PSY 100: General Psychology

John M. Kelley, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, Endicott College Staff Psychologist, Massachusetts General Hospital Deputy Director, Program in Placebo Studies at Harvard Medical School

1 PSY 100: General Psychology

John M. Kelley, Ph.D. AC 165 [email protected] 978-232-2386

2 Psychological Questions I

• What makes a song popular? • Why do we dream? Do dreams have meaning? • Is intelligence inherited or developed? • How good is eyewitness testimony?

3 Psychological Questions II Small Groups (handout)

• Are men more violent than women? Why? • Are people fundamentally good or evil? • Is alcoholism a disease? Are alcoholics at fault? • What causes depression? • Why do people self-destruct with alcohol or drugs? • Is there such a thing as free will? • Do our minds exist independently of our brains?

4 Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Methods

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes • Empirical evidence (empirical vs. theoretical methods of investigation) • Critical thinking (skepticism vs. cynicism) • Who are better drivers: Men or Women?

5 Four Goals of Psychology

• Describe • Explain • Predict • Change

• Example: Major Depressive Disorder

6 Four Goals of Psychology

• Describe: Clearly describe and classify behavior: What is depression? How does it progress? • Explain: What causes depression? Nature vs. Nurture? Genes vs. Experience • Predict: Which individuals are likely to become depressed? How will a person’s depression progress? Who will respond to treatment? • Change: Interpersonal therapy, cognitive and behavioral therapy, medication, ECT, surgery?

7 Types of Psychologists

• Clinical (therapists - psychologists vs. psychiatrists) • Counseling • School • Social and Personality • Biological and Neuroscientists • Developmental • Cognitive

8 Types of Psychologists

9 Seven Psychological Perspectives

1. Psychoanalysis or Psychodynamic 2. Behaviorist 3. Humanist 4. Cognitive 5. Biological or Neuroscientific 6. Evolutionary 7. Sociocultural

10 1. Psychoanalysis or Psychodynamic

• Founded by Sigmund Freud in Vienna • Late 1800’s to early 1900’s • Conflict between “acceptable” conscious thoughts and “unacceptable” unconscious thoughts • Focus on sex and aggression

11 Essential Features of Psychoanalysis

1. Focus on expression of emotion 2. Exploring attempts to avoid painful feelings (resistance and defenses) 3. Identification of recurring themes and patterns 4. Focus on past experience, especially childhood 5. Focus on interpersonal relations 6. Focus on the therapeutic relationship (transference and counter-transference) 7. Exploration of wishes, dreams, fantasies

12 Sigmund Freud

13 Copernicus, Darwin, & Freud

Three narcissistic injuries suffered by mankind (1) Copernicus: We are not the center of the universe (2) Darwin: We are not set apart from the rest of nature; we do not different fundamentally from animals (3) Freud: We are not masters of our own minds. The unconscious controls us to a remarkable and surprising degree.

14 2. Behaviorism

• Founders: John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov • Rejects introspection and unconscious processes and focuses on observable behavior • Pavlov’s dog (classical conditioning) – Food → Salivation (US → UR) – Food + Bell → Salivation (US + CS → UR) – Bell → Salivation (CS → CR) • B.F. Skinner – development of behavioral therapies

15 16 Skinner Box

17 Skinner Box Demo

http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=PQtDTdDr8vs

18 3. Humanist

• Founded by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow • Free will • Self-actualization • Optimistic: human nature as inherently positive

19 4. Cognitive

• Founded by Jean Piaget • Cognition = Thinking • The brain as computer • Focus on how the brain processes information • The “cognitive revolution” starting in the 1950s as a backlash against strict behaviorism

20 5. Biological or Neuroscientific

• The mind as arising out of the brain • Brain imaging techniques: – EEG (Electro-Encephalography) – CT (Computerized Tomography) – PET (Positron Emission Tomography) – MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) – fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

21 EEG (Electro-Encephalography)

22 CT (Computerized Tomography)

23 PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

24 MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

25 fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

26 6. Evolutionary

• Our psychological make up is the result of natural selection and adaptation to the environment • Example 1: Why are step-fathers much more likely to abuse their children than biological fathers? • Caveat: Child abuse in general is relatively rare, hence I am not impugning step-fathers in general • Example 2: Lions killing off young cubs • Example 3: Evidence suggests that women prefer older men, and men prefer younger women. Why might this be so?

27 Charles Darwin

28 7. Sociocultural

• Our psychological make up is determined by social and cultural factors • Why do each of us wear our clothes and hair the way we do today? • What makes a particular song popular? Research on different musical “universes” • Do Asians differ psychologically from Americans? • Are people from Oregon friendlier than people from New York?

29 The Scientific Method

30 Ethics in Research and Practice

• Research: – Informed Consent – Debriefing if deception is used – Protecting nonhuman animals – Institutional Review Boards • Therapy – Confidentiality – Limits of Confidentiality • Suicidal or Homicidal

31 Types of Variables in Research

• Independent Variable (IV) • Dependent Variable (DV) • In theory the IV causes the DV • IV → DV (in theory, IV causes DV) • Extraneous or Confounding Variables • Example of smoking • Example of omega 3 fatty acids

32 Correlational Research

• Sometimes called Observational Research • The more one smokes the more likely one is to get lung cancer • Concept of correlation

33 Correlations

• Ranges from r = 1 to r = -1 • Strength of correlation is the absolute value (e.g., r = -.7 is a stronger correlation than r = +.6) • Positive correlation • Negative correlation • Zero correlation

34 Correlations

35 Positive Correlation

36 Negative Correlation

37 Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

• Smoking and lung cancer • My daughter’s height and the height of a tree • Ice cream sales and homicides • States with stricter gun laws have lower homicide rates • Next slide, gender as confounding or extraneous variable

38 Extraneous Variable (Gender)

39 Positive, Negative, or Zero Correlation?

• Health and exercise • Hours of TV watching per day and GPA • Level of happiness and level of helpfulness • Student ID number and GPA • Weight of car and MPG • Years of education and salary • Age and salary

40 Experimental Research

• Can establish cause and effect relationships because the experiments are controlled in several ways • Random Assignment to Groups controls extraneous variables • Control condition (often using a placebo). Example of blood-letting • Double-blind controls for patient and experimenter expectancies • Single-blind controls for patient expectancies only

41 Research Examples - Discussion

• Experimental or Correlational? • IV, DV, extraneous variables • Analgesics $10 vs. 10 cents • Cell phone use and brain cancer • Family dinners and better performance in school • Knee surgery • Life stress and depression

42 Chapter 2

Biopsychology and Neuroscience

43 Case History

• The Man Who Mistook his Wife for a Hat • By Oliver Sacks, MD, neurologist • Patient was a well-known musician on faculty at a music school • Visual agnosia • Damage to occipital lobes. He can still see, but his ability to recognize objects has been destroyed • See Canvas handout for details

44 Capgras Delusion

• The patient believes that a family member or close friend is a double, an imposter • It is thought that the delusion arises because of a deficit in the connection between the visual area of the brain and the emotional parts of the brain

45 The Uncanny Valley

• http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=CNdAIPoh8a4

46 Chapter 2 Overview

• DNA in cells • Neurons in the brain and nervous system • Endocrine system (hormones) • Brain anatomy • Divisions of the peripheral nervous system • Somatic nervous system (soma = body) • Autonomic nervous system (arousing or calming us without conscious control)

47 Genetics

• Cell Nucleus contains 23 Chromosome pairs • Chromosomes contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) • Single gene traits (eye color) • Dominant • Recessive • Polygenic traits: most psychological traits are polygnenic

48 49 Structure of DNA (Double Helix)

50 Behavioral Genetics

• Nature vs. Nurture (Genes vs. Environment) • What do each of the studies below tell us? • Family Studies • Adoption Studies • Twin Studies • Monozygotic = Identical • Dizygotic = Fraternal

51 Twin Studies

52 Evolutionary Psychology

• Natural Selection • Adaptations to the environment • Discuss in small groups • Why did humans evolve? Is evolution moving toward ever more complexity, and ever more intelligent organisms? (Teleology) • Or is evolution blind and simply moves in a direction that makes the organism more adaptive, regardless of complexity or intelligence?

