words or phrases that have the same function as the source language SL. Third is “paraphrasing” which is explaining the meaning in the target language TL of the word or phrase in the SL. Fourth is “glossing” which is to give an extra material

150

in the footnote or within the text to explain the cultural word. Five is “borrowing” to borrow from the SL the word or phrase and arabize it.

To conclude, the source text and its content are what determine for the translator which strategy he or she should use for translation stated by Elnalili, 2016. In addition, in 2014, Tang emphasized that translating cultural expressions is much more complicated than it seems since it includes more than a transfer of linguistic information from source text to target text. Lan- guage does not just consist of linguistic signs but it is full of cultural elements.

References

Dweik, B. S., & Suleiman, M. (2013). Problems encountered in translating cultural expressions from Arabic into English. In-

ternational Journal of English Linguistics, 3(5). Retrieved from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijel/article/

view/30644

Elnaili, S. (2016). Investigating domestication and foreignization strategies in translating Sinbad of the Arabian Nights. Arab

World English Journal. Retrieved from http://awej.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=885:safa-

elnaili&catid=65:special-issue-translation-5-2016&Itemid=138

Faull, K. M. (Ed.). (n.d.). Translation and culture. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Hsia, R. P., & Burke, P. (Eds.). (2007). Cultural translation in early modern Europe. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Sheikh, S. H. (2014). The importance of cultural awareness in English – Arabic translation. Arab World English Journal. Re-

trieved from http://awej.org/

Tang, Y. (2014). Title: Translating across cultures: Yi Jing and understanding Chinese poetry. Intercultural Communication

Studies, 23(1). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/

151 Business Name

Translation and Knowledge Movement By Rawan S. Almutairi

Whether you think that translation is the attempts of humans to discover new things, or it is the urge to communicate with others despite the differences, we can both agree on those two as the main reasons that encouraged the invention of translation since the ancient civilizations. And we can simply define it as transferring ideas from one language to another. Almost no one can deny the importance of it and the treasures that we discovered with its help, whether it is art pieces or science books. In fact, translation played an important role in saving and developing science across cultures and throughout the ages.

According to Diringer (2013), since ancient history translation existed. Take the ancient Mesopotamian civilization for example, throughout changes in empires a lot of science and important observations from the previous empires were written in clay tablets and kept in the kings` libraries. Some of them had bilingual scripts like the Sumerian-Assyrian ones. In fact, this civilization was rich in inventions. Like the earliest invention of writing, some basic means of transportation and agriculture.

Renn (2012) discussed that knowledge`s fate has been always associated with the rulers` aspirations towards their countries.

Adding to their motives, ideological changes that always had the upper hand in which to keep or destroy a science. In fact, the translation movement was a way to enlighten and benefit a nation and take it to another level. As in what happened in the Islamic empire from the ninth to the thirteenth century. He stressed that “It enjoyed the patronage of the Abbasid Dynasty and initially mainly served legitimately purposes” (p. 211).

In 1998, Gutas stated that many translations were done under a governmental patronage and for sure many of them have un- dergone many languages to be translated. As in the case of many Greek scientific texts that were first translated into Persian in the Zoroastrian rule, then from Persian into Arabic after the Islamic conquest of Persia. In addition, Bos, McVaugh and Shatzmil- ler added that many of those translators at that age saw Greek as a scientific language.

Bruce Mau once wrote, “When everything is connected to everything else, for better or worse, everything matters” (as sited in

Shasho, 2015, p. 31). And we can relate to this when we see the contribution of translation in every aspect of life. Yücesoy

(2009) emphasized that some cultures used translation as a way to enrich their culture. As in the Abbasid society case, they appre- ciated the concept of `ilm that means scholarship and knowledge and worked together from different ethnicities and religions to serve this higher purpose.

152

Furthermore, Afsaruddin, 2005, noted that it also served religious purposes as in astronomy and directions for Mus- lims since they need to pray toward al Ka`ba. And throughout history, the development of astronomy has been helped a lot by translation. For example, al Khwarizmi`s famous table that was based on Al Fazari`s translation of Indian astronomical work.

Now we can conclude that humans have helped each other a lot since early history and the result is an everlasting culmination in knowledge. And we are enjoying the benefits of it every day whether we are aware of that or not.

References

Afsaruddin, A. (2005, November). The philosophy of Islamic education: Classical views and M.

Fethullah Gulen’s perspectives. Retrieved from http://gulenconferences.com/wpcontent/uploads/2013/11/

AAfsaruddin.pdf

Bos, G., McVaugh, M., &Shatzmiller, J. (2014). Hunayn ibn Ishaq; scholars; translating &

interpreting of philosophical works; modern Greek philosophy; Arab philosophy. Transactions of the American Philo-

sophical Society, 104(5). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/

Diringer, D. (2013). The book before printing. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Gutas, D. (1998). Greek thought, Arabic culture. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Renn, J. (2012). The globalization of knowledge in history. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Shasho, N. (2015). Perspective: making sense of it all. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Yücesoy, H. (2009). Translation as self-consciousness: Ancient sciences, antediluvian wisdom,

and the 'Abbasid translation movement*. Journal of World History, 20(4). Retrieved from https://

search.proquest.com/docview/225235237?accountid=142908

153 Business Name

Difficulties of Translating Arabic Poetry into English By Nawal H. Al-Mutairi

Sekhri (2013) emphasized that poetry translation is considered as the most difficult type of translation. He stressed that

“It is ambiguous and exhibits a special relationship between form and meaning and signifier and signified” (p. 155). In addition,

Mahasneh (2016) clarified that the Arabic and the English language belong to different groups of languages and different cultures which may cause some linguistic problems in translation between them. Therefore, many translators face some difficulties in translating poetry from Arabic into English.

The translatability of poetry has been debated by many scholars. Johnson argues that “poetry can’t be translated” (as cited in Al-Zubbaidi, 2016, p. 3) because he believes that when it is translated into another language it will lose its beauty. Fur- thermore, Al-Jahedhadds that the difficulty of translating Arabic poetry doesn’t relate to the transfer of meaning, but to the untranslatability of its structure, versification, music and rhythm (as cited in Almkmai, 2010).

According to Yousef, n.d., he discussed the difficulties in translating Ibn Al Arabi’s poetry. He found that the nature of

Arab poets’ poems are considered challenging to be translated into English, and that is because of two main reasons. One is the use of many religious names and towns which are archaic and the other is because of the different geographical and temporal circumstances which are both considered unfamiliar for western readers. Additionally, Irwin (2006)pointed out that Arabic poetry is very difficult to translate into English and that is because creating rhymes in the Arabic language is easier than in English. Also,

“the Arabic metrical system is quite different from that used in English poetry.” (n.p.).

In 2013, Sekhri claimed that there are four problems that may face translators when they translate between two distant languages such as Arabic and English. Ba-jubair states that:

Since languages are divergent in their poetic styles, the translators of poetic discourse may encounter many problems, such as: (1) preserving sound effect and tension between form and content, (2) maintaining figurative language, (3) transferring culture-bound expressions and (4) compensating for the incongruence in emotiveness between the SL and the TL expressions. (as cited in Sekhri, 2013, p. 156).

Thawabteh, Abdoo, and Qafesha (2016) comment on the translation of Maḥmūd Darwīsh’s masterpiece In the Presence of Absence. The authors find that “Antoon’s translation is a rip-off of the apex of Darwīsh’s creativity” (p. 62).

154 For example, “musajā ʼamāmī bilā ḍajīj” have been translated into “You are stretched out peacefully before me”. The word

“bilā ḍajīj” means without noise or placidly, but Antoon translated it into “peacefully” to be more natural in English. In fact, one could stretch placidly, but not peacefully. Accordingly, the translator has chosen to change the original meaning “to avoid jeopardising his uncompromising naturalness.” (p. 72).

Eventually, translation is affected by linguistic, semantic, pragmatic, stylistic and cultural remoteness between the SL and TL. Therefore, translators should not drift away from these towards aesthetic appeal in poetry. The translation also should carry the same aesthetic as the original poem. Moreover, the authors state that “translating poetry creates its own virtuous circle as it narrows the cultural gap between cultures.” (Thawabteh, Abdoo, & Qafesha, 2016, p. 75).

References

Almkmai, M. M. (2010). Nazariat alshier eindaljahiz [The theory of poetry of Al-Jahedh]. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books.

Al-Zubbaidi, H. K. (2016). Mohammad Hussein Al-Yaseen: Poetry on poetry. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

Irwin, R. (2006). The penguin anthology of classical Arabic literature. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Mahasneh, A. (2016). Arabic language and emotiveness's translation. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 6

(4). Retrieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com

Sekhri, O. (2013). The art of translating poetry between myth and reality. Arab World English Journal, 4. Retrieved

from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Thawabteh, M. A., Abdoo, M., & Qafesha, R. (2016). The labyrinth of translating poetry: The case of the translator's self

in Darwīsh's'in the presence of absence. Logos et Littera: Journal of Interdisciplinary Approaches to Text. Retrieved

from https://scholar.google.com

Yousef, M. H. (Trans.). (n.d.). The discloser of desires. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

155 Business Name

The Development of Machine Translation By Kholod A. Bagunaid

Before technology was developed, human memory was the primary factor of translation. Briefly, "The translation of natural languages by machine, first dreamt of in the seventeenth century, has become a reality in the late twentieth" (Koerner &

Asher, 2014, p. 431). Indeed, the development of technology encouraged the translation industry to adopt new tools in order to facilitate the translation process.

According to Tian, 2014, "Machine translation is the use of computer simulation of human translation intelligence, the one language (source language) is converted into another language (target language) automated process" (p. 1210). He stated that machine translation is very obvious and it has a memory in which many terms are constantly evolving to improve the speed and quality of translation. He also points out that there are some problems that may affect the efficiency and quality of translation such as polysemy and semantic ambiguity.

In the world of information explosion and time pressure on translators, all these problems bring great challenges to the practice of traditional translation. Consequently, in their 2013 article, the authors pointto the fact that with the emergence of new languages, the lack of translators has become a major problem in recent years and as a result of the increasing demand for translation service, machine translation should be developed (Wu & Pan).

Wu and Pan (2013)reported that "the development of machine translation is marked with a lot of ups and downs" (para.

5). Also, they stated that the first idea of machine translation can be dated back to 1903. Before 1960, the development of the machine translation was quite optimistic and researchers believed that machine translation could produce a fully automatic high- quality translation.

It has been noted that machine translation has gained wider exposure to the public through numerous specialized services available in the search engine such as Google Language Tools and or Windows Live Translator. Also discussed is what makes a translation a good translation? Assessing the quality of a translation is a very difficult task even for humans, but it depends on the task; it can be more or less useful or practical to require a human intervention in the evaluation process. Indeed, humans can rely on extensive language and world knowledge, and their judgment of quality tends to be more accurate than any automatic measure

(Goutte, Cancedda, & Dymetman, 2008).

156

Eventually, Doherty (2016) discussed that although machine translation has evolved, it still requires some kind of human intervention to free the translation of the machine into the required quality level or to check the quality. Additionally, a person must be aware that there is no system in existence that translates a high-quality translation, but rather a device that helps the translator only (Zarechnak, Macdonald, & Henisz-Dostert, 1979).

References

Doherty, S. (2016). The impact of translation technologies on the process and product of translation. International Journal of

Communication, 10. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=29a592e3-505d-4eea

-a616-5455caf407a2%40sessionmgr4010&vid=9&hid=4212

Goutte, C., Cancedda, N., & Dymetman, M. (2008). Neural information processing ser. : Learning machine translation. Re-

trieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl/reader.action?docID=10269469&ppg=18#

Koerner, E. F., & Asher, R. E. (Eds.). (2014). Concise history of the language sciences: From the sumerians to the cognitivists.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Tian, K. (2014). Research on machine translation technology in English translation process. Applied Mechanics and Materi-

als, 687-691. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.687-691.1210

Wu, Y., & Pan, Q. (2013). On the development of translation technology. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(12).

Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1476261095?accountid=142908

Zarechnak, M., Macdonald, R. R., & Henisz-Dostert, B. (1979). Machine translation.Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

157 Business Name

Emotional Intelligence Effects on Translation By Wa’ad K. AlGhaith

Nowadays humans are deducting thousands of new studies which they would open new ways to discover new facts and surroundings. Emotional intelligence (EI), one of the terms, was first coined in the 1980s (Hubscher- Davidson &Severine, 2013).

Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso defined EI as the ability to get your emotions and others’ emotions under control (as cited in Ebrahi- mi, Ahmadnejadian, & Zarafshan, 2016). Moreover, today it is known how much translation is important to connect the world

(Hubscher- Davidson &Severine, 2013). This paper will show how EI can impact translation.

Thinking processes and emotions cannot be separated (Ferreira & Schwieter, 2017) since an individual needs both to make a right decision. As Darwish (1999) noted, decision-making influences translation (as cited in Ebrahimi, Ahmadnejadian, & Zaraf- shan, 2016). Moreover, people’s surroundings are not the same; thus, they are affected by distinct factors and “it is rational to expect that the translations done by two different translators vary accordingly” (Ebrahimi, Ahmadnejadian, &Zarafshan, 2016, p.

2). Furthermore, Hubscher- Davidson’s study found that highly intuitive translators produce more accurate translation which means that personality influences produced translation (Hubscher- Davidson &Severine, 2013).

As Sobhaninejad and Yoozbashi (2008); Schmidt (2005) reported that people with high emotional intelligence are capable of getting their emotions under control, so a highly intelligent translator arrives at a smart decision and produces a high quality translation (as cited in Varzande & Jadidi, 2015). In addition, being able to fully understand the source text and what the author says is one of the abilities owned by highly intelligent translators (Hubscher- Davidson &Severine, 2013; Ebrahimi, Ahmadnejadian, &

Zarafshan, 2016). Furthermore, Fraser (1996) pointed out that high creativity could mean high EI (as cited in Hubscher- Davidson

& Severine, 2013).

Being upset over small issues prevents humans from doing their tasks successfully (Yale University, 2013). In addition, Rosi- ers and Eyckmans noted that interpreters’ performance is better than translators since they are confident enough to communicate successfully (as cited in Hubscher- Davidson & Severine, 2013). However, being exposed to political pressure while translating a text can affect translation accuracy; surprisingly, Ebrahimi, Ahmadnejadian, and Zarafshan proved that highly intelligent translators produce accurate translations even if they are politically involved while people who have low EI cannot (2016).

