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Planetary Landers and Entry Probes This page intentionally left blank PLANETARY LANDERS AND ENTRY PROBES This book provides a concise but broad overview of the engineering, science and flight history of planetary landers and atmospheric entry probes – vehicles designed to explore the atmospheres and surfaces of other worlds. It covers engineering aspects specific to such vehicles, such as landing systems, parachutes, planetary protection and entry shields, which are not usually treated in traditional spacecraft engineering texts. Examples are drawn from over thirty different lander and entry probe designs that have been used for lunar and planetary missions since the early 1960s. The authors provide detailed illustrations of many vehicle designs from space programmes worldwide, and give basic information on their missions and payloads, irrespective of the mission’s success or failure. Several missions are discussed in more detail, in order to demonstrate the broad range of the challenges involved and the solutions implemented. Planetary Landers and Entry Probes will form an important reference for professionals, academic researchers and graduate students involved in planetary science, aerospace engineering and space mission development. Andrew Ball is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Planetary and Space Sciences Research Institute at The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK. He is a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society and the British Interplanetary Society. He has twelve years of experience on European planetary missions including Rosetta and Huygens. James Garry is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in the School of Engineering Sciences at the University of Southampton, UK, and a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. He has worked on ESA planetary missions for over ten years and has illustrated several space-related books. Ralph Lorenz is a Scientist at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, USA. He is a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society and the British Interplanetary Society. He has fifteen years of experience in NASA and ESA spaceflight projects and has authored several space books. Viktor Kerzhanovich is a Principal Member of Technical Staff of the Mobility and Robotic Systems Section of the Autonomous Systems Division, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA. He was a participant in all Soviet planetary Venus and Mars entry probe programmes. PLANETARY LANDERS AND ENTRY PROBES ANDREW J. BALL The Open University JAMES R. C. GARRY Leiden University RALPH D. LORENZ Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory VIKTOR V. KERZHANOVICH NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521820028 © A. Ball, J. Garry, R. Lorenz and V. Kerzhanovich 2007 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2007 ISBN-13 978-0-511-28461-8 eBook (EBL) ISBN-10 0-511-28461-6 eBook (EBL) ISBN-13 978-0-521-82002-8 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-82002-2 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Contents Preface page xi Acknowledgements xii List of acronyms and abbreviations xiii PART I Engineering issues specific to entry probes, landers or penetrators 1 1 Mission goals and system engineering 3 1.1 Systems engineering 3 1.2 Choice of landing site 7 2 Accommodation, launch, cruise and arrival from orbit or interplanetary trajectory 14 2.1 The launch environment 14 2.2 Transfer-trajectory choice 15 2.3 Arrival strategies 23 3 Entering atmospheres 24 3.1 Entry dynamics 24 3.2 Thermodynamics of entry 27 3.3 TPS technologies 31 3.4 Practicalities 32 4 Descent through an atmosphere 36 4.1 Overview and fundamentals 36 4.2 Extreme ballistic coefficients 36 4.3 Drag enhancement devices 39 4.4 Parachute types 40 4.5 Testing 44 v vi Contents 4.6 Additional components of a descent control system 45 4.7 Mars – retro-rockets in atmosphere 45 5 Descent to an airless body 47 5.1 The gravity turn 48 5.2 Efficient descent 48 5.3 Realistic trajectories 48 5.4 Example – direct descent – Surveyor 49 5.5 Examples: Luna 16 and Apollo 50 5.6 Small bodies 50 5.7 Instrumentation 51 5.8 Powered re-ascent 54 5.9 Hover 54 5.10 Combined techniques – system engineering 55 6 Planetary balloons, aircraft, submarines and cryobots 56 6.1 Balloons 56 6.2 Powered aerobots (airships) 63 6.3 Aeroplanes and