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Transferring prior art knowledge and skills to computer graphics image-making

Ch&ng, Yina, Ph.D.

The Ohio State University, 1994

UMI 300 N. Zeeh Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 Transferring Prior Art Knowledge and Skills To Computer Graphics Image-Making

DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University

By

Yina Chang , B.A., Licenciado, M.F.A.

The Ohio State University 1994

Dissertation Committee: Approved by Prof. Arthur Efland

Prof. John Belland Adviser Prof. Virginia Weinhold Department of Art Education Copyright by YIna Chang 1994 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I sincerely appreciate the guidance and direction that Dr. Authur Efland provided throughout the writing of this dissertation. I also thank the other members of my Advisory Committee, Dr. John Belland and Professor Virginia Weinhold for their suggestions and comments. Gratitude is expressed to The Advanced Computing Center for the Art and Design which has provided me with the enviomment that has assisted me in many respects, at various time. My special thanks go to all my students that I have ever had at the Computer in the Visual Art class at the Ohio State University. They were not only the resouces from which my research ideas originated, but were also my experimental subjects in different research areas for several quarters. Finally, to all my friends, who shared with me all the joyful and hard moments during the general exam, dissertation writing and revising, and during my life in Columbus my heartfelt gratitude. VITA

October 28,1950 Bom - Taipei, Taiwan

1972 ...... B.A., University of Chinese Chinese

1978 Licenciado en Bellas Artes University of Madrid

1978-1985 Art & Design Teacher Colegio Cardenal Spinola

1985-1987 M.F.A Southern Illinois University

FIELD OF STUDY

Major Field: Art Education

Studies in Computer Graphics and Animation in Visual Art Advanced Computing Center for the Art and Design Department of Art Education The Ohio State University TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... ii

VITA ...... iii

LIST OF TABLES...... vii

LIST OF PLATES...... ix

CHAPTER page

I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Something new in the art classroom ...... 1 The questions of transfer ...... 2 Teaching for transfer ...... 3 Issues related to transfer ...... 4 Technical vs. artistic- Why ignorant a r t ...... 5 What the research does not say ...... 6 The questions of art knowledge ...... 7 Art knowledge and medium ...... 7 The purpose of the s t u d y ...... 7 The nature of the study ...... 8 Specific questions to be studied ...... 9 ITie organization of the book ...... 10

H. DESIGN OF THE STUDY

ntroduction ...... 12 Methods of data collection ...... 16 1. Questionnaire and pretest ...... 16 2. Journal and sketchbooks ...... 17 3. Structured interview and portfolio ...... 19 4. Electronic documentation of computer images ...... 20 Process of data collection ...... 20

iv Methods of data analysis ...... 22 C onclusion ...... 25 m. TRANSFER OF LEARNING AND IMAGE-MAKING

Introduction ...... 26 The concept of learning ...... 26 Essentials of transfer ...... 27 Knowledge and skills in transfer situations ...... 29 Strategies of transfer...... 30 Art knowledge ...... 34 Transfer art knowledge ...... 35 Conclusion ...... 36 Significance of the s tu d y ...... 37

IV THE ISSUES OF ART MEDIUM: COMPUTER AS AN ART TOOL AND MEDIUM

The issue of the art medium ...... 39 Computer a tool and medium ...... 40 The concept of input and o u tp u t...... 42 Paint system ...... 43 Paint system Vs. painting ...... 44

V. ASPECTS FOR ANALYZING THE TRANSFER OF ART KNOWLEDGE / Analyzing Vs. evaluating art w o rk s ...... 47 The s tu d y ...... 49 Four aspects of the criteria for analyzing participant's studio works ...... 50 Conclusion ...... 57

VI. PRIOR ART KNOWLEDGE Vs. COMPUTER ASSISTED ART WORK: TEN CASE STUDIES

Introduction ...... 59 Case one: A ndy ...... 73 Case two: A nne ...... 88 Case three: J e a n ...... 101

v Case four: Bob...... 116 Case five: M ary ...... 131 Case six: Jeff...... 145 Case seven: Paul ...... 159 Case eight: Eddi ...... 173 Case nine: Kristin ...... 187 Case ten: Dave ...... 200

VII. RESULTS OF THE STUDY

THE INFLUENCE OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE ON COMPUTER IMAGE-MAKING...... 210 STRATEGY OF TRANSFER: THE WAY STUDENTS WORK...... 221 ART DISCIPLINES AND TRANSFER...... 223

VIU. THE IMPLICATION: A CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR COMPUTER ART COURSE

A curriculum for a computer art course ...... 232 Concept and conditions ...... 232 The curriculum for undergraduate computer art courses-- an edectic approach ...... 236 Computer-generated art courses curriculum ...... 242 An eclectic course curriculum and research findings ...... 251

REFERENCE...... 253

APPENDICES A. Participants' list ...... 261 B. Art concepts and art terms te s t ...... 263 C. Art Experience Form ...... 265 D. Prior Art knowledge and Computer image-making ...... 267 E. Interview questions ...... 269 F. L etter...... 271 LIST OF TABLES

TABLES page

1. Elements & Strategies of Transfer ...... 32

2. Intellectual Resources ...... 33

3. Students prior art knowledge and experience form 1 ...... 62

4. Students prior art knowledge and computer image making 1. 63

5. Students prior art knowledge and computer image making 2. 65

6. Student's understanding of art terms & concepts before working with com puter...... 67

7. Andy's art experience ...... 68

8. Anne's art experience ...... 82

9. Jean's art experience ...... 96

10. Bob's art experience ...... 110

11. Mary's art experience ...... 126

12. Jeff's art experience ...... 140

13. Paul's art experience ...... 154

14. Eddi's art experience ...... 168

15. Kristin's art experience ...... 182

v ii 16. Dave's art experience ...... 195

17. Summary of the influence of participants' prior Knowledge on computer image-making...... 215

18. Comparison of ten participants' transfer of art knowledge. . 216

19. Efland's "Curriculum Inquiry in Art Education" ...... 238

20. 2-D computer art course content ...... 246

21. 3-D computer art course content ...... 249

v iii UST OF PLATES

PLATES page

Plate I Andy's silk screen "Sea creature" 1989 ...... 69 Plate II Andy's illustration "Musician" ...... 70 Plate III Andy's computer art "Still life" 1991 ...... 71 Plate IV Andy's computer art "Self portrait" 1991 ...... 72 Plate V Anne's pencil drawing "Still life" 1991 ...... 83 Plate VI Anne's pencil drawing "Trees" 1991 ...... 84 Plate VH Anne's pencil drawing "Shirt" 1991 ...... 85 Plate VHI Anne's computer art "Still life" 1991 ...... 86 Plate IX Anne's computer art "A friend's story" 1991 ...... 87 Plate X Jean's pastel drawing "Still life" 1990 ...... 97 Plate XI Jean's Pastel drawing "Why" 1990 ...... 98 Plate XII Jean's computer art "Flowers" 1991 ...... 99 Plate Xm Jean's computer art "Red cross" 1991 ...... 100 Plate XIV Bob's photography "Self protrait" 1989 ...... Ill Plate XV Bob's photography "Bus stop" 1989 ...... 112 Plate XVI Bob's photography "Rail" 1988 ...... 113 Plate XVH Bob's computer art "Tree-head" 1991 ...... 114 Plate XVIII Bob's computer art "Self portrait" 1991 ...... 115

ix Plate XIX Mary's oil pastel "Owl" 1989 ...... 127 Plate XX Mary's oil pastel " Parrot" 1989 ...... 128 Plate XXI Mary's computer art "Still life" 1991 ...... 129 Plate XXH Mary's computer art "Hand" 1991 ...... 130 Plate XXm Jeff's silkscreen "Digital world" 1988 ...... 141 Plate XXIV Jeff's computer art "Building" 1989 ...... 142 Plate XXV Jeff's computer art "Self portrait" 1991 ...... 143 Plate XXVI Jeff's computer art "Aircraft carrier" 1991 ...... 144 Plate XXVH Paul's pencil drawing 1 1987 ...... 155 Plate XXVm Paul's pencil drawing 2 1987 ...... 156 Plate XXIX Paul's computer art "A friend's story" 1991 ...... 157 Plate XXX Paul's computer art "Rowing boat" 1991 ...... 158 Plate XXXI Eddi's cartoon "Aliens" 1987...... 169 Plate XXXn Eddi's oil painting " Street" 1987 ...... 170 Plate XXXin Eddi's computer art "Self portrait" 1991 ...... 171 Plate XXXIV Eddi's computer art " A friend's story" 1991 ...... 172 Plate XXXV Kristin's charcoal's drawing "Body" 1989 ...... 183 Plate XXXVI Kristin's oil painting "Portrait" 1989 ...... 184 Plate XXXVII Kristin's computer art "Still Life" 1991 ...... 185 Plate XXXVm Kristin's computer art "A friend's story" 1991 ...... 186 Plate XXXIX Dave's pencil drawing" Gunman" 1987...... 196 Plate XXXX Dave's water color "Chair" 1987...... 197 Plate XXXXI Dave's computer art "Still life" 1991...... 198 Plate XXXXH Dave's computer art "Self portrait" 1991 ...... 199 x CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Something New in the Art Classroom There have been many discussions concerning the development of instructional software in the visual arts (DiBlasio, 1983/ Ettinger, 1988/ Linehan, 1982). New types of software applications have rapidly begun to appear in art classrooms. These applications/ generally known as PAINT software/ including digital and image processing, are specifically designed for making images on the computer. In the Columbus Public Schools alone (according to their Microcomputer Software Library catalog, 1990), there are forty commercial paint related programs of the sixty available programs in the fine arts area. Similarly, there is an increasing use of commercial paint programs at the college-level, especially in visual art and design courses (Ettinger, 1988, Freeman, 1988). Non-commercial programs are also used for artistic research in some graduate education programs in the visual arts. While paint systems will probably not replace traditional studio media in the future, their influence is nevertheless obvious. Many changes have inevitably come from the use of these new paint systems in art classrooms. Students now sit in front of large box-like objects, inserting and taking out small square disks, moving a plastic mouse around the desktop, and making images on a television-like screen. Could we have envisioned that this 1 2 would be how students would "make art?" It is important to acknowledge that most university students taking computer graphics art classes have already acquired basic art concepts and skills from their previous art education. Irrespective of whether they major in art, they have had some type of art-making experience. Many have taken art courses in elementary, middle, and high schools or have had college level art training. Most students have been exposed to traditional methods of art training. In the case of image-making, students are familiar with tactile materials such as paper, canvas, wood, and different types of pigment. They often have had past experience with pencils, brushes, and other tools that can be manipulated with the hand. Students also identify art with particular processes of working with tools and media, for example, the process of making a painting is different from that of making a print, and these two media use different tools and produce different image qualities, just as traditional tools for making art produce different effects, so does the computer medium. As computers enter the art classrooms, there will be an initial period of curiosity and experiment. Beyond that, students will seek to master the new tool. Coming to understand the connections students make between the computer and their prior art training would be especially crucial for computer art learning. The Question of Transfer Currently, psychologists with a cognitive orientation to learning theory are concerned about prior knowledge and its role in transfer during learning. A simple and clear analogy has been used over and over again by many 3 scholars to explain the concept of transfer: "Learning to drive an automatic- shift car will prepare you well for driving another automatic-shift car, but may not do well for driving a motorcycle.../' (Woolfolk, 1987). This analogy can be easily applied to the computer-assisted art learning situation—car to motorcycle and traditional art-making to computer art-making. The tools used in most of the traditional art classes are not similar to the computer, the knowledge involved with art-making therefore may also be different. Without doubt the student's prior art knowledge of art-making will have some effect upon to the new situation, but as yet its role is unclear. Teaching for Transfer In a pilot study, a questionnaire was developed and used to survey past computer graphics instructors in the Amiga Lab of the Department of Art Education at The Ohio State University (1989). Through this study, I have found that these instructors primarily taught computer software functions, because their students were mainly concerned with the manipulation of these software systems. Since the computer was a new tool in the art classroom, students required time practicing its functions before they could achieve the effects they desired. Although these instructors may have tried to review some art concepts, such as perspective or color ranges that can be carried out with the software functions, they did not deal with the use of the new tool in the expression of ideas. The instructors tended to rely on the students' prior knowledge of art to create art images, assuming that their students had prior knowledge of art that automatically transferred in relevant ways to the new tool. The problem is that the students were not taught how to integrate their new knowledge of the computer with their prior knowledge of art. Though 4 the students in the pilot study showed that they had some art background, there is a question of how much and how effectively they can transfer their art knowledge to the new art learning context. Since the image-making process is a direct method of art learning and expressing ideas, the following questions may be asked: 1) What was the nature of the prior knowledge possessed by these students? 2) How did it affect the application with the new tool? 3) What kind of instruction might be useful in helping these students successfully transfer their prior knowledge? Issues Related to Transfer In many cases of computer art making, students may not understand how to apply their prior art knowledge to the new learning situation. For instance, an adult student in Freedman's study (1989) commented with regard to the possibilities of computer software functions for exploring images, that "computer graphics is something everyone can do regardless of ability and interests." Another non-art major earned a drawing award when he was in high school but had not practiced drawing for a long time. Despite his continuing interest in the visual arts, he commented: "When I am in front of a computer screen, no matter how much I know about the varieties of software functions, I still feel empty in my mind" (Shieh, personal communication, April, 1990). These two students both seem to possess "art ability" (McFee, 1964). However, they think that making art images with a computer is fundamentally different from making images with other tools, and that what they may have learned earlier is not of use in working with the computer. 5 Their comments reflected the issue of transfer of art knowledge and skill. The first student who said that art-making with the computer is easy might mean that the computer as an Art Tool is so easy to use, that his prior learning does not affect the acquisition of new skills. The second student, who thought that art-making with the computer was difficult, therefore sees that Art-Making is difficult, and does not see any relation between his prior art knowledge and the computer. In another example, an art major with a strong visual art background, said that after conquering some technical problems on a computer, she treated the screen like a white canvas, using the same art-making processes that she uses with other art media (A. Maria, personal communication, June, 1990). This student eventually was able to integrate her prior art knowledge and skills into her computer image-making. But, how was she able to do this? To what extent did the student apply her prior art knowledge and skills to the new context? Her statement gives us some clues, but further investigation is needed. Technical vs. Artistic— Whv Ignorant Art Technical problem vs. artistic problem is another issue which may overshadow the question of the transferring of art knowledge. When computer art enters the classroom, everyone's attention focuses particularly on the technical side of this medium while students' prior art knowledge and skills tend to assume a secondary role. This is understandable for the majority of students may find technical and scientific concepts more difficult to master than artistic production. Due to the characteristics of the computer and computer image-making, students need to have both an "artistic formation" 6 and a "scientific formation." According to Jones (1989), artistic formation involves aesthetic/artistic knowledge and considerations, while a scientific formation involves technical/scientific knowledge. Students, especially those who lack the scientific background, appear to be more eager to pursue technical and scientific knowledge before they deal with artistic issues. Their instructors, in this case, would emphasize scientific content to satisfy the students' needs, then move on to artistic concerns. What the Research Does Not Say In recent research on computer graphics, many researchers emphasize the powerful capability of the new tool. Some have discussed students' prior art knowledge with different approaches. Greh (1986) states that in a computer art class, students agree that some art experience is necessary before taking computer graphics classes. Those who have taken courses in programming feel that their art background is more important to their success in computer art class (Greh, 1986). Another report addresses the point of view that the students at Harvard Graduate School of Design believe their ability to act as architectural designers should come from knowledge of the processes of visual design, not solely from knowledge of computers (Ettinger, 1988). They have discussed the importance of prior art knowledge, but did not specify how this knowledge and skill affects their performance as designers. There are also contradictory findings about students' age level and computer art learning. In a case study with elementary school children, Freedman (1989) found that children's previous art and computer experiences appear to influence the conceptualization and development of computer 7 graphics imagery. In a later survey/questionnaire of 11 adult learners, Freedman conversely found that the types of previous art experience of participants and computer experience were not related to their work on the computer. The fact that there is little research on the issue of transfer in terms of art-making knowledge in a computer context, and contradictions among the few existing studies, suggests that further study is needed to understand the relation of prior knowledge to art work done by means of the computer. The Question of Prior Knowledge DiBlasio specifies five categories of basic competence of art knowledge: art facts, art skills, established art concepts, frontier concepts of art, and aesthetic values. Through the learner's learning process, these areas are intertwined, and become learned knowledge (DiBlasio, 1983). Also Efland (1983) states that in the cognitive information-processing approach, knowledge of art includes basic art concepts and art language, such as style, elements and principles of design, functional attributes of art, aesthetic attributes of art, the media and forming processes used to make art, as well as the expressive content. Some researchers have already proved that prior art knowledge will affect art learning (Greh, 1986, Ettinger, 1988). One cannot produce a work of art or view it with discernment if lacking a working knowledge of these concepts and processes. Art knowledge and medium The main confusion in effecting the transfer of art knowledge may be the fact that existing art knowledge and skills are linked to a given art medium. Since some educational psychologists think about art mainly in 8 terms of the art medium, which is the essence of the art form (Goodman,1972; Salomon, 1979), it is doubtful that art knowledge will transfer from one art tool to another, or from one art medium to another. In this study, it is assumed that art knowledge and skill will be like any other cognitive knowledge and skill such as science and math, which will transfer under appropriate conditions. Students will have to use their ability to make connections within and between contexts in order to make transfer possible. Some specific methods, which will be discussed in later chapters, may need to be used to facilitate this connection. The Purpose of the Study Past research has emphasized that the transfer of knowledge and skills has been a major goal of education (Perkins & Salomon 1988, Prawat 1989). In this study it is assumed that students' art knowledge with media prior to using computers for art-making will directly influence the subsequent acquisition of knowledge and skills in the two-dimensional computer environment. The purpose of this study will be to see how this previous experience affects their approach to art learning in a computerized environment, and how prior knowledge and skills in art may affect students' understanding of art concepts and their abilities to make images with the computer. The Nature of the Study Transfer of knowledge and skills in image-making may not be evident in each and every student's art product. The effect of prior knowledge and its transfer is not clear; therefore, the purpose of this study is to understand how students under current instructional methods transfer prior art learning. 9 Both the conceptual content and formal qualities of artistic expression in computer images will be studied. From such a study will come suggestions for further research in the area of instruction and curriculum. The findings of the study will be used to identify implications for teaching computer graphics courses. In order to investigate the nature of the transfer of prior art knowledge and skills to computer image-making, the case study approach was necessary. All the information was collected during two quarters for individual analysis and interpretation. The study itself is descriptive in nature. The students in this study are undergraduates students in computer art class offered by The Ohio State University. Some students are from art disciplines, such as painting and graphic design, or from areas which may relate to art such as medical illustration. A few may be from other areas not related to art. Some of them have developed an affinity for a particular medium and ways of vising it, although few have enough art experience to consider themselves an expert in its use. In this study, the different background disciplines will be presumed to be the primary factor involved in the transfer of knowledge. Specific Questions to Be Studied Three specific questions will be investigated in this study: First, what is the influence of students' prior art knowledge of image-making on such formal qualities of color, light, space, composition and the conceptual content of computer art images? Second, how do students transfer learned image- making knowledge and skills to two-dimensional computer images? Third, will the students from different disciplines approach the transfer process differently? 10 The reason for studying the formal qualities of student art works is that these are the basic elements of works of art. The use of these elements may be different after transfer due to the different usage of the art tools and the different process of the art-making. An art work is a union of single art elements that work together, and it is not easy to describe these elements separately. This will be handled by using a descriptive method to analyze the works. The second question is to understand the strategies students use for transferring their art knowledge, while the third question focuses on the fact that many students in computer art classes are from different majors in the university. The Organization of the Dissertation This dissertation covers a total of eight chapters. The organization of the chapters follows the flow of the research process, for example, the descriptive data display of the research comes after the theoretical framework and the processes of the preparation and conduct of the research. The introduction focuses on the problems of teaching and learning in computer- assisted art classes, why these problems are important for study, and the specific questions undergoing study. Chapter two deals with the process of research preparation, how the study was designed, and what methods were selected for analyzing the data. The third chapter gives a theoretical background to the research problems. These consist of the learning theories which deal with transfer of knowledge and the strategies of transfer. Because of the significant influence of the computer medium in art and education, it is necessary to dedicate Chapter four to explain the nature of 11 this art tool as a medium. Chapter five deals with the fundamental issue related to the research—namely identification of aspects for evaluating art works. The descriptive data is to be found in chapter six. There are ten cases in this chapter, with each case describing an individual student's previous artistic background, the process of experimenting with the new art tool—the computer, and most important, how each student shows the knowledge from his/her previous art learning, and the strategy they used for transferring. This chapter will also include the charts of the participating students' art experiences and color plates of the students prior art works and computer art works. The three main questions investigated in this research will be analyzed separately in the chapter which follows. This chapter will include the influence of transfer and the strategies of transfer. This is a descriptive study, and the findings will be based on individual cases. An informal comparison will be made to see the possible differences in transfer in terms of different background disciplines and artistic formation of the students. Since the computer entered the art classroom, many attempts of designing a suitable curriculum for computer art courses have been made. Most of these curricula came without any theoretical or experimental support. In the last chapter I will focus on the implications of the study for curriculum design. This curriculum will hopefully solve many problems that have occurred in computer assisted art classes. CHAPTER II

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

Introduction The influence of student prior knowledge of art image-making, on their work with the computer graphics medium is likely to vary from individual to individual. Hence it requires a descriptive research method as well as individual case studies. Gay (1987) notes that the ethnographic research method involves intensive data collection on many variables over an extended period of time in a naturalistic setting such as a classroom. He describes the method used for this kind of research as "multi-instrument" research. Wolcott (1988) has a similar statement in his article Ethnography Research. He says that the strength of fieldwork lies in its "triangulation." Participant-observation and interviews are both important techniques for ethnographic researchers. In case studies with ethnographic research method, the data processing falls towards the inductive, generative, constructive and subjective. Processing strategies of analytic induction and constant comparison are most appropriate. And a "thick" written description is made for reporting data. The information in this study is to be collected in many ways from ten subjects who are currently enrolled undergraduate students taking computer graphics courses. The following methods for data collection will be used: (1) 12 13 questionnaires, to understand the students' prior art experience and general information; (2) art terminology study, to examine the student's understanding of basic art terms; (3) journals, to be used to collect students' short written records about their thinking process while they use the computer to make images throughout the quarter; (4) sketch books, to record preliminary content and composition of their art works; (5) portfolios, to document students' previous art works to provide a record of their prior knowledge and prior image-making ability; (6) a structured interview, to understand in detail students' prior image-making knowledge of the formal quality of computer images and the strategies students used to transfer art knowledge (structured interviews will be given to selected students on the basis of their different art backgrounds.); (7) electronic documentation of students' computer images. These methods will be explained in more detail later in this chapter. Participants and Location of Research Because of the experience gained from preliminary research in which 12 students participated in a pilot study four months prior to the present research, I found it necessary to limit the number of participants. The research was descriptive and qualitative in nature, and thus a great quantity of information was needed. In order to collect this information in a limited period of time, the ideal number of the participants was ten. For this final research, a total of 10 participants was selected from two groups of 15 undergraduates who enrolled in a computer graphics course offered by the Department of Art Education at The Ohio State University during Spring Quarter, 1991. 14 The process of selecting these students was based on their current degree program or major. Then I randomly selected one or two students from different groups of majors depending on the number of majors. After obtaining permission from the students and eliminating other possible difficulties, such as the possible withdrawal of the student from the university or from the class half way through the research, the total number of participants was reduced to ten. These students' academic level ranged from freshman to senior, representing different art disciplines, such as Fine Art, Industrial Design, Art Education, and some were non-art majors from departments such as Business, Electrical Engineering, and Computer Science. Their ages ranged from 19 to 25 years. This was the Erst time most of the students worked with computers and graphics software to make artistic images, although some of them had used computers for word processing and basic black-and-white drawing. The research took place in a laboratory furnished with Amiga computers in the Fine Arts building where computer-assisted art courses are offered. Students used Amiga 2000 hardware, and the following software: Deluxe Paint III, Digital View, and Pixmate. One digital camera, one 23 inch TV and video deck,and one Sun harddrive file server were also available for this course. The three software programs have different artistic functions. Deluxe Paint m is a paint system, and in this course served as the main source of students' artistic tools. Digital View and Pixmate are image processing programs; the former can digitize photographic images and the later can transform automatically digital images. Students used these three programs 15 to make their final images. The locations of the interviews varied due to the available space and the time, but most of the interviews took place in a third floor classroom where the acoustics were good for recording purposes. The length of the course was one academic quarter (ten weeks). Students had two sessions per week for two hours per session. The course introduced the role of the computer in the visual arts, and consisted of lectures, computer art appreciation, and computer-based studio activities. From the first day, students were introduced to the paint software and general computing knowledge. For the rest of the term, the first part of each class session was devoted to lectures, discussions and tutorials concerning software and related artistic problems, while the second part of each session allowed the students to work independently but with my assistance on their computer imagery. As the instructor I gave software demonstrations according to the sequence of the course content and the difficulty of the software, showing the variety of functions and effects, along with brief artistic concepts which would be applied for further image-making use. Students practiced the manipulation of the technical part of the computer and software on their own during and after the class. The research focused on the students' studio activity. The studio activity was basically divided into two parts. For the first seven weeks, students concentrated on two-dimensional still images, and for the remaining three weeks, students concentrated on two-dimensional animation, consisting of various still images. More advanced animation 16 procedures were not included. Because of the limited length of the course, students were asked to work on three to four still images as part of their studio assignments which included still life, portrait, and perspective. Students were encouraged to give meaning (conceptual content) and aesthetic consideration to their works, though the aesthetic quality was not the main concern in this study. Methods of Data Collection The nature of the research questions and the type of information to be obtained was qualitative and subjective. The data were collected in self-report research forms, as well as written (e.g. journal) and non-written (e.g. digital images) sources, for "triangulation." According to the sequence, the following specific methods were used for data collection: questionnaire and pretest, journal and sketch book, structured interview and portfolio, and electronic documentation of computer images. A checklist indicates the selected students' names and methods of data collecting (appendix A). I described each method for collecting data in this section specifying the procedure, from whom and when the data was collected, and what I was looking for. 1. Questionnaire and Pretest Two questionnaires and a test in this study serve as methods for collecting general information. a. Art concepts test. All students at the beginning of the course were given a simple test (appendix B). This test consists of 16 basic art terms which students were asked to define. This test provided general information about the students' understanding of art concepts. Students took the test without 17 preparing in advance. Since this test did not count as part of the course grade, students willingness to answer the questions was unclear. b. First questionnaire. During the first or the second week of the course, students filled out two-pages of Student Prior Art Knowledge and Experience Form with multiple-choice and short-answer questions (appendix C). They also indicated their ages, current major, and number of years of art experience. The amount of art experience was separated into two parts: formal art education and art experience outside of formal art education. With this survey, I determined a numerical value for the amount of art knowledge. Anyone majoring in art who had a numerical value higher than forty was categorized as having more art experience. Art majors with a numerical value lower than forty were considered to have less art experience. Non-art majors with a numerical value lower than thirty were considered to have no art experience. This Art Experience Form has been adapted from Wiley, S.E.'s "The Relationship Between Amount of Experience in Art, Visual Perception, and Picture Memory", and the numerical value for determining art experience for art and non-art majors in this research is based on the participants' average art experience. The information collected with the questionnaire served as a reference in conjunction with data collected by other methods. c. Second questionnaire. Having a format similar to the first one, the second questionnaire was given to the students at the end of the quarter (see appendix D). The questions focused on the use of the computer, such as their computer image style, and the comparison to images made with other media. 2. Journals and Sketchbooks 18 a. Tournals. During each studio session, the participants prepared short journal entries about the process of art-making during that particular project. The purpose of this was to provide an account of the student's transfer from prior art-making knowledge to computer art-making. The journal entries were written on one index card. When students worked on the studio project, apart from the special effects the new medium brought to them, they would also gradually recall and apply what they know about the compositional elements to computer images. Students had to spend some time before finishing each studio project to write down the uses of compositional elements in their computer work on which they were currently working. They focused on the use of color, light, composition, perspective and content and also evaluated their own perceptions of these formal qualities on the computer. For example, they would explain why they applied a contrasting color or warm color on a particular area, or specify if they would use the same method to apply color when they work with other media. Each student wrote a total of four journal entries for each of his or her three computer studio projects. These were collected after each session by the instructor. The journals were saved for further analysis. b. Sketches. Each participant was given a sketchbook at the beginning of the course. Students were asked to make sketches before each new studio project began, and they were encouraged to make sketches out of class. After assigning a project, for example the portrait, students were asked to give a preliminary outline of the work concerning the composition they might arrange, the style and color they might apply, and so forth, as a method of visualizing an initial idea. This drawing was done with pencil or other 19 drawing tools to a maximum 8 1/2 x 11 inch format. The purpose of sketching in this study was to record the preliminary solution of the students' compositional problem and their understanding of functions of formal qualities. Students would then revise their idea once they were working with the final medium. They would be asked in the later interview if these changes were due to the development of the content, the use of a different medium, or the increase of the student's art knowledge. 3. Structured Interview and Portfolio a. Interviews. The purpose of the structured student interview in this study was to find out the following: the influence of the students' prior art knowledge of image-making on the formal quality of color, light, space, composition, and conceptual content of computer image-making; and the strategies each student used to transfer acquired image-making knowledge and skills to computer image-making (see appendix £). After having participants schedule an available time, they received a formal letter indicating the time and place for the interview (see appendix F). During the interview, participants talked informally about themselves, then answered six fixed sequences of predetermined questions concerning their art works. The first five sequences were designed to determine the influence of students' prior art knowledge of image-making on the formal qualities of color, light, space, composition, and conceptual content of computer image-making. The sixth sequence was used to find out whether the strategy the students used to transfer image-making prior knowledge and skills to computer image- making was using general (high road) or specific (low road) strategies. All the students participating in the interviews were asked the same questions, 20 though the questions were adjusted slightly according to the students' understanding of the questions. The interview was conducted after the fifth week of the quarter outside of class, and it was recorded on tape. Each student was encouraged to have at least one interview in this study. Students were interviewed after the fifth week on the assumption that they had overcome most technical problems with the computer. The interview took place during the class period if necessary. b. Portfolio. Students were asked to bring their portfolio to the interview and talk about their own art works and the process of art-making. This portfolio contained at least six of the student's previous art works produced with any other art medium. Both the students and myself selected their two best works (according to their own judgment if they preferred) from their previous works. The portfolios and students' conversations provided information about their understanding of the concept, expressions, use and novelty of art knowledge, and skill of making images with other media. The formal elements of composition and expressive content were especially examined. 4. Electronic documentation of the students' computer images The students' four to five final computer projects were to be saved on 3.5 DS disks and handed in when finished. These images were later converted and photographed as slides. Two of each students' computer images were then compared and analyzed with the other collected data. The images demonstrated the participants' integration of prior art knowledge to computer art-making. 21 Process of Data Collection The actual data collection took place during the Spring Quarter 1990, from the end of March to the middle of June. At that time, I was the instructor who was responsible for two of the four sections of computer art courses. Thus, all participants in this research were selected from my two sections. Because of the experience of a prior pilot study, every step of the data collection was easier. Fifteen students were on each of the rosters which is also the maximum number of students in one computer art class. Five students were chosen from each section, for a total of ten for the research. I used only the student's first name in this study. Group A consisted of Jeff, Mary, Paul, Bob and Anne; and group B consisted of Eddi, Kristin, Dave, Jean and Andy. There is no preference for either male or female; the four females and six male students had been selected at random because of the difference of their major. As I mentioned earlier, the selection of the majors depended on the number of majors in the course. The students were volunteered to participate in the research and did their best to complete the tasks in each of the data collection processes, although as to be expected some students were slower than others, and some needed to be reminded several times. No serious incidents happened during the study, except that one participant felt frustrated with the computer at the beginning, but she was advised not to drop the class. Another participant did not show up for the first week. The interview took a long period of time with two to five participants seen each week at different times, one and a half hours each. Two 22 participants were interviewed twice because they did not bring the portfolios the first time. All of participants answered as many questions as they could and brought their best works for show. The last interview occurred about the end of the quarter. Each participant, on average, spent one-third more time than the rest of the students who did not take part of the research, and to show my appreciation, I gave each a writing pen after the final interview. Methods of data analysis 1. Analysis problem— Normally, the challenge for a qualitative researcher is how to select data from the mass of raw data to represent faithfully the real issues, to represent an accurate look at the dependent variables--what changes they brought about in their target students in terms of the specific questions sought. In this research, constructed clustering and data display in the form of an effect matrix (Miles & Huberman, 1984) was the main method of analyzing data. Generally speaking, the transfer of knowledge can produce two different kinds of effects, one is transferring more or less (quantity), and the other one is transferring better or worse (quality). In order to clarify all the aspects of the research, a global effects matrix was appropriate to use. 2. Description of effects matrix— This matrix displayed selected data on its two outcomes, namely, students' previous art works, and students' computer art works, each displayed after five independent categories—color, light, space, composition, and conceptual content. The first part was to determine what the student knew about art prior to the onset of instruction. Each student's prior knowledge of image-making 23 about formal qualities of color, light, space, composition, and content was examined through the criteria of assessing the understanding of the concept, expression, control, and novelty. Descriptions of previous knowledge of image-making were obtained during the pretest by questionnaires, interviews, and portfolios. The second part determined what the students did during the computer-assisted art course. Each student's computer art work was examined in terms of formal qualities. The description was based on students' computer-generated images, questionnaire, interview and journal. The reason for having two written construct clusterings compared through periodic records and interviews was to determine more specifically how students apply their previously learned art knowledge. Two non-written clusterings were used to examine how effectively students used art knowledge through their art works. These results will be strengthened when the written and non-written clusterings are combined . At the end of each student's analysis was a comparison with each student's previous art knowledge and the knowledge obtained from the computer art class. The comparison focused on how effectively they made use of their prior art knowledge in the new context, as well as on the main differences between them. 3. Entering the data— Since the objects for analysis are art works, the knowledge used to make them is not a matter of following any specific rules. For example, in one art work, the artist used light to emphasize the volumetric object, but in another work he decided not to use light at all, because he wanted a plain 24 surface. In this case, he handled the first light problem correctly by adding shade somewhere in the comer. He also solved the light problem correctly in the second situation simply by not using shades at all. The transfer issue is whether or not the artist applied his or her knowledge appropriately when he or she needed to do so. Therefore, the findings were analyzed in as much detail as possible to identify this transfer situation. I needed to use a "bigger chart" or unbounded format display to cover all the information; in other words, I eliminated the limits of a small square chart, and wrote down the process in detail. The "chart" is organized into five categories: color, light, space, perspective, and subject matter, each of which will focus on its concept, expression, novelty, and control. The two contexts will also be described and compared in the same "chart". Readers will easily find out the "organizational change" (Miles 6c Huberman, 1984). 4. Data Analysis— For the first part, the student's background is the first issue to take into account; that is, how many art dasses had the student taken during the high school years and university courses before taking the computer art class? Any outside art experience? What is the general description of the previous portfolio? What are the media used? What do the best works look like? How are the concepts, expression, control and novelty represented in each of the categories: color, light, space, composition and subject matter of the art works? In what way has the student handled them, whether or not correctly? and, at what level of quality? What are the relationships between the elements? Is there any stylistic consistency in the way the student makes art? Are there 25 any special aspects of the art works in need of being mentioned? etc. The same analysis will be done in the second part which focuses on the computer­ generated images. The important thing here is that the analysis of the art works in terms of the concept, control, and expression, etc. is not a criticism of the art works, but rather an interpretation of students' understanding. Conclusion After analyzing each case study, a summary was made showing the evidence of transfer from one context to another. Individual students were not compared with other students, since each case was a discreet entity. However, the results should show a possible difference between students with different degrees of art knowledge. Students' interview responses concerning the transfer strategies were organized into two categories: general (high road) versus specific (low road) strategies. The evidence of high road transfer was shown when students used more conceptual ways to deal with their art knowledge in a computer image- making process. The evidence of low road transfer was shown when students used superficial perceptual similarities of image-making with other media. As clusterings were placed according to the students' disciplines of study, the results show a difference in the previous findings among students with different backgrounds of art knowledge. As for the questionnaires in this study, disciplines of study and art experience were categorized at this stage to answer the question in conjunction with the data of students' art knowledge and the strategy of transfer provided by construct clustering. CHAPTER IH