If there is a manager, he would look for qualified translators who manage to translate accurately. In this way, many metaphorical expressions lost their images after being translated. As a result, this may lead to distinct impact on readers (Rojo,

Ramos, & Valenzuela, 2014). In 2017 Ferreira and Schwieter; 2014 Rojo, Ramos, and Valenzuela emphasized that metaphor

158

and emotions are linked greatly. Despite all findings presented above, according to Varzande and Jadidi, 2015, “translators’ academic experience significantly affects their translation quality, while no significant relationship was found between their EI and their translation quality” (p. 104). This means that the only issue would affect translation is academic experience.

Elias et al (1997) suggested that EI can be raised and in 1996 Mayer and Geher noted that EI should be taught in a course specially to train less intelligent people (as cited in Ebrahimi, Ahmadnejadian, & Zarafshan, 2016). Corresponding to the previous point, in 2009 Nelis and Quoidbash trained some participants to implement every day what they were taught to raise their

EI; therefore, this showed an increase in their EI (as cited in Hubscher- Davidson &Severine, 2013). Finally, Marc Brackett said that the right ways that are used to teach children and adults to get focused should be considered (Yale University, 2013).

References

Ebrahimi M., Ahmadnejadian E., & Zarafshan M. (2016). On emotional intelligence of translators: Diction in stressful situa-

tions of translating political texts. International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies, 4(4). Retrieved

from https://www.academia.edu

Ferreira A., & J. W. Schwieter. (2017). The handbook of translation and cognition. . Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Hubscher-Davidson S. (2013). Emotional intelligence and translation studies: A new bridge. Translators’ Journal, 58(2). Re-

trieved from http://oro.open.ac.uk

Rojo A., Ramos M., & Valenzuela J. (2014). The emotional impact of translation: A heart rate study. Journal of Pragmat-

ics, 71. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu

Varzande M., & Jadidi E. (2015). The effect of translators' emotional intelligence on their translation quality. English Lan-

guage Teaching, 8. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Yale University. (2013, October 30). Emotional intelligence: From theory to everyday practice [Video file]. Retrieved

from https://www.youtube.com

159 Business Name

Translating Religious Proper Nouns: Common Mistakes By Maha A. Al-Huwaydi

Religious texts are one of the most holy and spiritual texts that need accurate and professional translation. Some religions such as Islam, Christianity and Judaism have common historical background and are related to each other somehow, and share some religious proper names such as prophets' names and geographical names. Without a doubt, many translators make common mistakes in translating religious proper nouns.

Many translators think that transliteration - which is to write words or letters in the characters of another language - is a straightforward process, however, it is the most common mistake made by translators when translating religious proper nouns. Some religious proper nouns are fixed and have specific equivalence in English because originally these names are not

Arabic; prophets' names are often mistranslated as Dawud, Issa, Musa, Ya'qub and Yousuf instead of David, Jesus, Jacob and Jo- seph. Ali stressed that "Biblical proper names are not translated, but their biblical form is adopted" (2011, n.p.).

two kindsالكعبة As Alazzam (2008) clarified that in translating religious proper names such as the geographical name

as "the cube" (p. 250) according to its shape, which isالكعبة of mistakes are made. The first one is the translation of considered wrong because it lost its holiness in the target language. The second one is the transliteration as Alka'ba without explanation, "the fact that Ka'ba is alien in the target language makes it odd, even awkward, as the readers may not have sufficient details about this religious shrine" (p. 250).

A study was conducted by Dweik and Abu Helwah (2014)which showed another type of mistake when a group of trans-

they were mistranslatedالمسجد الحرام, andالمسجد األقصى lators were given texts that included some cultural religious terms such as because there was no equivalence in the target language. The first mistake was literal translation as the forbidden mosque and the farthest mosque. The second one was transliteration without a footnote to explain the meaning, as Alazzam stressed previously.

While some researchers believe that religious proper nouns are never translated, others believe that there is no specific method to translate religious proper nouns. According to Issa (2017), the misuse of translation procedures like rendition, transcription and recreation is the reason behind such mistakes since proper nouns are not always translated the same. Translators are

depending onإبراهيم orأبراهام required to choose the best method to translate, for example the name Abraham could be translated as whether it is a name of a person or prophet (Falih, 2009).

160

To avoid such mistakes, we must determine the reasons first. As researchers stressed previously, many mistakes are made due to many reasons such as lack of knowledge, equivalence, experience and the misuse of translation strategies. It is recommended to go back to specialized dictionaries of religious and cultural specific terms. Also, always remember to practice and have your translation reviewed by professional translators; the more you practice, the more you avoid mistakes (Dweik &

Al-Sayyed, 2016).

References

Alazzam, B. H. (2008). Certain terms relating to Islamic observances: Their meanings with reference to three translations of

the Quran and a translation of hadith. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Ali, M. M. (2011). The religion of Islam. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa.

Dweik, B., & Abu Helwah, W. (2014). Translating historical and religious texts from Arabic into English: Problems and solu-

tions. Hebron University Research Journal (Humanities), 9(1). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Dweik, B., & Al-Sayyed, S. W. (2016). Translating proper nouns from Arabic into English: Barriers and procedures. Arab

World English Journal, 7(2016). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Falih, H. A. (2009). Some problems in the translation of English proper names into Arabic. Journal of the College of Arts. Uni-

versity of Basrah, (50). Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net

Issa, I. M. (2017). Mistranslations of the prophets' names in the Holy Quran: A critical evaluation of two translations. Journal

of Education and Practice, 8(2). Retrieved from http://iiste.org/Journals

161 Business Name

Strategies of Translating Idioms By Nouf M. Alamr

Everyday in our lives we usually use some idiomatic expressions which convey a different meaning from the actual words. According to Ammer (2013), "An idiom is a set of phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words" (n.p.). He stressed that to change one's tune has nothing to do with music but means "to alter one's attitude" (n.p.). Similarly, it is raining cats and dogs has nothing to do with the dogs and cats the actual meaning is "the sky is raining heavily”. Indeed, translators have many issues in translating and one of the common issues is translating idioms, but there are some effective strategies that a translator should follow to achieve successful translation.

Ail and Al- Rushaidi discussed that "Idiomatic expressions are considered a common feature in all languages and its appreciation it the cornerstone of learning a given language" (p. 96). Straksiene (2009) states that one of the problems a translator faces in translating idioms is the lack of equivalence on the idiom level. All languages have idioms, but it is not easy to find an equivalent in the TL that match to the idiom in the ST in both form and meaning (as cited in Akbari, 2013, p. 35). It has been noted that “Translating idioms is not an easy task, especially from English to Arabic because not all English have equivalents in Ara- bic idioms due to linguistic and cultural differences” (Alharbi, 2013, p. 269).

To translate idiomatic expressions successfully without misunderstanding or misleading the actual meaning of the idioms, we have to follow some effective strategies. Baker (1992) confirms that:

The translation of an idiom into another language is conditioned by many factors and quite often idioms are mi

leading to students because they offer a logical literal interpretation and their idiomatic meanings are not neces-

sarily signalled in the text. Thus, she supports combining formal and semantic aspects in translation and pro-

pose some strategies in translating idioms (as cited in TAKACS, 2015, p. 46).

The first strategy is using similar meaning and form, using an idiom in the target that conveys nearly the same meaning

.in Arabicوقع في الحب ”“ as the source language idiom and consists of equivalent lexical items as in to fall in love will be translated

The second strategy is translating by paraphrase when an equivalent can't be found in the target language or it seems unsuitable to use idiomatic language because of the stylistic difference as regards the source language and target language preferences e.g., to

.(in Arabic (TAKACS, 2015, p. 47راهن على الجواد الخاسر” “ back the wrong horse will be translated

The third strategy is using similar meaning and dissimilar form, using an idiom in the target that conveys roughly the same meaning as the source language idiom but consists of different lexical items as in to run with the hare and hunt with the

in Arabic. The forth strategy is translating by omission, omitting an idiom in the targetلعب على الحبلين” “ hounds will be translated

162

text because it has no close equivalent in the source language or because its can’t be easily paraphrased or for stylistic reasons

ِّاستشاط غضباً لما دخلت متأخرا ً” “ e.g., He was really angry when she came home late - it really got his hackles up will be translated in Arabic (TAKACS, 2015, p. 47).

In 2015, Newman and Husni mentioned other strategies which are very effective.

The first strategy is “addition which is particularly used in cases where both figurative and literal meanings of an idi-

هز كتفيه َلمباَلة” )“ literal) or)هز كتفيه” “ om coincide, as in the e.g. to shrug one’s shoulder, which should either be translated as figurative) (p. 33). The second strategy is borrowing i.e. literal translation. This is a useful strategy for highly culture-bound idioms. This borrowing may be of every lexical item in the original, or only some of them; e.g. to have green fingers will be

.(p. 33)يده خضراء” “ translated as

References

Akbari, M. (2013). Strategies for translating idioms. Special Issue on Applied Linguistics, 3(8). Retrieved from http://

www.academians.org/Media/Default/Articles/August2013/August2013-4.pdf

Alharbi, A. (2013). Hit two birds with one stone: Idioms and culture in FL translation class. Arab World English Journal, 4(4).

Retrieved from http://awej.org/images/AllIssues/Volume4/Volume4Number4Dec2013/16.pdf

Ali, H., & Al- Rushaidi, S. (2016). Translating idiomatic expressions from English into Arabic: Difficulties and strategies. Ar-

ab World English Journal, 7(4). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?

sid=0d84953d-0cd7-423f-8f0e

Ammer, C. (2013). The American heritage dictionary of idioms (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Newman, D., &Husni, R. (2015). Arabic-English-Arabic-English translation: Issues and strategies. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

TAKACS, C. (2015). The fascination of translating idioms. Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies, 8(57). Retrieved from

http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?

163 Business Name

Translation, Feminism, andGender By Raghad A. Melfi

As translation can be related to various issues for its rooted bounds with language –therefore, nearly everything may be looked at through the facets of modern ones (issues) as well, such as feminism and gender. Issues of feminism and gender have a strong connection to language due to its relationship with society. Society creates language and expresses its mindset through sounds and meanings; therefore, when the ideologies of a society's mentality holds are patriarchal, a sexist and misogynist language can be produced passing on patriarchal superiority and subjectivity, while discriminating the other gender.

Quebec, Canada, was the homeland of the feminist translation theory, where the idea had been brought to life. According to Castro, 2009, “Canadian feminist translation . . . is a school of work and thought that defends the incorporation of the feminist ideology into translation because of the need to establish new ways of expression that make it possible to free language and society from their patriarchal burden” (p. 3).Feminist translators had to find a way of speech where they could freely write outside of the male construction of language, Wallmach (2007) also added.

Moreover, as Simone (2003) stated once "women's liberation must first be liberation of/from language" (p. 7); females' freedom can be first sought by neutralizing and reconstructing the patriarchal language that was created and taught by males, like

Wu (2013) pointed out, which reinforces masculine values only, resulting in solving some feminist and gender issues and implant- ing new equal ideologies for the society to believe in and practice, as well as providing females a safe solid ground, on which they can express themselves without being taught to be ashamed.

In addition, in an article titled “Feminism in Translation”, Flotow(2006) elaborated on the reason in which why patriarchal language is not being efficient for females to use as a tool of expression. It is because the patriarchal language enables them to use it as the powerful weapon it is, and that it “works against them” (p. 14) as the author emphasized; a language that does not value and appreciate feminine traits, but rather use those traits in badmouthing contexts.

Finally, and inevitably, gender is also a topic that can be linked to translation and language. Issues can arise when translating to a language that doesn’t show gender in speech, or when a particular sex in the target language’s culture could not – socially– be the experiencer or the agent of the translated word; therefore, causingsome difficulties of comprehensive understanding due to the contradiction of their perception of the two genders (University of Southern Denmark, n.d.).

164

To conclude, translation, feminism, and gender are related topics, and are packed with theories about language, females, males, and society. The main string that connects them, and helps to make sense of them all is language. Since the mentality of a society can be demonstrated by the use of the language, it is easy to grasp some important features of the culture and where feminism and gender stands on its scale.

References

Castro, O. (2009). (Re-)Examining horizons in feminist translation studies. Retrieved fromhttps://rua.ua.es/dspace/

bitstream/10045/13037/1/MonTI_01_08_trans.pdf

Flotow, L. (2006). Feminism in translation: The Canadian factor. Quaderns. Revista de traducció, (13). Retrieved from http://

www.raco.cat/index.php/quadernstraduccio/article/viewFile/51657/55302uyv

Simon, S. (2003). Gender in translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

University of Southern Denmark. (n.d.). Aspects of translating gender. Retrieved from http://www.linguistik-

online.com/11_02/nissen.pdf

Wallmach, K. (2007). Feminist translation strategies: Different or derived? Journal of Literary Stud-

ies.doi:10.1080/02564710608530388

Wu, E. (2013). Feminist translation / feminist adaptation: Ang Lee’s sense and sensibility. ACSIS. Retrieved from http://

www.ep.liu.se/ecp/095/003/ecp13095003.pdf

165 Business Name

The History of Translation in the Arab World By May A. Al-Moneair

Translation is one of the most common human functions and at the same time, it is the most complex process. In his

2006 article, the author pointed out that translation is not important for translators only; it has an effective role in translation scholarship, in general (Petrou). Human has realized his need for translation since he saw that there are many people who speak many different languages. As well, sign language is the first form of translation if the speaker doesn’t know how to explain his speech, so speech is known before writing in the world. Without a doubt, translation in the Arab world expanded the knowledge of people's thoughts and feelings in different periods of time.

Translation movement in the Arab world began during the reign of the Assyrians who translated their heritage into

Arabic. It was added that the appearance of Islam was a contributing factor in the movement of Arab translation activity. When prophet Mohammad" peace be upon him "wanted to spread the message of Islam all over the world, he needed to search for translators to translate the message from Arabic into other languages.So, that is why he “encouraged Muslims to learn other languages as well( ”Jaber, 2015 ,p. 129).

Translation appeared in the Arab world in the seventh century and it developed in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.

The activities of translation mostly spread in Spain because of the Arab invasion. According to Malmkaer and Baker, 2001," The most important periods in the history of translation into Arabic are the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, which were followed by a long period of intellectual stagnation in the Islamic world) "p. 76). They also emphasized that Spain was located between the

Islamic empire and the Christian Europe which helped to acquire different cultures that led to develop translation.

The most wonderful period in the history of translation was the opening of Toledo school for translation which relied on four programs for translation and editing. In the article titled" The Work of Translation at Toledo ,"it was reported that" the work of translation at Toledo was carried on under the patronage of the Church) "p. 55). Also, it was added that one of the most important people who encouraged the activity of translation at the Toledo school is Alfonso el Sabio (1960).