53 Charles Darwin

54 Vast Number of Neurons

• One trillion neurons in the body • One trillion = 1,000,000,000,000 • 3,600 seconds in an hour • 86,400 seconds in a day • 31,536,000 seconds in a year • 32,000 years worth of seconds = one trillion • Each neuron connects with up to 10,000 others

55 Structure of a Neuron

• Cell body with nucleus • Dendrites receive inputs from other neurons • Axon with myelin sheath and nodes • Terminal buttons

56 Structure of a Neuron

57 How Neurons Talk to Each Other

• Electrical impulses within each neuron • Chemical exchange between neurons

58 Action Potential within a Neuron

• Action potential is an electrical impulse • Charged ions (sodium and potassium) • Resting state: negative inside, positive outside • Depolarization: positive inside, negative outside • Action potential moves down the axon like a wave • Myelin sheath increases speed substantially

59 Neurotransmitters between Neurons

• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers • Neurotransmitters cross the synapse – the gap the terminal buttons on the sending neuron and the dendrites on the receiving neuron • Neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory • Many hundreds of terminal buttons connect to each receiving neuron

60 61 62 63 64 Neurotransmitters

• Serotonin (low in depression) • Acetylcholine (muscle action) • Dopamine (low in Parkinson’s; high in schizophrenia • Norepinephrine = Noradrenaline (high in mania) • Epinephrine = Adrenaline (emotional arousal) • Gamma aminobutryc acid = GABA (inhibitory, valium increases GABA’s effect thus decreasing anxiety • Endorphins (endogenous opioids)

65 Endocrine System (Hormones)

• Network of glands • Glands secrete hormones which travel throughout the body via the bloodstream • Neurotransmitters are local – between individual neurons • Endocrine system is global – effects throughout the body

66 Endocrine System

67 Nervous System

• Central Nervous System (CNS) • Brain • Spinal Cord • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) • Somatic Nervous System (voluntary) • Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary) • Sympathetic Nervous System • Parasympathetic Nervous System

68 Change in the Central Nervous System

• Neuroplasticity – rewiring of the brain in response to experience and aging • Neurogenesis –stem cells are immature cells that can move and become any type of cell

69 Neuroplasticity

70 Localization of Function

71 Phineas Gage

• 1848 in Cavendish, Vermont • Tamping iron driven through skull, entering below the cheekbone and exiting at the top of the head • Iron weighed 13 pounds and was 3 feet 7 inches long, and was tapered to a point • Destroyed substantial tissue in left front lobe • Good physical recovery, but reports of character changes (although some controversy about the details)

72 Phineas Gage

73 Phineas Gage

The equilibrium or balance, so to speak, between his intellectual faculties and animal propensities, seems to have been destroyed. He is fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom), manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint or advice when it conflicts with his desires, at times pertinaciously obstinate, yet capricious and vacillating, devising many plans of future operations, which are no sooner arranged than they are abandoned in turn for others appearing more feasible. A child in his intellectual capacity and manifestations, he has the animal passions of a strong man. Previous to his injury, although untrained in the schools, he possessed a well-balanced mind, and was looked upon by those who knew him as a shrewd, smart businessman, very energetic and persistent in executing all his plans of operation. In this regard his mind was radically changed, so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was 'no longer Gage. - Dr. John Harlow, treating physician

74 Patient HM

• Severe epilepsy in the both temporal lobes • Surgical removal of brain tissue • Loss of most of the hippocampus (Latin for seahorse), which is responsible for laying down new memories into long-term memory • Unable to form new declarative memories • Still able to form new procedural memories

75 Hippocampus Images http://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/9/99/ Hippocampus.gif

76 MRI Images of the Brain http:// www.med.harvard.edu/ AANLIB/home.html

• Corpus Callosum • Sylvan Fissure • Cerebellum • Amygdala

77 The Ventricles

The ventricles are filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions the brain from impacts. The cerebrospinal fluid also helps excrete waste products or toxins from the brain.

78 3-D Images of the Ventricles

Ventricles in 3-D http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lateral_ventricle.gif

79 Reflexes

• Stimulus results in an action without involvement of the brain • Knee reflex that doctor tests with a hammer • Infant reflexes: • Rooting Reflex (sucking when cheek is stroked) • Grasp Reflex (grasping when something is put into hand) • Why do we have reflexes?

80 Reflex

81 Somatic Nervous System

• Somatic means body • Voluntary (under conscious control) • Sensory receptors in body lead to brain and perception of touch or pain • Motor neurons extend from the brain to the muscles to bring about movements.

82 Autonomic Nervous System

• Automatic functions that occur without conscious effort (involuntary) • Breathing, Respiration, Heart Rate, Pupil Dilation • Two divisions that act in opposing fashion to either arouse or calm the body: • Sympathetic Nervous System (arousal) • Parasympathetic Nervous System (calming)

83 Sympathetic Nervous System

• Fight or flight • Stress or high activity • Pupils dilate • Heart accelerates • Lungs dilate • Sweating increases • Digestion decreases

84 Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Relaxation • Low Stress or low activity • Pupils contract • Heart slows • Lungs constrict • Sweating decreases • Digestion increases

85 Discussion

• Why does the body have opposing autonomic systems (i.e. the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

86 The Human Brain

87 The Human Brain

88 Two Hemispheres of the Cortex

89 Two Hemispheres of the Cortex

1=Cerebrum 2=Thalamus 3=Midbrain 4=Pons 5,6=Medulla

90 Brain Surgery

• Video of surgery for brain cancer – 4:33 • http://www.wiley.com/college/carpenter/0471767964/ngs_videos/brain_surgery/ index.html • Tumor is in the left frontal lobe • Region controls language and movement functions

91 The Hindbrain

• Hindbrain controls many automatic functions such as respiration, sleeping, heart rate. • Medulla • Pons • Cerebellum (coordinates movement and balance)

92 The Forebrain

• Thalamus – a “relay station” for sensory information rising to the brain • Hypothalamus – involved in emotions and eating and drinking patterns, and controls the endocrine system both directly and through the pituitary gland which hangs down from it • Limbic System – involved in emotions, includes the amygdala, which is involved in fear and anxiety • Cerebral Cortex

93 Thalamus Image http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thalamus.gif

94 The Cerebral Cortex

• Limbic System = “reptilian brain” • Cortex = “mammalian brain” • Cortex means “bark” in Latin and is the outermost section of the brain • Divided into two hemispheres, each of which is composed of four lobes

95 Two Hemispheres of the Cortex

96 Two Hemispheres of the Cortex

97 Left Hemisphere

• Language functions • Analytical • Sequential processing (step by step) • Controls right side of body • Right visual field

98 Right Hemisphere

• Nonverbal abilities • Emotion expression and comprehension • Face recognition • Music and art perception • Synthetic (emphasis on the whole rather than the parts) • Controls left side of body • Left visual field

99 100 Asymmetry in Facial Expression of Emotion

101 Asymmetry in Facial Expression of Emotion

102 Asymmetry in Facial Expression of Emotion

103 Split-Brain Patients

• Severe epileptics had corpus callosum severed to stop seizures from spreading to the other cerebral hemisphere • Information presented to the left visual field would only reach the right hemisphere • Information presented to the right visual field would only reach the left hemisphere

104 Split-Brain Patients

105 Split-Brain Research

• Information presented to the left visual field would only reach the right hemisphere • If patient is shown a picture of a ball, he could not name it. • However, if asked to use his sense of touch to pick up what he saw, patient is able to choose a ball from other objects

106 Split-Brain Research

• Information presented to the right visual field would only reach the left hemisphere • If patient is shown a picture of a ball, he can easily name it. • However, if asked to use his sense of touch to pick up what he saw, patient cannot choose a ball from other objects

107 Four Lobes of the Cortex

• Frontal: Front of the brain • Temporal: sides of brain above the ears • Parietal: Top rear of brain • Occipital: Back of brain

108 Four Lobes of the Cortex

109 Frontal Lobes

• Coordinates messages from other three lobes • Responsible for higher reasoning • Motor cortex controls movement and is at rear end of frontal lobe • Broca’s Area: On left side only. Damage to this region causes Broca’s aphasia, which is difficulty speaking but not understanding speech

110 Parietal Lobes

• Responsible for sensations of touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and location of body parts • Somatosensory Cortex is located at the front section of the parietal lobe adjacent to the motor cortex

111 Somatosensory and Motor Cortex

112 The Homunculus (Little Man)

113 Temporal Lobes

• Responsible for hearing, language comprehension, memory, some emotional control • Wernicke’s Area: On left side only. Damage to this region results in difficulty understanding language. Patient can speak easily but often makes no sense and uses made-up words

114 Occipital Lobes

• Responsible for vision and visual perception • Damage to the occipital lobes will impair vision even though the eyes are intact and healthy

115 Chapter 3

Stress and Health

116 Stress

• A stressor is anything that places a demand on a person’s body • Stressors can be outside the body (e.g., physical threat) or internal (anxiety about the future)

117 Stress and Illness

• Observational research has shown that higher levels of stress are associated with a greater probability of physical and emotional illness • Does this prove that stress cause illness? Why or why not?