TRANSFER OF LEARNING AND IMAGE-MAKING

Introduction In this chapter, I discuss the relationship of this study to its theoretical content This relationship focuses on transfer of learning as it affects image- making. In transfer of learning, several issues are fundamental, such as the concept of learning, the nature of transfer, and strategies for transfer. Other important issues such as knowledge and skill, and transfer of art knowledge will be discussed. The Concept of Learning Traditional concepts of learning focus on the behavior of an individual. Learning in the behavioral view is defined as a change in an individual's behavior and ability, resulting from practice and experience. In behavioral theory, the environment is regarded as an influence on the conditions of learning. Practice and the reinforcement of correct responses are important aspects of behaviorism. Thus, learning is described with respect to the external conditions that influence the internal process of learning. In fact, internal processes are not dealt with in behaviouism, but only the changes in behavior resulting from the imposition of external condition. 26 27 Much current thinking about learning is derived from cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology has influenced the conception of learning in many ways, but primarily by its tendency to view learning as an active, constructive, and goal-oriented process that makes use of higher order thinking processes, e.g. meta-cognition. Cognitive psychology emphasizes the domain-specific character of knowledge and is concerned with the role of prior knowledge, the acquisition of meaning from organized bodies of knowledge; and the analysis of learning tasks and performance in terms of the cognitive processes involved (Shuell,1986). This approach focuses on the learners' mental activities such as planning, organizing, and selecting stimuli through high-level learning processes. In cognitive theories knowledge structures are conceptualized as information networks. In education, this approach has been applied to an information-processing model of education (Woolf oik,1987). Another important aspect of cognitive learning theory is that understanding is as important as learning how to perform a task. The meaning of the knowledge is emphasized rather than the behavior of the learners (Shuell, 1985). In the same manner, knowledge transfer has also been emphasized by cognitive theorists, and plays an important role in the acquisition of new knowledge. Essentials of TVansf er Many educational studies have focused on the relationship between transfer and intellectual resources (Prawat,1989; Perkins & Salomon,1988; Shuell,1986). In education, transfer of knowledge means that previously learned material is applied to a current learning context. Perkins and 28 Salomon (1988) state that the phenomenon of transfer occurs when knowledge or skill associated with one context reaches out to enhance another. In the transfer situation, these two contexts must be different enough to pose a significant gap. (Perkins & Salomon, 1988). Cognitive psychologists further explain that transfer is not ordinary learning, because "transfer cannot take care of itself." In a learning situation transfer strategies need to be emphasized, because transfer may not happen automatically. When a student uses previously learned basic reading skills to read a newspaper, this kind of transfer is called positive transfer. However, when old learning interferes with new learning, or new learning dismisses old learning, which Woolfolk (1987) describes as "proactive" and "retroactive' interference, then negative transfer has occurred. Psychologist Ausubel argues that to be an expert learner, a student needs not only prior knowledge and skill, but also sufficient age and experience in manipulating ideas mentally, using a strategy called an "advance organizer." This is defined as a conceptual bridge between the possessed knowledge and the new material (Ausubel,1977). During instructional practice, the success of the transfer of knowledge will depend upon the teaching of basic skills, thinking skills, the organization of knowledge, and the teaching about learning (see table 1). Basic skills, such as reading, writing, and speaking are necessary skills for most future situations, and are likely to transfer, while thinking skills such as planning, problem solving, judging and analyzing involve mental activities that transfer to all kinds of life situations only when they are well developed (Woolfolk,1987). Glaser (1984) investigates how the understanding of human 29 thinking contributes to the teaching of thinking, and considers thinking a high-order ability. As to the organization of knowledge, in order to understand a large amount of information, we need basic structures for organizing this information. These data structures are called schemata. Many cognitive psychologists believe schemata to be the key units in the comprehension process (Woolfolk,1987). The most sophisticated abilities are those skills which can monitor thinking and learning activities--namely meta-cognitive abilities, with which one ensures the success of the learning. Thus learning about learning should be a high priority in education. Knowledge and Skills in Transfer Situations As mentioned earlier, the role played by prior knowledge is an essential feature of cognitive learning theories. In Prawat's view, prior knowledge includes an organized knowledge-base and strategies for the manipulation of knowledge into intellectual resources which individuals will then be able to access (Prawat, 1989). The knowledge base is any representation of concepts, procedures, and skills learners acquired in one context which may be generalized to other contexts. Woolfolk (1978) also mentions two kinds of information stored in human memory, semantic and episodic; the former refers to knowledge of facts and concepts , while the latter is associated with time and place. The difference between skill and knowledge is that skill can be improved by practice. For example, the concept of art is knowledge while drawing is a skill. Both are part of a knowledge base that students learn when making art. Most of the time human abilities cover a wide range of knowledge and skills from basic facts and skills, intellectual facts and skills, thinking skills, to meta­ 30 cognition and meta-cognidve skills. For a successful transfer situation, five conditions need to be met: First, the knowledge should not be "local" or "inert." Perkins and Solomon (1988) note that local knowledge may be either too specialized or passive which does not have a general and transferable character. Second, knowledge must be well-learned and organized. Third, prior learning should overlap or have common elements with the new context. For example, the knowledge must be specific knowledge, such as having a keyword or a simple routine that has a perceptual similarity to the relevant situation. Fourth, the knowledge should be organized. Finally, the knowledge should be domain-specific knowledge. Strategies of Transfer In addition to knowledge base, Prawat emphasizes the importance of strategies, which are the methods learners use to gain access to relevant information. Prawat distinguishes between two levels of strategies: specific and general. A specific strategic level is more prescriptive, such as the application of key-words. A general strategic level is an executive control skill such as planning and monitoring. In a similar fashion, Woolfolk (1987) states that a specific transfer strategy is applied when two contexts have similarities, and a general transfer strategy is applied when thinking skills are needed to solve problems. Perkins and Salomon (1988) suggest two models of transfer: low road and high road. Low road transfer occurs with basic skill-type knowledge, well-practiced routines, or that knowledge with perceptual similarity to the original knowledge. High road transfer requires deliberate, mindful 31 abstraction of skill or knowledge. High road transfer involves thought in abstracting from one context and seeking connection with others. What Perkins labels as "reflective thought" is similar to Glaser's (1984) "thinking skill" as well as Prawat's "organization and awareness/' and is something one fosters not only in comprehending the knowledge learned/ but also in transferring what one learns in a new context (See table 1&2). Based on the above discussion/1 have designed table 1 and 2 which will show the basic relationship between transfer and knowledge. 32

Table ( i ) Elements and Strategies of Transfer

Basic Elements of Transfer 1. Learner 2. Prior knowledge 3. New context

To be Expert Learner—dements of successful transfer 1. Having prior knowledge 2. Enough age to manipulate ideas mentally 3. Advanced organizers and meta-cognitive strategies

Instructional Practice—dements ofsuccessful transfer 1. Teaching basic skill 2. Teaching thinking skill 3. Organizing knowledge 4. Teaching about learning

Essentials of Knowledge for Successful Transfer 1. Not local or inert knowledge 2. Well-learned knowledge 3. Prior knowledge overlap or having common elements with the new content 4. Organized knowledge 5. Domain-specific knowledge

How to Transfer—Strategies — Specific transfer — Low road transfer — General transfer — High road transfer 33

Table ( 2 ) Intellectual Resources— Knowledge, Skills and Strategies Basic Relationship Between Transfer and Knowledge

Human Abilities Definitions Strategy for Transfer

Attitude — feeling or emotion specific (low road) transfer

Motor skill — knowledge of what to do + physical practice writing \ — routine skills specific (low road) speaking basic skills well practiced transfer reading / for everyday use drawing — skills learned for specific (low road) driving professional need general (high road) teaching combining skills transfer cooking

Verbal Information — facts, descriptions specific (low road) data general (high road) transfer

Intellectual skill - skills practiced general(high road) at a mental level transfer analyzing classifying organizing

Meta-cognitive skill - skills practiced at general (high road) a mental level transfer transferring — skills learned for remembering fostering other thinking skills 34 Art Knowledge

According to Efland (1983), art knowledge in the cognitive information-processing model has several characteristics that influence art learning in particular. Art is seen as an autonomous discipline with its own body of knowledge and methods of inquiry. This is consistent with the domain-specific character of knowledge in which each discipline is described as having its own characteristic structure and methods of inquiry, hence its own autonomy. Second, knowledge of art includes basic art concepts and art language, such as style, elements and principles of design, functional attributes of art, aesthetic attributes of art, the media, and forming processes used to make art, as well as the expressive content. These concepts in many cases refer to processes such as those involved in the production of a work or those involved in its aesthetic apprehension. Finally, art learning is a systematic inquiry. Art knowledge is structured in such a way that it can be either stored or retrieved efficiently. The information is stored under various major concepts comprising the discipline. Thus these concepts give inquiry a systematic approach to learning. This approach suggests that one cannot produce a work of art, or view it with discernment, if lacking a working knowledge of these concepts and processes. Viewing art and making art requires a systematic approach to learning, thinking, and understanding. Art is not merely intuitive. Basically, studio art has two purposes in art learning. The first one is that through producing art, learners acquire basic understandings in the form of specific art knowledge and skill; the second is to encourage artistic expression. These two may be difficult to separate. Art learners reinforce and 35 integrate their acquired knowledge and skills and finally try out their integrated understanding of what they have learned. In the meantime, they express what they feel and understand through image-making activities. All these learning and producing processes involve learners' thinking processes. In order to realize ideas in a two- or three-dimensional form, a student will have to apply required art elements, principles, and necessary skills. Compositional knowledge and skills, such as unity and variety, along with the understanding of tools and materials and the method of manipulating them are fundamental art knowledge for art-making. Transfer of Art Knowledge If we only think about the transfer of art knowledge in terms of the physical qualities of the work itself and in ways of using the tools, it may not be necessary for transfer to occur. Since every art work is unique, the pattern, shape and color will not necessarily require transfer from one art work to another, just as the quality of one oil painting will not necessarily be transferred to a work produced by the printmaking process. The transfer of art knowledge should occur at the level of understanding. One cannot produce a work of art or view it with discernment if lacking a working knowledge. Art production does not come about accidentally. Learners need to use thinking skills to understand prior knowledge, to retrieve that prior knowledge, and then use it in their art work. If we talk about art knowledge in terms of understanding the art concepts, the expressions, the control, and understanding the possibilities of art both visibly and invisibly, then the transfer of art-leaming from prior art knowledge to the image-making activity is essential. 36 The transfer of art knowledge to two-dimensional computer art production requires both general-high road and specific-low road transfer. The transfer at the level of the concepts, expressions, novelty, and control will need the learner's effort to bridge different contexts, such as between oil painting and two-dimensional computer art. Transfer at the lower level of superficial perceptual similarity is activated more easily from one context to the other, as in drawing a circle, line, or a tree. Since the transfer of prior knowledge is one important part of learning, the outcome should reflect the transfer of knowledge in the learning outcomes. The level of the understanding of art knowledge a student possesses should show in her/his art products whether she/he is creating a sculpture, a watercolor, or a computer image. Conclusion When the Amiga lab instructors tended to rely on the students' prior knowledge of art to create art images, it was found out that they could not assume that their students had prior knowledge of art, or that it automatically transferred in relevant ways to the new tool. When one student sees art- making as difficult, and does not see any relation between prior art knowledge and the computer, the student might lack a strategy to transfer prior knowledge. In another case, an art major with a strong visual art background might be able to integrate her/his prior art knowledge and skills into her/his computer image-making. Obviously, she/he has no problem with the transfer Thus it is difficult to generalize about the phenomenon of transfer issues. In the new field of computer-assisted art, many questions still need to be asked, especially in an educational setting. 37 The present study involves several issues, such as learning and transfer, essentials of transfer, strategies of transfer, the art medium, and the transfer of art knowledge. These issues will be linked to each other for a better understanding of the nature of transfer in the art-leaming situation. Based on this framework, I will further explore the influence of transfer to a computer context. Significance of the Study Since the use of computers in the art classroom has increased, art educators will have to recognize the students' prior art formation as a factor in the new art environment. This may lead to possibilities for changing the curriculum in the future art classroom. Although student's prior art knowledge is broad and the art activity has involved many different processes and factors, the essential elements of image-making are fundamental within the student's art knowledge. Also, the factors which influence the students' transfer of prior art knowledge are many. To understand the students' own abilities for transfer should be a primary task. This study should enable us to determine how the student's art concepts and skills, acquired from previous art education, may transfer to computer image-making. Students may have been affected differently by their prior art experience. First, given the problems that appeared in the computer class, both instructors and students may find a better way of integrating students' prior art knowledge to the new context, and utilize what students already know. Second, in a computer-assisted art class, art knowledge is as important as the computer skills for making art, and students 38 should be taught to transfer art knowledge. Third, those students who exhibit more understanding of the concept, control, and expression of image-making processes along with the ability to integrate their learned image-making knowledge into the computer image-making environment, are expected to have better learning outcomes in their computer-assisted art class. Fourth, differences in art disciplines will affect the transfer of the art knowledge. And finally, students will use both specific and general strategies to transfer art knowledge. A high percentage of reported research studies are descriptive. This method is useful for a variety of educational problems. Many of the researchers such as Gerry Rosenfeld (1971), Richard King (1974), H. Wolcott (1987) have done ethnographic studies from the teacher's perspective. The finding of this study will be based on a rather small but detailed sample. The result of an ethnographic study does not usually point out the lessons to be gained or the action that the educator should take (Wolcott,1988), neither is it meant to give a clear generalization referring to all of the computer graphics classes offered; however, this research may contribute to the development of educational curricula in computer graphics courses. Through the results of the influence of prior image-making knowledge on students' learning in a new context and students' strategies of transferring their art knowledge, educators will be able to adjust the instruction that will best stimulate students' prior learned art knowledge and increase the art- learning effects in a computer class. CHAPTER IV

THE ISSUES OF ART MEDIUM: THE COMPUTER AS TOOL AND MEDIUM

The Issues of the Art Medium One cannot produce a work of art, or view it with discernment if lacking a working knowledge of art concepts and processes. And the knowledge of the medium is one of the basic concepts the learner should acquire from art-learning. McFee and Degge in their book Art. Culture, and Environment (1977) state that learners acquire knowledge of new materials by experimenting with media/ and that different materials will affect the final form that an idea might take—here, one should first differentiate the concept of materials from that of media. Materials by themselves are not media; they become media when they give expression to various ideas and feelings. McFee and Degge believe that advanced learners with art experience have conceptually developed most of their ideas using two or three different media, but their discussion occurred before the specific attributes of the computer were widely known. McFee and Degge also stated the need to compare the expressions of different media for art learners, that different aspects of an idea can be emphasized in each medium because of its particular characteristics. The choice of media will, in part, determine how students' 39 40 ideas may be expressed. On the other hand, different ideas might be expressed by changing media. The computer, in this case, also has its particular role as a medium for expressing creative ideas. The Computer As Tool and Medium An art medium is that in which an artist works, when he or she expresses an idea or feelings, and it is also what the viewer sees. An art tool, however, is an instrument that an artist uses for making art. We know that a brush and a camera are tools, while painting and photography are media, but the computer is hard to categorize either as a tool or medium. The computer has grown to be a versatile machine in the art world, because it can be different art tools and different art media. The computer is actually an electronic control machine. It controls other machines including an input device such as a mouse, an image display machine such as a monitor, and a post-image output machine such as a printer. It controls them, enabling them to serve as tools. For convenience, most people call the combination of these machines the computer. A computer can serve both as an art tool and as an art medium, depending on the artist's decision and the nature of the technology. The progressive path of computer technology during recent years has not only refined the quality of the computer but also broadened the usage of the computer, especially since the personal computer came out during the 1980s. Computerized equipment has made available more and better art tools for application in the arts, and the quality and structure of the computer have a major influence on the qualities and expressions of computer images. For instance, a high resolution image may look clearer and more real than a low 41 resolution image, and the two-dimensional computer images made by two- dimensional computer systems convey an absolutely different concept from three-dimensional computer art made by three dimensional computer systems. In terms of two-dimensional computer images, there are several essentials. First, the overall technology of the computer is not sophisticated as a three-dimensional system. For example, a two-dimensional vector display can only offer two-dimensional monochrome images, or the computer does not have enough operating processors to process an image. Second, the present display technology of the computer is only used for presenting two-dimensional bitmap raster images. Third, the software is a paint system or image-processing system which only makes and adjusts two- dimensionally based images. And fourth, the computer does not remove the artist's existence, that it is a person not a robot who makes art. In these cases, an artist's working process with this two-dimensional computer tool will be similar to that of using other tools on a two dimensional picture plane. The two-dimensional computer images present different qualities, yet offer the same design elements as a conventional two-dimensional composition. When more advanced computer technology is used for three- dimensional computer art-making, this image-making machine offers quite different artistic possibilities. Instead of two-dimensional single-pixel-based images, the computer's two-dimensional display can become a three dimensional virtual environment, in which three-dimensional polygon surfaces or other volumetric-based models are placed. It presents a three- dimensional, both imagined and real environment on a two-dimensional 42 picture plane. In a virtual computer environment the computer can also replace an artist to make art, such as a programmed robot. The concept of the three-dimensional computer image and robot artist are completely different from that of two-dimensional computer-assisted images. A computer used as a three-dimensional computer medium and robot conveys different meanings and qualities. In their essential nature, computers are a unique art medium and are completely different from any traditional image-making medium. With the computer as an art tool and as an art medium, an artist requires not only the knowledge of art which will shape the ideas into an art form, but also the manual skills of the tool: for example, knowledge of the display of the computer, which provides the qualities of the images, and knowledge of manipulating skills of the computer software. In the case of paint systems, they provide the basic working tools such as drawing tools, measuring tools, and editing tools to be used for producing two-dimensional raster images on the computer screen. The Concept of Input and Output Apart from the artistic process involved, the production of the two- dimensional or three-dimensional computer image is a purely technical issue, which is completely different from other art tools and media. The computer is programmed first in order to receive the instructions properly to perform any task. In the case of a paint program, the performance is made interactively. The artist "inputs" the data to the keyboard using the "mouse" input device. The movement of this device is converted to digital values. After the internal computer processes the data, we see the output images on 43 the screen. The output- CRT (cathode ray tube) is the most common device used for display purposes. Vector Refresh and Raster scan are both devices for screen display. In vector refresh the image is retraced on a screen with a short persistence phosphor. Raster involves the scanning of the beam across the screen which is composed of the smallest addressable pieces—pixels in a raster of parallel lines. The frame buffer is a specific memory device for these scanned raster graphics. The output image is displayed on the screen through a process whereby the internal computer processes the data and directs the beam of electrons to the areas of the screen as indicated in the program. Paint System A "paint system" is the generic term given to a computer with a terminal, a color monitor, frame buffer, a graphic input device, and software which is a custom-made program that allows for coloring the pixels. For many artists, color is one of the most important elements for his or her work. To make artwork, the computer's paint system should have the power to create more colors and make images with a program designed for painting purposes. Paint software allows the user to alter pixel values by altering the amount of bit planes which also will alter the amount of available color. The higher the resolution of graphics produced with paint systems the clearer and better quality the image, because high resolution pictures are composed of a relatively large number of pixels. This can be manipulated interactively with a lookup table to adjust the numeric value of the pixels. Normally, the software interface designed for paint systems have pop- out menus and tool-boxes from which the artist can select the necessary tools 44 and functions to execute his or her tasks. The tool-box contains a few built-in brushes which can be adjusted in size; line tools, which provide different ways to draw lines; basic shape tools which can automatically draw the basic geometric shapes, such as squares and circles; pick-up shape tools which can select the part of the image on the screen and pick it up; a magnifier for enlarging the image to see the pixels clearly; and other various important tools such as the palette of colors from which the user can select the colors for filling in. Menus are those functions which help the tools perform more specific tasks and image processing not only for lightening, darkening, tinting or blending the colors, but also for rotating, or changing the size, or bending and reversing the images or brushes. All of these functions are done at the pixel level. The paint system can work with a digitizer, another input device different from the keyboard or mouse, which can shoot the necessary data through a video camera or a digital tablet, and the hardware to transform the signals into digital information that is then scanned onto the CRT screen. The user should be able to digitize in either black-and-white or color, and before or after the process. The user should be able to adjust the contrast, palette, and brightness of the image. Paint Systems Vs. Fainting The enormous popularity of paint systems is attributable to their similarity to traditional painting techniques, allowing artists to work within a traditional framework. Artists select the brushes, colors, lines etc., and the result is seen instantaneously on the monitor corresponding with the movement of the mouse. Artists can adjust the image and save the image. 45 Once the artist gained the knowledge the medium, she/he can interact with a work in progress in the same way as with other painting tools, and she/he also can explore the computer's possibilities. In Cynthia Goodman's "Digital Vision", she quotes artist Darcy Gerbarg who commented on the medium. She compares paint systems with traditional media: "I use highly interactive, user-friendly computer graphic paint systems. Because of this, the transition from pigmentfpaint) to computers is not as great as one might imagine. Instead of mixing a palette of paint before beginning to paint, I mix light to create a colormap. Colormaps and palettes are very similar. Each contains a specific set of colors. When working with pigment, I would choose brushes of varying sizes according to my needs. On the computer I create the brushes I wish to use: thick ones, thin ones, multicolor ones. There is virtually no delay between die act of creating a picture on a computer and seeing it created. The picture happens in "real" time. If I choose to change a color or remove a line, I can do it easily on a computer. I can work and rework a picture until it is exactly what I want and then have the computer give me a full color slide of the image. The image can also be stored in the computer's memory, manipulated, or transformed.” All imagery produced by a raster graphic computer is two-dimensional in the sense that it is, like a painting or photograph on a two-dimensional surface. In creating this two dimensional imagery, the artist, like the conventional painter, works with an area conceptualized as a horizontal and vertical plane which is composed of units of pixels. Like the painter, the artist can choose to deal with space in the final image as flat or as having varying degrees of depth; conventions of linear and aerial perspective might be used, distorted, or ignored. In this respect, the creation of two-dimensional computer­ 46 generated imagery is much like the creation of any other traditional two- dimensional art form. However, in comparison with traditional painting, the computer-generated image has no inherent texture, and gesture is non­ existent in computer-generated imagery. In comparison with printmaking, the computer-generated imagery is also reproducible, and has a two-stage process of composing. CHAPTER V

ASPECTS FOR ANALYZING THE TRANSFER OF ART KNOWLEDGE

Analyzing Vs. Evaluating Art works Understanding and analyzing learning outcomes to some extent differs from making value judgments of the various art products. The process of making value judgments involves the use of critical and aesthetic criteria while in the educational context, students' art works can also be evaluated by how well they show a knowledge or understanding of art in spite of the absence of artistic success. Thus, analyzing students' behaviors in the art class is different from analyzing students' art products. The criteria for analyzing and assessing art learning depends on the criteria for understanding and assessing art works, which depends on the objectives required by the art program. We can start to identify the criteria by asking questions about art learning: What art knowledge and skills have students learned? In what ways is the transfer of art knowledge necessary? How can we recognize the outcomes of art learning? If the goal of the art program emphasizes certain aspects of art making, then the analysis and evaluation should focus on these aspects. According to Goodman (1972), success in performing sample exercises and mastering component skills is indicative of progress. The analysis of this 47 48 educational project focuses upon those abilities that are necessary or conducive to production or comprehension in art. In a 'discipline-based' approach, the art program focuses on the learning of art content and skills. Students gain some specific knowledge and practice. Their finished products reflect the intended learning through the quality and completion of specific tasks of art production, and can be judged by how well they progress toward clearly delineated goals (Day,1985). Project Zero's researchers (1989) have conducted an intensive case study of artistic thinking known as "Arts Propel" to answer the questions of assessing artistic development in a diverse group of students. In this study, Wolf selected one student in a printmaking class as an example, studying her artistic moment-to-moment thinking process in the printmaking learning environment. She and other Arts Propel researchers assessed the student's art works in terms of studying the student's artistic learning. Arts Propel's study of the artistic learning process provides a more objective scope of students' progress--as they say, discovering some invisible dimensions of artistic learning. The aspects Arts Propel researchers used for analyzing artistic learning are not only based on control of line, shape and color, the novelty of imagery, or the technical manipulation of the medium, but also some less visible but no less significant aspects of the art-making process that engage artistic thinking. These subtler aspects of learning are first, thinking about art work, conceiving the art process as a whole, and using reflective capabilities to integrate several complementary stances toward the experience of art. Secondly, a student must understand the heritage of art and learn from it, and 49 third, progressively develop the ability to work in art productively.