Translating between two languages concerns to transmit the target language which represents what we mean by the

source language. It was added that "the very fact of gazing at one language with the eyes of another

166

means to subject the text in translation to processes of observation, analysis, interpretation, and eventual clarification) "p. 22).

This is not based on a historical-natural language, but it is always based on the cause that forms the language which is called the sectorial languages. As well, translation is the link between one of many sectorial or special languages through another

(Petrilli, 2003).

The fact that it is not easy to learn and master the translation functions because there is no language matches with another whether it is at the beginning of the translation or at the present time" ;translation remains one of the most complex issues in modern Arab culture, thought and development) "p. 1). On the other hand, it is not impossible to make an effort to learn and master it)Gamal, 2014).

References

Dunlop, D. M. (1960).The work of translation at Toledo. Babel, 6(2). Retrieved from http://www.jbe-platform.com

Gamal, M. Y. (2014).Audiovisual translation in the Arab world. Arab Media & Society, (19). Retrieved from http://

web.a.ebscohost.com

Jaber, F. (2015). The landscape of translation movement in the Arab world: From the 7th century until the beginning of the

21st century. Arab World English Journal, 6. Retrieved from http://awej.org

Malmkaer, K., & Baker, M. (Eds.).(2001). Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Petrilli, S. (Ed.). (2003). Translation, translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com

Petrou, G. (2006). Translation studies and the history of science. Science & Education, 15(7-8). Retrieved from http://

web.a.ebscohost.com

167 Business Name

English-Arabic Translation of Compounds: Strategies and Techniques By Ruba O. AL-Amoudi

Compounds are groups of two or more elements combined together and treated as a single unit. In English, there are many types of them, and some are more common than the others. McCarthy (2007) stated that compounds could be either primary or secondary according to their interpretations. In contrast to English, compound words do not play a big role in Arabic. Howev-

Amer, n.d, p. 11). In fact, because of theالمركب اإلسنادي")" andالمركب المزجي" " er, they also have many different types such as linguistic differences between English and Arabic, translators should follow some certain strategies when translating compound words to achieve equivalence.

In 2015, Alhihi stated that the meaning of compound words is complex and a translator needs to use different strategies to convey their meaning because there are no equivalents in languages. He, at first, pointed out that errors of translating compounds are not high and translators did not face problems when they translate them, but later he realized that the number of errors might increase according to the number of the compound words in the text. These errors could be "omission and the use of a less

خارج " appropriate translation" (p. 325). An example of these errors is the compound word "outdoor" which was translated as

.which certainly does not mean outdoor but could be anywhere outside the homeالمنزل"

Some English compounds have different meanings from their components which are called exocentric compounds.

These types of compounds are not easy to translate so the translator needs to have both cultural knowledge and linguistic competence, otherwise the translation would look weird or inappropriate. For example, for a compound word like “joykill”,the translator

In this case, we also focused onالشخص الذي يفسد المتعة"." needs to translate the figurative meaning not the literal one, so it can be conveying the meaning by explaining it since the Arabic language does not have an equivalent compound. In contrast, endocentric

.(Bin naser, 2016الغرفة المظلمة" )"compounds are easy to translate such as “darkroom” can be translated literally as

In addition to the meaning, Farghal and Al-Mu’min (2016) emphasized that translators should take the syntactic features

to translateذات" "orذو"" of the language into account. In Arabic, we can use prepositions which are called markers such as

p. 162). However, we can also use other markers) ذو التقنية العالية" " adjective compounds as in “High-tech” can be translated as

p. 161).The choice of the proper preposition"مريم العذراء بثوبها األزرق" ) as in this sentence “blue-robed virgin Mary” asب"".e.g

we only use them if the meaning of the compounds refer to theذات"" andذو" " mostly depends on their grammatical function. As in

.is used if the meaning refers to height, area, size and clothingب""inanimate head nouns, while

168

Another thing translators should consider is the adjective compounds that modify numbers. In Arabic, numeric compounds usually do not pose a problem to translators since they are translated as they are, and are connected with some conjunc-

”In English, they are easy to translate as well, but they are hyphenated instead. For example, “twenty-twoو". " tions such as

However, we should keep in mind that the context might make a difference when translating intoاثنان وعشرون". " correspond to

Arabic since the Arabic language distinguishes between feminine and masculine in numbers. In this case “the game’s twenty-

.(Farghal & Al-Mu’min, 2016, p. 168اَلثنين وعشرون" )" but notأوراق اللعب اَلثنتين وعشرون"" two cards” is translated to

Translators should follow these strategies mentioned above and try to find equivalent compounds when translating them, or they can explain the meaning of the compounds. In addition, they need to have a perfect knowledge of both English and Arabic semantics and syntax because “the choice of one translation or the other dramatically change the meaning” (Newman & Husni, 2015, n.p.). Also, femininity vs. masculinity and formality vs. informality should be considered when translating. Moreover, they need to know the forms of compounds whether they are hyphenated, attached or using other forms.

By using these techniques, translators can reach equivalence and their translations tend to be more natural.

References

Alhihi, N. (2015). Lexical problems in English to Arabic translation: A critical analysis of health documents in Australia. Arab

World English Journal, 6(2). Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/13986391/

Lexical_Problems_in_English_to_Arabic_Translation_A_Critical_Analysis_of_Health_Documents_in_Australia

Amer, W. M. (n.d.). Compounding in English and Arabic: A contrastive study (Doctoral dissertation, Islamic university of Ga-

za, Gaza, Palestine). Retrieved from http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/wamer/files/2010/02/Compounding-in-English-and-

Arabic.pdf

Bin naser, M. (2016). The hurdle of translating compounds and idāfa: A contrastive analysis. Arab World English Journal, 5.

Retrieved from http://www.awej.org/images/AllIssues/Specialissues/Translation5/15.pdf

Farghal, M., & Al-Mu’min, F. (2016). Hyphenated English compound adjectives in Arabic translation: The case of

Dan Brown’st the Da Vinci code. Jordan Journal of Modern Languages and Literature, 8(2). Retrieved from http://

journals.yu.edu.jo/jjmll/Issues/vol8no22016/Nom3.pdf

McCarthy, A. C. (2007). Compound words, blends and phrasal words. In An introduction to English morphology: Words and

their structure. Retrieved from http://logic.sysu.edu.cn/ebookfull/UploadFiles_7160/200905/2009050617095579.pdf

Newman, D. L., & Husni, R. (2015). Arabic-English-Arabic-English translation: Issues and strategies. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/book

169 Business Name

Significant Issues Regarding the Translation of English Swearwords By Kholoud K. Al-Hemigani

One of the obstacles that the translator might face throughout the process of translation is swearwords. A swearword is known as an offensive word. As we all know, the translation job requires honesty and credibility, so the translator can't ignore such a word even when it comes to a swearword: "while translators are often advised to seek target language swearing of similar strength to that of the source text, cross linguistic differences in the strength, meaning, connotations, and breadth of use of swearwords mean considerable negotiation is often required" (Maher, 2012, p. 369). Undoubtedly, many translators face significant issues while translating swearwords from English into another language.

Das (2005) discussed translators who are exposed to several obstacles during transferring terms from one language to another, as his mission is harder than the original author sometimes. He suffers from difficulties regarding the whole process, especially gags, comedic context, poetry, theater and fantasy. Culture is a great example of troubles of translation because each language is affected by its culture. He stressed that “Colloquial expressions, culture-words, slangs, proverbs are difficult to translate for there is no one to one correspondence between one culture and another or one language and another” (p. 40).

First of all, a translator might not find swearwords that are equal to the terms in the other language. Because swearwords are usually related to the culture, the exact translation of them may seem strange to the audience of another language. The second thing is that in subtitles these swearwords that just tamp the text might be dropped because they are just fillers rather than important parts of the text. The last thing is that swearwords that are considered taboo might not be prohibited in another language; “For example, while the English expression For God’s sake! May be seen as taking the lord’s name in vain (Exodus 20:7), the translation of which in a non-Judeo-Christian target language culture may carry no offence at all” (Han& Wang, 2014, p. 1).

In 2009, Omar reported regarding translation of audiovisuals, it is preferred that indecent language and swear words are conveyed with terms used in the intended text. However, it is not in the identical grade of indecency. He also claimed that Ar- abs might find movies, especially American ones, representing vulgarity and an unethical content, so some translators tend to sieve the swear words to make them closer to the target culture. The author added, "The problem is that the pronunciation of such swear words is heard by the audience while the subtitled meaning on the screen is different" (p. 186), so this would disorgan- ize the watchers.

170

According to Chiaro, 2010, "In the case of subtitled version, the reduced number of swearwords might be partly due to the difficulty of rendering the interjection [f***ing] used in its adjectival form, which is often difficult to translate given the differences in the syntactic norms of the two languages" (p.227).In these situations, it would be better to omit, but reparation needs to be applied. However, this only can be done on limited a number of swearwords which mostly tend to be omitted because of some reservations.

In conclusion, the social, cultural, religious, regional and linguistic difficulties make the translation process one of the hardest professions in life, especially when it comes to swearwords. Literal translation sometimes should be avoided;

"Accuracy is vital at very many key points, some particularly apparent to political and business interpreters, but literalism may sometimes be fatal because of some quirk of one of the languages concerned" (Braine, 2014, p. 189).

References

Braine, D. (2014). Language and human understanding. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Chiaro, D. (Ed.). (2010). Translation, humour and the media: Translation and humour. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Das, B. K. (2005). A handbook of translation studies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Han, C., & Wang, K. (2014). Subtitling swearwords in reality tv series from English into Chinese: A corpus-based study of the

family. The International Journal for Translation & Interpreting Research, 6(2). doi: ti.106202.2014.a01

Maher, B. (2012). Taboo or not taboo: Swearing, satire, irony, and the grotesque in the English translation

of Niccolò Ammaniti’s ti prendo e ti porto via. Italianist: Journal of the Department of Italian Studies, 32

(3). Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com

Omar, H. C. (Ed.). (2009). The sustainability of the translation field. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

171 Business Name

Challenges in Literal Translation By Shaikha T. AL--ktirie

Translation is a concept that all of us might be familiar with, but when we define it, each one of us might end up with a different definition. Some would say it is to transfer words from SL to TL; others might say it is to explain words either in the same language or to a different language and some would say it is to get an equivalence for these words in the opposite language, and many would say it is just to translate literally. In 2007, Orduari defined it as “transfer written or spoken SL texts to equivalent written or spoken TL texts” (p.12). In fact, some translators try hard to avoid literal translation, but sometimes they translate literally because it is challengeable to know when to use it and when not to.

When to use literal translation depends on the text itself; sometimes the context makes you translate literally because some contexts need to be that way, for example:

toفتح النار = “,”wide rangeمجموعة واسعة = “,”to fall in loveوقع في الحب”=“ “some collocations that need to be translated literally like

.(to play a role “(Izwaini,2016, p. 325لعب دوراً “ = “ “ high quality “ andجودة عالية” =“ “ ,” open fire

But some collocations depend on the culture differences which need to not be translated literally because it sometimes

بلغ “leads to "unwanted literal translation" (Arffman, 2012, p. 12). Some translators make some common mistakes like translating

amazingly amazing “which could beعج ٌب عجاب “= ““,“ level of men ” which could be translated“ to come of ageمبلغ الرجال “=“

“ shady shadeظل ظليَل” = “ “ , “a sayer said “which could be translated“someone saidقال قائل“ = “ “,”translated “absolutely amazing which could be translated “deep shade“(Izwaini,2016, p. 314.(

Also Dickins, Hervey, and Higgins(2013) believe that one of the common mistakes that some translators make is translating all proverbs literally which is not correct because it usually depends on the culture itself so we need to find an equivalence, for

”another example is the proverbَليلدغ مؤمن من حجر مرتي“, ”example the proverb once “bitten, twice shy“ its equivalence in Arabic is

واحدة تعض والثانيه تخجل” ”but we never translate themالعصا لمن عصا”, ”spare the rod and spoil the child” its equivalence in Arabic is

.(p. 17جدد العصا وأدب الطفل “) ”or

The other reason why some contexts need to not be translated literally is because of the needed of structural and grammatical changes. According to Oliveira et al., 2014, “some English words and grammatical structures lacked a precise equivalent in the target language, adaptations such as replacements, deletions, additions, and structural changes were repeatedly needed” (p.

because in Arabic sentences, unlike the Englishعمر أكل التفاحة For example, we do not translate Omar are the apple to .(112 sentences, the verb comes before the subject.

172

Also translating idioms is one of the challengeable tasks for translators because it also depends on the culture. Ali and

Al-Rushaidi (2016) believe that “Idioms are culture-bound and the majority of them have cultural associations, which make them peculiar and difficult to understand and translate” (p. 188). Finally, each translator has his own way of translation and it is correct as long as it transfers the meaning.

References

Arffman, I. (2012). Unwanted literal translation: An under discussed problem in international achievement studies. Education

Research International. Retrieved from http://www.oalib.com/

Ali, H., & Al- Rushaidi, S. (2016). Translating idiomatic expressions from English into Arabic: Difficulties and strategies. Ar-

ab World English Journal, 7(4), 187-201. doi:10.24093/awej/vol7no4.13

Dickins, J., Hervey, S., & Higgins, I. (2013). Thinking Arabic translation: A course in translation method: Arabic to English.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

Izwaini, S. (2016). The translation of Arabic lexical collocations. The Journal of the American Translation and Interpreting

Studies Association, 11(2), 306-328. doi:10.1075/tis.11.2.09izw

Oliveira, A. W., Meskill, C., Judson, D., Gregory, K., Rogers, P., Imperial, C. J., & Casler-Failing, S. (2014). Language repair

strategies in bilingual tutoring of mathematics word problems. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Tech-

nology Education, 15(1), 102-115. doi:10.1080/14926156.2014.990173

Ordudari, M. (2007). Translation procedures, strategies and methods. Translation Journal. Retrieved from http://

translationjournal.net/journal/

173 Business Name

Difficulties of Islamic Translation By Shoug Adel Bajsier

Ahmad Mohammad Alharahsheh mentioned in his paper that translation has become as important as inventing satellites and the Internet. It has different types such as medical translation, technical translation, legal translation, etc. Translation is the process of replacing one written statement in a Source Language (SL) by the same message in the Target language (TL)

(Newmark, 1988). Recently, Islam has increased and spread rapidly and while that happens, many different people from different nationalities have entered into Islam. Because of that translation of Islamic texts has become a must and a challenge. This paper focuses on purpose, methodology, and findings.

In 2015, Khammyseh emphasized that one of the challenges in the translation world is to translate a religious text. This is because of holiness which religious texts have. In addition to their terms and sensitive words, when a translator has a different religion or culture, it may influence the ideology on his/her translation also it will be a possibility to lose the meaning. Religious language is deeply implicated and the author stressed that "most of translators may misunderstand the meaning which is because it is not his/her native language" (p. 104).

