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Enclave extraction and unruly engagements: Oil spills, contamination and the Cocama-Cocamilla indigenous people in the Peruvian Amazon By: Tami Okamoto Mendoza MSc Thesis in Development Studies The Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB). Eight departments, associated research institutions and the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragric‟s contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes) and assignments. The Noragric Master theses are the final theses submitted by students in order to fulfil the requirements under the Noragric Master programme “International Environmental Studies”, “Development Studies” and other Master programmes. The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the views of Noragric. Extracts from this publication may only be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric. © Tami Okamoto Mendoza, May 2011 [email protected] Noragric Department of International Environment and Development Studies P.O. Box 5003 N-1432 Ås Norway Tel.: +47 64 96 52 00 Fax: +47 64 96 52 01 Internet: http://www.umb.no/noragric Declaration I, Tami Okamoto Mendoza, declare that this thesis is a result of my research investigations and findings. Sources of information other than my own have been acknowledged and a reference list has been appended. This work has not been previously submitted to any other university for award of any type of academic degree. Signature……………………………….. Date………………………………………… i ii To the people of the Marañón, whose stories taught me how important it is to trust iii iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank first and foremost my mother, the bravest woman I‟ve ever known. She has not only encouraged me to pursue my ideals in life but has also gone out of her way to put up with the expectations that some of these ideals mean in our society today. Likewise, to my brother and my father, whom although might be unaware of it, have inspired me to develop critical thoughts about the world and the ways of perceiving it since I was very young. Thanks to my friends in Lima, Loreto, Canada, Tanzania, India and not least Norway, the “nerdiest” friends of all, who added the necessary touch of humour to my academic life. Words cannot be sufficient to thank Stefan K. for the insightful conversations and for being so generous at reading and thoroughly commenting this work; most of all for waiting with some good music, warm nice food, and a big smile after late night of writing. I am thankful to my faculty, Noragric, which at all times provided me with an academically stimulating and extremely friendly environment that allowed me to expand and deepen my critical thoughts. Special thanks to Esben Leifsen, my supervisor, for the freedom and trust that he offers to his students as a main learning guide. Likewise, to Maria Guzman-Gallegos, whose life experience and knowledge is a source of inspiration on its own. Also, I am grateful to my colleagues at SUM whom encouraged me to continue at all times. I would like to mention that this work wouldn‟t have been possible without the financial support of the Norwegian Latin American Research Network (NorLARNet), the Freedom of Speech Foundation (FrittOrd) and Noragric, who provided me with generous scholarships. I dedicate this work to the people of the Marañón. To the Cocama who embrace to be part of their lives without hesitation. I‟m especially in debt to my host family in Urarinas (Don Jose, Doña Karina, Don Juanito, Sra. Lily, Lexi, la abue and Macuto) who asked me never to forget them. To Fonsho, Miller, Mariza, Prof. Chanchari, Lucho, and Wendy whose evolving ideas and strength are a true source of admiration. v vi Abstract In the Peruvian Amazon, conflicts between the state, indigenous people and oil companies have been on the rise during the last few years. To understand the roots of these conflicts, this study recognizes the need to go beyond „resource curse‟ literature and instead applies new analytical concepts from oil extraction literature in Western Africa. The concept of “enclave” is treated here not only as a spatially-segregated geographic area and an economic domain where large amounts of capital are invested through the oil industry. It also considers private- public partnerships and other social, political and legal issues that are entrenched in its making and that enable the oil industry‟s „disentanglement‟ or detachment from its local surroundings, including the „disentanglement‟ from the environmental contamination (i.e. oil spills) that it generates. The study also adopts the concept of “unruly engagements” which refers to the unregulated, inflexible, ambiguous and uneven ways in which the state, the oil company and indigenous people relate to each other at the local level (e.g. through meetings, negotiations, compensations). This thesis advances the understanding of such forms of “engagements” at the local level by studying the interactions between the Cocama indigenous people, Pluspetrol, and the Peruvian government in the aftermath of a June 2010 oil spill in the Marañón area of the Peruvian Amazon. The study argues that the mechanisms used in dealing with oil spills are unregulated and highly inefficient in minimizing or preventing social unrest among the affected indigenous communities. Instead, contrary to claims of government authorities and corporate parties, it is both, precisely because and despite of these “unruly” forms of “engagement” that power asymmetries, ambiguous forms of participation and dialogue, and the overall “enclave” form of extraction is reinforced in Amazonia, enabling oil companies like Pluspetrol to effectively disentangle themselves from the social and environmental costs of their actions. Finally, the study recommends an increasing acknowledgement and respect of the internal decision-making processes of indigenous communities and associations in order to foster meaningful Cocama participation (i.e. better representations of local people‟s perspectives) in the negotiations with state and oil companies and thereby to circumvent further conflicts in Amazonia. vii viii Table of Contents Declaration .................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... v Abstract .................................................................................................................................... vii Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... ix Maps .......................................................................................................................................... xi Figures ....................................................................................................................................... xi Introduction Opening ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Objective ..................................................................................................................................... 3 Situating the discussion .............................................................................................................. 3 Theoretical approaches ............................................................................................................ 10 Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 16 Study design .............................................................................................................................. 18 Methods of data collection ....................................................................................................... 20 The Cocama-Cocamilla people of the Bajo Marañón ............................................................. 21 Structure of the thesis ............................................................................................................... 24 Part I. Enclave extraction in the Peruvian Amazon Enclave model of extraction .............................................................................................. 25 1. Oil extraction and national discourses Government narratives and Bagua .................................................................................... 31 Brief history of Amazonia ................................................................................................. 36 Contemporary policies governing Amazonia .................................................................... 38 Government and oil companies‟ relationships in Peru ..................................................... 40 2. An enclave of neglect in the Bajo Marañón Oil Block 8E ...................................................................................................................... 43 Forty years of extraction and contamination ..................................................................... 44 Part II. Unruly engagements with Indigenous peoples Participation

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