The Study Having selected the transfer of art knowledge as the object of my study, I will describe the questions it poses. The proposed research studies the transfer of prior art knowledge to the computer image-making environment. Each student studied has a different art background which presumably reflects his/her understanding of art. Ascertaining what students' previous understandings of art might be an important source of criteria for assessing students' works. At least four aspects of understanding come into play in this assessment. These are the variables of concept, control, novelty, and expression. Concepts are ideas underlying a class of things; when a student learns something new about art, he or she will form general notions about that particular concept in order to distinguish it from other concepts. Control means the mastery of the particular concept students are learning. Students should fully understand the use of each element and make good use of it. Novelty refers to the imagination a student expresses in a particular aspect of the art work and if she/he expresses that imagination in a fresh way. Expression means the expressive aspect of the element, which will relate to the style of the art work. In addition, I am concerned with color, light, space, composition and conceptual content. The visual elements of point, line, shape, light, color, texture, mass, space, time and motion comprise the basic language used by artists to speak visually. These elements work with principles of design, namely: scale, proportion, unity, repetition, balance, and contrast within art 50 works. These formal qualities may be seen as a small part of art knowledge. They are, however, a fundamental part of visual works whether in a traditional art work or in a computer-generated art work. Students do not have to use all the elements in their works. However, they will have to understand what, why, and how to use them in their works.

Four Aspects of the Criteria for Analyzing Participant's Studio Works 1) The understanding of concept: a. Color. Students should understand terms such as analogous colors, color tonality, primary triad, complementary colors, hue, intensity, neutralized color, pigments color, spectrum, color value, local color, warm-cool color, advancing-receding color. b. Light. Students should understand terms such as value, shade, cast shadow, chiaroscuro, reflected-absorbed light, highlight, tone, 2-D and 3-D value pattern, gradation of light and dark, and be able to talk about it in their own work and others' work. c. Space. Students should understand terms such as atmospheric perspective, decorative perspective, intuitive space, plastic space, fractional representation, transparency, 2-D, 3-D and 4-D space. d. Composition. Students should understand terms such as approximate symmetry, asymmetrical balance, symmetrical balance, unity, dominance, picture place, positive and negative areas, repetition, rhythm, convergent- divergent. e. Conceptual content. Students should understand the subject matter and expressive content that is actually or implicitly presented in or through a 51 work of art, which may have several levels of meaning, such as symbolic content, expressive content, realistic content, themes. 2)The understanding of control: The understanding of control and the use of elements must be shown in the process of visualization of ideas together with technical mastery of tools. Control of the elements with a computer may be different from control with traditional tools. a. Color. In traditional art-making, such as painting, control of the color means knowing how to select or mix an appropriate color, and knowledge of the quantity of the pigment needed to get the desired effect in a particular area of the art work. The student does this by using brushes to mix the color and using the brush again to apply the colors skillfully—a gesture and the movement of the hand to give emphasis to the line, shape, or volume in the art work. The computer as a tool is different, and its hardware and software have a particular color system (Kerlow,1986) which can produce thousands and thousands of colors. The process of selecting and mixing colors changes because no pigment color quality, nor overlapping colors, can be produced as in blending colors in a painting. When students understand the control and use of analogous colors, color tonality, intensity, neutralized color, local color, warm-cool color, advancing-receding color, etc. for the work, they have to find out the way to apply it: for example, by moving the slider up and down the color charts, and selecting with the cursor the area where the color should be adjusted. It replaces the tangible manipulation of the color materials as used in traditional painting, but in terms of the aesthetic use of the color, it is still the student's decision. 52 b. Light. Students should understand the control of value, shade, cast shadow, chiaroscuro, reflected-absorbed light, highlight, tone, 2-D and 3-D value pattern, gradation of light and dark of the image they create. For instance, a solid object receives more light from one side than another when that side is closer to the light source, and it intercepts the light and casts shadows on the other side. In most paint systems, the value is designed together with a color palette. Student will adjust the light by adjusting the intensity of the color. Two-dimensional computer programs do not provide individual light sources to apply directly. Technically, when students want to achieve these effects, they will do the same as they do with other drawing tools, especially when the volumetric and realistic objects are related to the theme of the image. c. Space. Students should understand the control of atmospheric perspective, decorative perspective, intuitive space, plastic space, fractional representation, transparency, 2-D, 3-D and 4-D space, the perceptual and optical reality, viewing from front, top, and side, etc. The advantage of the computer is that technically it provides a perspective function to help a regular shape to achieve a mathematically precise perspective shape. But, a well-constructed space and the perspective of the art work will still depend on the students' understanding of space and perspective. Perspective is mainly used for showing the depth of a realistic image within a two dimensional space. The sizes and proportions of the object change relatively with the depth of the space. d. Composition. Students should understand the principles of organization— harmony, variety, balance, movement, proportion, dominance, economy and 53 space (Ocvirk,Bone, Stinson,Wigg, 1981) and related factors such as picture plane, unity, positive and negative areas, and convergent-divergent. Students should understand how to arrange effectively the art elements in a two- dimensional picture plane, and how to find the harmonious relationship between the elements. The fact that a computer also has a small two dimensional, horizontal rectangular picture plane sometimes limits the composition of the works. For instance, the size of the object must be reduced, therefore, in composing an image, a student may mentally need to adjust art elements in the first place. e. Conceptual content. Students should understand the control of the subject matter and expressive content that is actually or implicitly presented in or through a work of art. They should know how to start a story and how to develop the story and how to end the story visually. They should know how to make a point with the subject matter in which they work. Due to the limitation of the computer picture plane and the tools of a regular two- dimensional paint system, it is not easy to have fine, realistic detail with the idea fully developed. Digitized images, however, can make realistic images possible. 3)The understanding of novelty: The understanding of novelty does not conflict with the prior knowledge which could be transferred. Students should understand novelty and the possibilities of the elements with different media, a. Color. In both traditional and computer media, students should try to recognize the function of the subtle colors which they ignored or misused with another similar color. Students should discover the meaning of color 54 while applying this color in different contexts. They also need to identify their artistic vision with the colors. Students should be able to do this by experimenting with color matches for different ideas and subject matters. The colors on the computer monitor come through the cathode ray tube pixel as digital colors which give a neon-like quality-keen and illuminated—to the colors. In addition, with the color palette controlling the RGB values, it is easy to change the colors of pixels on the whole image and present different series of analogous colors, color tonality, complementary colors, neutralized color, warm-cool color, advancing-receding color. b. Light. Students should understand the possibilities for experimentation with value, shade, and gradation of light and dark in their works, and understand well the relationship between color and light. Students should not only know how to create strong or soft ambient lighting by using the same but different intensive pigment color, but also know to use the reflection of the light which can be a mixture of colors. They should know that the illuminated computer screen offers more possibilities because it can work differently than a person's eye does. It can easily make a spread of thirty, fifty or more intensive values of the color. c. Space. Students should appreciate the possibilities of the use of atmospheric perspective, decorative perspective, intuitive space, plastic space, fractional representation, transparency, 2-D, 3-D and 4-D space. Students should understand that the perspective does not limit the artist to an image of a room or a three-dimensional object which should be physically correct, but also can be applied in a situation like a dream or meditation in which the perspective is used for imaginary purposes. They should know that although 55 the computer picture plane may limit the depth of the image, it is easier to make a fragmented representation which appears as an effect of collage, and if they do not like the function of the software, they can still draw a zig-zag line towards an eye point they select. d. Composition. Students should understand compositional principles-- making inventive use of symmetrical and asymmetrical balance, unity, dominance, positive and negative areas, repetition, rhythm, and convergent- divergent space on a two dimensional picture plane. They should try to experiment with all kinds of compositions by closely observing an object or a location from all points of view, and by moving around all the art elements many times before settling for one composition. The computer has an advantage in that the functional tools of the software make picking up and moving the objects around on the picture plane extremely easy. e. Conceptual content. Students should appreciate the possibilities of the subject matter and expressive content that is actually or implicitly presented in a work of art. They should renew the story they know and try to express it in a new way. The computer has many input devices which can input different kinds of images into the system, such as digitized images, and these devices offer a flexible selection of contents so that students can combine realistic images with the paint tools and drawing images. Student can move in more directions on the same subject matter. 4)The understanding of expression: a. Color. Students should understand the psychological, emotional, and dramatic expression of analogous colors, color tonality, complementary colors, hue, intensity, neutralized color, pigments, spectrum, color value, local 56 color, warm-cool color, and advancing-receding color. Different media will give different expressions of the colors, and subtle colors can have even richer expressions. Students should use wisely the colors provided by the computer or any other medium for a particular mood of the image. b. Light. Students should understand the expressions of value, shade, cast show, chiaroscuro, reflected-absorbed light, highlight, tone, 2-D and 3-D value pattern, and gradation of light and dark. Students should observe well that the objects which have different quality will receive light differently. For instance, with the same light source a metal object will reflect more light than a soft object. Students should understand the descriptive expression of light, such as its psychological, emotional, and dramatic expression. c. Space. Students should understand the psychological, emotional, and dramatic expression of different types of space, such as atmospheric perspective, decorative perspective, intuitive space, plastic space, infinite space, fractional representation, transparency, overlapping, 2-D, 3-D and 4-D space. They should know that the close relationship between the quantity of the objects and the size of the space, and the expressions they may produce, for instance, fewer objects in a bigger and empty space may empower the emptiness of the space, and may create the feeling of loneliness. Students should understand whether it is better to use the computer's built-in perspective function to express more precise and rigid images or simply to use the mouse-drawn, imprecise yet more gestured image. d. Composition. Students should understand the psychological, emotional, and dramatic expression of compositional principles, expressions in symmetrical and asymmetrical balance, and expression in the unity and the 57 dominance of the picture plane, expression in positive and negative areas, and expressions of the repetition, rhythm, and convergent-divergent space, e. Conceptual content. Students should understand the psychological, emotional, and dramatic expression of the content such as the factual, spiritual, critical, or analytical aspect of the themes, subject matter and expressive content that is actually or implicitly presented in or through a work of art. They should take advantage of the particular character of the medium for particular expression needed by the subject matter.

Conclusion The above are four aspects of the criteria for analyzing the participant's studio works to determine the transfer of art knowledge. It is obvious that any image is a whole in itself, and all the elements presented in the image will have to work together to produce a global effect. Any analysis should not break down the global effect only to see the single elements without recognizing their unity. Throughout the literature, scholars and educators admit that judging students’ art works is not an easy task (Eisner,1966). It should start from understanding the student's art work first How effective the analyzing and judging process can be determined only if adequately defined objectives, time, methods, and criteria are available. The proposed research studies the transfer of art knowledge to computer image-making and studies the influence of certain aspects of art knowledge on students' computer image-making skills. Artistic learning is a way of understanding. Students should use their thinking skills to learn 58 about and produce art. Although the transfer of art knowledge may be part of art learning, art programs should understand the importance of students" understanding of art in order to improve their art learning. The aspects for analyzing and assessing students' art works are the ways to try to find out about this understanding. CHAPTER VI

PRIOR ART KNOWLEDGE Vs. COMPUTER ASSISTED ART WORK : TEN CASE STUDIES

Gathering a great deal of information from more than ten participants is not a simple task. Harder still is the time involved in putting them into an organized and logical order to answer the research questions. In this chapter, this information is analyzed to see how prior art-making experiences influence the working process with the computer. It is both descriptive and interpretative. There are a few points about the organization of this chapter that need to be raised before the data is analyzed. a. The ten participants in this analysis came from two sections of computer art classes, but the order of the participants in this analysis has no particular significance. The order is random because of the random completion of the transcripts of the taped interview. b. The analysis is based mainly on the interview, the participants' previous portfolios, and the computer images. Journals and sketches as well as the art concepts and terms test provide additional information. The results will be strengthened when the written and non-written clusterings are combined. c. The analysis itself is a descriptive matrix, organized in five categories: color, light, space, perspective, and subject matter. Each of these categories will focus on concept, expression, novelty, and control. Both the student's prior 59 60 knowledge of image-making and computer art achievement will be examined. d. The examination contains a general description of the previous portfolio, the medium used, and a description of the best works. It also contains the way students handled those categories, whether or not they followed the criteria, the consistency of student's making art, and special aspects of the art work needed to be mentioned. e. Each participant's analysis will be preceded by a figure at the beginning of each case which is a summary of the participant's art experience abstracted from two main questionnaires--the Student's Prior Art Knowledge and Experience Form, and Student's Prior Knowledge and Computer Image- Making. However, several small questionnaires were reorganized and formed parts of the summary. — On the Student's Prior Art Knowledge and Experience Form, the student's name, sex, age and current major are briefly described on the first line. — Student's formal art education comes with a number which is the accumulation of the credit hours students obtained from art classes in elementary school, high school, and college. Student's outside formal art education also comes with a total number (see the original questionnaire and table 3,4,5). — Total art experience is the sum of these two formal art experiences. — The number followed by Student's Understanding of Art Terms and Concepts is the grade students earned from the art terms and concepts test, ten being the highest score. 61 — The rest is the direct answers subtracted from the participant's questionnaire. — The answers on the Student's Prior Art Experience and Computer Image-Making Form are also subtracted directly from the original questionnaire. f. Following the charts, color plates of the participant's art works are presented. Two are previous art works or sketches available at the time of the research. Two are computer-generated art works. There is a title and the media used for each art work. g. At the end of each case study is a short conclusion. Each student's previous art knowledge is then compared with the knowledge they learned in the computer art class. The comparison will focus on how their prior learned art knowledge is used in the new context, as well as the main differences between them. Part of the comparison is based on participant's accumulated number of art experience and art terms and concepts test which is displayed on the chart. For example, in the first case, I wrote: out of ten students, Andy ranked sixth in terms of his art experience. This ranking comes from a comparison of his total points (thirty-one) of previous art experience with the other nine participants' such as with Anne's and Paul's. Anne has a total of twenty points, and Paul has a total of seventeen points. 62

Table ( 3 ) Students Prior Art Knowledge and Experience Form 1

aama Kriatia Andy Jean Bob De*a Jeff Anna Paul Mary Eddi •ax F M F M M M F M F M major A n£*i In Darign MadUfcvt Photo EkBog GFart Bm Boa Mar Art Edo CIS »«« 20 20 21 20 22 23 19 21 22 22

E l-6d> 12 6 12 0 3 2 12 2 2 13 B 7* 1 3 3 0 2 0 0 3 1 6 Efch 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 6 S Mi 6 ‘6 3 3 6 2 3 0 0 6 S 10th 6 6 0 3 6 0 3 0 0 0 S 11* 6 4 0 3 0 0 0 0 6 6 S 12* < 0 6 3 0 0 0 0 7 0 C R * 12 0 0 9 2 0 2 0 12 0 C So 10 4 0 4 0 6 0 0 10 0 C ion 4 0 4 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 CSaa 0 0 0 0 4 30 0 0 0 4 Gmdmta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 2

Ttotal 64 31 21 29 23 36 20 7 43 43

Art axparianna an oooa pboao graph oooa paata art paint of laanhing labaat daaifn add camp iy formal 7m 9m 2y 2m arary 2* 2Ww an ednoadon 2h/d34/w 10-15/w 4h«3SWw Otfcac/w lanmmar daaipe 2y chaaefa

42hr 0 0 115hr 0 390hr 0 96hr 130hr 96+30*

T btal 5 0 0 13 0 n o o 10 13 13

P. A.K. 69 31 2 t 44 23 66 20 17 60 36

** Thia tabla |>w w > tha arxnmnlaOon of lha credit h o w tm haB obtainad from «rt elm — in dii w a ty achool. high achool. and ooOaga, and from owtaida an cxpowanoa. 63 Table ( 4 ) Students Prior Art Knowledge and Computer Image Making 1

Kin Andy lean Bob Dava AnEdu In Daaign Mad Qua photo BacEng

Did you ua* no Y" ya* y«» yaa ootnpmar before?

for tewing? BO y» no yaa yaa What graphic* non* cadkay Apple prinuhop w f t w i im graphacad M attete graphic atndio (kJwlo. aotnrad you need? aoootodt microaoftpaint Can you characaariaa Expraaaioniwic No atyia at all Bxpreaaioniatic Fantaatic y w co o fH ar Fr-Wt*r- iaxgi atyl*: What doe* Ihu can axpnaa don’t k w v my aymbolic imaga notmoch I Hka thing raal- atyto main n yoc? my** If k a v to d a te can tall it* a adna atiH aaploring iaticallybat adjoat.

Doyoaroompmar- J" I think ao yaa no, my ptaoaa aama tpiaHtia* Imagaa k m Hka abatract of forraktyk teaamaaqrle of reality a* y w Imagaa — .a-a W V D B w n o te r madinm? la imagaa TochnicaUy- widi a compote aoaoa diflannea totally diffarant k--- n mJ o 1 s M n m _ m U tc m totally difltent aotna difference a ra n B D m nuking image* with o te r madia? aodUlataat MOM 4iW iwkfld nodiflteM ao different

Explain loo la diffaraet don't ilka OOMpMVV BOM COBpOMr Mt coouapta ar* O O B O B pt M M mooaa praoiM kn o ta aama, madinm defined prooaaa oomprimka atyW Do you adju*t yow balpbaaiea notmiach yaa, good no. aama ideafcpt prior image-making « o d d M k U l affact ooooap* while you iakapt fimabad imag* an making imagaa with oomputar?

Do you think ya* >a* no yaa yaa your prior an training halpa (inflnanca) yoo whil* making computer imagaa? 64

"Table 4 continued"

How do you integrate ■pace, light maintain good uae learned know color, concept of your prior art knowledge color know­ compoaition bom drawing balanced, proportion, and akill into your ledge A color cla** 199 meaningful color, ityle computer imago-making? compoaition

What an able* (l.your an knowledge and ikill 2.your computer technical skill 3 . your idea) you to maka good 2 x a a 1 oomputar imagaa: 3 x xwtqual x 3 1 X X X 2

Do you lika no y - y*» ye* y e * to maka act w/ oomputar? to uaa eompuaar. technically: 0 faater virtually miatake it* limit!*** quick manip color baa creatively. 0 fuction* help fact making tame above eandung* new image* mind eerily

Reason you do not lika to uaa computer: technically: eaay lota image* 0 mouae limit occasionally, mouse freehand the technical is complicated creatively: 0 mouee break 0 hard to gat other medium concenaation. desired effect hand/mind 65

Table ( 5 ) Students Prior Art Knowledge and Computer Image Making 2

Jeff Anna FOnl Mary Eddl GFArt Bo* Bm-madmt AnEfai CIS

Did you dm ym ye* ye* ye* y** nonyuMr before?

for drawing? ym no ao yaa > * •

What graphic* QOOO0M3K none ifthrrll n Am u have giaphmom in IBM maopeint you aaad?

Can yoo character!** Hxpceninwiitic No «yt* at all Raaliatic Raaltaic Famande " ------* - yMoenprar Raaliatic rR M M W image d jte

What den* DU* I Hka adopt what depict na no limit on •qrla nwan to you? look real I was told mol Ufa erbat object'! look Uka

O t j m r m p M ye* ye* ' HO ye* imigea have vary rimilar dUn't lean die cam»^d* odran an yenr inag n worked with o0N tM dim ?

It im ifw Ihchaically- widi a cnmpntw totally different totally diffetoat aonta difference totally dUfanot d f l M t e a naBag iraag** Coaoapamlty- with other medii? *nme oimranoaim r aomo diffaraai;* nodUfanot ao dUfamnt

Explain na monm * na ntoaaa/ other I C f N l

Do you *4i

Do you think ye* no ye* yarn prior art training halp* (influence) you while making adopter image*? 66

'Table 5 continued"

How do yoo integrate na no na aimilar your prior art knowledge experience and (kill into your oomputar image-making?

What enable* (I-your art knowledge and (kill 2.your oomputar technical tkill 3. your idea) you to maka good 2 1 a 2 oomputar imagaK 3 3 3 1 2 1

Do you lika yaa yaa y* y« to maka art w/ oompulm?

Reaaon you Uka to uaa oomputar technically: more experieaee- can do faatar.elaanar M krkaa iB nlm n catiar creatively: more experienca- c a i r n function provi< oobr tekedoa many idaaa avaiythiag apacial affacta

Raaaon you do not lika to uaa oomputar technically: 2-D laam lika mora no funciioni refined image creatively: limiting hard to 0 no think idea right away 67 Table ( 6 ) Student's understanding of art terms & concepts before working art with computer:

Andy Bob Anne Mary Dave Kris Jean Eddi Paul

1. analogous colors VV X X V x X X V 2. complementary color VV XX V V V X V X 3. neutralized color X V X V V X X / X X 4. spectrum / V V V / V X V V V 5. warm-cool color V V X V V V V V X V 6. advancing-receding odor V V V X / / X V X X 7. value V XX V V V VV V X 8. chiaroscuro XX XX / x X XXX 9. tom XX XX x / / X / X 10. decorative perspective X XX X V x X / X X 11. Intuitive space V V V / X X X V XX 12. fractional representation X XX / x V X V X V 13. asymmetrical balance X V V X V x V V X / 14. unity V V V V V VV X X 15. rbythm X V X X V / X V X / 16. symbolic content X V V / V V X V V /

4.7 6.9 3.8 4 7.2 5.3 3.4 6.9 3.1 2.8

V m com a . / - halteonect x - wrong

Plate I Andy's silk screen "Sea creature" 1989 Plate II Andy's illustration "Musician" Plate III Andy's computer art "Still life" 1991 Plate IV Andy's computer art "Self portrait" 1991

N>'-i 73 Case One: Andy Andy came from a musical family, but he believed that he was not a very musical person. It was in junior high that Andy started to like visual art, and he continued to take art classes for three high school years. Among the media learned, he liked painting the most. At the time of this study, he was a freshman at Ohio State, and planned to get into the department of Industrial Design. He learned drafting with the basic CAD system from an engineering graphics class, and he liked working with the computer. Friends told him that there was a computer art class offered on the campus, and that's why he took it. He said that he wasn't really scared when he started to use the computer to make art, but he wasn't familiar with the software program. He thought that using computers to make art is not as structured and technical as what CAD does.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTFOLIO Andy brought two drawing pads to the interview. When I went through the pages, I saw almost all the works were scribbled lines done with charcoal and pencil. I asked him whether he had any work that was completed, and Andy told me that he had taken his best stuff (what he thought best) home, and didn't have them around. All he had for the interview was from the drawing classes he was currently taking in the university. Some were "warm up" things which might take only ten seconds to draw. Others were scribbled descriptions of simple objects, such as a chair, a table or a cup. However, there were still a few drawings which could be used to analyze his general style, color, and other elements. He promised me that next time when he went 74 home, he would bring some "good stuff" to me.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions — After a couple of weeks, Andy brought his portfolio to my office and showed me a few works which he considered to be his best works. I asked him to pick two of them. He selected one which is a 20" by 30" silkscreen work which he considered as his best work. The whole surface is occupied with a busy pattern of colorful sea creatures. The second work is an illustration using black and white, and a little yellow color in the background (see plate I & n). I considered these two works as being representative of his ideal works. Color— During the interview, Andy told me that he used to like painting, and he liked to mix paint. He had no problem applying colors. The colors used for the sea creatures were only six colors, yellow, coral red, dark blue, medium dark pastel blue, purple, and green. The latter three colors dominate the whole image to symbolize the blue ocean. Only one-tenth is of coral red, and yellow is scattered within the blues. The whole image seems colorful and busy, because these colors are not presented in a way that forms a complete unit but rather show a continuous design of curved stripes flowing inside of the dark blue squares which have two different sizes. Small sea shells are set in all the corners. However, these complementary colors are very harmonious, neither too intensive nor too messy or too noisy. Each of Andy's art works had a different set of colors. Andy did not have a particular favorite color or group of colors. He used colors depending on the subject matter of the work. This was shown in his other works, such 75 as the second drawing which is a musician playing a saxophone. It is a simple black and white illustration. Black shadows shape out the musician and the background is a geometric pattern, also in black and white. On the upper right hand side, there is a wash of red orange color which breaks all the image's stiffness and paleness, and increases the musical vitality. Light— Andy did not particularly work with light in these two works and in the other works. Several of his works were two dimensional flat images with decorative patterns. This was seen dearly in the first work mentioned. There is no need to have any light source since the pattern is flat. Only the different intensities of the colors make the pattern appear light and dark. On the second work, Andy used black and white in a way of contrasting light to shape out the musician. The red orange color also gives a feeling of light; however, light as a formal element is not significant. Space— In sea creatures, a wavy line which is on the upper comer of the image crossed horizontally. This line divides the image into two unequal parts. The lower part is the main course, which contains thousands of sea creatures, while the upper seems to be a very good exit for escaping the busy imagery of the stuff below. There is no perspective in this image since the pattern is flat. However, beyond the wavy line there seems to be a horizon line. All the curved stripe-shaped sea creatures are dose together. Andy used the dark and light of the colors to draw out equally the space. In the second drawing, Andy also made a good arrangement of the space. The musidan's shape has been emphasized by having a bigger black and white space. In addition, the background fireworks patterns have large and small sizes. These two factors provide perspective very well. 76 Composition— The sea work is actually a repetition of the same pattern in two different sizes. The most interesting part of this composition is that these two-size patterns are not placed in an orderly way, but appear to be accidental; they are all placed right, and made up as a big fishing net. Moreover, the upper wavy line makes the image seem more lively. In the second work, maybe it was Andy's intention to eliminate the detail of the musician's face and instrument; it has the successful result of making the musician and the background into two clean cut shapes. Subject matter— Andy claimed that one of the biggest problems he had with any kind of art was just getting his idea on the paper. He thought that it was not too difficult for him to come up with a good idea for an art work. Because most of his works were exercises for drawing classes, his subjects were therefore simple objects, such as a table, chair, cup etc. Even the ocean scene and the musician were done in his high school painting classes. The musician, however, showed that his musician family has influenced the subject matter. The sea creature is a very interesting subject, breaking from his traditional subject matter.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER IMAGES Andy was an average student in terms of participation in class. He did the assignments regularly , and learned the software without having too much difficulty. At the end of the quarter, he presented Eve computer still images; one of the images was part of the animation images. I selected three of them. The Erst one is a still life, and the other one is Andy's self-portrait 77 TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— A still life was set in the computer lab for students to work with. Anyone could pick part of the set up for their images. Andy drew a teddy bear and a small female statue, with a short branch of flowers in the front. The second was Andy's self portrait, a digitized face, with the face half­ covered by a smiling mask (see plates III & IV). Color— Andy kept mentioning that he usually had no problem with color. He always used them immediately. He thought that the computer worked a lot like mixing paint (pigment color), when he was using the menu palette. His pattern of working was to start out with a main color, and if he wanted this work to be mostly green, then he would pick other objects that work well with that color of green. In his first computer image, most of the objects were of earth tones, except the background. He changed the palette to a lot of different shades of browns and grays. He also said when he put the vase in behind the bear, he wanted it to look like glass so he went in and used the blend and the smear functions. In the second work, he digitized himself in color using an adjusted palette menu, so for the final image, he had to change some of the background colors to get the blue colors he needed for the mask. Light— He said during the interview that most of the time he did not think about light. He usually saved that until the end of the drawing. He usually just highlighted the side of the object that was going to be the closest to the light and slightly darken the back of it. He thought that was usually a good technique. He also said that he tried to avoid using shadows on the computer because he thought shadows would be harder, and with shadows one has to worry about where they were going to fall and what surface they were going 78 to be on and "stuff like that". He said that the light in the first picture is coming from the right side, although he did not include any shadows. He only lightened a small portion of the objects such as the vase. The second image involved no shadows. Space— He said that the perspective space is somehow to show depth on a flat surface. A good way to show depth of an object "is to have shadow and light," he said, because "if you put a shadow in there, it automatically creates a feeling of depth, and you have to have some surface receding back in to the thing that the shadow would lie on. The light also gives it a feeling of depth because you have to have the light shining into it." Regarding the perspective, he thought that it was hard to use unless we used geometric figures. He thought that if he was showing a person or "something like that," it would be hard to show depth on the person using perspective. That is when Andy thought that one uses shadow and light so that he or she gets the feeling of roundness or three-dimensionality, but if someone is going to do a room, then perspective is easy to use. Andy admitted that he hadn't really gotten familiar with all the perspective functions on the computer yet. Composition— Andy said that with the computer it was very easy to solve problems with composition. He gave an example- "If you are doing a room, and you have a table in the room, and you decide you don't want the table where it is, you can just pick it up as a brush and move it some place else." Andy thought that the hardest part about composition was figuring out where the viewer would be, and what would look right from the perspective of the viewer. He tries to keep a good balance in his pictures, which he thought was easier with a lot more objects in a picture. Andy also described 79 the way he worked: "Basically as I go along working on the drawing if I decide it needs something up in the left-hand comer then I will try to think of something that would look good up there." When he talked about his computer image, he said: " The first assignment, I did the bear and the statue, and those were really the only two objects in the picture. It actually didn't look too bad, but then I added the vase with some flowers coming out of it. I think that made it look a lot better." Andy continued to described here: "I put the vase behind the bear and the flowers coming forward in the picture and it gave a feeling of depth and it also tied the whole thing together. It gave a little bit of an eye path with the leaves and stuff and the flowers." In terms of the second image, Andy used a big mask to half-cover his face. At each side of his face, he repeatedly placed two different miniatures— one side was a guitar player while the other side was red devils—in order to make the image balanced. Subject matter— Self portrait is a big subject matter, and from this, one can still decide what aspect of self he or she is going to present. Andy said, "I'll have a basic idea of what I want to do in my head and then I will decide that maybe I should have one other little thing ..." He repeated this point: " I usually have the content pretty well settled. But when I did my self-portrait, I changed that one a lot Well I wanted to put the guitar player in there. After I worked on it awhile I decided that I needed more stuff in it, but I didn't know what else to put in it" Finally, Andy put something else: "I used the mask to show that I have a good sense of humor. The digitized picture of my face doesn't show that. (Conversely), It makes me look angry or mad. I included 80 the devils to represent that I am also mischievous." So, that was Andy's strategy for developing images-anything put in later should be fit with the contents and subject matter.