Alharahsheh collected the data of his studying during semester 2012-2013 at Yarmouk university. He took 49 Muslim students as samples of his study and he asked them indirectly to do home assignments which are to translate three Islamic texts written by non-Muslims in English. The researcher checked the texts from the ideological affections aspect. Besides this aspect, he found that most of the students faced problems also in finding appropriate equivalents. Not students face this issue, also Agliz

(2015) described how much he was really exposed to many difficulties. Equivalence was one of the problems that he encountered. It was really difficult for him to find the appropriate words and expressions in order to convey the meaning.

In 2014, Dweik and Abu Helwah who are famous authors pointed out that many translators confronted issues when they translate religious texts. They also noted that some of them can do good translations and this is due to their awareness of the differences between the source and the target languages and cultures. Others, however, might face many issues and do plenty of linguistic and cultural errors. These issues could be: misusing English dictionaries; using informal style including informal words; grammatical and cultural terms such as names of places, cities and personal names.

Besides translation of Islamic texts, translating the Holy Qur’an and its specific terms is considered as an issue for many translators from different nationalities. And no doubt that is because of the accuracy of meaning that the Qur’an has.

174

In addition to the equivalence and the difficulties of finding an appropriate one. In 2012, Ali, Bin Nordin, and Ismail emphasized that the major problem encountered by the translator of the Quran is the difficulty in rendering some lexical items and the absence of the equivalent of some Islamic terms.

The spread of Islam eastward into South and Southwest Asia means that the world needs to know about Islam more. This cannot happen until the world has proficient translators. They have to have the ability to hold this responsibility for conveying the exact meaning and can do it perfectly by knowing the correct way of translation. This has been noted in Islam Translated, a book written by Ricci in 2011.

References

Agliz, R. (2015). Translation of religious texts: difficulties and challenges. Arab World English Journal, 4. Retrieved from

http://www.awej.org

Alharhsheh, A. M. (2013). Translation of Islamic texts and ideology. Arab World English Journal, 4. Retrieved from http://

web.b.ebscohost.com

Ali, A., Bin Nordin,, M., & Ismail, S. (2012). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the Holy Quran from arabic into eng-

lish. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 2(6). Retrieved from http://www.ijssh.org

Dweik, B., & Abu Helwah, W. (2014). Translating historical and religious texts from Arabic into English: Problems and solu-

tions. Hebron University Research Journal, 0(1). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

Khammyseh, D. (2015). The problems in translating Islamic expressions in religious occasions. Journal of Education and

Practice, 6(35), 103-109. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com

Ricci, R. (2011). Islam translated. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

175 Business Name

Translators' Role in Presenting their Cultures through Tourism By Haifa A. Alhamdan

The first thing that comes to our minds when we think about language services and tourism are probably translation apps, tour guides and dictionaries. Most people do not often get an outlook on what goes on behind those translation works. If we really pay close attention, we will start to notice that translators pretty muchstand behind it all. They are needed to translate everything from fliers to websites and more. Grassilli states that “this industry is all about having people travel to other countries, and is therefore in need of languages services.” (para. 1).

Defining tourism, we can say that it isa life experience that enables people to explore new areas, cultures and languages all around the world. It can be done for the purpose of pleasure or merely business. However, for both purposes, a translator is always needed. Most tourists during their travels would either use Google Translate or seek the help of a human translator.

Mansor and Salman stressed that “tourism can also be seen as a leisure activity involving the movement of people to various destinations for a short-term stay.” (p. 88).

Translators hold the responsibility of delivering the culture of one nation to the other. In tourism, translators are expected to handle words delicately. They are expected to use precise, appealing terms to catch and persuade those who are strangers to this culture. This way, they can earn a place in the tourist’s heart and gain their devotion to this culture. In 2016, Sulaiman emphasized that “the language of tourism attempts to persuade, lure, woo and seduce millions of human beings.” (p. 55).

Undoubtedly, translators need to be well-aware of the culture they are dealing with. They need to fully comprehend the culture and mix in with its people. They need to understand the terms they prefer to use in speech and how they use language to express their culture. In 2014, Rezaei and Kuhi indicated that “communication with someone who speaks a different language, subscribes to different values and belief structures and maintains a different outlook on life, may lead to misunderstanding and miscommunication, which in turn will lead to an undesired reaction and behavior of the receiver or consumer.” (p. 751).

In 2007, Jack and Phipps emphasized that translation is now considered a vital element of tourism despite Venuti's arguments in 1995 about the invisibility of translators especially in literature as well as translated guidebooks, phrasebooks and other

'tourism' essentials. They believe his arguments don't apply when it comes to translating as an oral tourist practice. They stressed that "translation is a constant aspect of doing tourism for our tourists in Scotland. It requires tourists to move in and out of languages with varying ease and it requires patience on the part of others." (p. 60).

176

To sum up, translators are considered to be the messengers between nations. Among different ancient cultures, they were also considered to be the only method of communication. Translators carried heavy messages of literature, art, philosophy etc. They can allow cultures to accept each other. It is also believed that one of the most important functions of translation is to make cultures easily approached and understood: “translators do not translate languages or words. They translate ideas.” (Hendzel, 2012, para. 4).

References

Grassilli, C. (2014, May 15). How to find translation work in the tourism industry. Retrieved from http://

translatorthoughts.com

Hendzel, K. (2012, December 12). Translation is not about words. It’s about what the words are about. Retrieved from http://

www.kevinhendzel.com

Jack, G., & Phipps, A. M. (2007). Tourism and intercultural exchange: Why tourism matters. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books.

Mansor, I., & Salman, G. (2016). Arabic for tourism: Guidelines for linguists and translators. Arab World English Journal, 7

(3), 77-94. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Rezaei, M., &Kuhi, D. (2014). Strategies employed in translation of tourist guidebooks culture-specific items from Persian into

English. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(4).Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Sulaiman, M. Z. (2016). The misunderstood concept of translation in tourism promotion. The International Journal of Transla-

tion and Interpreting Research, 8(1).Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

177 Business Name

Evolution of Translation throughout History By Noura Mohammed Bin Delaim

Throughout the ages, translation has been needed for several matters. Let it be social, economical, educational or even just for entertainment. Although it has no precise date for its inception, translation has one clear example of its beginning, and as

Al-Azzawi mentioned it was (House of Wisdom) which was built in Baghdad at the period of the Caliph Haroun Al-Rasheed from

786-809 CE which was a significant destination for librarians and translators. Also as Cincan, 2013,included in one of her articles

“the translation school in Toledo, Spain” (para. 6).

Culture has been and it is still the most dominant factor for the increase of translation spread and education presumably because of the need of the cultural exchange. In 2012, Venuti assured this by stating “the origins of fluent translation lie in various kinds of cultural domination and exclusion”(n.p.). Translation happened and started because of the desire of knowledge, curiosity, and to gain experiences from other cultures and civilizations. Therefore, we can briefly conclude that translation and culture have a very tight bond.

Knowing the initial historical start of translation, we come to the need of defining what translation exactly is. Lefevere

(2002) defined it as “a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way” (p. 11). Some linguistics or translators might disagree with this definition because they see translation as transported meaning. That is why many translators suppose that they have the freedom to use the terms and words in anyway they want as long as they keep the original meaning.

Flipping the pages of history, from around the 3rd and 4th centuries, we can notice that the most translated texts till now are the religious ones. The main reason seems “because of the compulsion each body of believers has to spread their word to others” (para. 9). In addition, we can find that out by looking at the huge number of the translated bibles at that time. Unfortunately, translators back then sacrificed their lives to present these translated religious texts (Densmer, 2013).

It seems very difficult to chase the improvement stages of translation throughout history because of unknown reasons.

As a result, we see that we are running out of information about the evolution of it. Although, in the late 80’s and 90’s of the 20th century there were some moves to chart the history of translation. Many experts at that time worked really hard to list the appropriate information about the history of translation and to give it its right place in the historical records (Bastin & Bandia, 2006).

178

To conclude, translation is still one significant important field that is needed, as long as there is cultural overlapping.

From the start of the advanced civilizations till now, translation is the key of sharing knowledge, ideas, and cultures. In fact, there are around 6800 languages used globally. And because of the need of communication, cultural interference will inevitably happen. Cincan (2013) confirmed that by pointing out that “it’s no wonder, then, that translation is a dominant part of intercultural interaction” (para. 7).

References

Al-Azzawi, S. (n.d.). The abbasids’house of wisdom in baghdad. Retrieved from http://www.muslimheritage.com/

Bastin, G. L., & Bandia, P.F. (2006). Charting the future of translation history perspectives on translation se-ries. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa/

Cincan, A. (2013, September 30). The history of translation. Retrieved from https://inboxtranslation.com/

Densmer, L. (2013, May 31). Translation history: From sticks & clay to the internet. Retrieved from http://www.moravia.com/

Lefevere, A. (Ed.). (2002). Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook translation studies . Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Venuti, L. (2012). The translator's invisibility: A history of translation (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

179 Business Name

Islamic Terminology: English into Arabic and Vice Versa By Asma SalehAlsudais

Every Muslim knows a huge amount of Islamic terms by heart. But when it comes to translation, it becomes difficult to convert these terms. Translators sense a heavy responsibility relies on their shoulders when translating Islamic phrases and sentences. Also, lots of problems are faced as the authors Ali, Brakhw, Nordin and Shaiklsmail said in their article in (2012):

“Lexical, syntactic and semantic problems arise when translating the meaning of the Holy Quran into English” (para. 2). As a matter of fact, Islamic terminology is a bit challenging when it comes to translation from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Faiq (2004) illustrated that these terms “jizyah”, “jahiliyya” and “din” are familiar to any Muslim but some of them are incomprehensible in English. Therefore, the translator faces a huge problem when translating these terms into English and finding an accurate alternative in terms of meaning. Some words are clear cut, for example,“din” which could be easily translated as ‘religion’ without changing meaning. The author clarified that “If something has two referents and one of them refers to other things as well then the stability of meaning is harder to maintain” (p. 73).

Some of the legal Islamic law can be tricky to translate. As Platonova andIlynska (2016) mentioned an example, which is

“mal”. It means what you own everything and can be translated property. However, the term “property” can be defined as owner- ship right to own something, which is not a perfect match for “mal”. Hanbali School defined “mal” as something in which there exists a lawfully permissible benefit without resulting from pressing need or necessity.

In translating the Holy Quran, lexical difficulties are one of the problems that faces the translator. Some Islamic terms can restrain the extent to which the translator can transfer the meaning of the Holy Quran, like “taqwa”, “kufr”, “shirk”, “haqq”, “maruf”,

“munkar”, “ghayb”, “tawbah” and “zulm”. The English translation of Islamic terms convey just the meaning but lack the specificity of Quranic terms, such as “zakah” which is translated as “charity”(Elimam, 2013).

Translators need to convey Islamic terms from English into Arabic and vice versa at two levels: transliteration and translation. The problem with transliteration is the absence of standardization. For instance, should the Arabic term be spelled “hajj” or “hadj”? Is it “Muhammad” or “Mohamed”? Also, the name of our religion, is it “Islam” or “Islaam”? Translators sometimes use transliteration because many Islamic words are not translatable (Bilici, 2012).

180

The aim of translation goes beyond transferring of words, forms and cultural aspects, it is gain more importance. The most challenging aspect of translation is when transferring Islamic terms (Rahimkhani & Salmani, 2013).Finally, Islamic terms carry a specificity in their meaning, so translators should transfer this specific meaning as much as they possible can. Thus, this meaning can be understandable to the people who read the translation.

References

Ali, A., Brakhw, M. A., Nordin, M., &Shaiklsmail, S. (2012). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the holy Quran from

Arabic into English. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 2(6). Retrieved from http://

search.proquest.com

Bilici, M. (2012). Finding Mecca in America: How Islam is becoming an American religion. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Elimam, A. S. (2013). Marked word order in the Qurān and its English translations: Patterns and motivation. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa

Faiq, S. (2004). Cultural encounters in translation from Arabic. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Platonova, M., &Ilynska, L. (2016). Meaning in translation: Illusion of precision. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

Rahimkhani, M., &Salmani, B. (2013). Lexical gaps in translation of Qur'anic allusions in Hafez's poetry: strategies and diffi-

culties. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(5), 781-789. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com

181 Business Name

Translation of Children's Literature By Malak D. Alqahtani

According to Lathey, 2015, translation is the transfer of thoughts and ideas. Literary translation consists of the translation of poetry, plays, novels, short stories and poems. Almost all scholars believe in the importance of literary translation. In addition, it is a well-known fact that literary translation is one of the most challenging translations. But when it comes to translating children’s literature, some underestimate it and believe that it is just a waste of time. Truly, there have been many arguments about the importance of children’s literature in the field of translation.

Zhao and Jiang, 2013, argued that translation of children's literature is weak and is eliminated due to many reasons.

Firstly, when comparing adult's literature and children's literature translations, in historical surveys we will probably find that children’s literature plays a less important role. Secondly, they stated that “most translators tend to focus on adult’s literature more than children's literature” (p. 944).

Shavit, 2003, truly believed that translation of children's literature was undervalued, also she stressed that translation of children’s literature was not a legitimate object to study in the past, nor respected. In addition, she pointed out “it was tolerated and perceived as a field of peripheral and insignificant research and suffered from a status of inferiority” (p. 3). However, Shavit believed that translation of children’s literature has become one of the most important and respected objects in the field of translation.

Milne, 2016, defined children’s literature as “translating a material that is written and produced for the entertainment of children” (p. 60). According to Lathey, 2010, translation of children’s literature is one of the most exciting translations which we should shed some light on. He also emphasized that each field of translation has its own importance, and we should not underestimate any of them.

Milne, 2016, recognized the translation of children's literature as one of the most challenging, demanding and complicated tasks for translators. Children are still learning to read and understand, so translations have to be carefully crafted. He also stated that “translating for children is exciting but a bit challenging, in which the translator is faced with dilemmas such as produce a literal or free translation? Word for word or sense for sense” (p. 513).

182

According to Lathey, 2010,the boundaries between children's and adult's literature are fluid and regularly breached by both of them. Writing for children and young adults can be just as exacting in its intellectual complexity and style. He mentioned that translators should follow the right way when they translate to the children to reach to the meaning. As what he said,

"to strike a balance between filling gaps in children's knowledge and the need to stimulate curiosity of the unfamiliar" (p. 19).