118 Stress and Illness

• Chronic vs. acute stress • Both negative events (divorce, home foreclosure) and positive events (marriage, purchase of a home) contribute to stress levels

119 The Effect of Stress on the Body

• Sympathetic Nervous System is activated by stress but is quickly overridden by the parasympathetic nervous system unless the stressor continues • HPA axis (Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, Adrenal Cortex) reacts more slowly and its effects last longer

120 Sympathetic Nervous System

• Fight or Flight System • Release of large amounts of norepinephrine and epinephrine (adrenaline) • Causes increase heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, muscle tension • Causes decrease in digestion • End result is increase in energy

121 HPA Axis

• HPA axis (Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, Adrenal Cortex) • Adrenal cortex release cortisol • Cortisol is a hormone that increases blood sugar and increases metabolism, which results in increased energy • Inhibits insulin, thus causing high blood sugar (hyperglylcemia) • Decreases immune system functioning (why might this be so?) • Increases blood pressure

122 Long Term Effects of Stress

• The body’s response to an acute stressor is adaptive and protects the individual from the stressor • However, long term exposure to stress eventually results in exhaustion and a decrease in resistance to a variety of diseases such as heart attacks, stroke, and perhaps even cancer. • Psychoneuroimmunology

123 Cancer

• Cancer is an abnormal growth of cells that develops into a tumor • More than 100 different types of cancer • Immune system uses killer cells that check any abnormal growth • Stress hormones such as cortisol suppress the immune system, making people more susceptible to cancer

124 Cardiovascular Disorders

• Heart disease is the general term • Coronary artery disease is a thickening of the walls of the coronary arteries, reducing blood supply to the heart resulting in angina or heart attack • Risk factors: obesity, smoking, stress, lack of exercise, high fat diet, and Type A personality • Type A: competitive, ambitious, impatient, hostile • Stress without corresponding action increases fat in blood stream, blocking arteries

125 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• PTSD is an anxiety disorder following exposure to a life-threatening or other severe event • Symptoms: flashbacks, nightmares, emotional numbing, hyper-vigilance, exaggerated startle response, trouble with sleep and concentration, extreme fear, feelings of guilt, survivor’s guilt • Shell shock • About 10% of people will suffer from PTSD at some point in their lives

126 Gastric Ulcers

• Correlational studies indicate that stress can lead to ulcers • Experimental studies with animals confirm this finding • Ulcers are caused by bacterium H. Pylori • 75% of normals have H. Pylori • Biopsychosocial model: H. Pylori is necessary but not sufficient cause; stress appears to be a key factor

127 Smoking Discussion Question

• For most people, the first puff of a cigarette is not pleasant • So why do people start smoking? What could be done to prevent teens from smoking? • Virtually every adult smoker realizes that smoking is unhealthy. Many want to quit but cannot. • Why? What could be done to increase the chances that someone would quit?

128 Smoking

• Why do people start smoking? • Peer pressure • Imitation of role models (celebrities, movie stars) • Addictive nature of nicotine – similar mechanisms to other addictions such as heroin, alcohol, cocaine • Increases release of neurotransmitters acetylcholine and norepinephrine in the brain • Association of smoking with good food, friends, pleasant times, sex

129 Ads Against Smoking

130 Ads Against Smoking

131 Ads Against Smoking

132 Ads Against Smoking

133 Smoking Ads

• Are ads for smoking effective? • Are ads against smoking effective? • Is one sort of ad more effective than another? • Do smoking bans in public places reduce smoking rates? • Does banning smoking for minors decrease (or increase) smoking among minors?

134 Alcohol

• AMA considers it the most dangerous drug • Do you agree? • Binge drinking • Amethyst initiative • Signs of alcoholism • Tolerance • Dependence • Morning drinking • Craving and loss of control

135 Chronic Pain

• Associated either with chronic disease or with pain that persists long after the healing of a wound • Endorphins from exercise help • Danger of addiction to opiates such as morphine • Associated with anxiety • Behavior modification • Biofeedback with electromyograph (EMG)

136 Coping with Stress

• Emotion-focused coping • Appraising the stress less catastrophically thus reducing negative emotions • Problem-focused coping • Practical approach to decrease or eliminate the source of stress

137 Coping with Stress

• Money • Diet and exercise • Internal locus of control (as opposed to external) • I can deal with this vs. I have no control over my fate • Positive beliefs and hope • Social skills and social support • Relaxation • Progressive relaxation

138 Chapter 4

Sensation and Perception

139 Vision is Constructive

• Vision creates the illusion of a perfect recording like a movie • But, in fact, vision is constructive • Reversing lenses • Lenses off by 30 degrees • Blind spot • Color vision limited to the fovea • Seeing through cobwebs

140 The Blind Spot

Close your right eye and focus your left eye on the cross. If you move the paper about 1 foot from your face, the dot will disappear. • +

141 Vanishing Head Illusion http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O7jpJ12lBjg

142 Vision is Constructive

• Awareness Test – Bball http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ahg6qcgoay4 • Whodunnit http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=ubNF9QNEQLA&feature=PlayList&p=086FB8D058FB FD52&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=25 • JK and the policeman in front of school

143 Selective Attention Experiments

• Fixation point for eyes. • Arrow to direct attention to one side • Presentation of stimulus, either in same direction as attention was directed or in the opposite direction

144 Selective Attention Experiments

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145 Selective Attention Experiments

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146 Selective Attention Experiments

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147 Selective Attention Experiments

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148 Selective Attention Experiments

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149 Discussion

• What do the videos and the demonstrations you just saw tell you about vision? • What sorts of people would be likely to notice the differences? Be creative in thinking of as many types of people as you can who would be good at these tasks • Can you improve your ability to notice unexpected things? How could you train someone to be better? In what kinds of situations or jobs might this skill be important?

150 Processing Sensations

• Receptor cells for sound, light, odor, taste, pressure, pain • Transduction is the process by which receptor cells convert sensory information into neural impulses • Coding is the process by which neural impulses are translated into sensations

151 Sensory Processing in the Cortex

• Occipital lobe for vision • Temporal lobe for sound • Frontal lobe (in particular, the motor strip) for planning movement and executing movement • Parietal lobe (in particular, the somatosensory cortex) for touch, pressure, pain, location of body parts

152 Pain

• Pain sensation can be decreased by: • Massaging the tissue to produce competing message • Release of endorphins (naturally occurring opiates) • Distraction by fear or competition or an engaging activity • Pain sensation can be increased by: • Anxiety • Focus on the pain

153 Vision

• Vision is the perception of light waves • Only a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is visible to humans • Brightness is related to amplitude of waves • Color is related to wavelength • Blue is shorter wavelengths • Red is longer wavelengths • Yellow and Green are in between

154 155 Parts of the Eye

• Cornea focuses light waves • Iris is composed of muscles that vary the size of the pupil • Lens focuses light waves • Retina contains • Rods: neurons sensitive to gray shades, movement • Cones: neurons sensitive to colors • Cones are concentrated in the Fovea • Optic nerve to the brain is where the blind spot is

156 157 04_fig_06 Hearing

• Hearing is the perception of sound waves • Unlike light, sound waves require a medium, thus there is no sound in space • Pitch is related to wavelength: • Long wavelengths are low frequency tones – low sound (stand-up bass) • Short wavelengths are high frequency tones – high sound (violin) • Loudness is related to the amplitude of sound waves

158 Applications of Hearing Range

• Dog Whistles are pitched high enough that only a dog will hear the sound • The Mosquito – a very annoying high pitched sound that can be heard by teens but not adults. Used by shopkeepers to keep teens out • High pitched ring tones used by teens but cannot be heard by adults

159 Parts of the Ear

• Auditory Canal • Eardrum • Three bones in the middle ear vibrate and cause the oval window to vibrate • This vibration causes waves in the fluid inside the cochlea (Latin for “snail”) • Different hair cells in the cochlea vibrate to different frequencies of vibrations, which then send signals via the auditory nerve to the temporal lobes of the brain

160 161 04_fig_07 Olfaction (sense of smell)

• Different neurons (receptor cells) in the nose respond to different odors. 1,000 different receptors, producing the ability to sense over 10,000 separate smells • The olfactory bulb is below the frontal lobes and in the limbic region of the brain. This is where the brain processes olfactory information • Olfaction is the only sense that is not routed through the thalamus.

