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Introduction to Sociology Introduction to Sociology SOCY-101 Amy E. Traver, Ph.D. Queensborough Community College, CUNY This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 license. Table of Contents 1– Definition and History of Sociology ...................................................................................................... 4 1.1 What Is Sociology? .......................................................................................................................... 4 1.2 Approaches to the Sociological Study of Society and Culture ........................................................ 6 1.3 The History of Sociology .................................................................................................................. 7 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 12 2 – Sociological Research Methods......................................................................................................... 13 2.1 Introduction to Sociological Research Methods ........................................................................... 13 2.2 Research Methods ........................................................................................................................ 13 2.3 Ethical Concerns ............................................................................................................................ 20 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 23 3 – Sociological Theories and Paradigms ....................................................................................................... 24 3.1 Theoretical Perspectives on Society ............................................................................................. 24 3.2 Sociological Theory Today ............................................................................................................. 30 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 31 4 – The Sociological Imagination............................................................................................................. 32 4.1 The Sociological Imagination ........................................................................................................ 32 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 36 5 – Culture and Socialization ........................................................................................................................ 37 5.1 What is Culture? ............................................................................................................................ 37 5.2 Categories of Culture .................................................................................................................... 39 5.3 Socialization .................................................................................................................................. 45 5.4 Agents of Socialization .................................................................................................................. 47 5.5 Socialization Across the Life Course .............................................................................................. 50 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 53 6 – Social Structure ..................................................................................................................................... 54 6.1 What is Social Structure? .............................................................................................................. 54 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 62 7 – Social Stratification ................................................................................................................................ 63 7.1 What Is Social Stratification? ........................................................................................................ 63 7.2 Class Stratification ......................................................................................................................... 64 7.3 Racial and Ethnic Stratification ..................................................................................................... 68 7.4 Stratification by Sex, Gender, and Sexuality ................................................................................. 72 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 75 8 – Social Change ....................................................................................................................................... 77 8.1 Macro-Level Social Change ........................................................................................................... 77 8.2 Causes of Social Change ................................................................................................................ 80 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 88 1 – Definition and History of Sociology1 1.1 What Is Sociology? Sociology is the study of human social life. It involves the study of groups and group interactions, from small and personal groups to very large groups and societies. Society refers to a population of people who live in a defined geographic area, share a common culture and identity, and are subject to the same political authority. Sociologists study all aspects and levels of society. Sociologists working on the micro level study small groups and individual interactions, while those working on the macro level look at trends among and between large groups and societies. Sociologists also study culture. The term culture refers to a group’s shared practices, values, and beliefs. Culture encompasses a group’s way of life, from routine everyday interactions to the most important parts of group members' lives. It includes everything produced by a society, including all of the social rules. Studying Social Influence and Patterns: How Sociologists View Society Sociologists believe that society and culture influence individuals’ attitudes and behavior. Moreover, sociologists believe that an individual’s attitudes, behavior, and life chances depend, to some degree, on their location in society (i.e., their gender, race, social class, religion, and so forth). Does this mean that sociologists believe that society totally determines our attitudes, behaviors, and life chances? No; sociologists believe that individual differences matter, and that 1 Except where otherwise indicated, the text in this chapter comes from OpenStax (2017). we do have free will, but that our individuality and freedom are shaped and limited by society’s expectations.2 For example, society and culture put pressure on people to make one decision over another. One illustration of this is a person’s decision to marry. In the United States, this choice is heavily influenced by individual feelings; however, the social acceptability of marriage relative to a person’s circumstances also plays a part, as revealed by trends in if, when, how, and whom we marry. Sociologists try to identify general social patterns by examining the behavior of large groups of people living in the same society and experiencing the same societal pressures. Changes in the American family structure offer an example of patterns of interest to sociologists. A “typical” family now is vastly different than in past decades when most American families consisted of married parents living in a home with their unmarried children. The percentage of unmarried couples, same-sex couples, single-parent and single-adult households is increasing, as is the number of expanded households in which extended family members such as grandparents, cousins, or adult children live together in the family home (U.S. Census Bureau 2013). Some sociologists might study the social expectations and cultural rules that govern social life, which may contribute to these changes in patterns of family form and life. Do people in the United States view marriage and family differently than before? Do employment and economic conditions play a role? How has culture influenced the choices that individuals make in living arrangements? Other sociologists might study the consequences of these new patterns, such as the ways children are affected by them or how they are changing other aspects of society, like education, housing, and healthcare. 2 This text is from University of Minnesota (2010). 1.2 Approaches to the Sociological Study of Society and Culture When sociologists study society, no topic is off limits. Sociologists question every aspect of the world that humans have created. To study these topics and best answer these questions, sociologists conduct research. This research typically follows one of two approaches: the first approach relies on the scientific method; the second approach engages a more interpretive framework. These two approaches
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