Ahanizadeh, 2012, stated that children's literature is a marked area of writing and an increasingly popular area to study in the field of translation, as it is a very significant task. He also emphasized that, "translation has therefore played an important role in children's literature" (p. 167). In addition, he emphasized that translation of children's literature is an interesting field that helps our children gain more knowledge as well as improve their skills.

References

Ahanizadeh, S. (2012, March). Translation of proper names in children’s literature. Retrieved from http://

www.translationdirectory.com

Dewey, J. (2013, September). Translation, hybridization, and modernization: John Dewey and children's literature in early

twentieth century china. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Lathey, G. (2010). The role of translators in children’s literature: Invisible storytellers. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Lathey, G. (2015). Translating children's literature. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Milne, A. (2016, December 1). Translation of English children's literature: “Winnie-the pooh”. Retrieved from http://

web.a.ebscohost.com

Shavit, Z. (1986) Poetics of children's literature. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books

Zhao, Y., & Jiang, Y. (2013). Translation of children's literature from the perspective of relevance theory. Theory and Practice

in Language Studies, 3(6), Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com

183 Business Name

Community and Legal Interpreting By Reem K.Al-dakhil

Since forever, there has been a need to communicate thus there has been a need for translation and interpretation. Ac- cording to Hale (2007),interpretation is a branch of translation and can be defined as the translation of spoken language. Commu- nity interpreting can be defined as the public services for people who are not native speakers or cannot speak the native language of the country such as health, housing, educational and legal services (Munyangeyo, Webb, & Rabadán-Gómez, 2016).Indeed, in community interpreting legal interpreters face many challenges during the process of interpreting.

To start with, legal interpreters tend to make mistakes when they do not have sufficient background or knowledge of the social setting in the institution they are working for (Hale, 2007). To avoid such mistakes, interpreters must be prepared to work in different settings in which they are totally aware of the system and have perfect knowledge (Hale, 2007; & Sasso, 2015). An- other challenge is the misunderstanding of the role of the interpreter.

The author illustrates how legal interpreters might face some unexpected difficulties with the detainees. Some prisoners ask the interpreter for help, while others threaten to injury him if he tries to tell the police about any admission related to the crime as noted by the author; "There is also the possibility that the police will either mistrust the interpreter as someone who is biased in favour of a compatriot, or, on the other hand, expect them to act as an assistant to the police in the investigative process." (Hale,

2007, p. 73).

Out of court, legal interpreters face issues they may be unaware of. An interpreter in this less formal setting may be asked about the clients’ mental health, honesty or cultural information. On the other hand, clients may ask the interpreter about his or her opinion about the case, some advice, or even for phone calls (Bancroft, Bendana, Burggeman, & Feuerle, 2013). There are some difficulties that are related to the governments or the departments that have fixed rules in community interpreting.

According to De Boe (2015),In the Netherlands, police and justice departments give importance to the speed of the interpreting progress rather than the quality. In Slovenia, the Act allows interpreters to work only for particular cases and prevents them from working for natural and legal persons (Bajčić & Basaneže, 2016). Other issues consider the interpreter’s right to study the cases before the hearing. In Slovenian courts, interpreters have full access to examine the cases while in some cases interpreters face a problem that they do not have access to study the case file.

184

To conclude, legal interpreters face many challenges in court. Therefore they must be prepared and work hard to avoid them. They have to have great knowledge of the setting and the system. Also, Liaising allows interpreters to help and communicate with each others. It is important for legal interpreters to exchange their opinions, work experiences and the professional issues they have in common in their community (Bajčić & Basaneže, 2016).

References

Bajčić, M., & Basaneže, K. D. (Eds.). (2016). Towards the professionalization of legal translators and court interpreters in the

EU. Retrieved fromhttps://books.google.com.sa/books

Bancroft, M. A., Bendana, L., Bruggeman, J., & Feuerle, L. (2013). Interpreting in the gray zone: Where community and legal

interpreting intersect. The International Journal for Translation & Interpreting Research, 5(1). doi:10.12807/

ti.105201.2013.a05

De Boe, E. (2015). The influence of governmental policy on public service: Interpreting in the Netherlands. The International

Journal for Translation & Interpreting Research, 7(3). doi:10.12807/ti.107203.2015.a12

Hale, S. (2007). Community interpreting. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Munyangeyo, T., Webb, G., & Rabadán-Gómez, M. (Eds.). (2016). Challenges and opportunities in public service interpreting.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Sasso, A. (2015, September). Titles, community interpreting and health care settings. Multilingual, 26(6). Retrieved from

https://www.multilingual.com

185 Business Name

The Economic Language Growth Via Translation By Alhanoof E. Alsulaimi

The most ancient two aspects are language and trade. In 2000, Rubinstein emphasized that “Language is, in part, a mechanism of communication” (p. 4) which makes communication easy, therefore a relationship between two countries will become more advanced. Economics has a variable rate over time. Economist agents are people fore whom language dominates the trade decisions and judgments. No doubt, that the economy has so many aspects affecting language communication, language is one of the aspects that have a strong impact on economy.

In this modern age, learning other languages are important. People nowadays are using English for international communication in the case if two persons have different mother languages. In his 2012 article, the author pointed to the fact that Eng- lish has an impact on daily activities. He also believes that “The importance of other languages cannot be denied. But, the importance of the English language as the international language of communication should be emphasized because knowledge is gained either by experience, learning and perception or through association and reasoning” (Lee, p. 7) .

According to Chen, 2013, “I test the hypothesis that languages that grammatically associate the future and the present, foster future-oriented behavior” (p. 690) in which the language is the most dominant aspect. The affection of the language sometimes spreads to a person’s other parts of life, such as education and wealth. People who speak more than one language sometimes tend to be more affective in a multilingual corporation. Working in a cross language business field shows that economic and languages are attached.

The most important factor in economy is the benefit that will be on the other language’s people. A variety of people speak the same language in different countries which makes the business and communication between the countries more easy and fast. Fidrmuc and Fidrmuc emphasize that “we should expect languages to foster bilateral trade” (p. 32), this means that knowing other languages is important but not as an official one. However, studies show that two countries speaking the same official language have more shared goods. English language is the most dominant and spoken language whether it is the official language of the countries or not.

To understand the importance of translation in the modern world, we must realize the current economic situation. In his 2016 article, the author mentioned that the “Economic crisis in each country depends on its economic organization, structure, needs, problems and special characteristics” (p. 72). Globalization is a key factor in shaping the economy. Merchants are no longer relying on local industry, as merchandise can be sold overseas

186

easily. For example, the communication between a merchant in China and a consumer in Germany would not be possible without the translation between the two languages. Translation is not just a key factor for shaping the economy, it does in fact add an opportunity of improvements. (Maria)

according to Hahn and Jang (2012) “a problem may arise in translating an assessment tool into another language . . .

Problems occur due to cultural differences as well” (p. 134). However, translation enabled people around the world to improve their lifestyle and health. Being able to communicate with people outside the local circle provides the opportunity for exploring new ideas and products. Hence, implementing new models, ideas and products that were implemented in different country can positively impact the local economy heavily. Competition is also impacted when people are able to find other solutions to their needs. Local merchandise can no longer control the market share.

References

Chen, K. M. (2013, April). The effect of language on economic behavior: Evidence from savings rates, health behaviors, and

retirement assets. Retrieved from https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.103.2.690

Fidrmuc, J., & Fidrmuc, J. (2016, February 1). Foreign languages and trade: Evidence from a natural experiment. Retrieved

from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00181-015-0999-7

Hahn, J., & Jong, K. (2012). The effects of a translation bias on the scores for the basic economics test. Journal of Economic

Education, 43(2). doi:10.1080/00220485.2012.659641

Lee, C. G. (2012). English language and economic growth: Cross-country empirical evidence. Retrieved from

http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=12&sid=d027ac79-5d98-4c82-85b1-

6298b46f08d3%40sessionmgr4006&hid=4107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=bsu&AN=77935

395

Maria, T. (2016). The impact of economic crisis on the performance of greek companies. Journal of Regional & Socio-

Economic Issues, 6. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=f0e6ce84-f224-4793-

a338-48b2dcf2b412%40sessionmgr4010&vid=6&hid=4109Rubinstein, A. (2000). Economics and language: Fivees-

says. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

187 Business Name

The History of Machine Translation By GhnimahD. Al-fawaz

Goutte (2009) discussed that machine translation has a long story which goes back to 1940s. In addition, it has developed in many ways by improvements in the computer science and artificial intelligence. Though there were many obstacles in machine translation developments, the use of computing power makes the usage of machine translation easier. According to the author, "Machine translation has also gained wider exposure to the public through several dedicated services" (p. 1). He also added that many internet users will be usual with at least one of the machine translation services. In fact, machine translation has developed over the years and has become very effective in translation and helped many people.

Guan (2012) discussed that the history of machine translation is over a half century old. Moreover, machine translation quality is still weak and its system still has not reached the practical stage. In addition, Allen, Tucker, Univ, and Hamilton (1984) added that the idea of programming a computer to interpret from one language to another is not a new idea. Though the experiment in the 1960s seemed to give great promise, the paradigm of machine translation system failed to live up to the developed billing.

In 2012, Cooney emphasized that the publication of the decision by ALPAC is the famous event of machine translation.

Its result was to end the substantial funding for machine translation research in the US for some years. And the most important one is that the obvious message to people that machine translation is hopeless. He stressed that: "the 'failure' of MT is still repeated by many as an indisputable fact. The fact of ALPAC is undeniable." (para. 3).

Using computers to translate natural languages was perhaps the first application of the electronic computers that were newly invented for non-numerical works. And also the first application in which was known as computational linguistics. Addi- tionally, it was one of the fields of research in the major of artificial intelligence. For these reasons, the contributions in machine translation by pioneers are of considerable interest. According to Hutchins, 2000, "not only for the historical antecedents of this particular area of research and development1, but also for the beginnings of computational linguistics, natural language processing, linguistic aspects of artificial intelligence, and much more." (p. 1.)

Automatic translation systems have developed for 50 years. In fact, from the beginning of electronic computer invention, there are lots of research in the computer application for translating languages. In addition, for many years the systems depended primarily on direct translations by bilingual lexicons and some of them have an elaborate analysis of syntactic structures. Further- more, in 1980 advances in computational linguistics allowed more complicated approaches, and many systems adopted indirect

188

approaches to the mission of translation (Hutchins,2003.)

In conclusion, Nirenburg(1985) explained that machine translation has entered its third period. For fifteen years from

1950, it was an expanding study major which has lots of research and development efforts. It is well-known that the MT paradigm did not produce a high-quality translation system. In fact, the practical results were negative despite the great efforts. In addition, the most important effect was exerted by the less practical part of machine translation research: "it helped in achieving developments in theoretical and computational linguistics as well as artificial intelligence." (p. 128).

References

Allen, B., Tucker, J., Univ, C., & Hamilton, N. (1984, April). A perspective on machine translation: Theory and prac-

tice. Communications of the ACM, 27(4). Retrieved from http://delivery.acm.org

Cooney, M. (2012, January 13). Computerized language translation started 58 years ago with IBM and Georgetown Universi-

ty. Network World (Online) [Southborough]. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/916217689?

accountid=142908

Goutte, C. (Ed.). (2009). Neural information processing series. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Guan, X. (2012). A study on the formalization of English subjunctive mood. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(1).

doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.170-173

Hutchins, J. (Ed.). (2000). Early years in machine translation: Memoirs and biographies of pioneers. Retrieved from http://

site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl/detail.action?docID=10481804

Hutchins, J. (2003). The development and use of machine translation systems and computer-based translation

tools. International Journal of Translation, 15(1). Retrieved from http://mt-archive.info/IJT-2003-Hutchins.pdf

Nirenburg, S. (1985). Special section on machine translation of natural languages. ACM SIGART Bulletin,

(92). doi:10.1145/1056548.1056555

189 Business Name

The Significant Role Played by Culture on Translation By Shahad N.Eid

Many linguists, language users, and all of those involved in language education recognized the close relationship between language and culture, concluding that it is impossible to understand or appreciate one without the knowledge of the other. In

1996, Dingwaney and Maier emphasized the strong correlation between language and culture and they conclude that the language is a big part of the world or culture. According to Frantz Fanon, ''To speak a language is to take on a world, a culture'' (as cited in

Dingwaney& Maier,1996,p. 3). Indeed, culture has influenced translation in many ways.

In 1998, Kramsch stated that the language we speak is a linguistic sign which is considered as a cultural value. In addition, almost all people in different cultures sometimes can use their language as a social identity. Therefore, the speakers of a certain language prohibit its use by different speakers who speak a different language as a refusal of their social groups and their cultures they belong to. He concludes that, ''language symbolizes cultural reality'' (p. 3).

Since culture plays a big role in language as stated above, there is no doubt that culture affects the way people translate.

Al-hassan (2013) discussed how our understanding of a text full of cultural references depends on our knowledge of that culture.

Therefore, he pointed out the main aim of translation which is "to enrich the target language, both linguistically and culturally" (p.

100). He also added that language lies in its culture. Due to this, the source culture is being carried over during the process of translation.

Translation does not only mean the interpretation of meanings into different languages but also the transmission of the culture of that language. In 2015, Badoiu emphasized that each culture has a set of norms, values and beliefs which makes it very difficult to render. In addition, he described the job of a translator as a highly complex job. Moreover, Guo (2012) defined translation as the closest natural equivalent to the target language which is influenced by the cultural differences. Because of these differences, there are some translation obstacles that hinder people from understanding each other properly.

Guo (2012) stated two different approaches that can open our eyes to a new perspective of understanding culture and translation which are the approaches of semantic and pragmatic equivalence in translation. As previously stated, translation is a converting process whereby the readers should get the same conception as what native readers understand from the original.

Overall, according to Aldebyan, 2008, "A real translation is transparent; it does not cover the original, does not block its light, but allows the pure language, as though reinforced by its own medium, to shine upon the original all the more fully" (p. 22).

190

In conclusion, we can conclude that translation is closely related to culture factors in language. Indeed, lack of knowledge of culture causes difficulty in translating the original into the target language accurately. In fact, the issues of culture and its complex relationship with language as frequently emphasized by different translation scholars, are among the thorniest issues that a translator or interpreter may encounter.

References

Al-hassan, A. (2013). The importance of culture in translation: Should culture be translated? International Journal of Applied

Linguistics and English Literature, 2(2). doi:10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.2n.2p.96

Aldebyan, Q. A. (2008). Strategies for translating Arabic cultural markers into English: A foreignizing approach. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Badoiu, Z. (2015). Do you speak culture? Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov, Series IV: Philology & Cultural

Studies, 8(2). Retrieved from http://webbut.unitbv.ro/Bulletin/

Dingwaney, A., & Maier, C. (1996). Between languages and cultures: Translation and cross-cultural texts. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Guo, H. (2012). A brief analysis of culture and translation. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(2). doi:10.4304/

tpls.2.2.343-347

Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and culture. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

191 Business Name

Islamic Terms: TranslationDifficulties By Hind H. AlHathloul

Khammyseh (2015) discussed that Islamic translation is not an easy process and it needs many skills. Translating religious texts, in general, is so sensitive because of being holy. The difficulties that the translators face in their translation make them not finish the job easily, but they must be so careful in translating to carry the same, full meaning and the goal of the SL perfectly.