SUMMARY OF ANDY'S CASE According to the questionnaires, Andy's prior formal art education (see table 7) was largely obtained in public school art classes. Of the ten subjects in this study he placed sixth in terms of prior art experience and fifth in terms of his prior understanding of art terms and concepts. Generally speaking he was an average student in terms of prior art experience. Transfer of style— The style of his work done prior to taking the course was dominated by the use of flat planes of strong color, decorative pattern, images that are realistic in outline, yet stylized through the use of repeat patterns. A comparison of the silk screen print with his computer generated graphic images. A second aspect of his style is seen in the limited way that he makes use of light in the description of form. His prior work shows little understanding of light as a tool for describing forms. The computer environment would have enabled him to explore this aspect of image making but he choose to leave this aspect unexplored. This is supported by his statement that "Most of the time I don't use the effects unless I think of some area that would look better by using them." His limited ability in traditional drawing methods was also a continuing source of difficulty. His comment, "I tried to overcome it by practicing and keep reworking what I am doing." suggests that strategies acquired in learning traditional media, 81 continue in the new medium as well. The kind of practice and reworking in traditional drawing might be a form of perseveration (see Perkins 4c Simmons, 1988) when carried over to the computer. Andy's case suggests that the teacher of computer graphics may need to offset aspects of prior learning to enable the student to exploit the potential of the medium. 82

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Plate V Anne's pencil drawing "Still life" 1991 84

Plate VI Anne's pencil drawing 'Trees" 1991 Plate VII Anne's pencil drawing "Shirt" 1991

/ 1 Plate VIII Anne's computer art "Still life" 1991 Plate IX Anne's computer art "A friend's story" 1991 88 Case Two: Anne Anne was a business major who never had any studio art experience before, and did not have any confidence in herself about drawing. Her roommate at the time of this study was an art student, with whom Anne practiced drawing a few times. Because of her roommate, she took the computer art dass. For her it was a pure adventure. In the first and second week of the course, she told me several times that she did not feel that she could continue, because she was overwhelmed. Both art and graphics software were just too difficult for her to handle. I asked her to be patient and not to worry about the grade. She started to try to draw with the computer more quietly. For awhile, she became a little irritable, but she managed to finish the dass without giving up half way through.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTFOLIO Anne was the only student who came to the interview without bringing a portfolio. She had a sketch book, which I told all the students to keep, in order to draw outlines for the computer images during the quarter. She said that she had too few art works to be considered a portfolio. But she said "starting here in this sketch book I started sketching some drawings." She was one of the few students who really worked seriously on the sketch book. She did more than ten full pages of pencil drawings. They were single object drawings with all kinds of subjects: plants, doth, a wheel, a house, a tree, the Pepsi logo, and even Garfield the cat. Most of the time she copied these images from photographs. Almost all the works were black and white. Throughout these drawings, her artistic capability grew. At the outset I did 89 not plan to use sketch books to replace the portfolio. However, Anne started to draw as a novice, and used her sketch book as a portfolio.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— For a person who never drew before, Anne really made a big effort. She knew this too. She said that when she looked through the sketch book she could tell she was getting better. I selected two of drawings. The first one is a shirt which was hanging in her room, which she drew at the beginning of the quarter. Later she did the second one which is a forest landscape. The shirt was done by observation, while the landscape was copied from a photograph (see Anne's plates). Color— It would be a tough question if anyone asked Anne about drawing or color because she did not have much drawing experience. The chances that she might use color were even less. Most of the drawings in her sketch book were done using regular pencils. The few color drawings in her sketch pad were really simple—scribbled color lines—which for the most part just filled in these blank spaces. Before she learned to use the computer to draw, she did not think of colors too much. She said that she really did not know how to put the colors together, what colors went with the subject, or the background, or which ones corresponded to the space and other objects in the composition. She only used intuition to solve the color problem. Light— Anne said that when she drew the shirt, her roommate taught her a little bit about shading. Although she said that her roommate told her not to use straight lines because shirts were wrinkly, there are no wrinkly lines on the shirt, nor any shadow which might be produced to simulate the texture of 90 the wrinkled shirt. In the last few drawings, Anne used more shades to make the objects look volumetric. The second drawing Anne copied from a photograph. The shading of the photographic trees gave Anne a suggestion about the dark and light She said: "I looked at a photograph and I just looked at the lines, and I drew that and then I shaded where they shaded basically. I could visually see it but before I just looked at the picture I thought there is nothing here. There is no shading. But when I really looked into the picture I could draw that" Not all the drawing she did was with a value range, but she said she started to shade along the edges and smear it with her hand. Space— For Anne, the single and simple object image might be easier, because she did not have to deal with the relationships between the objects. Almost all the flowers in her drawing have the same sizes, all facing up, placed with the same distance between each other. It is also understandable that Anne did not show much knowledge of perspective. The hanging shirt is a "flat" image. Only a few images which she copied from photographs are in perspective. The foreground of her "trees" show a broken tree, and the background has several tilted tree trunks. Anne's perspective was to place her objects in different horizontal layers—one after another. That was the most Anne could deal with. Composition— Anne's first few drawings were mostly of single objects symmetrically balanced, occupying the whole page. The shirt is a good example. Somewhat later, she changed to more asymmetrical images, such as a big cart wheel on the upper left side of the page, placed in a flower field on the lower part of the page. Another example is the second selected image, showing the trees, in which several tree trunks tilt slightly in different 91 directions, including a broken one, lying on the ground. Anne did not make the composition herself, but she chose a good one. Subject matter— Maybe because of her eagerness to practice drawing, Anne picked up everything around her for her images, especially those things she could see or think out immediately. She drew clothes, plants, houses, toys. She particularly tikes natural scenes and countrysides. She admitted: " I like to draw flowers as you can tell." She chose similar subject matters in the photograph she drew from. Anne might try to draw them in a realistic way, but with her lack of skill, they look spontaneous and naive.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER IMAGES I have already said that at the beginning of the class, Anne lacked confidence about drawing with the computer. Both art and graphics software were found to be difficult. She managed to finish the quarter without missing the classes, and she tried hard on her computer assignments. She tried each small part of the computer image many times, but always had problems with the software. She said the artistic became a lot easier when she started to sketch before and then draw it on the computer; however, Anne had a hard time working on her fourth drawing which dealt with perspective. At the end of the quarter, she said it was a tittle easier, and presented four still computer images.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— I selected the still life which is Anne's first computer image. She said the first project was just terrible because it took her so long to do a simple image. She avoided a complicated image, choosing instead one object 92 from the still life setting—a five-pointed ivy plant inside of a basket. The second image is based on a story of a friend. Anne drew the experience of a friend with his car (see plates VIII & IX). These two images involved her own personal efforts without using digitized images, and were finished works. Color— Anne said she did not use that many bright colors except for the one digitized portrait where she did emphasize different parts of the body, like the lips and an earring. Other than that, she just kept testing the colors to try to see what fit. Or she tested colors of different kinds and whatever she liked that day then that is what she used, because she was not really sure how to go about choosing colors. Most of the time, Anne used the menu and went from there; however, sometimes she relied on accident, or just tried different colors until the color worked out. With the first project, she met with many problems with the color. She tried to have mixed colors for the leaves and basket, and used a spread for the background. Her way to draw the leaves was to put some lighter green on the center of the dark green, which was the technique she used for the basket, too. In general, the combination of the colors in the first image is good; they are all secondary mixed colors. For the second image, Anne used all default colors which created more contrast. The center part of the image appears more colorful while the surrounding is a mixture of purple spread brush on the darker blue. Light— Anne thought that because her roommate helped her with the concept of lighting, she found it easier to apply to the computer. She thought issues of lighting were the same, whether it was in drawing or on the computer "putting dark on one side and light on the other, and blending and smear the colors to get light/' Actually Anne did not use much light on any of her 93 images. The plant and basket in the first image, and the car and letters in the second image look like a decorative graphic pattern. Space— Anne explained to me how she treated the problem of depth. She said she was good at math so she could take the shapes and the 3-d knowledge that she has from math in geometry. She continued her theory: "... just taking the shapes and where they would be on the screen and how far you would have to put it back or forward. It gives you a good idea of how you can do it on a computer." She also explained the way she solved the perspective problem or the space problem of two objects: "Normally I would put the sihaller in front of the big one and then just use the shading with those and draw lines from those shapes to look like a 3-D effect." Anne used very few objects in her images; normally, she did not use perspective in her works, and she had a lot of problems with this practice. Composition— I asked Anne what composition is for her, and she answered 'It is the art work that you present. The picture as a whole." Then I asked her how to arrange her image, and she said: 'Tor instance a house, I put that set far back so it is like you are looking into it then the trees in front..., when I feel good inside that is when I basically like the art work," and "Basically in all of my art work I have been using pretty much the whole space." Anne's ideal compositions were not too difficult to figure out. They were mostly simple, symmetrical and centered, with no perspective. This can be seen in her two computer images. Subject matter— Anne did the course's assigned projects. It was clear that Anne preferred realistic things, and she felt more comfortable when the subject matter dealt with something concrete. She said that the portrait was 94 the easiest for her because she digitized the images, and then she just filled in the colors. Apart from the technical problems, the still life was her favorite subject. The most difficult subject for Anne was to draw something imaginary. In her image about the story of a friend, it was apparent that Anne was at a loss for creating an image; her imagination seemed limited on this project.

SUMMARY OF ANNE'S CASE Reviewing Anne's record of prior art experience, she was essentially a novice without any experience outside of school. Out of ten students, Anne ranked ninth in terms of her art experience. Her prior understanding of art terms and concepts gave her a score of 3.8, which placed her seventh out of the ten subjects in this study. In essence her formal art education virtually began with the computer. I believe that it would not have been possible for Anne to do art work without help from her friend on her sketches, or without my help on the computer Anne needed someone to tell her how to do each step; otherwise, she would not know how to proceed. She commented: "Working on a digitized image on the computer was easier for me because I just basically colored the picture. Then I could just pick the things up and put them together. But the drawing part, like if I was to draw a car, that was hard for me. The drawing was the hardest", and "I really didn't know what colors went with the picture, with the background, corresponding to the space and everything else." She also said: "Some of these drawings I feel comfortable with because I just took them from a book and I could compare. But, if I just 95 think things it just doesn't work out for me. But usually if the composition is all together, if it fits in my mind then it is a good piece." Anne's lack of prior art knowledge nullifies any possibility for transfer. She exemplifies the novice by this lack of art knowledge and strategies—yet when asked about computer art, she agreed that art is something one can learn. She thinks she learned a lot from the computer art class, and from friends, and the whole thing about art is the thinking that goes into it. She said: " Through this experience I can say that there is a lot of thinking and there are a lot of thoughts and ideas behind computer drawing." 96 Tkble ( 9 ) Jean’s ait experience jhrtiBfa Prior Art U n fc ip aod l^ iK iin h w ______

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... Plate XI Jean's Pastel drawing "Why" 1990 Plate XII Jean's computer art "Flowers" 1991 XIII Jean's computer ari "Red cross" 1991 101 Case Three: Jean When I asked about her art background Jean told me almost immediately that she had not taken many art classes before, either inside or outside of the school. She said she did not have an art environment because her parents did not understand art, nor did they encourage her to make art at all; she was definitely interested in art though. She planned to major in Medical Communication, and she needed to take drawing classes. Most of the works she had done are beginning drawings. She had never used a computer to make images before taking the computer art class at the Amiga lab. She said she felt scared when she started to use the computer to make images. But later she said that she did not see a large difference between working with paper and with the computer. She told me that she was a work-study student, and that she might not have time to spend on the computer after dass hours. She seemed quite discouraged at the beginning of class.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTFOLIO Jean had brought a portfolio which had a variety of drawing. These works were not only done with many different tools, such as charcoal, pastel, ink, and pencil, but also done with many different subject matters such as a nude, a still life, and a landscape. Many of them were color works and works that were almost done. It was hard to believe that she did all these works only in a beginning drawing dass. Jean must have tried very hard to learn. In spite of the variety of the works she had done, she said that she did not like to do still life. In the questionnaire, she said that she prefers to draw human bodies. 102 TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— Jean said that she likes to draw things that are very, very simple. She thought that if there was not a whole lot of detail, then she could make that one object that she concentrated on really good. She said that she drew very expressively. If the drawing did not look the way she wanted, she would go back and refine it. These drawings were her only art works done in the drawing classes. They were all drawn on newsprint in sizes no more than 18" by 24" inches. Most of the drawings were small, occupying in the center of the papers. I selected two of her drawings which I think best represented her skills. One is a color pastel still life—cups and jars on the top of a table. The second one is a colored pencil and pastel drawing describing religious thoughts (see Jean's plates). Color— Jean said that she had never really worked with a whole lot of colors. She said that when she was drawing, she dealt with those fundamental issues of the drawings, then added the color or light where she thought it was appropriate. She did not plan them out extensively. From the color drawings she did, I could see that they were her first color drawings. Many of them were done by using earth colors, such as pastel browns, and yellows. She used the brown color for the table, and the same color for the cloth which was draped over one comer of the table. She used black and light gray, and another brown for the jars placed on top of the table. The background color is pastel blue. Because of all the pastel light colors, they do not appear unmatched. But the tablecloth has the same color as the box like table. She tried to make some lines folded on the tablecloth by using colors, but she did not achieve the effect. The colors of the jars do not show the qualities of the 103 objects—whether they are plastic or glass or ceramic jars. They are just light colors, applied all around the jar shapes. The background blue color is flat, with no value range. The second color drawing shows light color lines which render out a few scattered small objects or symbols, such as a cross, many drops of tears or water, symbols of the male and female, and some hand writing. A little bit of blue, yellow, and brown appear here and there. It is unclear why she used those colors. My best guess is that she tried to use heaven-like light blue to surround those symbols. The yellow and brown colors were just for accenting the blue color. Light— In these two drawings along with other black and white or color drawings, Jean did not really work too much on the light issues, although she said that she did not have problems with the light, and she tried to find a proper way to shade and shadow the objects. For some human drawings, she tried to make the lower part of the body darker, but it seems that she did not know how to solve those light problems on different parts of the body. In terms of the still life, the light problems reoccurred—either dark and lights do not fall into the right places with appropriate value, or there is no lighting at all in several places. However, she tried to fill the objects carefully with colors. The second color drawing has almost no value range at all except the side of the cross appears to be darker, which shows that it is a three- dimensional object. The dark and light on the drops are not applied properly either. Space— Jean seemed to have a sense of the space. She tried to figure out the relationships between the objects. No matter what the composition, Jean tried to placed those objects in a way that they could be linked to each other. 104 When she talked about the perspective, it seemed quite different from what she did on the paper. She thought that regardless of the paper size she used, she was still going to End her horizon line, the perspective point, and take it from there. She tried to use what she learned about perspective to draw. However, several of her works did not have correct perspectives, even though those objects were supposed to be in a three-dimensional space. For instance, in the still life, it is hard to tell what is the real position of the tablecloth, and how far it is from the table, etc. The second color drawing has no perspective at all. It appears to be a flat surface except that she tried to use the light yellow colors, and some gradually become smaller symbols, to describe that there is a diminishing eye point somewhere in the air. Composition-- When we talked about the composition, Jean said something very interesting: " basically, what I try to do, like in all my art classes before, they have always told us to fill the whole page up." This was shown in her previous art works, but not in the works she did in the classroom: her still life is only in the center of the page, leaving the edge white. She intentionally rotated the pad while she was drawing, so the horizontal line of the image is twisted 45 degrees from the pad. It is a traditional composition in which only simple objects with simple elements are put together and balanced. The other color drawing which I think she did for her own pleasure is like what she said earlier—it filled up the page. Small things which have equal distances between each other are everywhere, floating in the air. She tried to make the whole image balanced. Subject matter— Jean liked recognizable things and events. She said she liked to draw human bodies, especially hands and lips. She did not like landscape. 105 However, I found out that she did very well on those landscape in terms of the proportion and the perspective. Most of the works she had done for classes, so the subject matters were limited. The religious subject matter of her second color drawing made me curious. In this drawing there is a bridge between two gates, and she wrote close to the symbols a few words like, "from" "here" "to" "there". More handwriting close to the cross is a big "why". She told me that she thought about religious questions sometimes.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER IMAGES For Jean, computer art was something hard to learn. During the whole quarter in which she was taking the computer art class, she constantly complained that she was the only person in the class that had problems learning no matter how hard she tried. At the end of quarter, when everyone finished their final works and turned them in, Jean suddenly told me frantically that she had lost all her images, that she erased the images on the system, and the disk on which she had saved a few of her works could not be opened. Since she had to turn in her works for grades, and since she was part of my research, she asked my permission to give her time to redo her works. When I finally received her works, I felt a little disappointed that the new works were not as good as those she did earlier, because they were done too quickly and were too simple.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— The art works which I selected for my research were judged not by their aesthetic qualities, but by the way she solved the fundamental 106 problems of the art works. Based on this principle, I selected two of her new computer images for this research. The first one is a still life. She did not use the original still life setting; instead, she invented one: a simple vase with three flowers. The second one is a two dimensional cross pattern placed in a perspective position. Though these works don't seem as serious as some of the others, they are still useful to my study (see Jean's plates). Color-- At the beginning Jean told me that she never really worked with a whole lot of color. When I asked her about the application of color for computer art work, she said: "Whatever I think would look nice together. I don't know about hue, and value, and contrast and all that. If I like what is on the screen, the colors that are there, then that is what I do," and "If the drawing requires different shades of creams, tan etc. I would use my palette to come up with various shades of creams, and tan, and white, then I'll get different shades... Otherwise, I just try to find colors that compliment each other." Jean used violet red, violet blue, and white for her flowers; blue for the vase. The background is green, and the table is brown. The combination of the colors is good, but the way she applied them seems very awkward. This almost happened to all the colors she used. The second one is also a very simple application of the colors and repetition of the same pattern with the same blue, red and white without any manipulation of the colors. Light— She admitted that she had a hard time with the light. She said that on the second work, she tried to use a white light coming down on the object and it was really hard. She had it in her mind what she wanted it to look like, but she didn't get that effect off the computer. She said: "How do I use light? I just try to imagine what I am drawing and where I would like the light to hit it, 107 and then say the light is coming from a comer then what would be the proper way to shade and shadow it if the light is coming from the comer." She tried this in her first work, for the vase only, and was not fully in control of the light Space— She said: "I try to imagine what I am drawing on the computer, like when I drew that cross yesterday, because I gave it a 3-D perspective. I just did that the typical way. I used my lines to draw, then I put it in the three- dimensional before I used the perspective." Her theory of perspective: find your horizon line, your perspective points, and take it from there—that doesn't change from medium to medium. She said she wanted to create depth or a more three-dimensional illusion using those shadings. However, I feel that she could not get what she wanted. All the computer images she did were simple shapes with regular sizes. The perspective was done by only using the single perspective function; however, the still life's light green background is helpful to expand the space of the work. Composition— Jean still maintained the idea which her other teachers told her— that to fill up the whole page is the way to have a good composition. So she tried to "fill the whole computer screen up, not just have everything from here down on the screen or from here up." She also said that "If I am drawing something on the computer and I have it here that will give me an idea for something there to balance it out." She changed her composition very frequently, she said: "I know a lot of the time, I can change something because there is so much you can do with the computer." She said that using the computer, one idea leads to another, then to another. Nine times out of ten she did not continue with the idea she had in her head. She went with 108 what she was creating on the computer. Her compositions are balanced, but they are simple and naive. Subject matter- The first image is Jean's fast make-up work. It is also her imaginary still life. She drew it without any planning. I think she was serious when she decided to draw flowers and a vase. But, even the simplest subject matter was still a challenge for her. The second image has the same subject matter as the drawing she did before—a religious cross symbol. The image itself is a blue and white chess board flat pattern with red crosses decorated in each square. I believe that Jean thought about the religious issues and loved to use religious symbols.

SUMMARY OF JEAN'S CASE According to the questionnaires, Jean scored twenty eight points in her prior formal art education. She did not have any art experience outside of the school. Out of ten students, Jean ranked seventh in terms of her art experience. However she could identify most of the art terms which placed her in second place out of ten students. Jean was a below average student in terms of prior art experience. Although she lacked practice, Jean was very serious about learning and working on her projects. I felt that sometimes she struggled to achieve certain results, not always meeting with success. Her early drawings revealed that she was a beginner in art. Though her drawings were finished works, I could see that she worked hard on them, but she could hardly draw a correct shape, or control the light, or other aspects. However she seemed to have a better sensitivity to color. Her technical skills definitely needed to be improved. It was also hard for her to visualize a finished effect 109 on the computer. Her computer images had similar problems. Her simple drawings re-appeared in her computer works. She used good color, but a limited selection, and the colors were flat. Light is simply missing, and the shapes are simple too. She used the simplest compositions—objects are placed in the center or images filled the entire space. She learned so many art concepts in a very short period of time that she could memorize them and know how she would apply them. But when she was in front of a piece of paper or a computer monitor she was at a loss with what to do. Her expressive skills were not sophisticated enough to enable her to work effectively. Her prior knowledge was deficient in the skill of image-making and her art concepts tended to remain inert which did not help her art-making skill. 110 Tkblc ( 10 ) Bob’s art experience

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Plate XIV Bob's photography "Self protrait" 1989 Plate XV Bob's photography "Bus stop" 1989 113

Plate XVI Bob's photography "Rail" 1988 A ■u

L. 114

Plate XVII Bob's computer art 'Tree-head" 1991 Plate XVIII Bob's computer art "Self portrait" 1991 116 Case Four: Bob Bob started to learn art more seriously in high school. It was a required course, and he liked it He learned pottery and photography, which was where he got started in photography and basic drawing. Actually, Bob came from a photograph-loving family. His father and two of his great uncles were amateur photographers. He said he liked it because he had always been sort of talented in a technological sense. As a little kid he enjoyed taking things apart and putting them back together and worked with mechanical things. That is why he stayed with photography from his junior and senior years until he went to college. Bob started his college at Providence College in Rhode Island, and he was a fine arts major with a concentration in photography. But he did not like the college's religious and conservative influences. After one year, he came back to Columbus. In his opinion the next step in photography was to work with digitized images, computer animation and movies. He was interested in the possibility of pursuing the computer colonization of movies.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTFOLIO Bob brought me all the photographs he took in Providence. There were more than twenty black and white photographs. He said that they were only part of the works he had done in Providence, but that they were representative of his style. He said that he liked taking objects and showing parts of them that people really aren't going to see. He used to go out a lot looking for something very unusual, original—a pile of street signs, the underneath of a bridge, the new downtown library, rear house stairs—these 117 are the things I saw in the portfolio. Bob had been a serious photographer, trying different kinds of cameras and materials. He also spent time looking around, planning the scenery. Some of his latest works were done with a 4 x 5 view camera, so he could get fine quality. He said that it took him a long time to set up when he worked with a 4 x 5. By the time he had set up, the original shadow moved. I reviewed more self-portraits, stairs, and comers of streets or rooms. He said he didn't like working with models. He only did self-portraits because he did not want to get behind a camera only, he wanted to communicate too; he wanted to come out of the art mode to speak.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— It was not easy to select two of his works, because they all seemed professional. I picked two of them, a self-portrait and a comer of the university park, which I thought could be representative of his works. The self portrait is the same one he digitized for his computer self portrait. This image reminded me of Rembrandt's portrait works in which a very subtle lighting was applied. Actually, most of Bob's photographs were treated with high contrast lighting. The second one is a persons' two feet on a rail. Bob took it when he was in high school. That was at the Mirror Lake amphitheater at the Ohio State University (see Bob's plates). Color— One may see colors in a black and white picture, if it is a good one. Of course this is a metaphorical saying, but if you see some of Bob's works, you may have the same kind of feeling. Bob took mainly black and white pictures. Apart from the reason that color photography is more expensive 118 and requires color equipment, he thought one could really learn the art of photography well by taking black and white pictures. Bob recognized those subtle changes of the colors in reality, then took black and white pictures to try to interpret the same feeling. He thought that if one could see many different value ranges in a real color object, then the arrangement of the lighting was not the most important thing in a black and white picture. Light— The light is almost the most important element of Bob's works. There are a few techniques he used to take advantage of the light. First, the natural light contrast, such as the shadow beneath the bridge, the street light coming through two buildings, lights shining outside of an underground. Second, the natural light without the contrast in order to show the natural, subtle color ranges of the subject. Third, the studio contrast light for portraits. Unlike Bobs' other portrait works, the one I selected has contrast only in the face. In fact, it has very classic, fine lighting in the environment, reminiscent of Rembrandt's portraits in which a very dramatic light was applied. He described the process of shooting a self-portrait: "It took time but I planned the setting. I used a tripod stand. It was just a stick to focus on and set the light up on right where my face would be when I got in the pose. I put the tripod stand right here and set in the pose and then moved it and then put it back. This is all with the timer going on with the camera." The second work Bob took during his high school years. He used daylight, low contrast, and took full advantage of the natural objects' darker shoe sole and the light railing to make an interesting contrast. In general, Bob's street scenes are mostly treated with a great deal of high contrast. The sunshine or the street light goes through the buildings or through those rear-yard steel stairs which 119 produce a very strong and hard-edged impression. Space— Bob did not particularly worry about the perspective, since he fully used the light to create the depth of the image. He also took care of the relationships between the objects' shapes and values. In the self-portrait Bob made himself smaller, which gives the impression of an innocent young man in a classic, mellow, empty space surrounding him. In the picture of the railing, the railing's curved lines match the shoe sole's. Between the railing and shoes appear open areas. One can look through these areas, and see the outside field and sky. There is one photograph of a street scene that Bob took in a very interesting way. He said: "That one is in the bus waiting area in Providence. This is a man waiting on a bus. And there is a piece of glass behind him and I like the way his form sort of erodes with the reflection of the glass. That is interesting because this one looks like one painting, one piece of painting. So he is inside of this painting actually." The way that Bob dealt with the space contributes to what he did with the composition. Composition— In Bob's photographs, he tried many ways to handle all kinds of elements. He said many times how he balanced these elements. The self- portrait I selected has the simplest composition in all the portraits he did. Bob put half of himself in the middle of the image with plenty of space around. The second photograph is also a symmetrical composition, in which a rail is in the center of the picture. Actually Bob used quite a lot of symmetrical compositions which normally have two equal parts of light and dark, or two equal shapes. Subject matter— Bob went everywhere to pick up those small things which exist in our life everyday but no one pays any attention to them. He also did 120 many self-portraits. The photo with rails was an unplanned shot. He said he was walking around with his camera, and a friend of his was sitting on a rail and had his feet back like that and he thought it was really neat how his feet were framed. Sometimes Bob observed the environment to find something interesting; for instance, he found an old wooden chair, he believes the kind that they had in the classroom at Providence, and someone left it out in the rain and all the glue melted and all the bonded pieces of wood sort of cracked and came apart. He took it into the studio and took pictures of it He said he really liked its curved lines.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER IMAGES Although he had used graphics software before, and had known the potential use of the computer as an art tool, Bob did not show too much enthusiasm in the computer art class. He missed a few classes, and did not work as hard as other students in the class. He said he really had some definite ideas of what he wanted to do, and about the quality of the images he was going to be able to use before he came into the class. He was slightly disappointed, feeling constrained by different things. He couldn't make a color scan of a person because they would shift and it would take a long time to do. But he said that he understood it was a beginning course. Students were using almost the most basic of systems. He commented: "Using the low quality for low quality's sake." He meant if you are going to be working in low resolution images you should be making large, blocky, colorful things, not working with really subtle tonal changes or forms. That was his view. He did all his works at the last minute. At the end of the quarter, he turned in three still images. 121

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— I selected two of Bob's works, one of which was a self-portrait. Bob was good at doing self-portraits in his photographic works, so I was interested in seeing how he was going to draw a self-portrait with the computer. Another one is a digitized free expression work. There is a female head shaped tree trunk, and the stems stretch out from the tree trunk as if it is the female's hair (see Bob's plates). These two works were both done by manipulating digitized images. The original objects for digitizing were Bob's self portrait and clips of magazine photographs. Color— Bob thought that it was sort of hard to deal with so many colors on the computer system because he had only had basic color training. He did not get heavily into the color when he was working with the computer. He was not really creating his own colors; he was making ranges to blend from here to there, which is a very black and white way to do it. Bob's computer images had very similar characteristics to his photographic images. Colors were only the decoration for his mainly black and white images. In other words, Bob did not use different colors to describe the objects, rather he used one color and different value ranges of that color to describe the objects. Light— Bob said that he used the light to build space. Mainly from the drawing, he learned how to build space on a two-dimensional sheet of paper with tonal ranges and light and shadows. He also learned the way that black objects come forward, lighter ones go back, and contrast makes an edge and when the color is gray, there is not an edge, and so on. He thought the photography influenced him a lot in terms of light and contrast in the way he 122 was working with the computer. In his computer images, I could see the same kind of contrast in light he used for photography. The single bigger face presented larger contrast shapes, while many small faces with contrasting light were broken into small shapes. Space— Bob said that space meant depth. He mainly worked with perspective and how to change space with values. In his photographs, he used light and shape to create space, but not color. He felt there were a lot of colors on the computer and it confused things a little. He just used the contrast colors between complementary colors to get the space—basically using color from the point of view he had experience with in black and white. In the self-portrait, Bob used the light to present space. His division of the space was very simple; he used two main spaces, the central object and background, both of which also made up the perspective of the image. Composition— He felt he used the same knowledge of photographic composition in dealing with the computer image, but it was a bit harder to use this knowledge because of the different process. He did try to get everything balanced and if he wanted to give a certain part of the composition weight he left it off by itself. If he adjusted his image on the computer, it was mainly because he decided that something didn’t work, it didn't fit into the composition, or it was redundant I saw him trying all kinds of compositions before finally settling with the most secure composition, which was the central symmetrical, for his self-portrait. The second self expression work was actually black and white magazine photography. He tried to rearrange the image, but he gave up, using the original image. He changed only the V background colors. 123 Subject matter— Bob characterized his computer image style as fantastic, although he used to use recognizable things and events in his images. Without any doubt Bob's favorite images are portraits and small objects in everyday life. However, in computer images, Bob made every object he drew become mysterious, in terms of the colors he used and the story he developed. Bob believed that it is the nature of the computer, that allows artists to change their minds easily. Both the computer self-portrait and expressive tree trunk are presented in a mysterious way.