162 Gustation (sense of taste)

• Smell also contributes to our sense of taste • Aside from smell there are five tastes: • Sweet – we prefer as this indicates a high source of energy • Sour • Salty • Bitter – often poisonous, so we tend to avoid • Umami – sensitive to the taste of meats

163 Body Senses

• Processed in the parietal lobes • Skin sense • Touch • Pressure • Pain • Vestibular Sense • Balance and spatial orientation, especially of the head • Kinesthesia • Indicates position of body limbs relative to one another • For example, indicates whether one is sitting, standing, or lying down

164 Sensation versus Perception

• Everything we have discussed so far is sensation: hearing, vision, touch, smell, taste • Perception is the process by which we select which sensations to pay attention to • Selective Attention: Cocktail party phenomenon • Habituation: The tendency to eventually ignore constant sensory inputs – braces

165 Gestalt Principles

• Gestalt is German for “whole” • Figure-Ground (reversible figures) • Proximity (items that are physically close are grouped together) • Continuity (items that continue a pattern are grouped together) • Closure (incomplete figures “completed” in our minds) • Similarity (similar objects are grouped together)

166 Figure-Ground:

167 Closure

168 Gestalt Principles

169 Depth Perception

What cues do we use to perceive depth?

170 Depth Perception

• Convergence (eye muscle strain) • Retinal Disparity (2 different views) • Motion parallax (as we move closer objects pass by more quickly than object that are further away) • Linear perspective (parallel lines converge) • Texture Gradient • All of these aids to depth perception occur outside of our awareness

171 Retinal Disparity

172 Linear Perspective and Texture Gradient

173 Babies and Depth Perception

• When children first start crawling, they are reluctant to cross the visual cliff • Visual cliff demonstrates that some depth perception is probably innate, and does not depend on experience • Why might this be?

174 The Visual Cliff

175 Turning the Tables

176 Perceptual Constancy

• Without perceptual constancy our world would seem to be constantly changing • Size constancy • Shape constancy • Color constancy

177 178 Checkerboard Shadow Illusion

179 Color Perception

Two competing theories (1) Tri-chromatic Theory: 3 types of receptors: Red, Green, and Blue (2) Opponent-Process Theory: 3 color systems, but arranged as opponents: black/white; red/green; and blue/yellow

180 181 182 Color Perception

• The two theories were eventually reconciled. • At the level of the retina, visual sensations are capture with a tri-chromatic system of cones cells, each specific for either red, green, or blue • At the level of the optic nerve, there is an opponent- process system: black/white; green/red; blue/yellow

183 Interpretation

• Sensation → Perception → Interpretation • Interpretation is influenced by: • Perceptual adaptation (upside down glasses) • Perceptual set (we are more likely to see things in accordance with our expectations) • Top-Down Processing (as opposed to bottom-up processing)

184 Perceptual Set

• Instructions • Paper and pencil • Half the class close eyes

185 Perceptual Set 1

• Roger Rabbit • Bugs Bunny

186 Perceptual Set

187 Perceptual Set

188 Perceptual Set 2

• Donald Duck • Daffy Duck

189 Perceptual Set

190 Perceptual Set

• What did you see?

191 Another Example of Perceptual Set

192 ESP?

• Is there a sixth sense? • Telepathy (mind reading) • Clairvoyance (seeing things that are not in view) • Precognition (predicting the future) • Psychokinesis (moving objects mentally)

193 Chapter 5

States of Consciousness

194 Consciousness

• What is consciousness? • What is unconsciousness? • Are animals conscious? • Are they unconscious?

195 Consciousness

An organism’s awareness of itself and its surroundings - Antonio Damasio

196 Locked-in Syndrome

• The Diving Bell and the Butterfly by Jean-Dominique Bauby, suffered a stroke • The Sea Wolf by Jack London • What would you want done, if you were locked-in?

197 Locked-in Syndrome

• Transcribing his book by blinking when the correct letter (E, S, A, R, I, N, T, U, L, etc.) was said

198 Altered States of Consciousness

•What are some altered states of consciousness?

199 Altered States of Consciousness

• Sleep • Dreaming • Drugs such as LSD or Ecstasy • Daydreaming • Fantasies • Hypnosis • Psychoanalysis • Meditation • Fasting • “Flow”

200 Circadian Rhythms

• Animals have adapted to the 24 hour cycle of the day • Circa (around) dia (day) • Alertness, body temperature, blood pressure, pulse rate all vary in a circadian way • Our level of consciousness varies on circadian rhythm • Shift work disrupts circadian rhythms and results in decreased productivity and increased errors

201 Controlled vs. Automatic Processes

• Controlled processes require focused attention (e.g., learning to ride a bike) • Automatic processes requires minimal attention (e.g., an experienced driver can easily drive the car while simultaneously carrying on a conversation)

202 Controlled vs. Automatic Processes

• Reversed-handle bike (first 3 minutes): https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFzDaBzBlL0

203 Why do we sleep?

• Evolutionary/Circadian Theory • Protection from predators (keeping still when predators are hunting) • Conserve energy • Repair/Restoration Theory • Repairing and restoring the body while sleeping

204 Hours of Sleep in a 24 Hour Period

Little Brown Bat 19 Giant Armadillo 18.1 Lion 13.5 Cat 12.5 House Mouse 12.5 Dog 10.1 Red Fox 9.8 Chimpanzee 9.7 Rabbit 8.4 Human 8 Cow 4 Horse 2.9

0 5 10 15 20205 Stages of Sleep

• People generally cycle through the stages four to five times per night • Stages are defined by EEG waves • Stage 1 Light Sleep • Stage 2 • Stage 3 • Stage 4 Deep Sleep • These are all NREM (non-REM sleep)

206 207 REM Sleep

• Rapid-Eye Movement (REM) and dreaming • Occurs after the first cycle through the 4 stages of sleep • EEG similar to being awake (fast-wave, small amplitude) • Heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure increase • But muscles are relaxed

208 Dreaming

• Why do we dream? • Do animals dream?

209 Dreaming

• Important for learning and memory consolidation • REM only occurs in higher intelligence mammals • When under great stress or intense learning, people increase the amount of REM sleep, hence the amount of dreaming • Could the content of our dreams be meaningful? • Dream analysis • Do we work out problems in our dreams?