These problems extended to all fields in translation, even the Islamic field. Indeed, there are many difficulties in translating Islam- ic terms and expressions.

Problems and difficulties are the obstacles the translator faces when he cannot easily render the ST into TT, without using dictionaries or spending a lot of efforts to achieve the aim, as these problems that the translators face can be multiple. Starting with the grammatical problems, English and Arabic have different etymological origins, as they belong to different families; this difference in origins caused the differences in grammar that led to creating obstacles in the translation process due to the wide gaps between the two languages.

According to Khammyseh, 2015, in his study a number of students were asked to translate some Islamic expressions and

and the word "Alرمضان كريم" "to mention the difficulties that they faced during the process of translation. With the expression

the majority of the students face a problem in finding equivalence for each in the TL. Also in finding an appropriateالقيام , "qiam

there is no appropriate equivalence in the English language for it whereas it carries the meaning ofبارك"," equivalence for the word agreement, bless. He also pointed out that “The lack of equivalences in target language whereas these expressions are not used in the culture of target language users is a difficulty that the translator may face.” (p. 103).

Faizi(2014) reported that sometimes it isso difficult to express an Islamic word from the Arabic language into the English

,which is optional to give or notالصـدقة" " language because of the absence of the word in the TL. For example, “Charity” refers to

/is an obligation, and there is no exact equivalent for this lexis, for this reason, we add "Compulsoryالزكـاة " "but the concept obligatory" to the word "charity" in order to approach its meaning in the SL to its meaning in TL. Hassan pointed out that

“translation of sacred and religious texts is one of these occasions in which non-equivalence at word level may occur.” (2016, p.

120).

192

In 2008, Al-Azzam emphasized that culture, religion andl anguage constitute major barriers in rending a message from one language to another. They are inseparable; while translating religious texts, the translator should transfer and trans- code language and cultures since a text should not be divorced from its linguistic and cultural environment. Not any language user can understand the Islamic expressions except the native language users. This is because they carry on them some cultural meaning and messages of a particular society. Therefore, an Islamic expression is a kind of idiomatic expression that is gener- ated by a Muslim culture and Islam religion norms.

There are some causes for these problems such as the lack of experience in culture of target language users, the lack of knowledge in both language structures and the lack of specialist references for the items; “using particular translating strategies may help a translator overcome equivalence problems, culture verities and language verities and many items.” (Khammyseh,

2015, p. 104). According to Althawbih and Rabadi, 2016, Islamic translation should be in correspondence to foreignization strategy as it is the most favorite one for translating Islamic terms into English.

References

Al-Azzam, B. H. (2008). Certain terms relating to Islamic observances: Their meanings with reference to three translations of

the Quran and a translation of Hadith. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Althawbih, H. H., &Rabadi, R. I. (2016). Hindrances encountering undergraduate Jordanian translation students in translating

Islamic terms. Arab World English Journal, 7(3), 19. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer

Elimam, A. S. (2013). Marked word order in the Qurān and its English translations: Patterns and motivations. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.sa

Faizi, Y. (2014). Some difficulties of translating Islamic lexis in Prophet‘s hadeeth the case of Forty Hadeeth Nawawi. Re-

trieved from https://bu.univ-ouargla.dz/master/pdf/Youcef-Faizi.pdf

Hassan, S. (2016). Islamic religious terms in English – Translation vs. transliteration in Ezzeddin Ibrahim and Denys Johnson-

Davies’ translation of An- Nawawī ’s Forty Hạ dī ths. The International Journal for Translation & Interpreting Re-

search, 8(1), 15. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer

Khammyseh, D. (2015). The problems in translating Islamic expressions in religious occasions. Journal of Education and

Practice, 6, 109. Retrieved from http://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/view/27892/28609

193 Business Name

Challenges in Humor Translation By Hadeel K. Al Tamimi

Have you ever thought about the types of obstacles translators face when they translate humor? According to Harrison,

2013, "Humor is apparent in every culture and its function and meaning are difficult to define due to its vastness and sense of humor will differ from person to person" (p. 9). So, there are many elements the translators should be aware of in order to convey their meaning clearly. Despite being a crucial part of our lives, translating humor presents a challenge to translate due to many reasons.

In 2011, Maher explained that a translator should have background information about the source language when he or she is translating humorous text, otherwise, the translator will misunderstand how to convert the text to the target language. He stressed that, "Shared knowledge and cultural background play a fundamental role in the successful reception of humor" (p. 8). In addition, some elements of the source culture do not exist in the target culture and that is why humor translation might be considered difficult.

According to Wallace (2002), one of the challenges that translators face is how to equilibrium the sense of the author with that of the translator in the process of aiming to convey both sense and creative influence; the translation must always to a greater or lesser extent betray the original text. The relationship between translation and betrayal designated by the Italian saying

“traduttore e traditore" a literal translation is translator, traitor: "The translation must always to a greater or lesser extent betray the original text" (p. 75).

In 2011, Low pointed out that when translating a joke, you should produce a fascinating target text (TT) which is close to the source text (ST), but this is difficult. The 'same joke' could occur in 10 different forms, but it does not need to be equivalently humorous in the (TL) since humor is difficult tolerate due to culture differences and other elements. So he emphasized that when you translate humor, try to make it noticeable as humor and to make people laugh; also a translator could produce a joke even fun- nier in the TT.

Liendo(2013) discussed how translators should always be honest with their audience if they share with them the challenges that they face when translating humor and provide them with the background evidence so they can know the reason why others laugh. Also, good translators try to convey the meaning even if not in a laughable way so the audience would not feel socially eliminated and let them have knowledge about different cultures: "Having said this, interpreting humor implies crossing cultural, social and even academic borders" (para. 18).

194

Jokes are built on common information between the speaker and the hearers; if the information is not presented in the

TL then, there is no common information between the parties. This will stop a joke’s ability to entertain and produce laughter.

All translators agree that translating humor is a difficult field since translators have to convey all the features to the TT, there are no fixed ways of translating humor and there is no assurance that if translators convey all the features of humor to the TT that this indicates it is a good translation (Popa, 2005).

References

Harrison, C. (2013). Difficulties of translating humour: From English into Spanish using the subtitled British comedy sketch

show "little Britain" as a case study (2013 ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Liendo, P. (2013). The challenges of interpreting humor. Translation Journal, 17(1). Retrieved from http:/translationjournal.net

Low, P. A. (2011). Translating jokes and puns. Perspectives, 19(1). Retrieved from http://

dx.doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2010.493219

Maher, B. (2011). Recreation and style: Translating humorous literature in Italian and English. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa

Popa, D. (2005). Jokes and translation. Perspectives, 13(1). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09076760508668963

Wallace, C. (2002). Translating laughter: Humor as a special challenge in translating the stories of Ana Lydia Vega. The Jour-

nal of the Midwest Modern Language Association, 35(2). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1315168

195 Business Name

Translation Problems in Advertising and Marketing By Manal S. Al-Dehaim

Marketing translation differs from the other types of translation such as legal, medical and technical translations. It is the translation of advertisements and brands with skills of satisfying the producers and the customers. However, international marketing experience several problems in translation. According to Dumiterscu, 2016, the problem is " the necessity of communicating a great deal of relevant information in an economical, impactful way, using various types of references 'historical, mythical, social, artist, etc.' "(p. 107). Depending in the way that it translate, the translation of some brands will leave either negative brand impression or positive one. In fact, translation nowadays face a lot of problems in advertising and marketing.

According to Wührer and Bilgin, 1435, translation problems are a consequence of carelessness. The most important occurring kind simply is the result of careless transferring a promotional from the source language to the target language. They also point out some examples of translation problems like: The ad for "Bud Lite beer was translated into

Spanish as 'Filing, Less Delicious‘' and might attract a strict teetotaler, but it not simply what it meant in English with 'Delicious, less Filing‘' although it is not similar but entertaining might be the song of a cuddly toy bear from Taiwan, which sang Christmas carols in English, and one among them came out with not quite correct lyrics as oh Little Town of Birming ham (p. 66).

The second problem, which play an important role in marketing translation, is literal translation. Shaw and Onkvisit

(1430), discussed that the translators should know the purpose and the aim of the brand. They stressed that, "the translators should pay attention to idiomatic expression, vocabulary, grammatical and syntactical differences in language." (p. 273). In addition,

Dumiterscu (2013), emphasize by giving examples such as the advertisement of Pepsi; "Pepsi Brings You Back To Life' rendered into Chines as 'Pepsi Brings Your Ancestor Back From The Grave" (p. 107).

Misunderstanding of cultural paradoxes will cause lots of translation problems in marketing and advertising. It means that, every culture has different values, expressions and meanings. In 2013, De Mooji emphasizes and gives example like: "The

Japanese expression for 'computer graphics' carries the meaning of pictures, a drawing and illustration or sketch, but not for graph" (p.72). So the translators should know the producers language and the customers language, in order to do not fall in cultural misunderstanding.

Global marketing researchers usually have surveys and interviewer guides back translated. Back translation is the process of translation surveys from one language to another and then translating them back again by a second independent translator.

196

In addition, there are many examples of translation problems around the world: "One of the most well-known example was the General Motors new car camping in Latin America. The company was having problem in determining why sales of its new economy car, the Nova, was not selling well. Finally, GM learned that in Spanish, 'no va' means 'it does not go'" (Keillor, 2007, p. 165).

In 2016, Adab and Valdes conclude that, the actual real problem is that marketing managers often underestimate the complication of the translation process and fail to understand the balance between cost and quality. In their minds, "a person who speak the language of the target market is good enough to undertake the translation job" (n.p.). In addition, this person's services will be inexpensive or sometimes costs nothing, because a friend or employee can offer a free translation. Those man- gers congratulating themselves on a smart cost-saving idea that include finding the cheapest translation company.

References

Adab, B., & Valdes, C. (2016). Key debates in the translation of advertising material: Special issue of the translator. Retrieved

from https://books.google.com.sa/books

De Mooji, M. (2013). Global marketing and advertising: Understanding cultural paradoxes (4th ed.). Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/books

Dumitrescu, V. M. (2016). Linguistic and cultural aspects of translation global marketing.

International Scientific Conference "Strategies XXI";Bucharest, 3. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com

Keillor, B. D. (2007). Marketing in the 21st century. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Shaw, J., & Onkvisit, S. (1430). International marketing: Strategy and theory. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Wührer, G., & Bilgin, F. Z. (1435). International marketing compact. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

197 Business Name

The Challenges in Islamic Translation By Rawabi T. Baalkhuyur

Translation is a useful way to exchange information around the world. By translation, we share our culture and aspects.

Moreover, translation plays an important role in sharing and understanding other religions. As well, Islamic translation is a type of translation which translates the Quran and religious texts. Islamic translation causes many problems for translators since it has a unique linguistic form and cultural aspects (Dweik & AbuHelwah, 2014). Because it has a classic form which is different from

English form, make mistakes in translating its terms are unacceptable for that reason Islamic translation becomes complicated for the translators (Tawfik, 2012). In fact, there are many difficulties that the translators face in Islamic translation.

According to Khammyseh, 2015, " the translation of religious expression is not an easy process" (p. 103). As well, Is- lamic translation sounds very problematic for translators since it has holy and sensitive texts and expression, that no one can translate without knowing their correct meaning. Moreover, Islamic translation needs many skills and experience to master translating its text the correct way without any mistakes. In addition, the translators have to be aware to understand the meaning of expressions in the source language to save the sense of these expressions.

In order to avoid that, translators must know Islamic terms and the way they can use them when they face difficulties. In the article titled "Hindrances Encountering Undergraduate Jordanian Translation Students in Translating Islamic Terms", it was reported that "Islamic term is a compound term that consists of two words" (p. 32). It was added that an Islamic term is a technical word that belongs to the religious domain and was developed by the advent of Islam or already known by Arabs. As it is considered as obstacles for translators, they use some strategies to translate the terms like: look for the equivalent, use Domestica- tion strategy or Foreignization strategy (2016).

Some translators side that Islamic translation is a type of literal text because it includes much metonymy and metaphor.

That point is considered as one problem that translators face. Their translation differs from one to another; that also happens in

) َف ُك ِّلي َوا ْش َربِّي َو َق ِّ ري عَ ْي ًنا( ) :this translation. The Quran has many of them and one sentence may be translated differently; for example Mariam: 26) can be translated as: be comforted or rejoice (Tawfik, 2012).Moreover, such metaphors are related to culture and that causes another problem for translators, so in this case they should have good knowledge (Dweik & AbuHelwah, 2014).

198

In 2016, Hassan found that another obstacle is that some terms are only found in Islam and the terms reflect the Islam-

) Tahraالزكاة(, ) ic principle and worship. In addition, they don’t have an equivalent in another language; for instance: Zakat

and many more (p. 125). The translators who are not familiar with Islamic texts face thisحرام(, )haramحَلل(, ) halalالطهارة(, problem (Al Azzam, Al Ahaydib, & Al Huqail, 2015). When they translate, they use different strategies and ways like: paraphrasing, change the term to another which a foreign reader can understand. Also, using the term that has related meaning in

) translated to alms in English. Another way is transliteration like this form: Zakatالزكاة() the target language; such as: Zakat

.(Tawfik, 2012الزكاة((

In conclusion, Islamic translation has specific features and that is why translators face problems with it. In order to avoid these difficulties, translators should read more in the Arabic language and build their vocabulary. As well, they must bear in mind that Islamic text is totally different from English in its style. Moreover, they must be careful about their translation because through that Islam spreads more and more.