SUMMARY OF BOB'S CASE Of the ten students in the study, Bob ranked fifth in terms of his art experience with a score of 40. His knowledge of art terms and concepts scored a 6.9, which placed him second out of ten. He was, generally speaking, an upper average student in terms of prior art experience. Because of Bob's strong experience in photography, it was easy for him to talk about the photography. For instance, there was one photograph which shows Bob's sense of value. He said: 'That one was an old wooden chair, It’s a lot of different... It's very interesting, all the lines, very smooth lines and very fluid and also there is a different kind of tone and the lighting is good, it's not so strong. It's quite good. In the design sense, this is a good design." Bob was confident in using elements such as the straight lines in stairs and buildings, as well as curved lines in the human body in his photographic works. There was a common pattern in his works; he liked to use lines and lights to eke out the shapes of dark or light. He had a natural sense of balance. He selected the object and the places, and no matter what and where he shot, 124 those objects were well located in his image. Although Bob believed that his prior training helped him while making computer images, Bob was convinced that computer art was very different from photography. 'The difference is in the process" he said. "In photography, you have different steps you can work in. You have control over things in different places. You have control over the light and everything when you initially take the photograph. You have control over what kind of exposure you are going to give to the film, and you have a whole set of parameters there. These are the settings you can prepare before actually taking the photography. You also have control over when you are developing the film which is a whole different set of processes. And then, you have a whole different set of controls when you print the film." It was difficult for Bob to conceptualize something and then to visualize the concept. He thought that with the computer you are sort of forced to think about everything at once, like drawing, because what you see is what you get. He said that one of the things he hadn't quite figured out how to do was to start with the structure, start with the basics to build the details on the computer, making it into a process. He meant that unlike photography, drawing is something one has to build upon which was hard for him. Because of Bob's strong influence by his photographic background, he had good sense of value, but tended to visualize things in a black /white way, instead of colors. His computer drawings not only showed that he lacked a knowledge of colors, but also lacked hand drawing skills. He preferred digitize images from photography or objects rather than using his hand to 125 draw. His drawings lacked the sensibilities of the light and perspective which he handle well in his photographic works. In terms of this study, Bob has showed that his local knowledge (photography) directly affected the works done by computer in that he continued to think in terms of values rather than explore other possibilities one can say that his prior art experience imposed limits on what he set out to do. Like other students, he said that basically he knew what he wanted to do, and he just explored the tools trying to figure out a way to do it. And, while playing with the tools, if he found something that was better, he was going to use that. There is a certain level of discovery that comes from playing around with the tools and he liked that a lot. He also said that one can make subtle adjustments with the photograph but nothing on the level of what you can do with the computer or with painting where you can just say 'T don’t want that there and it is gone." Tkble ( 11 ) Mary's art experience

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Plate XIX Mary's oil pastel "Owl" 1989 Plate XX Mary's oil pastel " Parrot" 1989 Plate XXI Mary's computer art "Still life" 1991 Plate XXII Mary's computer art "Hand" 1991 130 131 Case Five: Mary Her mother painted, her father did metal sculpture, her brother is good at water color, and she herself started to take a formal drawing class when she was eleven. Even before she came to Ohio State, Mary had already studied in a Saturday morning art class in an art center. By the time we talked about her art, Mary had already had a lot of art training. She said she had a tendency to draw very tight because she had done a lot of very technical, precise drawings. One of her friends showed her computer animation, and she started to draw with the computer on her own, which got her "hooked" on the computer. When she was in the computer class, she obviously had much confidence in using the computer.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTFOLIO Although Mary did a lot of drawings during her art classes, she showed me a portfolio which mainly contained oil pastel drawings. They were abstract colored lines drawings, with a bird being the most popular feature. Other than that, some were symbolic works. Her style was very personal. She said she was fond of the works, and one of the reasons was that she thought she broke through the strict and tight ways she used to work.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— Any of her works are representative of her style. They all have similar colors, similar lines, and similar subject matters. I picked two oil pastel works. One is an owl, and the other one is a kind of parrot. She did these two works at different times, but there are many similar characteristics. 132 The former is a dark-colored owl with opened wings against a dark background. The bushes are lost yet very dense and made up of straight lines. The second one is a parrot's profile, also with wings opened, and was drawn in a more expressive way (see Mary's plates). Color— Mary used primary colors a lot Most of her works are drawn with red and green lines, although some of them are blue colors with different values. The owl is a work using dark blue lines mixed with black for the bird's body and the background, and with some fine yellow lines to portray the bird's chest and the brilliant eyes. These lines are few but are strong for the work. The parrot is a bird drawn with blue and red lines on a white bird­ shaped base. The background is sky blue smeared, with flowing lines following a few darker blue lines. Mary said that these works are really different from what she normally did. She usually avoided orange. She said she was really interested in what the colors were doing with each other and with the white backgrounds as opposed to the dark backgrounds. Not only did Mary use strong colors to paint out the objects, but she also made these colors go in one direction, which formed a movement of the colors. These flows of color are very obvious in all her works. She said that one of the reasons that she liked pastels was because she could erase it and the picture would get a whole different ambiance. She also scratched away some of it to get some of the gestures that way. Light— Mary's works are expressive and abstract. She did not use a conventional way to deal with the light problem, instead, she used a very subtle way to emphasize the lighter part of the object and background. In her owl drawing, there is not a particular light source in the background, but the 133 tight, dense and dark lines were drawn in different stages of darkness, and between the lines, the lighter parts emerged. She said she tried taking the medium background and going light to dark. This also happened to the parrot drawing. The background is the combination of the dark and light space, and around the bird's profile, there is an illuminated part which she achieved by using white brushes. Space- Mary is used a lot of lines in her drawings. These lines are smooth and fluent, and in some of the works, she used lines to cut out the shapes. She said that originally many of the works were realistic looking but when she started to do them, she did not like them. So, she made them graphic by putting the big lines through them and changing the colors in big areas. Bigger lines divide spaces in the works, and those small lines filling in those shapes become textures. But in other works, there are no clear divisions of the object and the background, such as with the owl image. A single bird is in the center part of the work, which takes half of the entire image. Although Mary used lines to make the object volumetric, the effect of the perspective was not clear. Composition— Mary felt that the design work came naturally, although it had been a mental strain for her to do abstract work. When she started doing abstract she got really frustrated, and said that she had to quit about every hour and go do something else because she was not sure what to do with it. When she was doing something realistic, she knew exactly where to go with it and when she was going to stop. When she was doing abstract work, she felt that the composition was nice but it was missing something, and she could not verbalize exactly what it was. She also had problems knowing 134 where to stop in abstract art, but after putting the work away for a while, she revised the work and liked it better. Many of her drawings were single-bird images, but these single objects were placed in different locations using the background lines or colors to balance the images. Subject matter— Mary loved to draw abstract and realistic birds, as birds have a lot of meaning for Mary. For instance, she pointed out one of her birds, and said that it was from a photograph of her aunt's parrot. She also said that she had always been really interested in the American-Indian design which has bird-like curved patterns. At the time she was taking a jewelry enameling class, she was looking at the design books to get ideas and she was really struck because they had all these interesting images that they were calling birds. She eventually came up with a design that she felt was bird-like, the border of which is birds in different positions, such as with the wing going down and the wing going up. Since then, Mary has done a series of art works with birds. She was also interested in subject matter with philosophical meanings, as in the sun and water drawing, where she used the contrast of orange, red, and blue to symbolize hot and cool, the contrasting temperatures of the nature. Mary used this kind of contrast many times later in her abstract line drawings.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER IMAGES Mary started out a little intimidated by the computer art class. She said that she had played around with an Amiga and had done things like making signs, but had not made art with it. She had always been really worried about computers because "they are vaguely mechanical and I'm not really 135 good with mechanical things/' Her friends were all really into computers, so when she came to class she was really interested. When she started working on the still-life, she started to relax because she felt at home with what she was doing. She really liked the idea that she could save one image and try something else on it, and the fact that she could change the colors subtly. She said that she felt confident of herself using the computer, however, she did not like the fact that she could not get as tight as she wanted to. With confidence in both her art and computing skills, Mary did very well on her computer images. She used very strong colors, well arranged compositions, fine drawing, and meaningful subject matter in all her works.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— The first work is a still life. Mary picked only two objects from the still life setting—the plant and female statue. The rest of the objects in the image she invented herself. The second work is a creative work with perspective as part of the technique (see Mary's plates). Color— Mary was taught the usage of color in high school and at Columbus College of Art and Design. She said that everyone had to practice all the complementary colors, and design a "cool portrait"and a "hot portrait." She realized that hot colors jump out at you unless you are really careful about what other colors you put with them. So, Mary was very careful using red colors in both computer drawings. Very skillfully, she used the low intensive pink colors for the leaves, and the dark red for the background. To contrast she used a pastel green color to cool down and balance the warm images. The 136 female figure has a white to black value range drawing in the middle. It worried her that the figure was all cool grays and that the background was very warm in contrast to it. But she took care of that. The attention is still brought to the figure because she used a whole range of gray value and even the leaves have only four different values in them. She used a similar warm and dark background in her second work, this time with red and purple-blue, as well as a gray-toned hand which appeared from the bottom of the grid pattern. In both drawings, Mary used a lot of black for part of the background. Light- Mary knew how and when to apply lighting. But she said that she had some problems doing shadows and she always finds shadows a really interesting part of anything that is semi-realistic. She especially found problems when she was using the computer to get the light, mainly because with the small computer screen, you cannot mark the light source and bring a ruler across and stop it where you want She said she fought with that on the second work, especially, on the computer where the color in itself is already illuminated. One has to adjust the color then adjust the lighting. Mary used the white and black on the figure and its three-dimensionality brings it forward in the picture plane. On the other hand, in the second work, the white/gray hand is the single lighted object in the space. There is no particular light source for the entire image in both works. Space— Mary found the perspective technique was pretty easy for her, especially the one point-of-view perspective. In terms of the space, she said she used the overlapping method because she found that it worked the best. She said that the colors could go either way depending on how you use them so she didn't always go with the cool colors and the background. She 137 also did not have any problem with the computer screen. In the first image, she designed the space very clearly; the relationship between the one object and the other object was well arranged. The depth was shown by overlapping the color spaces. In the second work, Mary really took full advantage of the space, and her design was intelligent. Composition— Mary's spatial characteristics were unique. She mixed two different shapes together: organic shapes, such as leaves and the female figure, and geometric shapes, such as rectangles and squares. She also used the contrast colors on these shapes. She played with these elements easily, and she balanced them automatically, changing the elements around sometimes to get a more interesting composition. Subject matter— Mary seemed to forget about the bird drawings, at least when she was working with the computer. All the computer images she made, whether creative or not, had nothing to do with the abstract curved lines or any kind of bird or bird symbols. However, she was still interested in subject matter on a philosophical level as before, and this can be seen in her perspective work. The grids make up three dimensional walls, and the hand comes out from the bottom through some empty grids. There is a strong contrast between the hand and the grid through contrasting colors and contrasting shapes. It is very obvious that the subject matter is metaphorical.

SUMMARY OF MARY'S CASE Mary is in the third place among the ten students who have had art experience scoring forty five points in her prior formal art education. Her understanding of the terms and concepts ranked her in first place. From the 138 beginning of the computer class, Mary proved her strong potential in making art with the computer, due to her strong art background. She did not have problems with any aspects of the learning process. While working each part of the design, she had basic ideas, then she used the "look-up" menu as a hint just to give her an idea of what she might like to do. She thought that it was not really different using the computer to make art, because it will eventually come out like a photograph or slide or other two-dimensional art. Mary showed that she possessed a good understanding of the concepts of color, light, space and composition. She knew to make use of the shapes and colors which may accidentally incorporate symbolism into her art images. Sometimes she was just "having fun" with the layers of colors and with the way the lines were working together. She usually had a good idea of what she wanted to do. She tried out different colors and shapes until she got what she really liked. From what she had said about the first still life, it showed her control of the colors. She said: "...on the one still life it really worried me that the figure was all these really cool grays and that the background was very warm in contrast to it. And, I think I took care of that The attention is still brought to the figure because I used a whole range of everything and everything else is kind of limited in what its range is because I have like seven or eight different values of gray in that and even the leaves which are almost as close as it only has four different values of colors in it. So, that fact that cool quality of it did not make it look like it was fading into the background." Because of her abstract and geometric images, Mary never applied any direct light source for all her objects. She only dealt with the contrast of each individual object. In her later computer images, Mary's 139 compositions became more sophisticated, although, as usual, there were not many objects in the image. Mary fully used colors and spaces to achieve meaningful expression for her images. She liked to use darker colors for the background, while the center piece is always lighter. The purpose for this is to call attention to the main object. Mary also knew how to pick the most expressive part of the object for her image. It was obvious that Mary liked a challenge. The way she was making art looked almost professional. She said that she always tried to go beyond herself, and she was really trying hard to do something that she had never done before. Mary had a strategy to deal with the new art form. When she was uncertain about the abstract image, she put the abstract stuff away for a while and then looked at it again, and adjusted it again if necessary. She said she was always changing colors and compositions, but these changes were based on her thinking and the comparison of different ideas. Mary has proved that she had a successful transfer of knowledge, first of all, she had a strong prior art knowledge and skill. And this knowledge and skill is incorporated into the new learning environment provided by the computer. She also had some basic computer art knowledge which helped her master her new skill faster. Ihble ( 12 ) Jeff's art experience

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m & m 144 145 Case Six: Jeff Jeff never really had the chance to do art in high school. He strictly studied science and math because art was not required. His mother, on the other hand, had a lot of influence on his art. He said that she would take pieces of cardboard from a refrigerator box or something and turn them into a masterpiece. His brother also influenced him a lot Back in about 1980, his brother bought him his first computer, a Timex Sinclair which was "a real little thing that you buy out of Topular Science' for about $100, and you put them together. It was just a little keyboard that had one K of memory, and you could do just text or you could do block figures, little blocks." Jeff had a lot of fun with it. He started off in computer science, but he didn't think that he had all the skills to do math. He decided to try something new so he took his first art drawing course, at the end of his sophomore year. He tried Industrial Design, but it was too competitive. So, he decided to try art. During the two years prior to the study, he took many classes in painting, drawing, printmaking, and experimenting with computer graphics. He said he could handle acrylic and oil painting best. He had taken the Amiga course a couple of years before, and he took it again just to fill some more requirements. Jeff also gained some special art experiences from outside of the school. He is a ham radio operator, as are his dad and his brother. He said through amateur television, people can send images from a TV camera thirty or forty miles away to other people. This requires a call sign, which is a sign on a piece of cardboard like WB8, MSJ. These are letters people hold up in front of the camera. Jeff thought it would be more interesting to have the computer generate these call signs with the text and a picture 146 underneath it. His brother got him a digitizer for his computer, so he digitized images and created designs. His works were being broadcast all over. Jeff has a big collection of the designs he did for call signs.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTFOLIO Jeff did many works over the years. He brought one big portfolio and slide set containing all kinds of art works. There were pencil drawings, etchings, silkscreens, oil and acrylic paintings, small wood sculptures and some computer images. Jeff tried out all kinds of media as an art major. Jeff learned from his professors how to deal with different techniques for different media. In painting, for instance, he said he built up the surface, making it a lot thicker. In other works too, Jeff worked very carefully on those textures of the image. One thing I found curious was that some of his works were completely abstract, yet others were quite realistic. He also had works with three different art time periods put into one. He explained that that was a combination the teacher wanted. So, he had the Japanese tidal wave, and Monet's female on the shore and then the outside border. Among all the media, Jeff liked printmaking and computer assisted art work the most. He liked those arts involving mechanical tools or more specific skills.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— Jeff's works were so diverse that it was hard to pick any two of his works. I selected one silkscreen image and one computer-assisted art work. Jeff did these two works a couple of quarters prior to the Amiga dass, but they were not his beginning works. The silkscreen is a description of the 147 digital world; half of the image is a number eight and the other half is an electrical circuit board. The computer image is somehow different a digitized old building (Orton Hall on OSU's campus) with a big moon behind (see Jeff's plates). Color— From all his prior art works, I could not see that there was any preference in Jeff's use of colors. His use of the colors mainly depended on the subject matter and the medium used. His silkscreen used fewer colors only because normally in the printmaking process, colors are not added as easily as they are in oil painting. However, one of his silkscreens contains six colors. In his digital world, Jeff used five colors. The interesting thing is these five colors actually are divided into two parts, three on one side, two on the other side, yet these two parts go well together. Jeff used gray or grayish colors almost in all his art works, especially in his silkscreens. The green and blue colors in his digital world were actually a mixture of the light gray colors. This made the art works thick and of low intensity. His computer image, which is a digitized black and white image, has dark blue in the background. As he did in his painting, Jeff kept those textures to make the image look thick and solid. Light— In a realistic art work like acrylic painting, Jeff used light in a more conventional way. In a silkscreen which has fewer colors and less realistic images, light is hard to apply conventionally. The digital world, for instance, is a flat image, as any pattern design, which has only five plain colors. Jeff's prior computer image was a tower digitized from a realistic photograph. Jeff adjusted the tower into a black and white object with the original light on one side. The back of the tower is a big and texture-covered moon. It is the 148 contrast of the black and white which make the image look more mysterious and interesting. Space— Jeff said that he really likes things that are sharp-edged, such as in his printmaking works. That was the main reason that Jeff liked printmaking better than other forms of art. He said that printmaking takes a lot more work but he gets sharper images. He put down a solid color to get sharp edges, such as in the digital image. He was not concerned too much about the trivial descriptions. The digital image is divided by colors into two big spaces, each of which has lineal color shapes, nothing complicated. The space in the computer image is also interesting; the tower and the moon have similar textures and colors and can be united into a big shape. The background becomes a dark space. Composition— The silkscreen with the digital image has a very particular composition. Two different colors and the contents are separated by a twisting line in the middle. However, the digital number eight on one side and the electrical circuit board on the other side interact by the orientation of the circuit lines and the lineal number eight. The tower has a traditional composition, but the huge moon makes the composition interesting and balanced. Subject matter— Jeff had a wide range of subjects. He painted landscapes, buildings, still life, aircraft, windows or chairs with all kind of styles, some realistic, some graphic, and some surrealistic. Actually, many of Jeff's works are a combination of abstraction and realism. He tried to do something realistic in some works, but the composition is only the combinations of the shapes and the colors. 149

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER IMAGES For Jeff, using the computer to make art was easy. He had taken the computer art class before and had used the Deluxe Paint software. So he had much more confidence than other students in the classroom. Jeff did his works quietly and fast. Almost all his new computer images were well thought out. Jeff still loved to use gray and red colors. Instead of brushes, he used the dither function for colors in every computer image. His works were still full of surrealism, and the love of the digital image still remained. What he liked the best about die computer was the number of colors it has. He could change any color if he did not like it. Although he liked the computer, he still regarded highly the printmaking and painting media because of the bigger open area, the "hands on" nature of it, and being able to work on it at a flexible distance. However, he said he would probably be less likely to change the image if he were doing painting or printmaking.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions-- It is interesting to look at Jeff's new computer images. His self portrait is a digitized face which has a small computer circuit board on it. This work reminds me of his silkscreen. The second image is an aircraft carrier. The story came from his classmate's life experience. Jeff digitized the ship from a comic, then touched it up and made it clearer (see Jeff's plates). Color-- He had ideas about making objects red or blue but he didn't know what shade of red or blue. Jeff knew if he experimented with the colors, then he would find the one he wanted. If he did not like it then he would go back 150 and cover it up, depending upon his intuition. He explained the process of creating the colors in his self portrait. Using the black and white picture, he created a palette that had flesh tones in it. He then tinted his face, and applied a darker red color over the background of the portrait. The red color he used not only made the image look warm, but also energetic. Small portions of the dark green color appeared at different spots representing the circuit metal board. The aircraft carrier was digitized in black and white, but Jeff adjusted the colors with a mixture of gray and ocean blue. For both images, Jeff tried to match the colors as realistically as possible. Light— Jeff said that he had trouble with the light in these computer images. He just usually does what he thinks looks good. He said he used light in a more symbolic way, sort of more abstract because he "doesn't know if it is physically correct, if he gives a little light on the comer of one image, and makes this a lot wider." He said sometimes he just makes it an all over light instead of just one direction. That was Jeff's light theory. I think what he tried to say is that with the kind of art work he does, it is not necessary to follow the traditional lighting rules. Actually, Jeff's concept about contrast were clearly shown in his two computer images. In his self portrait, the light came from the front, and lightened the left side of his face. The cast shadow was next to his right side which made the face pop up from the background. The navy blue value ranges were gracefully spread on his aircraft carrier image. On the far end of the horizon appeared a bright skyline which pushed the image to a far and wide space. Space— Jeff said that he has an eye for perspective. He could see if the object was going to be too small or too big. He used no method, just feeling or 151 intuition. The horizon divides the image into two spaces, and the aircraft carrier and the world globe occupies these two opposite spaces, one in the upper left, and the other in the lower right. The relationship between the ship and the skyline shows good perspective. In the self portrait, Jeff's facial outline makes the image into two main spaces. This is almost the same method he used in his prior image. Composition- For Jeff, a good composition should look like "you could get into the picture," instead of just being colors on a flat piece of paper. He thought he succeeded in doing that. Jeff made simple and balanced compositions for his computer images. The self portrait actually is divided into two parts. The part which contains his face has several small circuit board pieces and a digital number on it, and the other side, on the red background, one light gray small floppy disk is directed toward his mouth. This disk makes the image more interesting. The aircraft also has an interesting composition. Not only the objects in the image, but also the value ranges play important roles in balancing the composition. Subject matter— The surrealistic style is what Jeff did for his two images. The subject was for the class assignment, but students made the story on their own. Jeff adjusted the images for two reasons. One was because he wanted to see if it could be done on the computer. Another reason was that in his second work describing a friend's experience, Jeff chose several statements that in his opinion would make a nice image. He needed the aircraft because his friend was in the Navy, but later he found out that his friend hated the Navy. So Jeff decided to go back and add a dark cloud with lightning coming from it. In the first self portrait, the idea of circuit boards 152 came from the screen print he did earlier. Since he enjoyed the computer and electronics, his friend called him the computer man, and he decided to incorporate this aspect into his image.

SUMMARY OF JEFFS CASE Jeff was among the students who had the highest points in his art experience. He had thirty six points in his prior formal art education, and thirty points in his art experience from outside, which placed him second out of ten. Jeff was majoring in art, and the art experience enabled him to handle art problems easily. However, he started majoring in art during his sophomore year, which is late, and before that, he did not have much art experience. Jeff's prior understanding of art terms and concepts placed him sixth out of ten. However the test may not have done justice to his real understanding. For Jeff, everything around could be an art subject. He might find the table and chairs outside of the local McDonald's to be a good composition. He might start to make a sketch of them, then study the colors or pattern. He knew what looked good on paper drawings and sketches, and he could apply that to computer graphics. He said that he could take a brush stroke with an oil paint and get a pleasing effect On the computer there is a brush feature with which he could imitate a similar pattern or color. He had used various kinds of media for his art, which presented possibilities and limitations, but he took the best advantage of them. He found out that sometimes the medium influences the thinking process. For instance, when he described a process of making a perspective with the computer, he used different words: "... instead of bringing this all the way over and showing you 153 what the actual number is, you will look at this and you won’t know unless this is a nine or this is a five or two. You know that's not there so you know it can't be an eight I have pushed it off the side of the paper so you can't tell. It's up to you what number you want that to be. I guess that's a good way of composition." Jeff still liked red and gray colors, but instead of using brushes, he used the dither functions often, which gives images more depth. He still handled the composition of the images well. In this study, Jeff's case provides a clear case of the success of the transfer of knowledge. His diverse background of art experiences enabled him to shift to the computer without any difficulty. He mastered all kinds of media well including the computer. Jeff was easily able to incorporate his prior art knowledge into the medium of the computer. 154 Tkble( 13 ) Paul’s an experience

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;f or P n f ! 157 Plate XXX Paul's computer art "Rowing boat" 1991 158 159 Case Seven: Paul Paul decided to do business marketing during his senior year in high school. What he was interested in was advertising because of his father's influence. However, unlike other students, Paul did advertising through a business degree because that would serve him better than a journalism degree. Paul's first art experience was with his father who used to be a advertising manager for a retailer in Miami, Florida. Sometimes Paul helped him out on weekends. Since different colored markers and paper were available, he drew while his father worked. His father taught him to do some simple hand-lettering and perspective drawing. In elementary middle, and high school, he did not do any kind of art work except for the yearbook; most of his other drawing consisted of doodles. He said he has always wanted to take some art courses. During a job last summer, he happened to have a chance to visit a big company which had a computer advertising section. He was interested in that, and then he heard that there was this computer graphics class....

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTFOLIO Paul said he had some small drawings which he did a long time ago, but he kept them at home in Miami. Since Paul's major was Business, which does not require any art knowledge or skill, Paul practically did not have a chance to do much art work. What he brought to the interview were two perspective black and white pencil drawings. Paul told me that his father taught him to draw these. Besides these two drawings, there were only a few sketches he did for the computer class, but they were not completed, and did not seem to be 160 serious work.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— Paul never had a chance to bring me more of his prior art works. I could only use these two pencil perspective exercises, and a few of his sketches for his computer images (see Paul's plates). I can only say that his father's perspective instruction must have had a big influence on him, for since then, Paul did many drawings, such as an interior room, or a row boat on the river, following the "rule" he learned. Paul did not have much art training, but Paul was very patient and careful which I believe helped him to draw as correctly as possible in terms of proportion. Color— There was no chance to see Paul's understanding of the usage of colors, since all the pencil works were black and white. However, he said that he was pretty sure in his mind exactly what he wanted to do, so maybe only enacting that idea would be a little harder for him. Light— I believe that he did not practice or think about the light too much while he was carefully working the proportion of his art objects. Not because Paul's drawings are line drawings, but because he never specifically worked with the light in his drawings in any way, Space— This is the strongest part of Paul's drawings. He paid much attention to the proportion of the objects and the perspective of the whole scene. All the objects in his image are physically correct, such as the size of the car vs. the buildings, and the row of the street lamps vs. the perspective of the diminishing eye point. The two images are supposed to resemble a view from the top of a building looking across the street at a comer of another 161 building. His father showed him that the height of a building, its general shape, the location of the horizon, and where your eye is all determine the perspective. Then, his father showed him lines going to a certain diminishing point, which determines how tall the light poles would be. There is also a small pencil drawing of a person's body attached to the perspective, to show the relationship in size between the building and a hum an. Composition— Paul did not use all the art elements for the composition. What Paul learned actually is perspective drafting, which could be used for architecture or interior design. For all the drawings or sketches, he started with a horizontal line, putting all the necessary objects on the perspective plane. The objects have different sizes according to the distance, which also determines how crowded the objects are. Paul did manage to put things in balance. Normally this worked well if the objects were small, but if the objects were big, sometimes, the shape of the objects became more important than the perspective. This happened to one of his sketches, in which the shape and the texture of the central piece, a duck, is paid more attention than the volumetric effect following the perspective rule. Subject matter— Paul's subject matter was mostly recognizable things and events. His favorite subject was an eight-man rowing shell, because he was involved in rowing at that time. He had a few sketches of rowing for his computer image; in this case, he focused on individual things, such as hands on an oar, and the whole crew of the boat. 162 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER IMAGES Paul never used the computer to draw before, but he did a good job in the computer class. Paul was very calm and meticulous. He was never worried or upset, because he was always able to create the image he wanted. He learned fast and worked very hard. So, it was not a surprise that all his computer images were strong works. He used interesting compositions for his works, and he tried to use metaphor for those things which were too complicated to explain. He thought that there were a lot of similarities between using computers and other two dimensional media to work art because one has to know basically what one wants in either case. But the difference he found is that for certain things it may be easier to do on paper because it is more direct: using the mouse, our eyes cannot follow our hands; rather the eyes have to follow the screen. He said when he Erst came into the class he was surprised at how easy it was technically, because it was just part of being a computer whiz. He thought we were back in phase one or stage one where one had to type out certain parameters.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— At the beginning, because of his little art background, Paul thought that he was going to take months to do one picture until he found the process he could try. He did pretty well. I selected two of them: one is a story of a friend who felt time has passed too fast while studying at Ohio State. The other image is an eight-man rowing boat sailing on the river (see Paul's plates). I selected these two to show Paul's abilities of working with a subtle and complicated subject, and with perspective. 163 Color— With the computer he could change the color easily. So, his strategy was to put some color down, then move to the next color that he knew was true to the object, such as blue for the sky. Then, he could change the water color simply by going to the color palette and changing the color that was there. He said his father taught him some color concepts, such as warm and cool colors. In his fifth grade dass, he was taught the color wheel, but he can't remember much about it. He did not have technical rules for the combination of colors; he mainly experimented. In the friend's story, Paul used yellow and blue colors to describe hope and unhappiness. He used white color for those regular happenings in life. The crew image is a different story. He used light sky blue, and the colorful young men’s' hair jumps out from the river's dark blue and green colors. The whole image is lightened because of the colors. Light— Paul thought light was important in three-dimensional drawings, and what he had to do was picture where the light was coming from. On the computer he had to figure this out, because there is no function called light. The light is determined according to the color pattern. Paul actually did not use light too much because he did not need it The friend's story is a question of the colors not light. Even in the boat, he did not need to depict the light except on the trees on the riverbank, and some white dots on the river to depict the reflection of the sun on the water. That seemed enough for what Paul wanted. Space— For Paul maybe hand drawing was easier than the software's function when dealing with the perspective question, because with the computer "I couldn't just take the ruler and draw a line." So he used the straight line 164 function, drawing the line from the diminishing point, then going back and erasing the part of it that he didn't want. So basically, Paul was only using the brushes to draw a perspective line without using the function for perspective. Perspective to him was really what size things should be as they moved further back and what the view point of the observer is in the picture. So if someone is up high and there is a horizon and what he is looking at is a tower, then his eye is going to be at about the same point where the horizon goes across that tower or fairly close to the tower. In his friend's story, Paul did not use perspective. There is no central object. All the small pieces of the story become small shapes occupying different locations in the space. However, in the rowing boat, the boat and the riverbank become part of the radiant lines going directly toward the central diminishing point. Except the sky, almost all the pieces evenly shared the bottom space. Composition— Paul said, usually, the way his stuff turned out was that the main theme of the picture would be right in the middle. He thought it was more straightforward and realistic. Also, he liked symmetrical compositions very much. He admitted: "I think I would try asymmetric work if I had a little bit more skill and things like that. It's easier to put things right in the middle and that is why I am doing it" Paul talked about the composition: "If it is a realistic drawing I know the composition is right, when I say to myself 'goodness that looks a lot like the way it should/ But if it is just something that I am drawing like abstract or something, then it's hard to tell—the composition is there and it is not real busy but there aren't real big open spaces where you are just like 'shouldn't there be some meaning/ That is 165 another thing as far as composition goes everything should have some kind of meaning. Or if it is a pattern, even if it is a big pattern that has open spaces it should be like 'okay do all these things have meaning.' The fact that it is a big open space of it that has a meaning." In terms of his computer images, the interesting part of the rowing boat is that the radiant symmetrical composition makes the image dynamic. The friend's story is almost a geometric drawing. The round shape of Time is rolling down from the slope of a roller coaster track. In the upper left comer is an Ohio State square logo. An irregular piece of the newspaper shows a square advertisement inside. Some letters hang on the track. The composition looks like a colorful graphic chart. Each of the fragments is placed in a similar distanced location. Paul was trying to balance these fragments in order to make an interesting composition. Subject matter— Paul thought he worked better with real life issues and a realistic style. But he always tried to move beyond this by doing some abstract works. The rowing boat is a fairly realistic image expressed in a realistic style. The friend's life is a graphic work carrying a symbolic story. He said the story inspired the composition. The roller coaster itself shows the "up" and "down" of his friend's life at that time. The "down" point is caused by the time constraints placed on his friend by school work, and housing problems. The "up" means the coming termination of study and the hope it will bring.