210 Sleep Disorders (Dyssomnias)

• Insomnia • Narcolepsy • Sleep Apnea

211 Insomnia • Drugs can sometimes help short-term but the run the risk of dependence or addiction • Behavioral Treatment • Get up at the same time each day • Don’t nap during the day • Turn the face of the clock away from the bed • Use the bed for sleep and sex only • No alcohol, caffeine, or nicotine in the evening • Exercise regularly (but not right before bedtime) • Don’t stay in bed if you can’t sleep • Soothing bedtime ritual (warm bath, book, progressive muscle relaxation)

212 Narcolepsy

• Sudden onset of sleep during the day • Can even occur while driving a car • Cause unclear, but seems due to biological causes under genetic control because animals can be bred that are narcoleptic • Incidence is 1 in 2000 people

213 Sleep Apnea

• During sleep the person fail to breathe for a minute or longer and then wakes up gasping for breath • Treatments: • Weight loss • Reduced intake of alcohol • Tennis balls sewn to back of pajamas (so you don’t sleep on your back) • Machines that provide a stream of air to keep the airway open (CPAP= continuous positive airway pressure) • Surgery or dental appliances

214 Parasomnias

• Sleep Walking (during NREM) • Sleep Talking (during NREM) • Night Terrors (in deeper sleep, person tends to be hard to wake up) • Nightmares occur during REM sleep

215 Psychoactive Drugs

• Alcohol, Caffeine, Nicotine • Marijuana, Cocaine, Heroin • LSD, Ecstasy, Speed (Methamphetamine)

216 Mechanism of Action

• Antagonist Drugs reduce synaptic transmission • Agonist Drugs enhance synaptic transmission

217 Antagonist Drug Mechanisms

• EITHER, the drug decreases the sending neuron’s ability to synthesize, store, or release neurotransmitters • OR, the drug binds to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron and blocks the neurotransmitter from binding

218 Agonist Drug Mechanisms

• EITHER, the drug increases the sending neuron’s ability to synthesize, store, or release neurotransmitters • OR, the drug binds to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron and because the drug is similar to the neurotransmitter, it causes the receiving neuron to fire • OR, the drug prevents the re-uptake or degradation of the neurotransmitters, thus increasing their effects

219 Example: Cocaine

• Cocaine is an agonist that increases synaptic transmissions involve norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine • Cocaine blocks the re-uptake of the neurotransmitters into the sending neuron’s terminal buttons

220 221 Drug Abuse vs. Drug Addiction

• Abuse, is use of drug that causes harm to self or others • Addiction involves a nearly irresistible compulsion to take a drug • One can abuse drugs without being addicted, although abuse frequently leads to addiction

222 Symptoms of Addiction

• Psychological dependence • Physiological dependence • Withdrawal • Tolerance • Cross-tolerance

223 Drug Categories

• Depressants (“downers” or sedatives) • Alcohol, barbiturates, anti-anxiety drugs (valium) • Stimulants (“uppers”) • Crack and powder cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy • Caffeine, nicotine • Opiates (narcotics) • Morphine, heroin, codeine, oxycontin • Hallucinogens • LSD, mushrooms, marijuana

224 Gender and Alcohol

• For the same volume of alcohol, women tend to become more intoxicated. Why? • Women are generally lighter • Women metabolize alcohol more slowly

• Alcohol and barbiturates act synergistically and can lead to death due to respiratory failure

225 Meditation

• Meditation results in a focusing of attention and produces an altered state of consciousness • Typically involves intense focus on a single object, word, or sensation • Breath, Candle, Memory, Gong, Om, Mint, Tai Chi • Reduction in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate • Appears to reduce sympathetic activity, allowing the parasympathetic nervous system to dominate

226 Hypnosis

• Narrow, focused attention • Increased imagination, fantasy • Passive and receptive attitude • Decreased pain sensation • Heighted suggestibility (the onion tastes like an apple) • Hypnosis doesn’t “brainwash” people, and people have to be willing • Hypnotized people won’t do something that they fell is unethical or immoral

227 Chapter 6

Learning

How do we learn?

228 Definition of Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes because of practice or experience

229 Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) • Accidental discovery • Dogs salivate at sight of a food bowl or the person who usually feeds them • Pairing a bell repeatedly with food resulted in the dog eventually salivating just to the tone

230 Classical Conditioning

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): sound of a bell • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): sight of food • Unconditioned Response (UR): salivation • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): sound of a bell • Conditioned Response (CR): salivation to the bell

231 John Watson

• Founded behaviorism • Conducted “Little Albert” study • Albert was a baby who initially was unafraid of a white rat • Pairing the sight of the rat with a loud noise resulted in Albert being afraid eventually of the rat itself • http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=Xt0ucxOrPQE&feature=PlayList&p=718EB1C25 F38B6C5&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index= 29

232 “Little Albert”Conditioning Quiz

• What is the neutral stimulus? ______• What is the unconditioned stimulus? ______• What is the unconditioned response? ______• What is the conditioned stimulus? ______• What is the conditioned response? ______

Choose from: Loud Noise, White Rat, or Fear

233 “Little Albert”Conditioning Quiz

• What is the neutral stimulus? RAT • What is the unconditioned stimulus? LOUD NOISE • What is the unconditioned response? FEAR • What is the conditioned stimulus? RAT • What is the conditioned response? FEAR

234 6 Principals of Classical Conditioning

• Stimulus generalization (fear of all things white) • Stimulus discrimination (eventually learning white bunnies are not scary) • Extinction (eventually not fearing the white rat) • Spontaneous recovery (sometimes the fear of the white rat can return) • Reconditioning (conditioning occurs faster the second time around) • Higher-order conditioning

235 Higher-Order Conditioning

• A dog is conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell • The bell is then paired with a light (but no food) and the dog continues to salivate • The dog will eventually salivate to just the light

236 John Watson

• "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select---doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and yes even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors." (Watson, 1924) • Discussion: Do you agree with this notion? • Nature vs. Nurture • Free Will vs. Determinism

237 Operant Conditioning

• Operant = a behavior • Conditioning = learning • Consequences are the cause of operant conditioning • Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the behavior • Punishment is a consequence that decreases the behavior

238 Operant Conditioning

Skinner Box

Thorndike Box

239 Operant Conditioning

240 Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning involves involuntary behavior (salivation, fear) • Operant conditioning involves voluntary behavior • In classical conditioning consequences of behavior are irrelevant • In operant conditioning consequences of behavior are central. They are the cause of conditioning

241 Reinforcement

• Primary reinforcer: unlearned; e.g., a hug or food • Secondary reinforcer: learned; e.g., money or good grades • Positive reinforcement: giving a reinforcing consequence; e.g., a hug or money • Negative reinforcement: removing a negative to increase behavior, e.g., your mom stops nagging when you clean your room

242 Schedules of Reinforcement

• Response-Based • Fixed Ratio: e.g., getting paid after every 10th item produced. Quickest responding. • Variable Ratio: e.g., slots pay out in an unpredictable pattern. More difficult to extinguish. • Time-Based • Fixed Interval: reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time; e.g., getting paid an hourly wage, slower responding • Variable Interval: reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of time. More difficult to extinguish.

243 Punishment

• Positive Punishment: The addition of a consequence that weakens the behavior; e.g., spanking, running laps. • Negative Punishment: Removing a consequence, thus weakening the behavior; e.g,. losing a privilege like a cell phone or access to a car for poor grades. Thus negative punishment is taking something good away.

244 Punishment vs. Reinforcement Quiz

245 Punishment vs. Reinforcement

• Discussion: Which is a better technique for changing behavior? Why? • Regression to the mean

246 Geography Quiz 1

1. Is Tokyo north of Beijing? 2. Is Kazakhstan east of Pakistan? 3. Is Rome east of Istanbul? 4. Is Casa Blanca east of Cape Town? 5. Is Boston east of New Haven? 6. Is Ottawa west of Chicago? 7. Is Berlin west of Paris? 8. Is Rio de Janeiro south of Cairo? 9. Is Dublin south of Glasgow? 10.Is Montreal north of Quebec City? 247 Geography Quiz 1 Answers

1. No 2. No 3. No 4. No 5. Yes 6. No 7. No 8. Yes 9. Yes 10.No 248 Geography Quiz 2

1. Is Bonn east of Berlin? 2. Is Cape Town south of Johannesburg? 3. Is St. Louis east of Memphis? 4. Is St. Lucia north of Trinidad? 5. Is Melbourne north of Sydney? 6. Is Seoul north of Tokyo? 7. Is Baghdad west of Kabul? 8. Is San Francisco east of Los Angeles? 9. Is Shanghai east of Kyoto? 10.Is Panama City north of Bogota? 249 Geography Quiz 2 Answers

1. No 2. Yes 3. No 4. Yes 5. No 6. Yes 7. Yes 8. No 9. No 10.Yes 250 Regression to the Mean I

Test 1 Test 2 Average Mean 77 79 78 Median 76 81 79

251 Regression to the Mean II

100 R² = 0.3851

90

80

Test 2 70

60

50

40

30 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Test 1 252 Regression to the Mean III