References

Al Azzam, B., Al Ahaydib, M., & Al Huqail, E. (2015). Cultural problems in the translation of the Qur’an. International Jour-

nal of Applied Linguistics and Translation , 1(2). doi: 10.11648/j.ijalt.20150102.12

Althawbih, H. H., & Rabadi, R. I. (2016). Hindrances encountering undergraduate Jordanian translation students in translating

Islamic terms. Arab World English Journal, 7(3). Retrieved from http://www.awej.org/images/AllIssues/Volume7/

Volume7Number3September2016/3.pdf

Dweik, B., & AbuHelwah, W. (2014). Translating historical and religious texts from Arabic into English: Problems and solu-

tions. Hebron University Research Journal, 9(1). Retrieved from http://www.hebron.edu/docs/journal/B-Humanities/

v9-1/Vol9No1.285-303.pdf

Hassan, S. (2016). Islamic religious terms in English – Translation vs. transliteration in Ezzeddin Ibrahim and Denys Johnson-

Davies’ translation of AnNawawī’s forty hadīths. The International Journal for Translation & Interpreting, 8(1).

doi:10.12807/ti.108201.2016.a08

Khammyseh, D. (2015). The problems in translating Islamic expressions in Religious occasions. Journal of Education and

Practice, 6(35). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?q=Islamic+Translation+&pr=on&id=EJ1086374

Tawfik, K. M. (2012). Religious translation principles. Giza: Hala Publishing.

199 Business Name

Challenges of Translating Literary Works By Haneen A. Al-otaibi

Translation has many different types and almost all of them playa significant role in today’s life. In the field of translation, it is widely accepted that literary translation is one of the most difficult translations. Because in translating literary works, it is not just about texts, but also emotions, feelings, Linguistics, and many scholars proposed cultures as the most important (AL-

Sarrani, 2011; Classe, 2000; Sebotsa, 2016). Undoubtedly, translating different types of literary works have several challenges.

According to Neethling, 2016, translating literary works is one kind of the translation that is full of art, and this absolutely makes it more challenging. In literary translation, the translator translates culture as well as linguistic, so everything in a literary text must be taken into consideration. In other words, the feeling of the poet, the situation that leads the writer to write this peace of literary works, and even the culture of both languages. According to Neethling(2016) “the translators do not translate meanings but the messages” (p. 105).

AL-Sarrani (2016) argued that challenges of literary translation in the first half of the twentieth century were just about

Linguistics, so to achieve a good translation, the translator must find similarities between the two texts as much as he\she can. She confirmed that “the literary translation’s level of success is governed by the amount of similarity that exits between the two linguistic systems” (p. 19). On the other hand, Colenciuc, 2015, proposed that literary translation is linguistic as well as pragmatic and cultural. Also, she confirmed that the primary function of literary translation is to make it understood between different nations and cultures.

There are two types of “untranslatability” (p. 5) in translating literary works and in my opinion, it is the most challenging. The first type is linguistic untranslatability which represents when you find no equivalent in the target languages in terms of style (i.e. formal versus informal). The second type is cultural untranslatability which represents in translating something totally absent in the target language’s culture (Shokri&Ketabi, 2015).

The difficulty of translating various types of literary works is not equal. In other words, translating poetry is not as easy as translating any other type of literary work. Because when you translate a poem, you must focus on some other aspects such as rhyme! The translator also can paraphrase the poetry ,but it will be no longer poetry, or it will be any kind of literary text rather than a poem. In addition, Mounin argued that we can never achieve a perfect literary translation in case of poetries (as cited in

Sebotsa, 2016).

200

According to most researchers, the main challenges of translating literary works are linguistic and cultural. Culture is more important, so you must make the text relevant to the target culture. Sebotsa, 2016, stressed that cultures never can be neglected in translating literary works. Also, there are some other challenges such as almost no one can understand the feelings of the poets except themselves (Salvato, 2016). But most researchers agreed that matching the text to the target language’s culture is the main and the most important factor. Finally, to translate literary works, the translators must have full understanding of both cultures and both linguistic systems.

References

AL-Sarrani, A. A. (2011). Challenges of cross-cultural translation of American literary works into Arabic: Harriet Beecher

Stowe's “Uncle Tom's Cabin” as a case study (3460532) (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Disserta-

tions and Theses database. (3460532)

AL-Sarrani, A. A. (2016). Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" in Arabic: Challenges of cross-cultural translation.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Classe, O. (2000). Encyclopedia of literary translation into English. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Colenciuc, I. (2015). Challenges of literary translation: Pragmatic approach. Intertext, 2(1). Retrieved from http://

web.a.ebscohost.com

Neethling, B. (2016). Challenges in translating RL peteni'sxhosa novel Kwazidenge into Afrikaans. South African Journal of

African Languages, 36(1). doi:10.1080/02572117.2016.1186902

Salvato, L. (2016). The stimulating challenges of translating contemporary swissgerman poetry. International Journal of Com-

munication. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com

Sebotsa, M. (2016). Translating extra-linguistic culture-bound concepts in Mofolo: A daunting challenge to literary transla-

tors. TydskrifVirLetterkunde, 53(2). doi:10.17159/tvl.v.53i2.8

Shokri, S., &Ketabi, S. (2015). Translating culture-specific items in shazdehehtejab: Examining foreignization and domestica-

tion. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 4(3). doi:10.5861/ijrse.2015.1027

201 Business Name

Simultaneous Interpretation Techniques By Bashayer S. Almarzougi

Many of us know and understand the complexity of the field of the simultaneous interpreting. Not only it needs the brain to work properly, but also it needs many skills to be managed. For us to understand and to be aware of such a field, we should first get into the definition: "Simultaneous interpreting is a complex bilingual verbal activity that involves the auditory perception of an oral communication and the production of a coherent discourse" (Injoque-Ricle, Barreyro, Formoso, & Jaichenco, 2015, p.

56).In this paper, we will discuss the techniques that every interpreter needs to rise in his field.

In 2005, Nolan mentioned in his book that the most important skill an interpreter should learn is to note-take. As interpreters, we face many difficulties catching all the words that speaker might say. Therefore, our focus will be on the ideas that the speaker says and the only way to remember his ideas is to take notes. To reach the successful note-taking technique, you should- call out for reducing words to ideas method. That is to gather ideas as much as you can from hundreds of words, at the same time keeping in mind the time aspect.

One of the very interesting techniques that grasped my attention and I've never thought of it as a technique, is stalling.

As children, we always listened to the news and wondered why the interpreter would speak in such a slow pattern? It appeared that Setton, 1999, directed his attention to what is called stalling, which is uttering non-committal material. As we know, the interpreter holds in his hands a weapon that should be used carefully. It is either an advantage or disadvantage based on how he uses it proficiently. To follow the speaker and interpret at the same time, the interpreter should seek economy of expression. That is, to remove all useless words such as really, well, actually, etc. unless the context needs them (Jones, 2014).

A simultaneous interpreter should put in mind that the mother of techniques is training. One of the great exercises is the shadowing exercise, that is repeating what they have heard from the news or conferences at the same pace. The purpose of this training is to gain the ability to listen, speak, and think altogether. It is better to do it in your mother tongue first then try it in other languages. Another one is the outline exercise; that is to read a paragraph and pause to outline the main ideas. That will let you differentiate between ideas when you hear them (Zhongmei & Xiaobo, 2010).

Since simultaneous interpreting is a complex activity, its techniques are too. Tanaka came up with some advan- tageous strategies that an interpreter can use. One is to minimize the sentences into smaller units and start translating without wait- ing for the sentence to finish. Another is to predict what the concepts would be before even hearing all the sentence, however,keep in mind to treat this technique with caution. The third one is to drag all your attention to the important ideas and discard the others.

202

Finally, the ball truly is in your hands; you might adjust the meaning by making it affirmative or negative (1976).

Let us never forget what Zhongmei and Xiaobo (2010) said: "To be a good and qualified simultaneous interpreter, besides his own gift and experience, a strong will and perseverance, he should receive some training to gain adequate ability and knowledge" (p. 716). Indeed, interpreters connect the world together and close the distance between nations. A great field needs a great people to fill such a gap, and I hope that these marvelous techniques will enhance your career life.

References

Injoque-Ricle, I., Barreyro, P. J., Formoso, J., &Jaichenco, I. V. (2015). Expertise, working memory and articulatory suppres-

sion effect: Their relation with simultaneous interpreting performance. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 11(2). Re-

trieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost

Jones, R. (2014). Conference interpreting explained. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Nolan, J. (2005). Interpretation: Techniques and exercises. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Setton, R. (1999). Simultaneous interpretation: A cognitive-pragmatic analysis. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

Tanaka, A. (1976). Functions of simultaneous interpreting. Journal of Business Communication, 13(3). Retrieved from http://

web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost

Zhongmei, C., & Xiaobo, D. (2010). Simultaneous interpreting: Principles and training. Journal of Language Teaching & Re-

search, 1(5). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost

203 Business Name

Problems in Legal Translation From English to Arabic By Rawan S. Al-Dumaikh

Many researchers agreed that legal translation is the most complicated translation. According to Alawi, 2010, the characteristics of legal language are neatness, brevity and no ambiguity. We can all agree that "Legal language is a jargon which primarily [sic] characterized by a complex and specialized lexicon, which requires to be understood" (Ali & Ibrahim, 2016, p. 126). Ara- bic legal language and English legal language have a huge gap between them (El-Farahaty, 2016). In fact, Any translator can face some difficulties in legal translation from English to Arabic.

Arabic legal language and English legal language have different legal systems. English legal language is connected to

Common Law; on the other hand, Arabic legal language is connected to Islamic Law and Civil Law which Quran and Sunnah are the main aspects. Because of this difference in legal translation systems, it "makes the task of the legal translator challenging because legal vocabulary is culture specific and system bound (El-Farahaty, 2016, p. 475).

Every legal system differs in its own history and it is intended to fulfill the requirements of its nation. Public jury "trial" doesn't exist in some countries such as Saudi Arabia, but they have other judicial systems. In this kind of situation, "a literal translation of the world "trial" might mislead the reader" (Adela-Elena, 2014, p. 503). He also points out that legal translators must understand the legal history of the SL and TL, also the legal classification.

In 2014, Al-Aqad reported that one of the problems in legal translation from English to Arabic is the lack of equivalence

مهر, شبكة, " words. Arabic marriage contact terms have no equivalence due to religion and culture. For example, these words

do not have an equivalence in English. Legal translators should understand the cultural and religious terms to solve thisصداق" problem. That means that the translator has to be not only multilingual but also multicultural.

Al-Tameemi and Farhan (2016) discussed that Arabic translating from English to Arabic has syntactic difficulties. Eng- lish legal texts have lots of subordinate clauses and the sentences are long, complex and have some hidden expressions, and that is why we shouldn't translate legal texts literally if we do so, it will be incoherent. Sentence order differs in Arabic and English.

Arabic sentences start with the verb while English sentences start with the subject; a legal translator should know this fact. An

English legal text has a lot of passives which is a major difficulty when translated into Arabic. Indeed, A lot of legal texts "still contain old-fashioned expression and their syntax is improperly punctuated" (Zidan, 2015, p. 81).

204

To produce a perfect legal text from Arabic to English, we should focus on producing the same effect, not the same word or sentence. This is a thing that we should consider while translating a legal text. The goal of legal translation is to produce a legal text in the TL that has the same manner in the SL. Legal translators have to "produce a text that has the same nor- mative intensity as the other parallel texts (Šarčević, 1997, p. 229). According to Adela-Elena, 2014, Any legal translator must know that using the wrong term will lead to serious problems such as losing a case. Knowing the required translation techniques of any legal text is one of the characteristics of a good legal translator.

References

Adela-Elena, D. (2014). Difficulties and strategies in the process of legal texts translation. Management Strategies Journal, 26

(4). Retrieved from http://www.strategiimanageriale.ro

Al-Aqad, M. H. (2014). Translation of legal texts between Arabic and English: The case study of marriage contracts. Arab

World English Journal, 5(2). Retrieved from http://www.awej.org/

Alawi, N. (2010). Translating contracts between English and Arabic: Towards a more pragmatic outcome. Jordan Journal of

Modern Languages and Literature, 2(1). Retrieved from http://platform.almanhal.com

Ali, H., & Ibrahim, H. (2016). Legal contract translation problems: Voices from Sudanese translation practitioners. Arab World

English Journal, 7. Retrieved from http://www.awej.org/

Al-Tameemi, I. M., & Farhan, M. A. (2016). Difficulties encountered in translating some legal texts from Arabic into English.

Swift Journals, 2(1). Retrieved from http://www.swiftjournals.org

El-Farahaty, H. (2016). Translating lexical legal terms between English and Arabic. International Journal for the Semiotics of

Law, 29(9). doi:10.1007/s11196-016-9460-2

Šarčević, S. (1997). New approach to legal translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Zidan, A. A. (2015). A linguistic analysis of some problems of Arabic-English translation of legal texts, with special reference

to contracts. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

205 Business Name

Translation of Video Games By Shuaa A.Al-Nashmi

What are video games? According to Hevian (2007), "From a translation studies perspective, a video game could be defined as an interactive multimedia text that combines words, images and sound, and whose main objective is to entertain. Video games translation or localization is an emerging type of translation that has deserved very little attention"(p.3). It is known that the globalization of those games is the primary reason of its success, a process in which translation and localization are involved. So indeed, translation of video games requires a variety of skills because of the difficulty of the process and since they can vary widely.

People who are uninterested in or unfamiliar with video games may think that they are measly and unworthy to be a subject for an academic research. Also unfortunately, a huge number consider them childish and ridiculous:"Anyone with actual exposure to the gaming industry knows this to be false . . . the average game player is 35 years old, while women age 18 or older represent a significantly greater portion of the game playing population (33%) than boys age 18 or younger

(15%)." (Stempniewicz, 2016, p.53).

Things have been dramatically changed, and nowadays video games are challenging books, music and films industries.

In 2008, Bernal-Merino emphasized that video games have become far too complex and popular. A multi-billion dollar industry catering for home entertainment, as well as arcades, portable devices, and online players. He stressed that, "It is no longer an option to offer English- or Japanese-only games,"(n.p.). The increase in video games sales and fervent players leads to the development of games studies and subsequently, requires translation or localization.

In video games translation/localisation, there is not only a linguistic transformation but also an adaptation of cultural ideas, myths, graphics and, references (Odacioqlo, Loi, Köktürk, & Uysal, 2016). Translators may sometimes have to make small changes in the process, as Mangiron,2014, stressed "localizers may have to rename the characters, objects or locations, use neolo- gisms/nonstandard dialects or they may need to change the plot of the game" (p. 309). The flexibility to acquire a general and precise knowledge of the target language and culture the game is being localized into is an important skill that video games translators must have.

In 2007, Hevian stated that in RPG, adventure, platforms, simulation, humor or any kind of games language and the use of idiomatic expressions are essential. For example, localizing a game for kids must reflect the way the kid speaks in his/her

206

country. However, in RPG games cool street slangs are usually used. So he said that "game translators need to be very creative to be able to produce an exciting game that will engage players. Games must be quirky and fun to play" (p. 312). The use of language within video games differs from formal documents most translation companies deal with (Steiert & Steiert, 2014).