SUMMARY OF PAUL'S CASE Paul scored lowest in both art background and on the art term test. He had 166 only seven points total on his prior formal art education, with ten points in informal art experience. Even the informal art experience was not quite directly working with art. His prior understanding of art terms only scored 2.8 points. In most instances he could hardly guess at the possible answer. Looking at Paul's later works, one would never imagine that Paul lacked strong formal art background. I believe Paul learned art from his father more than from any art teacher. During conversations, Paul kept telling me he learned this or that from his father. Paul said his father taught him colors, perspective, and proportions. But actually he could not remember all of the techniques he learned from his father. He worked mostly by experimentation, since with the computer he could change the color easily. He just used a color, and changed it many times until he thought it best, or he would go back to the original one. His judgment was personal, but on target. The horizontal line was almost Paul's "standard" line; if the objects were small and were placed in a realistic context, then this standard line helped to / put everything in its place. If the objects were big, then Paul might ignore the perspective scenes, and instead the shape of the objects became more important. I said earlier that for Paul hand drawing was easier than using the software's function for perspective. He used a rule to draw directly. Instead of using the software perspective function, he used the regular brush to draw perspective as he did with pencil. I believe Paul was trying to learn art in the computer environment but in his subconscious; he could not change the way he worked on perspective. Paul was a calm and hard worker. He knew he lacked drawing skill, and so he tried hard. He did a few sketches of rowing for his computer image, focusing on individual things such as hands on an oar, 167 and how the whole image should be composed. Paul also developed a way to start to know the computer tool. He said the first thing he noticed was the hand/eye problem, so he was slower in developing his images. He said the magnifying function was what he used most, because he could get one of the small color pixels in the right spot. Paul's subject matter was mostly recognizable things and events. His favorite subject was an eight-man rowing shell, because he was involved with rowing at that time. But he wished he had more time to work on something else because he said he had lots of ideas. Having less prior art knowledge there is less evidence of successful transfer. However, he had a well thought organizational strategy to transfer his limited art knowledge, and could easily learn new knowledge. He was happy with the way that he worked on the computer, but if he were going to do it again he wouldn't mind trying more things, such as abstracts, for which he thought computers were especially useful because of all the different lighting. $ Plate XXXI Eddi's cartoon "Aliens" 1987 170

Plate XXXII Eddi's oil painting " Street'' 1987 Plate XXXIII Eddi's computer art "Self portrait" 1991

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m Plate XXXIV Eddi's computer art " A friend's story" 1991 173 Case Eight Eddi Eddi grew up in a church family. His father was the minister of the church, and the church provided a lot of art lessons for children. Eddi started to draw very early. When he was a teenager, he helped his father to teach children how to make crafts at the church. He said he took many art classes throughout high school, and joined a lot of art competitions. Among the media he used, Eddi preferred water color because it was the first sophisticated art tool for him, and it also gave him some idea of how to mix colors. Eddi was a senior majoring in Computer Science, but his interest in art never diminished. During his university years, he took several art classes from the art department Sometimes during the break, he would pick up one thing to draw—either cartooning, water color, or oil painting. He became more interested in cartooning. Maybe because he was interested in both art and computers, he decided to take the computer graphics art class. It was the first time he took an art class using the computer, but he wasn't worried because of his background in both computer and art.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTFOLIO Eddi had been painting for many years during high school and at the university, and all the works he did were very carefully preserved. He brought me three piles of his works. He first showed me a pile which contained all the works he did during his leisure time, and during his high school years. There were drawings, cartooning, and acrylic works. The subjects were mainly portraits, Japanese pilots, self portraits, persons, still life, and cars. Eddi pointed out each work and told me a story about the picture, 174 the meaning of each symbol, the colors he used, and so on. He said that these pictures were all his own ideas. He explained that since his childhood, he learned a lot of art, so the ideas came naturally. Whenever he had a project to do, it came straight out of his mind without having to research through a magazine. He also showed me other works he did during an art class he took at the university. They were more charcoal works, and the subject matter became more literary. Some of the works were not completely his own ideas; they were from famous contemporary artists.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions-- I selected two works. One is a typical example of Eddi's playful cartooning, and the other one is Eddi's opposite image, a dark and blue street scene (see Eddi's plates). The cartooning was a school project during high school. The image is of a lot of aliens standing in front of each other. The street scene was also a high school project, being a view of the end of the street. There are hotels and stores on the street with a little bit of light coming out from the other end. Color— The alien is a colorful work. Because of the nature of the water color, these colors are light and transparent, and the figures are outlined in black ink. The interesting thing is that only some bigger figures are colored with green, red yellow and blue all over, while most of the figures are left white, like a black and white cartoon from a newspaper. The background is white too, except the ground is colored with a water dissolved red color which enlightens the whole picture, creating a cheerful image. Contrary to this, the street scene is a dark color work, and because of the oil quality, the colors look 175 thick. It is supposed to be a night scene, and Eddi set a blue tone for the whole image. There are different value ranges of blue colors on all the buildings, and only a few dark red colors for the hotel sign and a wall. Eddi was good at setting the mood for different types of works by using appropriate colors. Light— When I asked Eddi about the use of dark colors for the street scene, he pointed out that it is the end of the street, and there is no street lamp at a visible distance. We can only see a little bit of the light coming out from the other end reflecting on the edge of the roof and the building. The hotel and some other buildings at the back side of the lighting casts a dark shadow. Eddi did this picture without looking outside or at a picture. It was pure imagination, but Eddi arranged the lighting in a logical way. There is no light issue in the alien work. It is a cartoon work with flat colors. Space— The alien is a work full of small objects. The flock of aliens have occupied the central part of the image, and the sky is also occupied with numerous balloon-like creatures. We can figure out the perspective by looking at the aircraft which has been put at a far distance from the aliens. The street scene is not a realistic work, being more influenced by cubism. The canvas is a big square, although upon closer examination, it is actually a union of squares, rhombi, and other geometric shapes. In a very small space, the buildings share four spaces with different proportions. The perspective in this picture is suggestive—just follow the street and we will find it. Eddi said normally, he did not have any problem with the perspective. He did a lot of engineering graphics, and the perspective was something they had to do very precisely. Composition— The street scene is a very sophisticated composition for an art 176 learner. Eddi said that it came from his imagination. The street lines/ roofs, and windows spread as a spiral, yet the buildings are divided into several vertical lines. Small shapes are overlapping on the bigger ones and the right side of the bigger building is to balance the heavy weight on the left hand side. The alien picture looks like a happy family picture, in which all the family members stand close to each other in the center of the picture. Red and yellow balloons—like creatures—are flying towards the upper right over the crowd. This work is a simple, symmetrically balanced composition. Subject matter— Maybe because of the different cultural background Eddi had, his subject matter seemed different too. Eddi liked international characters during his high school years. He drew a Japanese pilot, an alien, an Australian ostrich, and a war, and many of these he expressed with cartooning. However, during his university years, Eddi's subject matter became more serious. He concerned himself more with the relationship between the subject matter and the medium. He did several studies of persons' facial expressions, and studies of contemporary artists' styles with charcoal. Overall, his subject matter showed two extreme expressions, either very cheerful, or very sad.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER IMAGES Eddi was a senior computer science student, so nothing about the computer scared him. Almost from the beginning of the class, he was ready to draw. He thought that it was a lot easier using the computer to draw than using other art media, not only because the functions of the computer are handy, but also because of the time saved by not having to wait for the paint to dry or 177 washing the tools. He said after he learned a new medium and new tools, he learned more about art, and his art concept expanded. He had an interesting theory about the art experience he earned. He said that "art experience does not really help your drawing because you know it already. You just need to know the arrangement of that knowledge better." He spent less time than other students working on his computer projects. Although he did not do a bad job, I think he could have done much better if he had spent more time on his works. Among his four computer images, three of them show an air of internationalism and universalism.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— The first work is a self portrait, which is a digitized image of Eddi's face surrounded by colorful graffiti. The second one is a friend's story which is a miniature scene of bull fighting on top of a pair of eyes (see Eddi's plates). These two works have a lot of similarities in terms of the subject matter and the method of working. They are his better computer works too. Color— Eddi said that he felt very comfortable using colors. He thought that part of the reason was because he had kind of talent in art, and the other part was that he had gained some theoretical ideas about colors and other things from his art classes. An art class served to refresh what he learned before. He thought that using the computer made it easier to choose colors because of the color charts, because "you don't have to mix them, you just move the slider up and down." In his self-portrait, Eddi used to live in NY. The colors he used (neons, bright colors) were to resemble the colors of most graffiti in NY. In the second work, the face color is adjusted to be similar to the soil at 178 the arena and he used "smear" to blur the face to have a feeling of the sand's grandness. Deciding what color the background should be, however, took him a while, since the object's hair color is black, and if he left it black, it would seem that one third of the picture would be empty. Finally, he used a salmon red color which goes well with the other colors of the image. Light— He said that just from past experience, and the natural things we can see outside, he knows if there is light at a certain point what the object should look like. He thought this was common sense. He felt it was better to use common sense whenever he arranged the light. He did not feel a difference between media. He thought the light and the shape were very conventional in his self-portrait, where the digitized photographic self image still kept the original lighting. He added some white color to show the reflection of the glasses. The second image is the same thing—the lighting is not a big issue, for the image itself is graphic and flat. Space— He said "space is a view. One views real space by what boundary the paper can cover. And yet, the distance between objects is also space." He never had a problem with perspective because he did a lot of perspective while taking computer graphics classes in the Computer Science Department. That was mainly simulation with three-dimensional objects. His computer art works did not have too much physical perspective because he never used it; however, Eddi used a psychological perspective. He reduced the sizes of those things in his memory, and put them in distant places, in the background, or at the center. The graffiti of the New York subway, and the bull fighting in an arena show this perspective. Composition— Eddi said that he knows it is a good composition when he is 179 happy with it and when it looks right. But he also learned by taking art classes and practicing. Eddi said he also knows some rules for a good composition/ for instance/ he thought that creating tension and attracting the viewer are part of the rules. His reason was that if you pile three cubes up, it will attract more attention from the viewers than just lying them separately on the ground. What Eddi understood was a good composition should also be showy, which is not necessarily true except in the case of some design works. Actually, Eddi did not apply this theory into the practice of computer image-making. The self-portrait is a radiated symmetrical piece. The friend's story is also symmetrical and parallel. Subject matter— Eddi brought internationalism into his art even when it was a self portrait. Eddi's idea of the self portrait was to reveal the place he considered his hometown—New York City. He tried to give an impression of himself at a subway station with the background of graffiti. The graffiti on the background also shows his name. The extra hair on the back, the earring, and the funky glasses is to symbolize New Yorkers' carelessness toward what people think about them. His original idea of the second work—the friend's story—was to have the ocean, wave, and beach above and under the thinking eyes. But after he finished digitizing the object's eye onto the screen, he thought the ocean would not symbolize much about Spain—the place the object had been living for many years. So he ended up using the bull fight scene to better represent Spain. Eddi's works were very imaginative. As he said, he did not use pictorial references for his art; everything came out of his m ind. 180 SUMMARY OF EDDI'S CASE Few science students have had as much interest and real experience in art as had Eddi. His formal art education gave him forty three points, and together with his informal art experience, he had fifty eight points total which placed him in the forth position among the other students. His concept and art term test were lower than his score on other measures. Obviously Eddi gained more art knowledge and skill by making art directly. Eddi had much confidence in himself; he considered himself talented by nature, but he also thought that some theoretical ideas could be earned from his art classes. Eddi needed art classes to refresh what he had learned. Eddi had good background knowledge and knew what to use when making images. He recognized the importance of the organization of knowledge and finding better ways to arrange this knowledge. He mentioned that art classes should help students arrange knowledge. Because of Eddi's art talent, and the computer science background, he had much more advantage in a computer graphic art class than anyone else in the dass from the beginning. When I asked him about the different art media, his answer was that using the computer is a lot easier. For Eddi the medium is one big reason for the subject matter. During high school, Eddi used water colors and ink, and he did more cartooning and graphic work. When he started to use charcoal, he found that it was not appropriate to do cartooning in charcoal, and therefore his subject matter changed. This change appears in his earlier works. However, the computer is a good tool for graphic works, and in his computer images he goes back to cartoon characters, such as using graffiti to represent New York. Eddi had a capadty for creating stories. His works were very 181 imaginative. Most of the things came out of his mind without having any pictorial reference. This can be shown in his previous art works as well as his computer art images. He said that he sometimes starts with a single object, then he relates it to another symbol, and finally fabricates a story for the whole image. Eddi did not change the way he organized the images between media. In his previous art works we see many symmetrical images, and this also appears in his computer art works. He also loved to give a lot of meaning to his images, and in his computer work, each object still carries its special message. Eddi would have had better transfer, if he had spent more time on his computer images. Those refined images in his previous works do not appear in his computer assisted works, though, he could easily make a strong statement in all the aspects of art. 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P late XXXV Kristin's charcoal's drawing "Body" 1989 184

| Plate XXXVI Kristin's oil painting "Portrait" 1989 Plate XXXVII Kristin's computer art "Still Life" 1991

oo Plate XXXVIII Kristin's computer art "A friend's story" 1991 186 187 Case Nine: Kristin Kristin was an art education major. She started taking art during her junior year of high school, and she got interested in painting right away. After she came to Ohio State, she took almost twenty-five hours of studio classes. She did all of the areas, and she liked to do everything except sculpture. She said during high school, students did more self-expressive works and were graded on how they did according to the guidelines of the assignment. At the university, she felt that she could do whatever style she wanted. Kristin got a lot of influence from her mother. It was her mother who told her to keep doing art at the beginning, then told her to be an art major, and even the computer art class was her mother's idea. But Kristin said she enjoyed art herself, and became motivated on her own to do it. She said that it was very frustrating in the beginning of the computer art class, because she could not figure out which button to press to get the pop up menus, and she was confused by the tool box and other technical problems.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTFOLIO Kristin did not bring the portfolio to me at our first meeting because she did not prepare it at that time. She brought it later. Most of Kristin's works were art exercises of charcoal drawings and acrylic paintings. Some life drawings of a model's body were her favorite ones. She also did many sketches to study the object she was going to draw. It was obvious that Kristin spent time on her works, but her previous works had some common characteristics. The ideas were very simple, and the shapes of the objects were rigid. 188 TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— I selected one acrylic painting of a face and a charcoal life drawing of a male model from her portfolio (see Kristin's plates). The girl was her classmate who sat next to her in a painting class freshman year, but she did not think that it came out the way she wanted. She liked the model drawing better because it was a good pose. Color— She said she learned in beginning drawing about color and matching different colors and the hues and contrasting colors. When she first learned drawing, she was really concentrating on matching and getting the contrasting colors. She said she used lots of strong colors, and the lines were pretty definite. She didn't try to blend anything together; it was usually a straight cut off where the color ended and where it began. The girl's face is a recognizable shape, but Kristin changed her eye color and made them purple and green and her mouth was orange and pink. Kristin said this girl was very moody so she tried to paint the background with the dark green and the blue on one side to show a mad side or a down side and the other side to show a bright side. Kristin said her nose was kind of an unusual shape so that's why she painted it yellow so that it really stood out She put the purple in the hair because she thought it looked nice with the black. Light— Kristin said that there were different light settings in the life drawing class. All her model drawings had strong lighting. The one I selected, I believe is the better one in terms of the lighting issues. The strong lighting makes the face and right shoulder completely white, while the rest of the body is under shadow of different value ranges. Kristin made use of this strong lighting to emphasize the rigidity of the expression of the model. 189 Space— Kristin used most of the center space for the girl's face. The interesting thing is that she eventually divided the whole image into five color spaces; they are all flat with similar sizes: yellow and blue in two sides of the background, then a pink face and dark blue hair and the sky blue cloth. There is no perspective in this picture, no shading to make the object volumetric either. The other image is different; Kristin dealt with lots of space problems because many of the poses of the models were with certain rigid shapes, such as an L shape or an N shape, so the color and the value ranges in these spaces could produce an important relationship for the image. I think Kristin still could not solve the perspective problems and the proportions of the model. For instance one arm could be too long, and one leg could be too small in a perspective view. Composition—The "girl" is a very simple composition: central and symmetrical. Kristin described the process of making this picture. She said that she made the girl's hair a lot shorter and she changed the style of it. Her face was pretty much the right shape surrounded by two flat colored backgrounds at each side of the face. The males in her life drawings were really muscular and were stiff holding the pose. She thought the model in her second work had a good pose, in the shoulder, and the body line across the shoulders, and the knee coming up, and the light coming from one way. Subject matter— There is no doubt that Kristin liked to draw human figures the most. She rarely drew a landscape or any other complicated image. All her works had really simple and clear subject matters, and the way she expressed them were simple too. She said she did not have a certain style; it 190 all depended on the day.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER IMAGES When Kristin talked about the portrait, she seemed to have more to say. She said she was not very good at still life so she just kind of drew what she saw. Kristin spent a lot of time practicing the eyes for the self portrait, and she could give a good explanation why the eyes are important. Kristin's computer works were simple, and clear. She did not have a particular color that she was interested in, nor a particular style. Kristin had never used the computer before; for her it was a new experience. She said she spent lots of time practicing the computer in order to be familiar with the functions. When she was drawing she used to look up the color menus to get a color she wanted. Sometimes, she got colors she liked by moving the color sliders accidentally. She thought there was no big difference whether she was painting with a traditional medium or with the computer because they are both flat, and the issues are similar.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— One work is about a project where she had to do something about another person. That person was Dave. Kristin used many small figures to represent the life of Dave. The other image is a still life. The still life contains a human figure, and I believe that is why Kristin selected this portion for her image (see Kristin's plates). Color— Kristin said she usually started by pairing the colors off that look good together like the same family of colors, then she tried to use those in an 191 arrangement in the picture. Then if she did not like it then she changed it and went to a different family or would mix. Unlike before, when she concentrated on matching and getting the contrasting colors, she began doing whatever looked good and whatever felt right. She said she used realistic colors for the portrait For the still life, she used a plain background with the bright-colored duck across the bottom, and the brown basket arching over the picture with the bronze figure and mauve colored leaves behind it. She said she tried to imitate the original still life color. The colors she used for "Dave" is a range of dither colors for the background which does not have much meaning it. The colors on the small figures in this picture seem less important. Light— Usually, she tried to put the lighter colors where she wanted the light to come from by changing the colors on the palette of the computer. She would use the zoom to get the object closer and use white dots or use lighter versions of some of the colors in the picture and put them in different places. That is what she did for the duck in the still life. She said when she was sitting behind the still life, the light was coming from the other side of the table with all the things on it, so she used the light just around the very edges like it was behind there. But usually, for some reason, she said she likes to do it from the bottom because light hardly ever comes up from the bottom on something. The other work, "Dave", is a graphic work with two dimensional objects. There is no light source. Space— Kristin thought that space is the black background and located mainly around the edges, and the figure is in the center of the picture. She said "On the still life, I used space a lot to try to show that the duck was in the basket 192 like the handle of the basket wasn't the same level as the duck was. I tried to use a little bit of lighting too to show that. Then I had a statue and mauve- colored flowers behind it, and those were a little darker than the duck was, like the face of the duck but then the body got darker So I guess it was kind of like I just made things darker to show the depth, the space there." Kristin said she usually likes to move the space either forward or backward. She did not usually like to move it off to the side or to the other side. She liked to keep it pretty much in perspective. Kristin had a very interesting quote about the space, she said: "I think of either the screen or the canvas just like a part of a huge picture. Sometimes I will make something go off the page... but I still like the space to be a cube. It can't be just contained on the canvas or the screen. It will go beyond. If I do it coming out, it will just keep coming out" Composition— Kristin thought that a good composition makes good use of the space, where objects relate to each other and they play off of each other. She thought a good composition has lots of angles and shows how the space is not flat. She said usually the composition is pretty much set once she gets rolling with an idea. The composition of the still life is centered and the parts are very detailed. With the duck across the bottom, the handle of the basket arching in the picture, and the female statue in the middle, the composition looks like a symmetrical semi-circle. In the portrait, she tried to use a symbol for each area of Dave's life that he told her about. She placed some small circled symbols and black straight lines on a background of a horizontal, colored spread. Subject matter— Kristin said to me that she was not interested in still life, but she liked doing portraits very much. All her computer images contained 193 "persons", especially faces. In the still life, she included the female statue, as well as in Dave's story, she drew many small faces. There was no certain way Kristin described these stories; she used symbol in one image, but used a more realistic approach in another.

SUMMARY OF KRISTIN'S CASE Kristin's prior art education measured sixty-four with an additional five points for informal art education. In other words she had the highest score of all of the students who participated in the study. Yet on the art terms and concepts test she scored only 3.4 points which placed her in the eighth position. During the whole quarter and in the interview, I noticed that she understood theory, and that she could give a very reasonable opinion or explanation about what should be done in color, light or in other elements of art. However, her skill was not as good as her grasp of theory. Kristin was the kind of person who has always been neat, who never makes things messy. Her work is like herself, clear and simple. Although she tried hard, she was unable to produce any strong works. For instance, when we talked about art knowledge, she said "with painting you learn the same things with drawing but different things related to drawing. Then with ceramics you learn the same things as with painting and drawing. Like the same basic techniques but then you learn different things too. I have just kind of built up the knowledge of composition, and the space, and colors." Kristin also had a very interesting quote about the space, she said: "I think of either the screen or the canvas just like a part of a huge picture. Sometimes I will make something 194 go off the page... but I still like the space to be a cube. It can't be just contained on the canvas or the screen. It will go beyond. If I do it coming out, it will just keep coming out." In her second computer work, "Dave", she used a range of dither colors for the background, and apart from the fact that there are several small round faces on it, there is practically no major drawing in this work. In fact, the background color is more noticeable than the faces. These small faces did not make a story. This is very similar to what Kristin did before for her self portrait Those symbols she used were not strong. Kristin said she ended up doing whatever looked good and whatever felt right. Although Kristin said she used realistic colors for her portrait, neither the self portrait nor the still life used realistic colors. Kristin also said she usually likes to move the space either forward or backward, and likes to keep it in perspective. However, she did not use any perspective in her images. Her works are mixtures of instability, some show more control than other students, and all the images have very different styles. This happened in both her previous art works and with the computer images. To a considerable extent Kristin's computer generated images displayed many of the limitations that were evident in her prior artistic accomplishments such as a naive use of color, stiff shapes etc. Although she had more years of prior art experience than the other people in the study, her studio skills were weak. This weakness carried over into the computer images as well. It's hard to make a positive case for transfer. Her prior studio products reflected a limited understanding of studio processes and this continued to be seen in her computer graphics as well. 195 Tkblc ( 16 ) Dave’s art experience

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Plate XXXIX Dave's pencil drawing" Gunman" 1987 197

Plate XXXX Dave's water color "Chair" 1987 Plate XXXXI Dave's computer art "Still life" 1991

■ * C 00 Plate XXXXII Dave's computer art "Self portrait" 1991

v£> 200 Case Ten: Dave Dave was a student with a GPA of 3.9 out of 4. Although Dave had some private art lessons during his grade school years and had an art teacher who really influenced him to do art on his own in high school, Dave really had not had anything in college beyond a few art education classes and art history classes because his major was Electrical Engineering. He did not ever really do any art work formal enough that he completed it; however he had worked a lot on computers and drawing programs. When he was younger he had the Atari 800 little computer, and did a lot of programming on it. He made little graphics programs that one could draw with the joystick. Dave had an internship and worked for General Electric for the past two years. He did a lot of CAD work using a lot of CAD and other packages. Most of the things he did for work on those systems were electrical symbol diagrams. It was a diagram of how the electric flowed through a plant. Although when he had an opportunity, during lunch breaks and after work, he would mess around with the three-dimensional capabilities. He made a couple of three-dimensional objects and little animations. He heard about the computer art class from an art instructor who gave a demonstration of computer art works in one of the art classes he took. Since he only needed a few classes in order to graduate, he thought it would be nice to take computer art.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTFOLIO The only art works he had were from high school. They were all realistic 201 works such as perspective images and closeups. Dave recalled how he did those drawings: "make good observations, draw exactly as you see, and then you can change it as you wish... 1 would say in retrospect, realistic probably is my style." He also said: "... usually I have straight lines. But, 1 also like doing things with gesture line... then looking at the work I have produced and the stuff that I like the best... are things with more control." Indeed, Dave was very versatile person. He knew he could draw, and he liked to do it. He experimented with different styles—some were made-up, some were copied. For instance, there was an attempt at a Roy Liechtenstein style, or 1970's photo-realistic art work. All the works he liked were well thought out. For instance, there was one street scene that he wanted to get the perspective and then look at the perspective reflections across, and making everything reflective through the glass of the building. Dave only kept the good works, and mostly pencil drawings. They were very controlled, slightly impersonal works.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— Both selected works were art course assignments. One is a water-colored full-size chair sitting in a room. It is a still life Dave did in his art class with special emphasis on the view point. The second one is an armed soldier with a gun and grenade in a room. The composition is imaginary, and the soldier is a copied figure. It is a fine pencil drawing. These two works are done in a realistic style (see Dave's plates). Color— At the beginning, Dave told me that he liked to use the computer just because he was never very good at mixing paints. It is obviously true that he 202 was using very few colors in his previous art works, and those colors are light and primary colors. He said he felt much freer to give form to things with pencil and he is better at drawing than he is at painting. The colors in the chair are very light and well-painted with black and brown water colors. He admitted he had never really been taught colors, or the way to use colors. He learned mostly through experimentation, drawing and getting used to varying color to show shading and to show expression. Light— The light is supposed to come from the front. Dave carefully painted the light and dark colors on the top and the bottom of the chair. The simple brown and black colors produce many value ranges, and show the beautiful light effects. The background black color has less contrast than the central chair. 'The soldier" is a hard-lead pencil drawing. The shadows of the objects in this picture are painted lightly. Since there are too many small objects, the shadows in this case are not noticeable. Space— The chair has been drawn with a wide-angle point of view from the front lower position. In this case, the chair's seat bottom and the legs look much bigger than they are seen normally. The chair is in perspective, as well as the background—a three-walled room with ceiling and floor. The wall in the back has been pulled to the far end which gives plenty of space for the chair. "Soldier" is in a similar situation but with a regular point of view. The man is a doseup image which is placed in a room. Very well-drawn small objects on the shelf tell the perspective of the image. Composition— "Chair" is a still life drawing. The object is a chair occupying the whole image in a symmetrically balanced composition. Dave took a "fish-eye" view from the bottom of the chair. The whole composition is an 203 assemblage of objects with geometrical shapes— straight lines, cubes, and square-shaped pillars. In terms of "Soldier", Dave said that it was supposed to be three figures from an unknown setting placed in an environment that he knew. Only one figure is seen and placed in the center-left of the image. The background is his room at home. There are many small objects placed on the shelf on the wall next to a window. Subject matter— "Chair'' was a still life class assignment at the beginning, but Dave made a story about the objects he drew, and changed the content when he thought the story would go the other way. He said "When I got done with it, it looked liked something very ominous so I placed it in a real dark room with prison bars." This kind of change happened to the other work, "Soldiers" too. It was supposed to place an unfamiliar event in another context. So Dave tried to put three armed soldiers in his room. It was called "Royal Crisis in my Bedroom." Since he liked only one of the characters, he focused on him, putting the others off to the side.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPUTER IMAGES Dave showed his computer expertise at the beginning of the class. He was not afraid of the computer and got used to the program very fast. Because of his dominance of the tools, he discovered early what the computer can or cannot do, and he had more time to deal with the problem of the images. He thought that most paint programs did better hard-edged images, such as straight lines or flat colors, as opposed to trying soft effects with functions such as "smear." He said he did a lot of playing around with the program, so he had used everything that it could do for his image. When he 204 wanted to do something he would pull the menu down and see what kind of effect he could use. Dave did not think the computer had ever changed his style in any way. And the idea also still would be the same no matter what medium he was using. Four of his five computer images were his head but they focused on the eyes. He had different ways to express the heads by using lines or shapes which could only be produced by the computer program. And he made those special effects meaningful too. All images were very carefully done, especially the contents.

TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT WORKS Descriptions— One image is a still life. Dave selected a portion of everything— the duck's head, leaves, arch of the basket, and a small part of a cylinder object, then he linked portions to each other like a chain. Dave tried to construct the piece as a "realistic" representation. He meant that the colors, shapes and the composition imitate the real objects. In the self portrait, Dave used a different approach. He was faced with the problem of representing himself with black and white images of his course work and interests. He had to superimpose the two. He digitized his portrait, transforming it into a neon-sign-like representation (see Dave's plates). Color- Dave actually found it easier to choose colors on the computer. He said he was not real good at judging the color the first time,just choosing one until he finds the color that he wants. The computer let him change things around a lot easier. But Dave understood well the resolution of colors depending on the computer systems, and the program used. In terms of 205 trying to get exactly what he wanted/ it was somewhat more difficult He used a lot of the different coloring modes/ the smear and blend and so on. He said he might not feel familiar or comfortable with colors, but he thought that he had a general understanding. In still life, Dave tried to use the colors which approximate the real ones; he did not use any primary color in this picture. He used mixed colors and different ranges of colors, so the image looks very harmonious. The white duck has a very light colored mouth, surrounded by some light brown and green leaves. The background is a dark navy blue which make all the objects prominent. The self portrait is also good in the use of colors. This time the digitized text book in the background remained in its print quality, while the neon-colored lines drew out the self-portrait super-imposed on the top. Light— He said he tried to use the same techniques that he had used before to do shading, picking a source of light and having everything match that source. He did not think the concept had really changed that much using the computer. In the still life, almost all of the shading was done through gradual planes of color. The duck's head is the best example: there are more than six light blue colors shaded on the duck' head, and five orange color series for the duck's mouth. Dave talked about his way of shading: "I have actually found it is easier on the computer because you just bring your palette up, take the color that you want and copy it down and move the value down so you have darker colors so you can create a whole range of colors which then you can use to show shading. For every object you pick, you pick a color that you want it to be in the light and a color that you want it to be in the complete opposite direction from the light and then it will create a range of values in 206 between that you can work with. It takes care of a lot of the mixing problems, getting gradations in color between the two/' He added why it is better with the computer: "...and as you mix them, you know they're so dark on the canvas or on the palette you can't tell how they are going to look once there... As you mix them, you are pretty much mixing blindly." The self portrait is a graphics design and deals with no light problem. Dave took advantage of the computer light color, using those high intensive colors to produce the neon light line for rendering the face. Space— Dave thought space meant how the picture is framed and how you are looking at an image, and whether you are taking a three-dimensional view of the position of objects, showing depth, or whether you have a two- dimensional space. He was not convinced of the benefit from the perspective functions on the computer, because each object is going off to a different perspective. He thought that most of the images that he did, he actually did by hand. His still life did not focus on the perspective, but the relation between the objects is harmonious. Each color group has its own space, and the lighter colors keep the objects from the dark background. There is no redundant space here. The self portrait is a work done with two flat images, one superimposed on the other. The color lines which form the face are like those found in contour maps. Different parts have different colors. Composition— Dave had this view of composition: "Unless you are going for an unbalanced look, you know, everything to one side. For some reason you are drawing people to one comer. You want to have a balance across your main objects which will draw the most attention. Your background will fill in the balance across the whole thing. If you have somebody off to one side 207 you need to have somebody off to the other side. Just general rules to make it pleasing to look at." He also said: "I usually end up not thinking about it ahead of time or maybe it is just automatic to place objects and then I usually end up moving things around until I hit upon a combination that I like. It's something that, you know, you need to have balance." In the still life, Dave decided to construct the piece as a "realistic7' representation. He constructed the objects separately and then saved them as brushes. Then, he pasted all of the pieces together to form the finished image. The objects starting and ending in the duck's head link together as a circle. Almost all of the shading was the finished image, piecing together to create the total. He also did do a lot of background decision-making. He might have had three or four different backgrounds on disk and he chose the one that he thought looked best with what he had. Having made a few, he could re-use them later—pieces of them or something like that. The self portrait is a simpler composition. The face is in the center of the image, but not symmetrically. A digitized portrait transformed into a neon-sign-like representation super- imposed onto a black and white digitized image. Expanding this analogy, he grouped the palette colors to " blink" section on and off when the colors were cycled. Sublect matter— Dave loved to draw heads. Four of his five images were all related to the human head; the last was a close up of the duck's head too. He used different ways to express the heads: drawn with lines, drawn with smear, digitizing then manipulating the functions, or treated with many different steps. Dave did not have a certain style. He tried to use all kinds of techniques for his works, each work as a new experiment. The process he 208 used the most was overlapping two images. This happened in three of his images.