Top Fifteen on Test 1 • Mean on Test 1 = 88 • Mean on Test 2 = 85

Bottom Fifteen on Test 1 • Mean on Test 1 = 65 • Mean on Test 2 = 71

253 Side Effects of Punishment

• Increased aggression • Passive aggression • Avoidance • Modeling • Temporary suppression • Learned helplessness

254 Cognitive-Social Learning

• S-O-R: Stimulus – Organism – Response • Learning through observation and imitation • Emphasizes the role of thinking and social relations in learning • Rat finding way in a maze initially through reinforcement, but ability to solve maze when above the maze suggests a cognitive map

255 Insight Learning (and Observation and Imitation)

256 Insight Learning

• Chimp learning to get at a banana hanging out of reach by using a stick or piling up boxes to stand on • Chimp did not go through a number of trials and errors, but rather seemed to ponder the situation and suddenly come to a solution – an insight • Getting food out of a long tube

257 Insight Learning

Pigeon solving the classic banana and box problem http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=mDntbGRPeEU&NR=1

258 Observational Learning

• Social learning or modeling • Bobo doll experiments by Bandura • Principles of observational learning: • Attention • Motor reproduction • Retention • Reinforcement

259 Bobo Doll: Observational Learning

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pr0OTCVtHbU 260 Biology of Learning

• New synaptic connections are developed in the brain when learning occurs • Biological preparedness: Some responses are easier to learn than others, probably for evolutionary reasons: • Taste aversion tends to be quite easy to develop • Fears of snakes, spiders, heights are easier to develop than fear of guns or electrical outlets

261 Applications of Learning Theory

• Behavioral Therapy for phobias (exposure and response prevention leads to extinction) • Treatment for alcoholism (classical conditioning via Antabuse) • Advertising • Accidental learning and superstitious behavior • TV, movies, video games, advertising media – observational learning (modeling and imitation)

262 Prejudice

• Discussion: Why are people prejudiced? • Racism, Sexism, Ageism, Nationalism • Have Americans overcome racism and sexism? • Implicit Association Test (IAT) • Bike Stealing Video (6 minutes): http:// www.worldstarhiphop.com/videos/video.php? v=wshhA5yGj42eclUn99k6

263 Chapter 7

Memory

264 Chapter 7

Memory Test * Read Words

265 Memory Test

BED, QUILT, DARK, SILENCE, FATIGUE, CLOCK, SNORING, NIGHT, TOSS, TIRED, NIGHT, TOSS, TIRED, NIGHT, ARTICHOKE, TURN, NIGHT, REST, DREAM • Primacy Effect (you remember the first item) • Recency Effect (you remember the last item) • Distinctiveness (artichoke) • Repetition (night) • Chunking (toss and turn) • Memory is constructive (sleep)

266 Chunking and π

• How to memorize the digits of pi • How I need a drink alcoholic in nature after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics. • First 15 digits of pi • 3.14159265358979 • Chunking in chess masters • Chunking in Car Talk phone number: • 18-double 8-2-27-82-double 5 • 1-888-227-8255

267 Memory

• Memory is an internal record or representation of prior events or experiences • Memory is constructive • It is not a perfect record and is subject to many distortions

268 Four Models of Memory

#1 Information Processing Model • Memory as similar to data storage and retrieval from a computer hard drive • However, for computers, only one piece of information can be processed at a time (serial processing) • Also human memory tends to fuzzy and fragile, whereas computer memory tends to be exact and stable (at least until the hard drive crashes)

269 Four Models of Memory

#2 Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) or Connectionist Model • Brain performs multiple, parallel operations simultaneously • Memory is distributed across a web of processing units, which mirrors the web of connected neurons

270 Four Models of Memory

#3 Levels of Processing Model • Memories that are processed shallowly are quickly forgotten • Memories that are processed more deeply (by adding meaning, connecting the information to what we already know) are more enduring • The deeper the processing the more permanent the memory

271 Four Models of Memory

#4 Three-Stage Memory Model • Sensory Memory: lasts only for a few seconds, large capacity • Short Term Memory (STM): lasts for up to 30 seconds without rehearsal, capacity limited to 5-9 items • Long Term Memory (LTM): relatively permanent duration, very large capacity

272 Three Stage Memory Model

273 Sensory Memory

• Visual information lasts for only ½ second • Auditory information can last for up to 4 seconds (What did I just say?) • Why do you think the sensory memory for visual information so much shorter than for auditory information?

274 Evidence for Sensory Memory

K Z R A

Q B T P S G N Y

275 Evidence for Sensory Memory

• Previous slide is flashed for 1/20 of a second • People can only recall 4-5 letters • However, if immediately after the flash of letters a tone is sounded, and people are instructed to report just the top, middle, or bottom row depending on whether they hear a high, medium, or low tone, then people typically get all the letters correct.

276 Short Term Memory (STM)

• Sensory memories that are attended to are transferred to short term memory • Limited duration 30 seconds • Limited capacity 5-9 items • Chunking as in telephone numbers and SSN • Chunking the patterns of a chess board • Maintenance rehearsal can extend the duration of short-term memory (e.g., rehearsing a phone number until you dial it) • Short term memory is also sometimes called Working Memory

277 Long Term Memory (LTM)

• Declarative vs. Implicit Memory • Declarative: • Semantic memory (facts, general knowledge) • Episodic memory (personal experiences) • Implicit: • Procedural (riding a bike) • Classically conditioned memory (phobias, prejudice) • Priming (the list of words that included bed, dream, toss and turn, primed you to think you also heard sleep)

278 Long Term Memory (LTM)

279 Improving Long Term Memory

• Organization (akin to filing and indexing) • Elaborative Rehearsal (vs. Maintenance Rehearsal) • Retrieval Cues • Recall memory (Name the three stooges) • Recognition memory (Which of the following are names of the three stooges: Larry, Barry, Moe, Bo, Curly, Shirley) • Why is recall more difficult than recognition? • Which is harder multiple choice or short-answer?

280 Encoding Specificity Principle

• Divers learned lists of words either on land or underwater • Recall was superior when testing was done under the same conditions as the learning (e.g., when learning and retrieval match) • Those who learned words underwater were better at recalling the words when underwater • Those that learned words on land were better at recalling the words on land

281 Mood Congruence

• People are better at recall when they are tested in the same mood that they learned the words • This explains why depressed people are more able to recall sad events than happy ones • In contrast, people in happy mood are more likely to recall happy events

282 Biological Bases of Memory

• Learning modifies the neural network via Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) • Cells that fire together, wire together (Donald Hebb) • LTP results in neural pathways becoming more likely to fire in one of two ways: • increasing the number of dendrites and synapses • increasing the ability of neurons to release neurotransmitters

283 Influence of Stress on Memory

• Stress results in the release of the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and cortisol • This increases memory • Why might this be so? • Chronic stress or severe stress, however, can interfere with memory • Flashbulb memories: memory of strongly emotional events (9/11 attack, assassination of President Kennedy) • But, plane striking first tower on 9/11

284 Location of Memory

• Memory is distributed throughout the brain • Some brain structures important for memory • Amygdala: emotional memory • Hippocampus: important for moving STM into LTM • Cortex: many areas are involved depending on what is remembered (e.g., occipital for visual content; temporal for auditory content)

285 Patient HM (Henry Molaison)

• Severe epilepsy in the both temporal lobes • Surgical removal of brain tissue • Loss of most of the hippocampus (Latin for seahorse), which is responsible for laying down new memories into long-term memory • Unable to form new declarative memories • Still able to form new procedural memories • HM has anterograde amnesia as opposed to retrograde amnesia

286 Patient HM (Henry Molaison)

287 Procedural Memory

288 Alzheimer’s Disease

• Progressive brain disease • Neural cells degenerate into plaques and tangles • First small memory difficulties • Eventually cannot recognize loved ones; and finally results in death • Selective memory impairment • Declarative memory is affected (facts, names, dates) • Procedural memory remains intact for a long time (how to brush teeth)

289 PET images:Alzheimer’s on Right

290 5 Theories of Forgetting

• Decay: • Neuronal connections gradually weaken • Use it or lose it • Interference • New information interferes with older information • Motivated Forgetting • Psychoanalysis suggests that some forgetting is purposeful • Encoding Failure – Describe the face of a penny

291 Which is Correct?

292 Correct Penny

293 Factors involved in Forgetting

• Serial Position • Primacy and Recency • Source Amnesia • Forgetting the true source of a memory • Massed Practice (as opposed to Spaced Practice) • We learn better not when we cram but when we space learning out over time

294 Source Amnesia

295 Types of Amnesia

• Retrograde Amnesia • “Retro” = back • Old memories are lost • New memories can be formed • Anterograde Amnesia • “Antero” = Forward • Old memories are intact • New memories cannot be formed

296 HM and Amnesia

• What sort of amnesia did HM have?