gliders 66 6.4 Other heavier-than-air concepts for aerial mobility 68 6.5 Submarines, hydrobots and cryobots 69 7 Arrival at a surface 71 7.1 Targeting and hazard avoidance 71 7.2 Landing gear 72 7.3 Penetration dynamics 78 7.4 Splashdown dynamics: Titan landers, Earth-return capsules 80 8 Thermal control of landers and entry probes 84 8.1 Surface coatings and radiation balance 85 8.2 Internal heat transfer 86 8.3 Thermal environment during descent 87 8.4 Thermal testing 91 8.5 Thermal modelling 91 9 Power systems 94 9.1 System requirements 94 9.2 Power and energy budgets 95 9.3 Radioisotope sources 96 9.4 Solar power 98 9.5 Battery technology 101 9.6 Other power sources 103 Contents vii 9.7 Power and thermal control 103 9.8 Nuts and bolts 104 10 Communication and tracking of entry probes 105 10.1 Entry probes: communication basics 107 10.2 Main telecom equation 112 10.3 Frequency measurements 114 10.4 Data transmission 115 10.5 Link budget 117 10.6 Tracking 117 11 Radiation environment 121 12 Surface activities: arms, drills, moles and mobility 124 13 Structures 130 14 Contamination of spacecraft and planets 132 14.1 Sources of contamination 134 14.2 Current regulations for spacecraft-borne bioload 136 14.3 Techniques for cleaning and sterilizing 136 14.4 Problems specific to spacecraft 143 14.5 Cleanliness as a separate goal 145 14.6 Sample return 146 PART II Previous atmosphere/surface vehicles and their payloads 147 15 Destructive impact probes 151 16 Atmospheric entry probes 153 16.1 First Soviet Venera and Mars entry probes 153 16.2 Venera 4–8 (V-67, V-69, V-70 and V-72) entry probes 159 16.3 Pioneer Venus probes 159 16.4 VeGa AZ balloons 170 16.5 Galileo Probe 173 16.6 Huygens 175 17 Pod landers 177 17.1 Ranger Block 2 Seismo capsules 178 17.2 Luna 4–9, 13 (Ye-6 and Ye-6M) landers 179 17.3 Mars 2, 3, 6, 7 (M-71 and M-73) landers 185 17.4 Mars 96 Small Stations 186 17.5 Mars Pathfinder 190 viii Contents 17.6 Beagle 2 191 17.7 Mars Exploration Rovers 196 18 Legged landers 199 18.1 Surveyor landers 199 18.2 Apollo lunar modules 199 18.3 Luna 17, 21 (Ye-8) landers and the Lunokhods 203 18.4 Luna 15, 16, 18, 20 (Ye-8-5) landers 203 18.5 Luna 23, 24 (Ye-8-5M) landers 203 18.6 Soviet LK lunar lander 203 18.7 Venera 9–14 (4V-1) and VeGa (5VK) landers 203 18.8 Viking landers 203 18.9 Mars Surveyor landers 227 18.10 Mars Science Laboratory 234 19 Payload delivery penetrators 238 19.1 Mars 96 penetrators 240 19.2 Deep Space 2 Mars Microprobes 243 19.3 Lunar-A penetrators 245 20 Small body surface missions 247 20.1 Phobos 1F 247 20.2 NEAR Shoemaker 253 20.3 Rosetta lander Philae 253 20.4 Hayabusa (MUSES-C) and MINERVA 257 PART III Case studies 261 21 Surveyor landers 263 21.1 Design 264 21.2 Flight performance 265 22 Galileo probe 267 22.1 Equipment 268 22.2 Flight performance 270 23 Huygens 273 24 Mars Pathfinder and Sojourner 284 25 Deep Space 2 Mars Microprobes 289 26 Rosetta lander Philae 299 27 Mars Exploration Rovers: Spirit and Opportunity 304 Contents ix 27.1 The spacecraft 304 27.2 The rovers 307 27.3 Problems encountered 311 Appendix: Some key parameters for bodies in the Solar System 313 Atmosphere models 313 Bibliography 316 Engineering 316 Reference 319 Planetary sciences 319 Historical 320 Some useful web sites 321 References 323 Index 338 Preface This book is intended as a concise but broad overview of the engineering, science and flight history of planetary landers and atmospheric probes. Such vehicles are subject to a wide range of design and operational issues that are not experienced by ‘ordinary’ spacecraft such as Earth-orbiting satellites, or even by interplanetary flyby or orbital craft. Such issues deserve special attention, and we have attempted to bring together in one place brief discussions of many of these aspects, providing pointers to more detailed (but dispersed) coverage in the wider published literature. This volume also draws heavily on real examples of landers and probes launched (or, at least, where the launch vehicle’s engines were started with that intention!). More than 45 years have passed since the first vehicles of this type were designed. To a certain extent some past missions, of which there are over one hundred, may now be considered irrelevant from a scientific point of view, outdated from an engineering point of view and perhaps mere footnotes in the broader history of planetary exploration achievements.
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