SUMMARY OF DAVE'S CASE Dave had only twenty-five points in his previous formal art education, and he did not have any art training outside of school either. His total art experience placed him eighth among ten students. He learned art by experimenting. He felt nervous at the beginning of the computer art class, because it had been a long time since he had actually done any art for a class and he was in a class with a bunch of art majors and graphic design majors who did it all the time. So, he was afraid it that his studio skills wouldn't come back to him. However, Dave had used many IBM drawing and drafting programs including the most sophisticated CAD before he came to the dass, and showed his computer expertise immediately. He was not afraid of the computer and got used to the program very fast. He began to draw in a more traditional way on the computer, but it did not take long before Dave started to take advantage of the virtue of the quality of computer image, colors and functions which only can be done with computer. He thought the major change that he would make would be to indude digitized images. He found it interesting and useful, so he used digitized images for all his computer works. This technique actually helped Dave to discover more about the world of computer image processing. He was concerned with problems such as expecting the smear function to get softer effects, or higher resolutions to perfect images. The computer's functions also allowed him to do more experiments such as saving pieces of brushes and mixing up the color palette, 209 which probably helped to compensate for his lack of art experience. He said besides the feel of the computer, one can get similar effects (colors, shapes) from the computer as with other media. Dave repeatedly said that he liked to work with realistic drawing, but except for the still life, his computer images were not realistic. They were recognizable objects, but not necessarily realistic. Dave might not know the theoretical part of the art well, but he was an intelligent student who had the confidence of his computer experience, and dared to try things out such as colors and expressions. His computer images were not the best art works, but they are very well thought out and carefully drawn. Except for his tight composition, his computer images used more colors than his previous art works, and he tried to use more intensive color in one of his works. He did not deal with lighting issues in the computer images as he did in his previous art works. Dave really took advantage of the computer functions; he tried to convert any interesting effect to be a meaningful part of his image. This would be hard to do if someone were not familiar with computer programs. He used a lot of digitized images which made up for his lack of drawing skills. Dave may not have had much prior art knowledge, but he knew how to transfer what he knew, and understood the possibilities of the medium in terms of the expression and novelty and made the best use of them. However, most of the transfer that occurred was based on his prior knowledge of computer graphics rather than art knowledge. CHAPTER V II

RESULTS OF THE STUDY: THE INFLUENCE OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE ON COMPUTER IMAGE-MAKING

In this chapter the cases described in the previous chapter are interpreted and analyzed to determine how or whether a student's prior knowledge of art influences the types of work produced in a computer graphics class. At issue is the matter of transfer. As mentioned in the last chapter, Robert Stake suggests a basic process of analysis for a case study. After reviewing the data under various interpretations, the researcher needs to search for patterns in (he data, to seek linkages between program arrangements and outcomes. Then the researcher must try to draw tentative conclusions and organize these according to pertinent issues(1988). Similarly Mile and Huberman's "Qualitative Data Analysis" lists twelve tactics to generate the interpretation of the qualitative data. These are: counting, noting patterns, themes, seeing plausibility, clustering, making metaphors, splitting variables, subsuming particulars into the general, factoring, noting relations between variables, finding intervening variables, building a logical chain of evidence, and making conceptual/ theoretical coherence(1984). In the literature review(chapter 3) it was noted by Ausubel(1977) that an expert learner, a student needs not only a knowledge base and skills, but 210 211 also sufficient age and experience in manipulating ideas mentally, using a strategy called an "advance organizer/' This is a conceptual bridge between the knowledge in the possession of the learner and the new knowledge to be acquired in the new learning situation. Ausubel's idea of "advance organizer" is an earlier version of meta-cognitive theory. More recent theorists such as Prawat (1989) and Perkins and Salomon (1988) also discuss the prior knowledge of the learner as a major variable in determining successful learning in new situations. Prawat in particular describes the knowledge-base as containing "strategies" and "dispositions" which enable the learner to use what he or she knows in a new situation. Prawat also discusses the fact that a learner may possess specific forms of knowledge but not have access to that knowledge in new learning situations. He used the term "inert" knowledge to apply to such instances where the learner fails to see how the knowledge might apply in a new situation. Perkins and Salomon use the term "local knowledge" somewhat like Prawat's "inert" knowledge. When learning is too specialized it may lose its transfer potential. These writers also emphasize the idea that transfer is maximized when the prior learning contains common elements that also apply to the new context. The knowledge might have a key word, simple routine, or possibly a perceptual similarity to the new situation. In general, for successful transfer, knowledge should meet five conditions: First, the knowledge should not be "local" or "inert." Second, it must be well-learned (fully understood). Third, prior learning should overlap or have common elements with the new context. For example, the knowledge must be specific knowledge. Fourth, the knowledge should be organized. Finally, the 212 knowledge should be domain-specific knowledge. In the present study the ten participants each had different levels of art knowledge as determined by the number of courses taken in school and college. At one extreme the participant's experience was limited to one course in college. At the other extreme were students who majored in one of the art forms offered by the College of the Arts, and included courses in computer graphics. The participants ranged in age from nineteen to twenty-three. Among the ten participants, Anne, Paul, Jean, and Dave had relatively less art experience than the others. Thus at the outset they possessed less knowledge to bring into the new learning situation. On the other hand there were students who had a strong background in art and who could adapt it to the new context. In these cases were some common routines or possibly perceptual similarities that could be brought to the new situation. Most of the participants who majored in art and who had a lot of art experience such as Jeff, Mary and Eddi, were generally shown to be more accomplished in art skills and knowledge than those who majored in other fields than art. Normally in a computer graphics art class students might have come from one of three kinds of background: first they might have had art experience in one of several art disciplines either in a formal or informal art education but without experience with computers. Second they might have acquired a familiarity with computers, software and the like from non-art sources, and third, they may lack either a knowledge of art or the use of computers. In this study the effect of the first possibility has been studied. Based on the findings in this study the following points can be made: 1. The influence of a student's prior art-making experience can be discerned 213 in the student's computer art-making. 2. If that student majored in a specific area of art, (e.g., two dimensional design or technical drafting) the characteristics of that discipline are likely to appear in the computer generated art as was true in Bob's case. 3. Having limited art experience prior to work on the computer shows up in the computer generated art work, and in the cases dealt with in this study, the work was similar to work produced by students with no background in art at all. Students with more art experience have more to transfer to the computer environment. This was shown in the case of Dave whose prior experience was in the area of technical drafting. His technical approach to image-making prior to the computer also appears to influence his work with the computer. 4. The purpose of the research was to see what role the prior art knowledge of a given student would have on works of art done by means of the computer. Table 17 that follows summarizes the student's subjective appraisals of transfer. These responses were obtained by interviews, and from their written journals. I used the circle to represent the participant's good understanding in the first context, or if the participant applied old knowldge in the new context. I used the triangle to represent that the participant has some understanding in the first context, or if the participant applied some in the new context. The cross however, represents the participant who did not understand well, or could not apply old knowledge at all. The question mark is for those unknown states. In order to make this table more understandable, I wrote down a few of the characteristics from the interview, and from observation about their art works I decided whether to put a circle, a triangle, or a cross. From these 214 phrases, one also can tell that the conversations have different levels of depth. Nevertheless, these phrases are not single, random comments, they have a long conversational context. It is necessary to read the table after reading the entire analysis in chapter six. Andy: 1. never has a real problem with colors... 2. avoids using shadow to show light because there will be more issues to deal with later... 3. composition is easier when there are more objects... 4. perspective is hard to use unless he is using geometric figures... 5. too difficult to put an idea on paper... Anne: 1. color is used for filling the space... 2. looks at a landscape photo to draw... 3. All the flowers are the same sizes, same shapes... 4. too difficult to figure out an ideal composition... Jean: 1. always remembers what a teacher said, for a good composition, one has to fill the page up... 2. likes to draw part of the human body, but did better with landscape... 3. also loves religious subject matter... Bob: 1. photo skill is good enough, but drawing is harder... 2. uses simple colors. It's easier only to handle values... 3. photographs are all realistic, computer works are all fantastic... 4. after all, the computer images are made by digitizing... Mary: 1. whole family are artists... 2. try to find her own style... 3. all previous art works are abstract, while all computer works are realistic... 4. always combines geometric shapes and organic shapes in the same computer images... Jeff: 1. had worked with all kind of art forms, and techniques... 2. likes "hard edge" images... 3. earlier works used lots of mixed-colors... 215 Table ( 17 ) Summary of the influence of participants' prior knowledge on formal qualities of computer image-making

COLOR 1 uuwnapt control 1 m pnsrian nowslty Andy 1 O / o O / o O / o O / O 1 A im 1 a / a a / A a / A a / A 1 1 a / a a / a A / A a / a 1 Bob* 1 A / A a / a A / A a / a 1 M ary 1 O / OO / O O / o O / O 1 JUf 1 O / O A / o O / o O / O 1 Paul t 7 / O r / A T / o 7 / O 1 t O / O o / o O / o O / O 1 Kristin 1 o / OA t A A / A A / A 1 D m 1 a / A a / A A / A a / A 1 UCHT 1 concept control axprssrion novulty

Andv 1 A / AA / A A / A a / a 1 Anna 1 a / a a / a a / a a / a 1 J - n 1 A / A a / a a / a a / a 1 Bob 1 O / OO / O O / AO / A 1 M ary 1 A / O A / OO / o O / O 1 * 1 o / o A / o A / o A / A 1 Paul 1 a / A a / A a / A a / A 1 Bddi 1 O t o O / A O / A O / A 1 Kristin 1 O t o A / AA / AA / A I D m 1 A / o A / OA / OA / O 1 s m c B 1 tin fap t control saprsmton novslly Andy 1 A / A A / A A / AO / A 1 A m 1 a / A a / a a / a a / a 1 Jam 1 O / O A / A A / a A / a 1 Bob 1 O / o o / OO / OO / A 1 M ary 1 O / o O / O O / O A i O 1 J* 1 O / o o / o O / o O / O 1 Paul 1 A / o A / o A / o a / O 1 1 O / o o / o o / o A / A 1 Kristin 1 o / o A / A A f A A / A 1 Dam 1 o / 0 o / O O / o O / O 1 COMPOSITIOK 1 concept control sapM trion novsity Andy 1 O / o O I O o / o O / O 1 Anna 1 a / a a / a a / a A / a t Jam 1 A / A a / a A / AA / a 1 Bob 1 o / o 0 / AO / AA / A 1 M ary 1 o / O O / O o / O A / O 1 J* 1 o / o o I O o / o O / O 1 Paul 1 a / A a / AA / o a / O 1 B aa 1 O I o O I o o / o O / O 1 Kristin 1 A / AA I AA / A A / A < D m 1 O / O O / O o / O A / A 1 SUBJBCT 1 concapt control saprosrion nom lty Andy 1 o / o A / A A / OA / A 1 A m 1 A / A a / A a / a a / a 1 Jam I O / o A / AO / A A / a 1 Bob 1 o t o O / o O / O A / O 1 M ary 1 o t o O / o o / O O / O 1 w 1 o / o o / o o / o O / O 1 Paul 1 A t o A / o a / o a / A 1 Bddl 1 O / o o / o O / o O / O 1 Kristin 1 O / o o / o A / AA / A 1 Dbus 1 o / o o / o O / O A / A 1

O * understand wdl or hsv* applied all Prior Art Con tut ■ LaA Coburn A - understand scan* or have applied seme New Art Context - Right Columns x ■ not understand wet] or have not applied yet 7 ■ unknown (Saa page 2t3) 216 Ikble (18 ) Comparison of ten participants' transfer of art knowledge

Andyt A i m

O 1. no local no inert X 1. no load, no Im r A I w r i l M m d X XwoOlMRMd A 3. organised X 3. aNtnilid O 4. naw/old ovariapped X A now/old overlapped A 5. domain ip a d /k X 5. domain apedBc O 1. Prior knowledge X 1. Prior knowledge O 2. Enough age O 2. Enough *ge A 3- AdvncH«|HiM n and X 3. Advanced organizer* and meta-oognlttve auatagy mate-cognitive ateatagy

Jaaai M i O 1. no local, no inart X 1. no local, no Inert A 2. wall laamad A 2. wall learned X 3. organized A % orgariMd A 4. naw/old ovwiapped O 4. naw/old overlapped X S. domain specific X 5. domain specific A 1. P rk r knowledge A 1. Prior knowledge O 2. Enough aft O 2. Enough age X 3. Advanced organiser* and A 3. Advanced aeganizar* and mala cognitive a a n ^ e mate-cognitive * Ira tagy

M ujfi O 1. no local, no Inart O 1. no local, no Inert O 2. weO laamad O 2. w all learned O 3. nrganliart O 3. organ! and O 4. new/old ovariapped O A naw/old ovarlappad A 5. domain apadSc O 5. domain specific O 1. Prior knowledge O 1. Prior knowledge O 2. Enough aga O 2. Enough age O 3. Advanced organImre and O 3 Advanced atgantnee and mata-coptitiue atralagjr msta-aognitivt strategy

X 1. no local no tnari O 1. no local, no taiart X 2. wad learned A 2. wadlaam orl a 3, oftttltad O 3 organised X A naw /old ovwiapped O A naw/old overlapped X 5. domain specific A 3 domain specific X 1. Prior knowledge O 1. Prior knowledge O 2. Enough aga O 2. Enough me O 3. Advanced organiser* and O 3 Advancedorganl lara and mete-cognitive a n l^ g msta-ooytUlw strategy

D ave O 1. no local, no Inert A 1. no local no Inart O 2- wad laamad A 2.1 A 3 orgaadaad O 1. _ O 4. naw /old overlapped A 4. naw /old ovariapped X 5. A I t ' O 1. Prior knowledge A 1. Prior knowledge O 2. Enough aga O 2. Enough aga A 3. Advancedorgacdaara i O 1 Advance maw cognitive strategy main mydttva strategy

O - oondiilene have ham correct applicable Sir tnnaiacrtng A • ccndMona have not bean tcaiecl cr applicable X • coodttiona have not be correct 217 4. wondering about light issues and their physical correctness... Paul: 1. did not believe he could do it... 2. everything in an art work should have meaning... 3. it is easy to tell that a realistic art work has a right composition, but abstract work is hard to tell... 4. gets question marks for his colors in previous works... but in computer generated works, he is good at colors... Hddi: 1. his subject is very international... 2. what the light should look like is common sense sometime... 3. good composition work must be showy... 4. loves to use imagination to draw... 5. art knowledge, and skill are both important for him... Kristin: 1. her art works are not as strong as her enthusiasm... 2. seems that she has learned everything, but something is missing... 3. simple objects, simple composition, simple subject matter.... Dave: 1. he works with precise measurement... 2. loves to try new things... 3. observe well, draw exactly as you see, and then you can change it as you wish... 4. has used many drafting software packages to design... It shows from this table that Jeff, Eddi, Mary, Andy, Kristin and Jean transferred more or less what they understood no matter how much they knew, and showed stability in their progress. Anne, Bob, Paul and Dave showed that they changed some, for better or for worse. The interesting thing is that none of these four participants majored in Fine Art. Most of them improved where there is a difference between their old context and the new one. Those students who learn image-making knowledge only from the new art-making environment in only one course are unable to transfer, but they may learn fast and improve their understandings. I saw the following 218 distinctions within the summary of art experience: with more art experience, there is more transfer, and with little art experience there is obviously less transfer. There are also "in-betweens," such as having more art knowledge but with less transfer. But they all have something in common: they all transfer what they knew whether it is more or less. Table 18 summarizes the comparison of ten participants' conditions of knowledge in which transferring would be successed. Circles represent that conditions of knowledge are correct or applicable. Crosses represent that conditions of knowledge are not correct or applicable. And triangles are in between the above two kinds of conditions. According to this table, Jeff, Mary and Eddi have had better conditions of knowledge, and followed by Kristin, Andy and Dave. Bob, Jean, Paul and Anne have had the least favorable conditions of knowledge for successful transfer. Six of the participants did not have local and passive prior knowledge, while three other participants did. Only three participants' prior knowledge was well organized, five participants' prior knowledge was not quite organized, while two participants' knowledge was not organized at all. Most of the participants' prior knowledge had common elements which overlapped with the new learning situation. Only one had domain specific knowledge in terms of computer art. There are a few things worth mentioning. The cases also revealed that successful transfer did not necessarily guarantee that the student would produce better art work. Sometimes, the students' current efforts affect their art-making too. Another issue that clearly emerges is that the result of an 219 understanding of the art concepts as reveled through the finished art work, is very different from that which is revealed through a written test of art terms and concepts. According to the table, Mary, Jeff and Eddi had a better knowledge of concepts in all the categories in the art elements, Bob and Kristin were in the second place, Andy and Dave third, Jean fourth, then Paul and Anne followed. It is clear that a person who understands the art terms and concepts does not necessarily know how to apply them in a real art- making situation, and vice versa, those who understand the concept in a real art-making situation do not necessarily know what all those art terms stand for. The issues on the control of the elements partially relates to the tools being used, and if the art tools are computer systems, the issues would relate to the design of the software interface. But the interface should not pose a problem, because the commercial computer paint software has in recent years been designed to be user-friendly and as interactive as possible. The case with which the new programs can be used by novices may actually lessen the importance of transfer in the new context. The art elements, light and space present learning issues most difficult to handle. Most of the participants preferred a flat and graphic style in both their earlier works and computer-generated images, which simply eliminated the light problems. Another reason is that the computer picture plane is small, and it is hard to deal with issues in detail. This happened with the space issue. Students working with problems involving the use of perspective were torn between the use of the built-in perspective function and the hand drawn perspective which they usually do. The relationship 220 between the objects, and the shape and size of the objects, are hard issues for new art learners. Most of the students preferred symmetrical, balanced composition in their earlier art works. It's obvious that this kind of composition is the easiest to be considered good composition, and to please viewers' eyes. However, some participants have tried more other kinds of composition in their computer art images. 221 STRATEGY OF TRANSFER: THE WAY STUDENTS WORK

The second question asks for the way students transfer prior image- making knowledge and skill to computer image-making. As I mentioned in the third chapter, another intellectual resource the methods learners use to gain access to relevant information is placed on strategic levels. Prawat distinguishes between two levels: specific and general. He says that the specific strategic level is more prescriptive, such as the application of key­ words while the general strategic level is executive control skills, such as planning and monitoring. Woolfolk (1987) states in a similar fashion that the specific transfer strategy is applied when two contexts have similarities, and the general transfer strategy is applied when thinking skills are needed to solve problems. I mentioned earlier that Perkins and Salomon (1988) suggest two models of transfer: low road and high road. Low road transfer occurs with basic skill-type knowledge, well practiced routines, or information with perceptual similarity to the original knowledge. High road transfer requires deliberate, mindful abstraction of skill or knowledge. High road transfer involves thought in abstracting from one context and seeking connection with others. Among those human abilities, the motor skills such as drawing and driving are more than routine skills for everyday use; they require combined skills for professional needs. These drawing and driving skills need to use both specific and general strategies to transfer. Ten participants, except Anne, who did not have any art experience, 222 agreed that there is no real difference in the way of working with the computer and working with other two-dimensional media. They all agree that working with any two-dimensional image will require solving the same kinds of problems with the art elements. Except for some differences in the qualities of the product, such as the brighter image, uneven pixel line, picture plane size, or the menu-driven tools, they do not see that there would be a different method of making art, for example, if they had to use oil painting instead. During the research interview, one of the questions was whether or not the participants used the menu to give them a hint for the selection of the effect. The answer was 'Yes', but with different reasons. At least six of them said that they already had a fixed idea on how to do their work. The functions on the menu gave better options. Three of them said that they sometimes did not know what to do, so they just used the menu and "played around" with the functions. Because of the similarity of the knowledge, many of the participants used low road strategies to transfer their earlier learned knowledge. They said that they 'knew' what color they should use, what composition would look better, which depended on what they felt. However, if those images were more difficult for them, then they adapted a more high road strategy to transfer what they knew to work out their problems. For participants like Dave, Eddi, and Jeff who major or majored in a discipline which requires considerable computer literacy, the similar technical skill for making computer images transferred easily. A few participants, like Anne, who lacks art knowledge in the first place, could not achieve a successful transfer. 223 ART DISCIPLINES AND TRANSFER

The proposed research looks for the possible influence of students' discipline of study on their transfer process. This assumes in the first place that the students' major study will affect how they will work in a computer graphics environment, that students may bring characteristics of that discipline to his or her computer art work. In this research, there were a total ten participants who came from seven different disciplines which were either students' proposed major or their current major. Six of them were within the art area—two in Art Education, and one in Fine Art, Industrial Design, Medical Illustration, and Photography. Four of the participants were from non-art majors—two in Business, and two in Engineering.

Within the Art Area- Difference is Less It seems common sense that if art experience comes from any of the art disciplines students study, the transfer of the concepts and characters of that art major study area to the new context can be closer than those with non-art disciplines. However, within the art disciplines, there may still be some differences though they may be less. In order to decide which aspects of art knowledge are important enough to transfer, and to expect that transfer can occur, we have to determine the learning objectives of the art programs, and the medium used. Efland (1983) gives a very clear description of the four art education models the institutions have applied: behavior modification, social interaction, 224 person centered, and information processing. Each model provides reasons for teaching art, suggestions about what should be taught, and methods of evaluation. Although these models derived from the chronological aesthetic, psychology, and sociology theories influenced by social and cultural backgrounds, they have been widely applied by institutions to explain different objectives of art programs and for different levels of art learning processes. For instance, a recent trend in art education is to utilize an information processing model of art education, and in college-level study, the objectives of the industrial design programs are similar to the objectives of social interaction models of art education which claim that art work should bear social functions, while the objectives of the fine art programs seem to fit better in the information processing and person-centered models of art education. The visual arts are traditionally divided into different disciplines depending on their purpose or characteristics. For example, painting, printmaking, and drawing are all considered to be in the two-dimensional fine art category, while sculpture is in the three-dimensional fine art category. Graphics design, textile design, product design, and interior design are in the design category. Photography and film are put into the photo-cinema category, etc. Although visual arts must be concerned with designing, whatever value or purposes they may have, their purposes exist within the social and cultural contexts, and those contexts determine their value. The range of the purposes of visual arts thus starts in pure aesthetic and ends in pragmatism. In Western societies, the visual art works, like painting, drawing, and 225 sculpture, are concerned mainly with the aesthetic value, and less with pragmatic value. The visual arts of design are mainly concerned with the pragmatic value—the function of the work, with the aesthetic depending on the pragmatic value. In terms of content, all programs start with basic visual aspects of arts training. But in the end, fine art training should emphasize pure aesthetic objectives for expressing the artist's personal idea, and design training should emphasize pragmatic objectives, such as problem solving—how learners can design a product that achieves the effects the audience desires. In terms of the medium used, painting, design and drawing are expressed with mainly two dimensional picture planes such as paper or canvas using brushes and pencils as tools. Photography is expressed with a camera and chemical treatments. Sculpture is expressed with three-dimensional structures made from stone, wood, plastic and metal by working in carpentry and in the foundry. The more specialization each program has, the more it will be domain-specialized.

Within Non-Art Areas— Differences are Bigger A computer art class also has students from the other disciplines, because they are required by the university to take many general courses before going to their specialty. A student from the business department, for example, may select computer graphics art for his art study. Does computer art study affect his business learning? Does his business learning affect his computer art-learning? These questions can extend to many similar situations, such as math, engineering, language etc. Will students' math, engineering, or language knowledge and skill affect their computer art 226 learning and art-transferring? In the case of math, to discuss whether math knowledge and skill affects art-leaming and transfer, we need first of all to examine the knowledge and skills learned to see the role math plays in prior knowledge. Then, we need to discuss the knowledge as domain-specific knowledge. Finally, we need to look specifically at how the possibilities for transfer of math knowledge affects skill and learning in the computer art context I mentioned earlier that cognitive educational learning theories focus on knowledge and skills. Perkins and Solomon (1988) talk about basic skills, such as reading, writing, and basic arithmetic; cognitive skills, such as thinking, problem solving, and management skill; and knowledge such as history or art. Both basic and cognitive skills are learned and can be transferred. A course may offer more than one kind of knowledge or skill. From a drawing class, students learn not only basic drawing skills, but they also may learn art concepts and problem-solving skills (Ecker,1961). Learning math is not just understanding basic facts or knowing how to execute a procedure; much research has proposed that math training may improve student's thinking skills and problem-solving skills (Collis,1988). However, will this math skill influence learning in a computer art course? Will one knowledge and skill from one discipline influence the learning or transfer to another context? The answer is probably "no". Cognitive learning theories recently emphasized domain-specific knowledge and learning skills (Chi, 1987; Chase & Ericsson, 1981; Glaser, 1984; Shuell, 1986). The current research on problem-solving in the context of 227 specific knowledge structure seeks "general laws" applicable to all individuals and all subject-matter areas as what domain-independent learning emphasizes; domain-specific knowledge focuses on expertise and novice in one particular subject. Recent research on individuals with differing levels of expertise in a particular subject has shown convincingly that experts and novices solve problems in fundamentally different ways. Chase & Ericsson (1981) report that learning is more domain-specific. An average college student greatly increased his memory digit span over a period of time by steadily practicing the same skill. Those skills, however, proved to be domain specific. In another domain in which the student lacked the relevant knowledge base, his memory span was normal. Art and math are two different subjects that represent domain-specific knowledge. Mastering art knowledge will not directly affect math knowledge or vice-versa. For example, Greh (1986) explains that in a computer art class he taught, students all agreed that art experience was necessary before taking computer graphics classes. Among them, those who had taken courses in programming felt that their art background was more important to their success in the class. Another report addresses students at The Harvard Graduate School of Design who believed their ability to act as architectural designers should come from knowledge of the processes of visual design, not solely from knowledge of the computer (Ettinger, 1988). However, these two examples do not mention whether or not computer skills or math skills may also be important for computer art learning. According to Jones (1989), in computer image-making, students need to have both "artistic formation" and "scientific formation." Artistic 228 formation involves aesthetic/artistic knowledge and consideration and scientific formation involves technical/scientific knowledge and consideration. Computer graphics is actually an interdisciplinary study, crossing the disciplines of science and art. It may become domain-specific knowledge in itself. The art domain requires knowledge of the medium and tools, which are part of the science domain. For art students, computer graphics is merely a new art medium with tools which require different skills: computing, math, and painting skills. Art students need to learn new tools and materials before dealing with their artistic issues. It seems obvious then, that an art student who knows both art and math (or computing) will become more successful than one who knows only art in a computer art class. But this assumption is not necessarily true either. If math or computing skills are only basic arithmetic skills, then at the beginning of the computer graphics class, it may be helpful for students to have math or technical computing skills. But this situation will soon be changed once students acquire this basic technique. And a higher level of skills learned from math will not automatically transfer to the other context. If a math skill is well learned, not inert or local, and if it is the exact skill needed for computer art-making, and the students can use their thinking skills to abstract the needed organized math skill, then with clear instruction to foster transfer, math knowledge and skills can affect art learning. If not, their art knowledge will still be the most important knowledge for the transfer situation. For the participants in this research, regardless of what discipline they 229 were from (fine art, design, business, computer science, math), it was be the first time for most of them dealing with the computer art environment. Most of the technical problems with the art tools and medium are at a similar novice level. Any kind of prior experience may become part of their artistic statement. If a student can transfer well-learned problem solving and thinking skills from whatever prior discipline studied, these skills will show on the outcome of their understanding of art. A non-art student may exhibit a similar characteristic as a beginner in an art program. Beginners in an art program who have not specialized in any particular area may show less art knowledge in terms of concept, expression, control and novelty. They may either select accidentally the images made by the software's versatile capabilities without knowing what they really want to express, or limit themselves with a certain form of expression. Those non­ art participants' image-making knowledge may come from high school general art education and preliminary visual art practice, such as taking an art history course, making some charcoal or pencil drawings of objects, or doing color, value, or pattern exercises without working in any systematic way.