(A) Anterograde amnesia for declarative memories (B) Retrograde amnesia for procedural memories (C) Anterograde amnesia for procedural memories (D) Retrograde amnesia for declarative memories

297 Memory Distortions

• Need for consistency and logic • Much like visual perception, we fill in missing pieces • Need for efficiency: we often remember the gist but not the details (remembering the word “sleep”)

298 False Memory

• Relatively easy to create false memories • Film of car accident • How fast was car going when it passed the barn? • How fast was the car going when it crashed into vs. hit the other car? • Unreliability of eyewitness testimony • A relative told Elizabeth Loftus that she was the one who had found her mother dead in the pool, and she recovered the following memory:

299 Elizabeth Loftus

I could see myself, a thin, dark-haired girl, looking into the flickering blue and white pool. My mother, dressed in her nightgown, is floating face down. I start screaming. I remember the police cars, their lights flashing, and the stretcher with the clean, white blanket tucked in around the edges of the body. The memory had been there all along, but I just couldn’t reach it.

300 False Memory vs. Repressed Memory

• Later several relatives corroborated the fact that it was an aunt, not Elizabeth Loftus who found her mother dead in the pool • Source Amnesia explains Elizabeth Loftus’s false memory • Psychoanalysis is interested in the idea that patients might repress traumatic memories • What do you think? Is it possible that a traumatic memory could be suppressed?

301 Chapter 8

Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

302 Discussion

• The chapter includes three different topics – thinking, language, and intelligence? • How are the three related to one another? • Can one think without language? Why or why not? • Can someone who has no language skills be intelligent? Why or why not? • What defines language? • What defines intelligence? • What defines thinking?

303 Thinking and the Brain

• The prefrontal cortex is important in planning and decision- making • The prefrontal cortex has connections to many other parts of the cortex as well to the limbic system, which is involved in emotional processing • Why is the prefrontal cortex connected to so many other brain areas?

304 Mental Images

• Visual • Auditory • Ofactory (smell) • Gustatory (taste) • Tactile (feeling) • Motor (movement)

305 Concepts

• Thinking abstractly requires an ability to form concepts • Concepts are mental representations of a group or category • Artificial concepts (formally defined with exact boundaries, as in science; e.g., equilateral triangle) • Natural concepts (informally defined, with fuzzy boundaries, and prototypes)

306 Natural Concepts

• Chair as a natural concept • What is the definition of a chair? • Is there an exact definition that includes all chairs but excludes all non-chairs?

307 Natural Concepts

Three levels of natural concepts or categories. • Higher level categories (animal) • Basic level categories (bird) • Lower level categories (eagle) • Children learn the basic level categories first

308 Matching Quiz

• Basic Level • Higher Level • Lower Level What level of category? 1. Oak: ______2. Tree: ______3. Vegetation: ______

309 Problem Solving

• Algorithm = a set of steps to guaranteed to solve a problem (e.g., PEMDAS) • Heuristic = a short cut that may solve the problem, but that sometimes leads us astray (e.g., trial and error)

310 Heuristics

• Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky • Availability • Representative • Anchoring

311 Availability Heuristic

• In the 1950s and 1960s parents let their children wander the neighborhood until dark, or even later • Is it safe to do so now? • Rates of abduction are no higher now than fifty years ago • Why are parents so afraid?

312 Availability Heuristic

• After the terrorist attacks of 9/11, people were afraid to fly and more people chose to drive • Result was that thousands of additional people died in the one year after 9/11 due to car accidents

313 Representative Heuristic

If you meet a 27 year old man who is 6 foot 8 inches tall, which is more likely? (a) He is a professional basketball player (b) He works for an insurance company

314 Representative Heuristic

• If you meet a 27 year old man who is 6 foot 8 inches tall, which is more likely? (a) He is a professional basketball player (b) He works for an insurance company • Inattention to Base Rates • There are millions of insurance company workers, but very few professional basketball players • Most basketball players are tall, young men; but most tall, young men are not professional basketball players 315 Questionaire for ½ the Class

Half the class close their eyes, the other half to write down their answers to the following question

316 Questionaire for ½ the Class

1. What percent of African nations are members of the United Nations? A) Less than 15% B) Greater than 15% Answer (A or B): ______

2. Now what is your best guess for the percent of African nations are members of the United Nations? ______

317 Questionaire for ½ the Class

Now have the switch who has eyes closed.

318 Questionaire for ½ the Class

1. What percent of African nations are members of the United Nations? A) Greater than 85% B) Less than 85% Answer (A or B): ______

2. Now what is your best guess for the percent of African nations are members of the United Nations? ______

319 Anchoring Heuristic Results

Mean Median 15% Group 27.4 20.5 85% Group 48.5 50.0

320 Anchoring Heuristic: Gandhi

Randomly assigned to either Group A or B: A: When did Mahatma Gandhi die? - Before age 9 - After age 9 B: When did Mahatma Gandhi die? - Before age 140 - After age 140 Then both groups are asked: How old was Gandhi when he died? 321 Anchoring Heuristic: Gandhi

N Mean SD Primed with Age 9 8 67.1 19.7 Primed with Age 140 11 87.3 11.3

322 Anchoring Heuristic: Gandhi

323 Anchoring Heuristic Results

324 Anchoring Heuristic

• Prior information “anchors” our future decision • Number of African nations that are members of the UN • Another example: Write last two digits of SSN. Would you pay this number of dollars for an item whose value you did not know? • When an auction is held, those with higher two-digit numbers submit bids that are 60 – 120% higher than those with the lower numbers • Implications for negotiations

325 Barriers to Problem Solving • Tractor Trailer Problem • Mental Set = sticking to a strategy that worked in the past, but might not work now • Functional Fixedness = Difficult to imagine a different use for a familiar tool or object • MacGyver does not have functional fixedness • Unlike other fictional secret agents who usually have many high tech tools, MacGyver carried only a Swiss army knife and duct tape • Confirmation Bias = We tend to test only for confirmation of our ideas, rather than for

disconfirmation 326 Mental Set

• Nine dot problem • Draw a line through all 9 dots using only four lines and never taking your pencil up off the paper

327 Thinking Outside the Box – Literally

328 Functional Fixedness

• The Sword in the Stone Problem • Legend has it that the only the rightful king of England can pull Excalibur (a magical sword) from the stone • Can you?

329 Confirmation Bias

• What might the next number in this series be? • Ten guesses; I’ll tell you right or wrong.

1 4 9 ?

• Now, what is the rule that creates this series?

330 Three Wise Men in Hats

• Three wise men were told that they each would be given either a white hat or a black hat from a pool of five hats, of which two were black and three were white. • The wise men are lined up so that the last in line can see the color of both men in front of him; the middle can only see the color of the hat in front of him; and the front man cannot see any hat color. • None of the wise men can see their own hat

331 Three Wise Men in Hats

• After several long minutes of silent contemplation, the wise man in front says, my hat is white. • He is correct. How did he know this?

