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Hybrid Nanocomposite Thin Films for Photovoltaic Applications: a Review

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Hybrid Nanocomposite Thin Films for Photovoltaic Applications: a Review nanomaterials Review Hybrid Nanocomposite Thin Films for Photovoltaic Applications: A Review Marcela Socol *,† and Nicoleta Preda *,† National Institute of Materials Physics, 405A Atomistilor Street, P.O. Box MG-7, 077125 Magurele, Romania * Correspondence: marcela.socol@infim.ro (M.S.); nicol@infim.ro (N.P.) † These authors contributed equally. Abstract: Continuing growth in global energy consumption and the growing concerns regarding climate change and environmental pollution are the strongest drivers of renewable energy deploy- ment. Solar energy is the most abundant and cleanest renewable energy source available. Nowadays, photovoltaic technologies can be regarded as viable pathways to provide sustainable energy genera- tion, the achievement attained in designing nanomaterials with tunable properties and the progress made in the production processes having a major impact in their development. Solar cells involving hybrid nanocomposite layers have, lately, received extensive research attention due to the possibility to combine the advantages derived from the properties of both components: flexibility and process- ability from the organic part and stability and optoelectronics features from the inorganic part. Thus, this review provides a synopsis on hybrid solar cells developed in the last decade which involve composite layers deposited by spin-coating, the most used deposition method, and matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation, a relatively new deposition technique. The overview is focused on the hybrid nanocomposite films that can use conducting polymers and metal phthalocyanines as p-type materials, fullerene derivatives and non-fullerene compounds as n-type materials, and semiconductor nanostructures based on metal oxide, chalcogenides, and silicon. A survey regarding the influence of various factors on the hybrid solar cell efficiency is given in order to identify new strategies for Citation: Socol, M.; Preda, N. Hybrid enhancing the device performance in the upcoming years. Nanocomposite Thin Films for Photovoltaic Applications: A Review. Keywords: hybrid nanocomposite films; conjugated polymers; inorganic nanostructures; spin- Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 1117. https:// doi.org/10.3390/nano11051117 coating; MAPLE; hybrid photovoltaic cells Academic Editor: Fabrizio Pirri Received: 5 April 2021 1. Introduction Accepted: 22 April 2021 The technological development has been the engine of the human society progress Published: 26 April 2021 from the beginning of the “industrial revolution” in the 18th century to the present day, being in the same time responsible for the major increase in the energy consumption Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral (anticipated to be at least double in 2100). The main concern in the energy production is with regard to jurisdictional claims in represented by the enormous predominance of the non-renewable energy sources (natural published maps and institutional affil- gas, oil, coal) taking into account that the electricity generation involves high processing iations. cost and the CO2 emissions from the burning of oil and coal leads to serious environmental issues. Naturally, the technology can have positive or negative effects on the world, the human society having the responsibility to use the technology in view of a sustainable development. Consequently, during the 20th century, numerous attempts were made to Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. identify alternative energy sources less polluting to increase the percent of the energy Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. supplied from renewable resources and to decrease the one obtained from non-renewable This article is an open access article sources. Among the green and non-pollutant alternative energy sources (hydropower, distributed under the terms and wind, biomass, geothermal, and solar), the solar energy seems to be a powerful alternative conditions of the Creative Commons to fossil fuels, the Sun giving just in one year more energy (3.8 × 1024 joules) than the Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// required annual consumption (for example in 2000 was estimated as being 10,000 more) [1]. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ For this reason, in the last decades, the solar power was brought into the world’s spotlight 4.0/). Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 1117. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11051117 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nanomaterials Nanomaterials 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 50 Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 1117 2 of 48 For this reason, in the last decades, the solar power was brought into the world’s spotlight emerging as the most abundant and cleanest renewable energy source available. Although emerging as the most abundant and cleanest renewable energy source available. Although thethe potential potential of of sunlight sunlight energy energy has has been been available available throughout throughout history, history, it it to tookok centuries centuries to to developdevelop technologies technologies which which can can efficiently efficiently harvest harvest the the conversion conversion of of the the radiant radiant energy energy ofof the the sun sun into into electric electric energy. energy. Thus, Thus, the the solar solar energy energy can can kindle kindle the the Olympic Olympic torch torch by by concentratingconcentrating the the solar solar rays rays via via a a mirror mirror (as (as in in the the ancient ancient tim times)es) and and can can be be also also converted converted intointo electricity electricity by by origami origami-inspired-inspired large large solar solar panel panel arrays arrays disposed disposed on on the the NASA NASA space space satellitessatellites [2]. [2]. In In the the history history of of the the solar solar energy, energy, the the major major breakthrough breakthrough was was the the discovery discovery ofof the the photovoltaic photovoltaic effect effect in in 1839 1839 by by A. A. E. Becquerel. The The phenomenon phenomenon consisting consisting in in the the generationgeneration of of an an electric electric current current in ina material a material when when this thisis exposed is exposed to sunlight to sunlight is the oper- is the atingoperating principle principle of a ofsolar a solar cell. cell. However, However, the themodern modern era era of ofthe the solar solar cells cells begins begins in in 1941 1941 whenwhen a a silicon silicon cell cell was was descr describedibed by by Ohl Ohl [3], [3], in in 1954, 1954, a a silicon silicon photovoltaic photovoltaic (PV) (PV) cell cell having having 6%6% conversion conversion efficiency efficiency being being developed developed by by D. D. Chapin, Chapin, C. C. Fuller Fuller,, and and G. G. Pearson Pearson at at Bell Bell LaboratoriesLaboratories [4]. [4]. This This PV PV cell cell was was patented patented [5] [5] becoming becoming the the model model for for the the solar solar panels panels fabricatedfabricated to to date. date. Although Although the the efficiency efficiency of of the the most most commercial commercial solar solar panels panels available available todaytoday averages averages between between 15% 15% and and 20% 20% [6], [6], the the improvement improvement of of the the cell cell efficiency efficiency will will make make solarsolar energy energy a a real real alternative alternative source source in in respect respect to to fossil fossil fuels. fuels. Thus,Thus, an an impressive impressive dev developmentelopment was was reached reached in the in field the fieldof the of PV the systems PV systems in terms in ofterms the large of the-scale large-scale deployment, deployment, cost reduction cost reduction and performance and performance enhancement enhancement using differ- using entdifferent materials materials and device and device architectures, architectures, in Figure in Figure 1 being1 being given given a timeline a timeline map mapof the of best the researchbest research cell effi cellciencies efficiencies achieved achieved by different by different photovoltaic photovoltaic technologies technologies according according to the to Nationalthe National Renewable Renewable Energy Energy Laboratory Laboratory (NREL) (NREL) [7]. [ 7]. FigureFigure 1. 1. AA timeline timeline chart chart of of the the best best research research cell cell efficiencies efficiencies for for different different photovoltaic photovoltaic technologies technologies from from 1976 1976 to to present present accordingaccording to the National RenewableRenewable EnergyEnergy Laboratory Laboratory (NREL) (NREL) [7 [7].]. This This plot plot is is courtesy courtesy of of the the National National Renewable Renewable Energy En- ergyLaboratory, Laboratory, Golden, Golden, CO, USA.CO, USA. TheThe developed developed solar solar cell cell technologies technologies can can be be divided divided into into four four main main classes classes called called generationsgenerations [8 [8––1111]] as as f follows:ollows: (i) (i) The The first first generation generation based based on on both both monocrystalline monocrystalline and and polycrystallinepolycrystalline silicon (Si)(Si) andand onon gallium gallium arsenide arsenide (GaAs) (GaAs) wafers; wafers; (ii) (ii) the the second second generation genera- tioninvolved involved thin thin films films based based on amorphous-Si, on amorphous cadmium-Si, cadmium telluride telluride (CdTe), (CdTe), copper copper indium in- diumgallium gallium and selenium and selenium (CIGS) (CIGS) and cooper and cooper zinc tinzinc sulfide tin sulfide solar solar cells (CZTS);cells (CZTS); (iii) the (iii) third the thirdgeneration generation included
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