General Findings 1. within art area A student who has more art experience may transfer more art knowledge, and there are a few differences among the art disciplines. I will address the differences among four art disciplines in terms of the understanding of concept, expression, control, novelty on the aspects of the image: color, space, light, composition and content. Four disciplines I will 230 examine are painting, design (graphics, preduct, interior), photography, and medical illustration. Concept— It was talked about by almost all the participants that painting, graphics design, medical illustration, and photography have the same basic concepts of color, light, composition and space because they are all two- dimensional works. The concepts of color and others in oil painting may be influenced slightly by the texture. The concept of the space for interior design or sculpture may be different from that of painting. The concept of the content in design and medical illustration are slightly different in that content is not a means of self-expression. Control— Painting, graphics design, medical illustration and photography have similar control of colors, light, compositions and space if their images have a more realistic approach. If students have not been familiar with the technique of using computers, it may influence the control of the colors or lights. Design and medical illustration students will have different control of subject matter they used. Expression— The varied expressive qualities of the medium, painting, design, medical illustration and photography, all have different emphasis in terms of the expressions of color and light. The expressions of space and contents of painting and photography are similar to the computer expressions on the two-dimensional surface. Most design and illustration work is concerned more with the accuracy of the image, and the image tends to be flat by using single value colors, and objects without the shadow, etc. Novelty- The possibilities and potential of color, light, composition and content will be based on the understanding of the media. The novelty can be 231 considered as a flexibility of the media used—the ability to execute the formal qualities and contents which can go beyond the limited media. 2. Within non-art area For those participants who major in other disciplines, it is their art knowledge which counts, not their non-art studies, in art-making. Their non-art studies may relate little to the art content. The two non-art disciplines in this study are business and engineering. In terms of control, those engineering students who had some drafting training tended to use more precise measurements on their images. They also preferred to use more graphic and linear expressions. Some of them, in their subject matter, consisted of some mechanical things, such as a computer circuit board, which appeared in a student's work whose original major was computer science, and an engineering book, which appeared in a student's work whose major is electrical engineering. In general, the result of the discussion of the disciplines and transfer is that those who are familiar with an art discipline that is similar to the new context, and those who exhibit more understanding of the concept, control, and expression of the image-making processes, along with the ability to integrate their learned image-making knowledge into the computer image- making environment have better learning outcomes. CHAPTER VIII

IMPLICATIONS: A CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR A COMPUTER ART COURSE

A CURRICULUM FOR A COMPUTER ART COURSE In this chapter, I design a curriculum for a computer graphics course, based, in part, upon the findings in the last chapter. Since these have shown that there are differences among participants who enter a computer graphics course with different art experiences, what kind of course curriculum could be designed to help students maximize their artistic potential? In order to design a suitable curriculum, several essential concepts and conditions about the current computer-generated art courses have to be discussed: Concepts and conditions What is the nature of computer-generated art courses? 1. The union of art and science. A visual art cannot exist without the media and tools. Media and tools have always been related to technology. With a computer as an art medium, students, art educators, or artists soon find a profound involvement of technical and scientific knowledge in the artistic process. The computer provides a two-dimensional picture plane which is a unique platform for experimenting with form and surface characteristics. Users make images 232 233 indirectly, by electronics. Although the programming task is not necessary for students' image-making, students still need basic "computer literacy" as part of their artistic knowledge and skill (Ettinger & Roland, 1986). Jones (1989) also addresses this issue from both a technical and an aesthetic point of view; computer imagery should be involved with both an artistic and technical formation. The latter leads to a new aesthetic approach to the computer graphic art works. 2. Technologically conditioned. The difference between a computer and other media is its quickly changeable character, which also affects the produced works. For example, in 1977 Apple introduced the Applell, and some educational institutions with challenging ideas purchased these machines for educational use, including some for the art classroom. Teachers were trained to use these machines. Then in 1984, Apple introduced Macintosh with different hardware and software systems. Educational institutions were tom between the huge cost of the new and improved machines and keeping with the same qualities of works as well as the teaching and learning methods. From 1984 until now, Macintosh has improved several times in terms of its capabilities of input, output, and image processing. Art works produced by the earlier machines have different qualities and are not easily converted or reproduced. The present Amiga lab in the Department of Art Education at the Ohio State University was established in 1988 by installing Amiga2000 computers. During the process of this research in 1991, Amiga2000 computers were still used, until the Autumn of 1992, when the lab purchased Amiga3000 computers. These computers continually need to be upgraded, or changed for 234 newer machines, or the lab may simply need to adopt a different software system. The rapidly changing character of this art medium has to be considered in the design of computer graphics courses. 3. Versatility of computer applications Two and three-dimensional programs not only provide the tools for image-making, but also can be incorporated with other visual art forms. Their applications have been extended to all the visual art areas—in two- dimensional applications, drawing, graphic design, illustration, painting, photography, printmaking, textile design, handicrafts, cartooning, and image processing; in three-dimensional applications, architectural design, ceramics, environmental design, holography, interior design, sculpture, product design, neon sculpture, scientific visualization; and in animation, dance, entertainment, film, theater, TV graphics, performance, video, sound design, multi-media. Curriculum design should take into account the versatility of computer applications. Where should one insert the computer art courses into education? Each university offers its computer-generated art courses differently. Some are offered through art departments. Some are independent courses, and others are part of computer-related departments. The curriculum of the computer graphics course will be affected by each departments' goal. Ideally, a specialized computer graphics course would be offered through each department that incorporates graphics in its curriculum. In this case, the computer graphics art course is aimed at each discipline for more specialized use. Currently, at the Ohio State University, the Department of Art Education, rather than the Department of Fine Art, offers the computer­ 235 generated art courses for basic computer art learning, and in the meantime, it is incorporated into the University's general education course. The design department also offers computer design courses, while the higher level computer-generated art courses are offered independently under separate direction. The increasing popularity and importance of computer-generated art for its basic drawing and computing skill training, makes it probable that introductory level computer-generated art courses will be part of the general education requirements. What students take these courses? Because of the fact of being a general education course, current introductory computer-generated art courses have an interdisciplinary environment. Students come from art disciplines like fine art (painting, sculpture, printmaking), art education, industrial design (visual communication, product, interior), cinema and photography, and other disciplines, like medical illustration, business, electrical engineering, and computer science. This interdisciplinary quality of the course as shown on the research brings a variety of levels of art experiences. It is possible in one of these courses to see a senior fine art student and computer science freshman. In order to maximize each student's artistic potential, the consideration towards students' differences will be most certainly in the curriculum design. At what level will these courses be offered? Courses should be offered at introductory, intermediate, and research or professional levels whether they are in the same or different departments. The curriculum of the computer art course will also be affected by each 236 departments' goal for the course level. When computer graphics art courses are designed for more specialized use, they can serve the intermediate or professional levels. Students' purposes for taking these courses may vary from learning drawing skills to learning a new medium for artistic expression. Basically, students will be required to have some art knowledge, such as art history or basic drawing, before taking the computer classes, but, in many cases, for the introductory level, students can have the permission to enroll in the class without having art experience. For intermediate and research levels, a certain amount of computer literacy will be desirable.

The curriculum for undergraduate computer graphics art courses — an eclectic approach Several issues about the concepts and conditions of the computer generated courses have been mentioned above. Currently the computer graphic art courses at the Ohio State University have been offered by the Department of Art Education for basic computer art learning, and this course is incorporated into the University's general education course as well. It is an introductory course with an interdisciplinary environment. Since the purposes, levels, and students' art backgrounds are different, I will first suggest an eclectic curriculum for undergraduate introduction to computer art learning. An eclectic view of art curriculum The eclectic approach to art education has been favored by many art educators such as Chapman(1978), DiBlasio(1983), Efland(1983), and McFee(1977). Although they may view this approach from different points, 237 they are all in favor of an art curriculum which adapts different educational views. In his "Curriculum Inquiry In Art Education: A Models Approach", Efland (1983) addresses four art education models: behavior-modification, sodal interaction, person-centered, and information processing. Each model suggests common themes connecting an art theory and an education theory. The behavior-modification model was derived from mimetic theory, while the social interaction model was derived from the pragmatic aesthetic theory. The person-centered model links with expressive theory, and the information processing model links with the cognitive-objective theory. These four models provide the goals for art education, content of the curriculum, and teaching and learning methods. For example, the information-processing model, which has been more recently adapted for the art education curriculum, focuses on individuals to gain knowledge and aesthetic values through the inquiries into art for its intrinsic values. The other models focus on different content, goals, teaching methods, and evaluation( table 19). Efland gathers observations of these four models and builds an argument in favor of an eclectic view of curriculum in art education. He endorses an eclectic view because art education based on just'one model would result in bias toward one direction. There is no single model that is the right one, but each model has its own value: behavior-modification allows imitation of artistic skills like drawing or representation; social interaction presents pragmatic aesthetic through problem solving; a person- centered model emphasizes personal fulfillment; and an information Table 19 Chart summarizing the models from Efland's " Curriculum Inquiry in Art Education."

■ •M L S •P AM DUCAT I ON OWLS souHcrs nr c o n t e n t TucNim Her h o w l e a r n in g m i s e p r l u a t io n m i m i c a e s t n e t i c s HILLS «r UT IS traditional s t u d io DCNONSTRATIONS OP m t c s i m srecipieo cm- NEASNRFNENT OP r u u d o r *modification a n u s i n t h c n s l l p e s •SKILLS, THE TRADI­ • STUDIO PROCESSES -TtRIA OP ARTISTIC -sn iL f.M T r f iia n o n TIONS OP TW s t u d io NO IS LI NO CRITICAL REM T10R3 ch a n g e CRITIWE s c m t i o r

MCOOTUTIHO AGCNQAS IDCNTIPT COMM IM U M STVHVTS AM P M OMIT |C A PSTH tTIC I TO INPNOVE s o c m i PROBLEM OP SOCICTT, FACILITATING CO MM I SMPIT CMS PS. SAMPLE — »TEACMER3 JOIHTLT s o c i a l - interaction ■ IT n u n s OP ART ' co m m u m c a t io n r e - ICATIOO, IICNTirTlM OPIHIOMS UPfAlM NtlM tPiUIATC TUP. TAOi- TNTEn c r o u p s . RESOURCES MTH ART 1ST 1C AT I MIL I UM AMO SOLUTION ST A il L i n AMI CHANCE AS PROOLEM SOLUTIONS

ERC0VRA01M IHOITIO- P I HOI NO I OCAS P M PEA- STOOCHTS ITALKATI CIPOtMtVC At STMT ICS TO ACNICM PIRSONAL IMIIT1DML EIFERI- M U TO OSB PEELINGS SOHAL C l PRC 93 1 ON WOO- T H I S PERSONAL rUSMI-CUIIMb • fulfillment b t c w s -n ( i k ( s a nu m m -MRS aPtE H Ite RMOMCtU ■1P11 HQ TUCK IN ORIGINAL* GROWTH OP ART IN A C IH A tm RE- PM TIPIM PSTCNQLOOIC- MIS C (MAI NATION AL SUPPORT

ORCARISlnO INSTNNCTION- C L A S S IP T IM OSJECTS, SUBJECT RATTER AL MTCRIAU TO FACIL- E P IN T S . 1M A S ST TH EIR E1PERTS DETERMINE OOJKTItC ACSTNCT1C9 , TO GAIN MOWLCDCE - CO NCtPTl ANO ACS- -N I TATE IHOOIRI ST —( ■ CMMON PEATHRCS RELATING ^C R IT E R IA FOR iNPMMATian piuccssino AHU AESTHETIC P A L U C f^ T M T 1C PAMIRS PONM PROCESSES OSES ST THESE IR PAR I ED M T S ASSESS I M STOCCRTS PVR THCIR INTRINSIC tHRMGH INUUIRIES ARTISTS, CRITICS, HIS­ HnncRSTAiRiinc o r INTO ART *ALNCS TORIANS c o n c e it s

tc irc n c AESTHETICS, TO ACSIEPE A COMPOS- SKILLS OP sm ilo DEMNSTMT10N HEOOTIA- RAtaiM -M CUM ECLECTIC APPROACHES TARIEO APHOACHES TO REMSIPE ORUCUTAMI- PROBLEMS OP SOCICTT TlO N NURTURANCE — ‘ PRORUN lDERTt PI CATION * TO EPAUIATION EDUCATIONAL p r a c t ic e IMS OF ART IN PERSONAL RESOURCES ORGANISATION OP IN- INAQIRAT1 PI RE-CONR1M- PERSONAL ANO SOCIAL CONCEPTS AMI PAL0E3 STRUCTUNUL RESHSCH TION L i r s a m i . DISCIPLINEO INCH1ST TO ACHICPE A RCNS1PE UMJCRSTAMI- in o o p t h e c u l t u r a l IMPORTANCE OP ART 239 processing model reinforces the apprehension of the concepts of the formal qualities of art. An eclectic curriculum can use the values from each model. The problems of contradiction in the eclectic curriculum can be understood in that the realm of art itself is a combination of diverse conceptions of aesthetic values. An eclectic curriculum could illuminate the rival values of arts by putting them together. Contradictions among the theories will not affect the art educational practice. An eclectic curriculum pla iner can organize these four models into the content of a curriculum that features each model. Justification for an eclectic view of the computer-generated art course curriculum Having drawn on the characteristics of an eclectic view of curriculum, I will focus on using this view for the computer graphics courses. There are several reasons that I think an eclectic view of curriculum would be suitable for the current computer-generated art courses. First of all, both Efland (1983) and Chapman (1978) agree that the objective of curriculum planning for general education is to help individuals achieve their individual potential. When computer-generated art courses are in an introduction level for students with different art experiences, an eclectic view of curriculum in an introductory art course will maximize individual potential. Also, an eclectic view of curriculum content will select values from the four models according to different student needs. We may use behavior-modification models to teach students drawing and technical skills, and we may use a social interaction model to teach students problem solving. Likewise, we may use a person-centered model to help students achieve personal growth, or use an information-processing model to teach students art concepts. 240 In introductory computer-generated art courses, the computer is a new medium for all the students regardless of their art experience. Artistic learning has both visible and invisible dimensions (Wolf, 1989) that require both skills and specialized thinking processes. Learning the new medium should begin with learning the skills; students need to learn how to use the computer to make an image. An eclectic view of curriculum which links the four models could be conceived of as an artistic learning process. Because art itself has had varied meanings and values that are obviously contradictory, an eclectic view of curriculum can select different content and themes from different models that reflect art history. The computer-generated course has students from several different disciplines who would benefit from practicing and understanding different arts. Furthermore, teaching content and methods in an eclectic view of curriculum would be more flexible in dealing with the students' differences. For example, based on the research findings, unlike the fine art majors, who pursue artistic free expression, design students may also need problem solving practice. Students who major in sculpture may practice the concepts of three-dimensional modeling, while students who major in painting may focus on two-dimensional structures. A computer art course is a union of art and science. By applying an eclectic approach curriculum, students can train themselves to be conceptually dynamic and flexible. For higher levels- The cognitive view of a computer-generated art curriculum A course curriculum must be planned in regard to the purpose, the 241 students, and other fundamental issues. I suggest a cognitive approach to the curriculum for intermediate and specialized computer art courses, and a social interactive approach to that of computer design courses. Students who take advanced courses would need a more specialized approach. Thus, design students would have computer graphics design courses for design purposes offered by the design department; engineering students would have computer graphics courses for visualization purposes offered by the engineering department. Currently, the introductory computer-generated art course serves as a general education course, so other approaches may not be suitable in this case. In order to show the variability in character of the computer graphics curriculum, I will only address briefly the reasons for a possible cognitive approach to an art curriculum: 1. This approach is for the intermediate and professional levels of computer-generated art courses within undergraduate fine art study. Efland (1983) argues that a professional art program has professional expertise demands, so that the curriculum program should not be an eclectic one. Computer graphics courses offered in each art discipline should focus on a specialized art domain, so fine art students would use the computer as a medium to approach those problems within the fine art domain. 2. The goal of this information-processing art education model should be stated in terms of concepts to be attained and by processes of inquiry that exhibit a disciplined character. Its teaching methods should facilitate inquiry by discovery and experiment (Efland, 1983). At a higher level of artistic teaching and learning, students should focus more on artistic thinking and 242 understanding than technical skill. Creativity is engaged when art learners try out their integrated understanding of what they have learned. Since this approach cannot be put into action unless the computer generated art courses become more art discipline-based, the following sections will only focus on the eclectic view of curriculum.

Computer-generated art courses curriculum The goal Efland suggests in the eclectic art educational curriculum is "to achieve a comprehensive understanding of art in personal and social life, and to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the cultural importance of art." This understanding incorporates four sources of content: "skills of studio; problems of society; personal resources; concepts and values" (p.238). According to a model general education curriculum in arts and science at the Ohio State University developed in 1988, the overall goal of arts and humanities is "to develop knowledge of the humanities and the arts and a humanistic perspective that fosters capacities for: aesthetic and historical response and judgment; interpretation and evaluation; critical listening, reading, seeing, thinking, and writing; experiencing the arts and reflecting on that experience" (p.16). The goals of the introductory computer-generated art course should be designed to meet these art educational and general educational goals. The specific goals of the introductory computer art course * To understand the physical nature of the computer and the characteristics of images made by computers; the history of computer-generated art works and the relationship of algorithmic forms and digital representation to aesthetic 243 features of computer art works. * To understand the influence of the computer graphics applications in society and in the individual's life; how the computer creates the new ways of communication and shapes the human activities; how the computer influences cultural phenomena. * To understand the computer as an art medium and an art tool which offers a new way of expressing and perceiving; how the computer incorporates with other art forms and an interdisciplinary mode of thinking and creating. * To understand the potential of the computer in the visual arts; to develop the ability of being a participant in, and observer of, computer-assisted art works. Objectives of the course Computer-generated art courses cover a wide range of new knowledge, and the content in the introductory course is limited to one ten-week quarter. Currently, only two-dimensional computer-generated art is incorporated into the general education course. A three-dimensional computer-generated art course has been offered as a higher level course. Thus, in one quarter, students from all the disciplines may not learn the knowledge which would maximize their art potential. For example, students from product design or sculpture should have an introduction to computer-generated art with three- dimensional modeling software without having obligatorily used two- dimensional software to deal with two-dimensional issues. In order to make the course more effective, the computer-generated art courses should be divided into two groups at the introductory levels, using mainly two kinds of software for two kinds of purposes. The two­ 244 dimensional paint systems and related digitized systems are independent from three-dimensional modeling software systems. They build two different concepts of computer-generated arts; each of them covers one drcle of related knowledge. For those students who major in sculpture/ ceramics, product design, and interior design, a three-dimensional modeling course would be more useful than the two-dimensional image-making course, which is more suitable for students in painting, graphic design, and photography. These two groups should be taught separately as the same beginners courses. I. Two-dimensional computer generated art courses Software used: two-dimensional paint programs, image processing programs, digitizing programs. Objectives: * Understanding the basic computer concepts and using the basic computer graphics terms. * Ability to use two-dimensional paint, image processing programs, and digitizer. * Acquisition of related basic drawing and compositional skills. * Ability to solve visual art problems for related subject matter. * Develop thinking processes and self expression skills. * Produce two-dimensional still images and short computer animation. * Explore the potential of the computer in different disciplines. * Understand aesthetic issues related to the use of the computer in the visual arts. * Recognize the use of two-dimensional computer generated art in society. 245 n. Three-dimensional computer-generated art course Software used: three-dimensional modeling programs. Objectives: * Understand the basic computer concepts and use basic computer graphics terms. * Use three-dimensional modeling programs. * Acquire related basic drawing and compositional skills. * Solve visual art problems for related subject matter. * Develop thinking processes and self expression skills. * Produce three-dimensional still images and short computer animation. * Explore the potential of the computer in different disciplines. * Understand aesthetic issues related to the use of the computer in the visual arts. * Recognize the use of three-dimensional computer-generated art in society. Content of the course I. Two-dimensional computer-generated art courses In order to achieve the objectives of the course, the content will include the following activities (table 20): 1) Brief overview of computer history. Content will include the physical nature of the computer and the characteristics of images made by the computer electronically; the history of computer-generated art work, and the relationship of algorithmic forms and digital representation to aesthetic features of computer art works; the difference between two-dimensional and three-dimensional computer software systems. Table 20 Two •dimensional computer art course content

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N> * 247 2) Demonstrating and practicing paint software systems. Content will include the use of two-dimensional paint and image processing programs, related basic drawing, and compositional skills training. 3) Demonstrating and practicing with digitizer and related software. 4) Reading and discussing computer generated art texts. Content will include two-dimensional computer-generated art issues such as computer applications in the visual arts, influences on society and individuals, the computer as an art medium and tool, and basic understanding of aesthetic issues. 5) Studio activities and critiques. The course will include traditional studio skills, problems of society, individual expressions, and studio critiques. a. mimetic project-focused on imitation of objects. Students will practice basic drawing skills, study the colors, values, shapes, and composition. Subject matter can be still life or portrait. b. self-expression project— focused on self-expression. Students will use their imagination to express what they think and feel towards things, events, and persons. Subject matter can be a theme or expressive content such as an abstract art work. c. problem solving project— related to solving a particular problem for another person. Students will analyze the problem and use a visual form to establish a clean-cut communication. The subject matter can be a book cover design or an illustration. d. three-dimensional concept in two-dimensional form-dealing with perspective and space issues within the two-dimensional presentation. 248 Subject matter can be an interior or a landscape. e. two-dimensional animation—a hundred frames of short animation describing a sequence of motions of objects. Subject matter is not limited. Through these activities students will experiment with different ways of communication through a new medium. Students will explore the potentials of the computer in the visual arts/ and develop interdisciplinary modes of thinking and creating, n. Three-dimensional computer generated art course In order to achieve the objectives of the course, the content will include the following activities (table 21): 1) Brief overview of the computer history. Content will include the physical nature of the computer and the characteristics of images made by the computer electronically; the history of computer-generated art work, and the relationship of algorithmic forms and digital representation to aesthetic features of computer art works; the difference between two-dimensional and three-dimensional computer software systems. 2) Demonstrating and practicing solid modeling software systems. Content will include the use of three-dimensional solid modeling programs, and related basic drawing and compositional skills training. 3) Reading and discussing computer-generated art texts. Content will include three-dimensional computer-generated art issues such as computer applications in the visual arts, influences on society and individuals, the computer as an art medium and tool, and basic understanding of aesthetic issues. Table 21 Three -dimensional computer art course content

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Aitutic ildll 3 D Stadia fiaUamtahringptajtct Stadia aiqnuftva ptajact FvaUamantal 3D campntai ait Studia mimatic pujact Czitiqua playact CntifM pnjact Aitcancapt StiiwM iml Stadia fnannl aidat fiajact Camputai Ait CntifM piayact Dbcwrian landing Dixwian landing Dixwnan nading Ait and m d y F m n alp m tk CiitifM piayact DiKwiian sanding Madalkwtdiiif Saltmia Itdm ol *ldll lUMmUMtiM iMpwrftiinf 250 4) Studio activities and critiques: The course will include traditional studio skills, problems of society, individual expressions, and studio critiques. a. mimetic project— focused on the simulation of objects. Students will practice basic compositional skills, study colors, values, and shapes. Subject matter can be a simple still life. For instance, a solid model of a lamp on a table. b. self-expression project— focused on self-expression. Students will use their imagination to express what they think and feel towards things and events using symbolic and expressive forms. Subject matter is open, for instance, a composition of various sizes and shapes of solid forms to describe a war. c. problem-solving project— related to solving a particular problem for another person. Students will analyze the problem and use a visual form to create a clean-cut communication. The subject matter can be a product or interior design. d. three-dimensional animation— a hundred frames of short animation describing a sequence of motions of objects. Subject matter is not limited. Through these activities students will experiment with different ways of communication through a new medium. Students will explore the potential of the computer in the visual arts, the concepts of three- dimensional models systems, and develop interdisciplinary modes of thinking and creating. 251 Pedagogical Strategies The teaching methods of a computer-generated art course with an eclectic approach will have to adapt to actual circumstances. Instructors will have either a two-dimensional or three-dimensional art background with computer expertise, and will present the course content in such a way that it takes an eclectic view into consideration and therefore engenders a versatile environment for instruction and art-making. Instructors will demonstrate the studio processes and model critical behavior. The course material will be organized well and used flexibly to facilitate communication and inquiry. Students' different artistic experiences will be taken into account, and the instructor should encourage individual differences. Evaluation A computer-generated art course would use separate criteria in each instance for assessing students' outcomes in an eclectic approach to curriculum. Both students and teacher would be involved in making the assessment. The teacher would evaluate students' technical and manipulating skills of computer and image-making. Problem solving would be evaluated by both teacher and students, while the self expression would be evaluated by the student her/himself who is aware of her/his own personal growth. The understanding of basic concepts could be evaluated by teachers with standardized tests.

An eclectic course curriculum and research findings Good utilization of the research findings about the effect of students' art background will make the computer art course more effective. An eclectic 252 view of curriculum might be the best answer for the current computer art courses. This approach may maximize individual potential by choosing from the four models on the basis of their different values. The models would be linked in sequences, which could be conceived as an artistic learning process. Teaching content and methods in this eclectic curriculum would also be more flexible, especially when dealing with the students" differences. Students who have no art experience may begin with learning the drawing and technical skills which follow the behavior-modification model. Those who have fine art backgrounds may concentrate more on the self-expressive projects, and explore the possibilities of the computer art medium. For design and architecture students, the practices of social problem solving are indicated by the social interactive model, and accurately realizing the art product may improve their designing abilities. Students who are in the two-dimensional art domains will work with two-dimensional software to deal with two- dimensional art questions such as a decorative perspective on a two- dimensional surface, while students in three-dimensional domains will work with three-dimensional software to explore the three-dimensional issues such as solid models with different colors, light and expressive forms. The evaluation will be based on each individual's case, their art knowledge levels and different interests. The amount of art concepts, the mastery of the drawing and technical skills, the abilities to communicate in an accurate way, and the integration of the art knowledge in a creative way will indicate students' artistic learning progress. References

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Wright, R. (1989). The image in art and computer art. Leonardo, Computer art in context supplemental issue, p. 49-53. APPENDIX A

Participants List

261 262 Synopsis

1 i I

Quoatlon 2 Ouootlon 1 1 I | | APPENDIX B

Art Concepts and Art Terms Test

263 264

Name:______

Pleaae explain the following terms, the concept and the use, & give an example: 1. analogous colors

Z complementary colors

3. neutralized color

4> spectrum

5. warm-cool color

6. advancing-receding color

7. value

8. chiaroscuro

9. tone

10. decorative perspective

11. intuitive space APPENDIX C Art Experience Form

265 Art Experience Form adapted from Wiley, S. E.'s "The relationship between amount of experience in art, visual perception, and picture memory." Students Prior Art Knowledge and Experience Form

1. First and Last Name 2. Sex (circle one): Male Female 3. Current m ijor: ______4. A ge:______5. Using the Nirmgrical Key and the (trade Level Qiart below, compute the total number of an classes you have passed sfnoe&e elementary grade leveL Do not include any experiences in art you may bave received ooisirie of a formal educational setting. Lcl, on-the-job mining, commercial art experience, em. Any formal crincarional experience in an whicnyou participated in as a smdeat may be counted. Stndk> an. art history, an appreciation, private tutoring, correspondence courses. and woricsbops may be counted. L Numerical Key ( numerical value per unit o f art experience) A. Private tutoring. Concspoodence Courses, Workshops ...... 1 each B. An An Com e - One Quarter in Length ------2 each C An A n Coarse - One Semester in L e n g th ------3 each D. An Art Course - One Year in Length ...... 6 each E. Each Year of Elementary An Experience — ...... „.2 each IL Grade Level Chart ( die number o f courses does the numerical value by grade level ...... Ib al at the Bottom) A. 1st through 6th G ra d e------—...... B. 7th C Sth D. 9th H. 10th F. 11th O. 12th ______H. College freshman L College Sophomore J. College Junior — K. College Senior L. Graduate and Beyond M. Other ( Private Tutoring. Correspondence Courses, Workshops).. * Total Amount of Experience In Art (add A through M above): 6. Art experience outside of formal art eAicarion Art teaching. Graphic Design, Painting, or other specific job______

HOW long : V C T r m o n t h How many hours: a day, aweek, ______a month Other, if is not continuously, specifically: ______APPENDIX D

Prior Art Knowledge and Computer Image-making

267 268

Students Prior Art Knowledge tad Computer Image making

1 M »iw 2. Current m^jor: ______3. Did you use computer before? ______yes no for drawing? yes ■» What graphics software have you used? ( name)

4. Can you characterize your computer image style: No style at alL They arc casual happenings. ______Ex|ac*ik>uisdc ( emntimal inxerpie a non of reality, symbolic records and fadings) ______Seagate ftwwffal nhsgrvarioti rf rhe w w w l nwH

Does your computer images have the same style as your images worked with other medium?

5. Is making images with n computer different from making images with other mediums? TfechmcaDy, totally different ______some different ______no different Conceptually, ______totally different ______some different no different Esplsin: APPENDIX E

Interview Questions

269 270

Transferring Prior Art Knowledge & Skills to Computer Graphics Image-making Interview Questions: (A fixed sequence of predetermined questions will be directed questioning)

1. Do you want to talk about your previous in experience and works? ( Students will show their portfolio at this moment. Some information related to the prior an experience will be earned from the earlier questionnaire.) Informal Questions: Does your family or your friends encourage you to discover the computer graphics field, or it was your own idea?

2. Do you feel difficulty making decisions of formal quality (not technical problems) while making images with a computer? Do you know the reason, if the answer is yes? What is the reason?

3. A pan from the medium difference, do you feel the same while you work with computer images as with other images?

A 4.1 How do you use your prior learned knowledge about color to solve color problems in computer imaging, for example, matching color, mood of color?

42 How do you use your prior learned knowledge about light to solve light problems in computer imaging, for example, contrasting light, depth of value, mood of light?

4.3 How do you use your prior learned knowledge about space to solve space problems in computer imaging, for example, space of the objects, perspective and eye point?

4.4 How do you use your prior learned knowledge about composition to solve composition problems In computer imaging, for example, balance, the relationship between the elements?

5. If you adjust the content of your image while using the computer, can you tell me why you make such changes?

6. 6.1 Can you recall that when you were making an image with the computer if you knew you were going to use this effect or if the menu gave you a hint, then you just used it?

62 Do you think that any pictorical image ( using any medium) is composed by the visual elements, so, you are using the same elements for computer image? APPENDIX F

Letter

271 272

1991

D aar______

Thank you lor aflowlng ma to hava an Jntarvfaw wttfi you. Our appointmant wfli ba o n - ...... — ------. M ay ------a t - ...... - ...... XX) am , pm. Tha intarvtaw w(l taka plaoa in afthar Rnu300 or Rrru243 Mopidna Hal dapanting on tha avaBabMty of tha plaoa. I would bca you to bring aavarai or your pravioua art works, o ra portfblo.if you war*, wfdch you tWnk oan praaant your own art alyta. I would M s to taic with you about yourtradM onafandoomputarartworica.thsway*youat* worMng wfth thom. IwBuas a tap# rooordsrtorsooitithalntsrvlsw. I hopa that you wB not taal unoomiortabla oKh V m Intarviaw Ifyou havoany awatlan.«| olaaaa M owaa lat ^a» ma r^o know r^Or^w1 1a wfll look anwa forwardww lo wr m a a tM w O h a m^a^ai u . Thank a rwvtw vatwa o u Inaaa ad v an o s.

Slncaraly,

YIna Chang