To sum up, translation has played a major role in the international expansion and success of video games. Without a doubt, translators are the key to that success. Video games are developed day after day and new techniques are being discovered which require a flexible, educated and ambitious translator who is willing to do whatever it takes to produce a fun game that doesn't differ from and deliver the same ideas of the original one. Hopefully this field of translation will gain more attention and appreciation through time.

References

Bernal-Merino, M. A. (2014). Translation and localisation in video games: Making entertainment soft

ware global. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Chiaro, D. (2010). Translation, humour and the media: Translation and humour. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

Hevian, M. C. (2007). Video games localisation: Posing new challenges to the translator. Perspectives,

Studies in Translatology, 14(4). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09076760708669046

Odacioqlo, M. C. (2016). The position of game localization training within academic translation teaching. Journal of Lan

guage Teaching and Research, 7(4). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1807740165?pq-

origsite=summon

Steiert, Y., & Steiert, A. (2014, June). The art of video game translation. MultiLingual, 25(4). Retrieved from http://s

search.ebscohost.com

Stempniewicz, J. (2016, June). The double whammy of game localization. MultiLingual, 27(4). Retrievedfrom http://

search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=115857168&ste=ehost-live

207 Business Name

Translating Proper Nouns:Procedures By Noura Bin Jadaan

It is confusing when to translate proper nouns i.e., people’s or place’s names into the target language especially when you don’t have enough knowledge in translation rules. Some linguists believe that if you translate the proper name, it loses its value. However, some would wonder why proper names shouldn’t be translated? The reason is, they are not listed in the dictionaries, so they are not part of our knowledge of the language. On the other hand, some scholars believe in transliteration of the proper nouns. The others believe in semantic-creativity instead of transliteration. Furthermore, translating proper nouns may be better transformed as it is with some procedures and rules (Rouhollah, 2014).

Braga (2009) discussed that proper nouns function in their own place within languages; “proper nouns have their own phonological, semantic and ethnolinguistic properties” (p. 180). This means that the readers will pronounce a foreign proper noun as it is phonologically and they are most likely to look it up in the dictionary of the same language as the proper noun. Even though, some languages do not seem to have easy proper nouns to pronounce such as Japanese. In Japanese, translators have to transfer proper nouns using transliteration e.g., (鈴木) would be better written in English as the target language like (Suzoki).

According to Dweik, 2016, many participants believed that translating proper names was very difficult or let us say challenging. Furthermore, if they are geographical place names or names of organizations and institutions, some participants tried to find an equivalence using transliteration besides glossing. And this needed much effort and more time to search for more information to be added to afootnote. Another is the names of institutions such as “International bank” or “World bank”that could be translated semantically to the target language.

According to Sciarone (1967) and Vendler (1975), “consider names to be inherently untranslatable. For them, phonological and orthographical adjustment and equivalent names” (as cited in Eriko, 2016, p. 2).For example, the English name Vien- na, for the German name Wien are not translations, but are versions, which can be simply added to the stock of proper names in the given language. However, rending names are unchanged (e.g. Seattle becomes Seattle). It seems to create a distance between the text and the target language reader because they feel “alien”.

Now let us focus on personal names mainly since they have a high probability to appear in texts. When a novice translator faces some translating issues in personal names, first of all, the translator should keep this in mind that “the letter is the

208

replacement of one letter of the alphabet in the source language” (para. 4). That is, if the translator uses transliteration, he/she should be sure that the letter in the target language matches the letter in the source language. On the other hand, some lan-

.(in Arabic is produced in English as A) (Pour, 2009ع .guages do not have mutual speech sounds of some letters (e.g

Another is the names of companies which should be considered as well. They have to be the same as the main company name, e.g., consider going to a foreign country in which people do not speak your language, it would be easy to order a Coca-Cola. So, it is simple as the translator should only pay attention to the letters of both languages then start transliterating the proper nouns even if they are personal names, landmark names or institution names (Huttner, 2016).

References

Braga, R. J. (2009). Classical Spanish drama in restoration English (1660-1700) . Retrieved fromhttps://books.google.com.sa/

books

Dweik, B. S., & Al-Sayyed, S. W. (2016). Translating proper nouns from Arabic into English: Barriers and procedures. Arab

World English Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue on Translation No.5 May, 2016, 7 (12). Retrieved from http://

www.awej.org/images/AllIssues/Specialissues/Translation5/13.pdf

Eriko, S. (2016).Proper names in translational contexts. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 6(1). Retrieved from http://

dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0601.01

Huttner, E. (2016, March 23). Translating proper nouns and names. Retrieved from http://www.thelinguafile.com/2016/03/

translating-proper-nouns-and-names.html#.WNUlzBKGORs

Pour, B. S. (2009). How to translate personal names. Translation Journal, 13 (4). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/

journal/50proper.htm

Rouhollah, Z. (2014). Proper nouns in translation: Should they be translated? International Journal of Applied Linguistics &

English Literature, 3 (6). Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions .com/

209 Business Name

Ethics of Translation: Cultural Communication By Shaden N. Al Otaibi

In 2014, Higgins showed that we cannot find translation just in the linguistic features, but also occurs in traditions and conceptual frameworks. Additionally, according to Elamari, 2016, translators are not safe when it comes to unethical translations, as many professionals could fall into these mistakes and produce unprofessional translations. Therefore, to avoid these unethical mistakes in the target language, translators should have much important knowledge to come up with a translation that shows his/ her responsibilities.

Translation, as we know, is "the rendering from one language into another" (p. 4), which clarify both cultural and semantical aspects. Translators had deeply agreed that the method that all translators should have is a crucial awareness about broad cultures of different languages as well as the semantic values that language holds: "translation has itself become an important bor- der concept in the humanities, affecting some of the most salient intellectual and ethical issues of our time" (Wood & Berrman,

2004, p. 5).

In 2016, Elamari explained that translators' target as we know is to transfer from one language to another language. He believes that there is no total equivalence between the source language and the target language, especially in cultural communication aspects. The difference in cultural background is an issue that could face translators and to create an equivalence between these different languages is difficult, and the context could be misunderstood. The translator should have the knowledge and build a bridge to the target community. He stressed that "A search of the right functional equivalent is more than require, especially when it comes to translating" (p. 86).

Translators have to be able to distinguish the language processing alongside cultural and historical knowledge in the target language. Each language has its own differences in cultural, historical, social, and even with their geography that they provide on their texts (Wood & Bermann, 2005).On the other hand, in 2005, Aboyusef and Mesad emphasized that translators have to know about all aspects of the target language and understand the source text. In addition, they have to be aware of all events that happen around the world. Additionally, translators have to understand the meaning of the text; dictionaries are not always on the translator's side.

210

The way we translate the text from the source language is determined by the way that society in the target language thinks of it.

The political and cultural issues could influence translation, as "TRANSLATION, like every cultural practice, involves the creation of values, linguistic and literacy, religious and political, commercial and educational, as a particular case may be" (p.

25). What makes our translation unique is to increase our value to the foreign text (target text), and translate it respectively

(Faull, 2004).

The role translators had never changed; they provide a main text to another language. In this life, each person has his/ her duty to fulfill. As for translators, they have to produce a professional, readable, and well-formatted text. Another point of view is that translators have to increase their other skills, since knowing the cultural issues are not enough to present a professional text - such as, linguistics aspects, build their vocabularies and grammar (Podoliuc, 2012).

References

Aboyusef, E & Mesad, (2005). Mabadee altarjama wa asasyataha [Translation ethics and basics]. Retrieved from https://

www.ust.edu/usty

Elamari, A. (2016). The question of ethics: What options for the translator? Global Media Journal, 6(2). Retrieved from http://

search.ebscohost.com/

Faull, K. (2004). Translation and culture. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Higgins, C. (2014). Humanism, cosmopolitanism, and the ethics of translation. Educational Theory, 64(5). doi:10.1111/

edth.12073

Podoliuc, T. (2012). The ethics of translation and translator. Free International University Of Moldova, 6(23). Retrieved

from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer

Wood, M., & Bermann, S. (2005). Nation, language and the ethics of translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books

211 Business Name

Localization of Video Games By Reem A. Alsultan

Video games are one type of global software entertainment that some people enjoy very much, as much as reading books or watching movies as what Bernal-Merine illustrate in his 2007 article. The industry of video games now is very important because it gains millions of dollars as the number of gamers increase. Therefore, the industry is working hard on localizing specific games’ languages to fit on the gamer’s region to make it more enjoyable and accepted to increase gamer numbers widely

(Odacioğlu, Loi, Köktürk, &Uysa, 2016). However, it is not easy to localize these games, so localizers face many challenges and problems when localizing them.

According to Bushouse, 2014, jokes in the original language of the game will be lost when translating. Humor is not easy to translate due to cultural differences. Therefore, the localizers must be creative to make these games more enjoyable for the players so they add jokes to make up for the lost ones. Also in 2013, Czech illustrated that it is hard to change position or omit a single lexical item especially technical or neologism terms, so he suggested focusing on social phenomenon's different aspects.

Accordingly, he succeeded to fit these terms well in the games and it became acceptable for both critics and gamers.

The challenges that localizers face are not only in written or spoken texts, but also in the visual aspects. In her 2015 article, Collins pointed to the Final Fantasy series since it is known for its amazing graphics. She did a survey about how important is to have the spoken dialogue match up with lip movement. The results were that American players do not mind if the lip-syncing matches the voice because it does not affect the enjoyment of the game. However, some players do mind especially if the game has emotions and face expressions, so the companies should consider this and change only lip movement so they do not lose players.

Consalvo (2016) discussed one of the problems that original producers of games face which is unofficial -sometimes considered illegal- localization from unknown combines of games that never intended to be sold in other countries. He stressed that

“the history of game localization is a mixture of official and unofficial efforts that sometimes have focused on the same game at the same time. This makes it tricky to document such histories, but it is important to understand both systems –the official and unofficial- because they have driven one another through the development of the global videogame industry” (p. 121). Official companies suffer from this problem since they are paid whereas fan localizers spread it for free among countries.

212

In conclusion, video games are a famous activity that people spend their leisure time on it and it is one of the products that are affected by globalization, so publishers should be aware of how important localization is to be acceptable and successful. Companies aretrying their best to localize many dialects as much as they can to please gamers around the world even though they take great effort and face many challenges for the sake of people’s enjoyment.

References

Bernal-Merine, M. A. (2007, November). Challenges in the translation of video games. Retrieved from http://www.fti.uab.cat/

tradumatica/revista/num5/articles/02/02.pdf.

Bushouse, E. (2014, May). The practice and evolution of video game translation: Expanding the definition of translation. Re-

trieved from http://scholarworks.umass.edu

Collins, K. (2015, May). You spoony bard!: An analysis of video game localization practices. Retrieved from http://

scholarworks.umass.edu/masters_theses_2/189/

Consalvo, M. (2016). Atari to Zelda: Japan's videogames in global contexts. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

books?

Czech, D. (2013). Challenges in video game localization: An integrated perspective. A Journal of Language and Literature, 1.

Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com

Odacioglu, M. C., Loi, C. K., Köktürk, S., &Uysal, N. M. (2016). The position of game localization training within academic

translation teaching. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 7(4). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.

213 Business Name

Professional Translation: Qualities and Difficulties By Muneera F. Albuhairan

In 2007, Goudec emphasized that many people think that anyone can be a translator, but the fact is that translation in general has some proficiencies that you can gain from experiences and learning and translating as a profession; it is not the same way when you translate an academic text. As he stressed that, “With a few notable exceptions, no one is a ‘born’ translator. Transla- tion skills are acquired, either through training or through practice. Strangely enough, the first thing you have to learn when starting out in professional translation is to forget everything you thought you knew about translation” (p. 153). In fact, a deeper knowledge of being a translator requires practice, experience, and specific qualities to be a professional.

Translators vary from each other in many styles regarding to their awareness and professional situation that might imme- diately impact their translation. Presently due to the major need for qualified translators, the main step of controlled and systematic process is the dominance over theoretical structure. According to VarandeandJadidi, 2015,"being aware of theoretical knowledge as well as having a general knowledge of other disciplines may positively affect the translators’ performance and practice. . . . By doing this, they become aware of why the translation strategies, skills or information are essential, and this gives them the opportunity to utilize the materials they have theoretically learned, in real life situations." (p. 15).

Another important approach in the translation field is called Translation Quality Assessment (TQA). And as what Han- sen, Malmkjear, and Gile said in their book, it means a strong-growing subfield of translation studies that focuses on the relevance between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT) to get a better translation. And there are some steps that any translator should follow: Translations should be tidy not unskillful, award a perfect duplication of the idea of the original text, be straightforward as the original text, use the same style of the original text, and avoid a weird word and expression (2004).

A good translator should become customary with the culture, history and faith of people who speak both languages. If the translator is eloquent in both languages, his or her success is threatened. First, there is challenge that every language has an unparalleled framework so the translator should be aware of both languages that he or she is translating to avoid mistakes. A second problematic area is translating idioms and expression. In my opinion, idioms are the most complicated thing to translate.

Some idioms are misguiding, as they may seem obvious (Ivanov, 2014).

214

If you feel lost translating such words or sentences, Sukksaeresup and Thep-Ackrapong have suggested some steps to avoid making such errors that a translator might commit while translating: First, the term miscue is innovated by Goodman

(1969) indicating to an improper estimate made by a reader when reading a text. For example, a translator may read the word

County as Country and these mistakes commonly happen. Second, a translator's incorrect presumption of the background knowledge and this shows how the background impacts the translator's translation (2009).

To sum up, being a translator it is not as easy as many think. It takes a lot of work in improving yourself and takes a lot of responsibility and self-marketing to be a freelance translator. Let us never forget what Robinson (2000) said: "The study of translation and the training of professional translators is without question an integral part of the explosion of both intercultural relations and the transmission of scientific and technological knowledge" (p. 1).

References

Gouadec, D. (2007). Translation as a profession. Retrieved from https://books.google.ch/books

Hansen, G., Malmkjear, K., &Gile, D. (Eds.). (2004). Claims, changes and challenges in translation studies: Selected contribu-

tions from the EST congress, Copenhagen 2001. Retrieved from https://books.google.ch/books

Ivanov, D. (2014). The art of translation. Cogito-Multidisciplinary Research Journal, 6(1). Retrieved from https://

search.proquest.com

Robinson, D. (2000). Becoming a translator. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

Suksaeresup, N., &Thep-Ackrapong, T. (2009). Lost in translation:How to avoid errors in translation from English. Translation

Journal and the Author, 13(1). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/47errors.htm

Varande, M., &Jadidi, E. (2015). The impact of translators’ academic experience on their translation quality. English Language

Teaching,13(6). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1075499

215