332 Three Elements of Creativity

• Originality (a unique or novel perspective) • Fluency (ability to generate a large number of ideas for solution of the problem) • Flexibility (ability to shift easily to different problem- solving strategy) • Example of Edison • Originality: hot metals glow, maybe this can be used for light • Fluency: Edison tried a large number of substances, but all failed because they burnt up too quickly

• Flexibility: eventually Edison used a vacuum 333 Language

• Phonemes (smallest unit of sound, “th” in throws) • Morphemes (smallest unit that carries meaning, “re” or “new” in renew) • Grammar (rules for language) • Syntax (rules for putting words in order) • Semantics (meaning of words)

334 Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

• Idea that what language we speak influences the way in which we think • Inuit example • Criticism of original research • Vietnamese and 6 tonal qualities (flat, up, down, up and down, down and up) • Bilingual speakers, however, report differences in how they think depending on what language they are speaking

335 Language Development

• Baby “teaches” her parents to respond to her nonverbal cues; parents learn what different cries mean • Nature vs. Nurture • Language Acquisition Device (Noam Chomsky) • Innate mechanism that allows a child to learn grammatical rules • Evidence for a critical period • A parent shapes her child’s language by encouraging her when she makes the right sounds (operant conditioning)

336 Over-Generalization

• Over-Generalizing of semantics • Doggy = all furry, four legged animals • Over-generalizing of grammar • I goed to the zoo • Two mans

337 Animal Talk?

• Do animals have language? • Can we learn their “languages”? • Can animals learn our languages? • Sign language, symbols on a board • Chimpanzees • Gorillas • Dolphins • Orangutan Video

338 Discussion: Intelligence

• What is intelligence? • What sorts of things do intelligent people think, feel, or do? • What are some characteristics of intelligent people? • Are more intelligent people more certain than others? Or are they less certain than others? Why or why not?

339 Intelligence

• What is intelligence? • Definition: The global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment • Is there one fundamental type of intelligence? • General Intelligence (g) • Measured by standard IQ tests • Or are there multiple types of intelligence?

340 Cattell’s Model

• Raymond Cattell • Two types of intelligence • Fluid intelligence (gf): innate, inherited ability like memory capacity and speed of processing. Independent of education, declines with age • Crystallized intelligence (gc): specific knowledge and skills learned through education and experience, increases with age

341 Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• Howard Gardner • Linguistic • Logical/Mathematical • Spatial • Bodily/Kinesthetic • Intrapersonal (understanding yourself) • Interpersonal (understanding how to work with others) • Naturalistic (attuned to the natural world) • Spiritual/Existential 342 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

• Robert Sternberg • Analytical intelligence = intelligence as measured by traditional academic tests such as the SAT • Creative intelligence = ability to solve novel problems, imaginative, insightful • Practical intelligence = ability to successfully execute a plan, apply knowledge

343 IQ

• IQ = Intelligence Quotient • Original Definition: (Mental Age/Actual Age)x100 • If a child of 10 could do the same things as a 12 year old, she would have an IQ of (12/10)x100= 120 • If a child of 10 could only do the same thing as an 8 year old, she would have an IQ of 80. • Current Definition: Comparison of the person’s score to a national sample of people of the same age • Average = 100 • “Gifted” = Above 130 • “Intellectual disability” = Below 70

344 IQ Scores

345 Extreme IQ Scores

• Gifted: top 2% on IQ tests • Causes: genetics, nurturing environment • Which do you think is more important? • Mentally Challenged: bottom 2% on IQ tests • Causes include genetic abnormalities (Down’s Syndrome), exposure to alcohol or drugs while in the womb, brain damage, extreme neglect • Savants = people with low IQ, but exceptional talents in a particular domain

346 IQ Tests

• Stanford-Binet • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) • Verbal Score • Performance Score

347 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

348 WAIS Verbal Scales

• Information • How many senators are elected from each state? • Similarities • How are computers and books alike? • Arithmetic • If one baseball card costs three cents, how much will five cost? • Vocabulary • Define lamp • Comprehension • What should you do if you accidentally break a friend’s toy?

349 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

350 Qualities of a Good Test

• Reliability = Repeatability • Validity = the test measures what it claims to measure, thus a valid test will correlate highly with other measures of the construct the test was designed to measure • Standardization • Standard procedures for administering test • Comparison to a representative sample

351 Which is the brain with higher IQ?

352 Brain and Intelligence

• The brains of people who are more intelligent appear to work more efficiently (previous slide) • More intelligent species tend to have larger brains • Convolutions (folds) in human cortex

353 Nature, Nurture, and Intelligence

Identical Twins Reared Together 0.86

Identical Twins Reared Apart 0.75

Fraternal Twins Reared Together 0.57

Siblings Reared Together 0.45

Unrelated Individuals Reared Together 0.32

Siblings Reared Apart 0.21

0 0.225 0.45 0.675 0.9 Correlation

354 Nature, Nurture, and Intelligence

• What can you deduce from the preceding slide about the relative effects of nature and nurture on intelligence?

355 Nature, Nurture, and Intelligence

• Good evidence that intelligence may be passed down through genes • However, environment can clearly have powerful effects • What do you think?

356 Ethnicity and Intelligence

• Are ethnic and racial differences genetic? Or are they due to environmental factors? • Or are IQ tests culturally biased? • Traditional IQ tests do not assess multiple intelligences • Why do you think there is so much controversy over group differences in IQ?

357 IQ and the Flynn Effect

• The Flynn Effect: IQ scores appear to have risen substantially over the past century • The size of the effect is about 3 IQ points per decade, which means about 30 points in a century • This suggests that the average person from a century ago would have borderline mental retardation • Why do you think this increase has occurred?

358 IQ and the Flynn Effect

• The Flynn Effect: IQ scores appear to have risen substantially over the past century • The size of the effect is about 3 IQ points per decade, which means about 30 points in a century • This suggests that the average person from a century ago would have borderline mental retardation • Why do you think this increase has occurred? • Potential causes include: • Improved nutrition • Improved test taking skills

• Improved public education 359 Chapter 9

Lifespan Development I

360 The Seven Ages of Man

All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players, They have their exits and entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. At first the infant, Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms. Then, the whining schoolboy with his satchel And shining morning face, creeping like a snail Unwillingly to school. And then the lover, Sighing like a furnace, with a woeful ballad Made to his mistress' eyebrow. Then a soldier, Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard, Jealous in honour, sudden, and quick in quarrel, Seeking the bubble reputation Even in the cannon's mouth. And then the justice In fair round belly, with good capon lin'd, With eyes severe, and beard of formal cut, Full of wise saws, and modern instances, And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts Into the lean and slipper'd pantaloon,

361 The Seven Ages of Man

As You Like It - Shakespeare

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UG3f3Nab1DA

362 The Seven Ages of Man

• Infancy: The Baby • Childhood: The Schoolboy • Adolescence: The Lover • Young Adult: The Soldier • Adult: The Judge • Old Age: The Old Man declining in strength • The End: Dementia and Death

363 Genie

** Genie Description from Wikipedia **Genie Video http://www.youtube.com/ watch? v=x3kfxz6oLjQ&feature= related

364 Genie

• The case of Genie demonstrates how important early experience is to proper development • Genie’s case illustrates the idea of a critical period for language development, as well as physical, emotional, and cognitive development

365 Debates in Development

• Nature versus Nurture • Existence of Critical Periods • Continuity or Stages • Stability or Change • Is personality stable over time? • Is intelligence stable over time? • What do you think?

366 Research Methods

• Cross-Sectional Research • Different participants at various ages are compared at the same time • Less expensive, less time consuming, large samples • Issue of cohort effects • Longitudinal Research • Same individuals studied across a long period of time • More expensive, more time consuming, smaller samples 367 Research Methods

368 Hazards During Pregnancy

• Teratogens: agents that cause damage in pregnancy • Alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, opiates • Lead paint chips or dust • Malnutrition • X-Rays • Maternal stress • Disease (Herpes, AIDS)

369 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

370 Brain Development

• Brain grows more rapidly than the rest of the body from prenatal period to two years • By age two, the brain is 75% of its adult size • After age 6, most changes in the brain involve connections between neurons

371 Brain Development

372 Motor Development

• Reflexes such as rooting (at birth) • Chin up (2 months • Rolling over (3 months) • Sitting up (6 months) • Walking holding hands (9 months) • Walking on own (1 year) • Exact timing and sequence varies between individuals

373 Sensory and Perceptual Development

• At birth, smell and taste are well-developed • Infants prefer their mother’s milk to other’s milk • Sensitivity to pain and pressure are also well-developed • Hearing is well-developed and infants recognize their mother’s voices • Vision is not well-developed and is in the range of 20/200 to 20/600 • Infants prefer to look at images of a face more than other images of equal complexity

374 Adolescence

• What defines Adolescence? • When does adolescence begin? • When is someone an adult? • How does puberty fit into these questions?

375 Puberty

• About 11-13 years old for girls • About 13-15 years old for boys • Capable of reproduction • Growth spurt • Development of ovaries and testes and hormonal release • Development of secondary sex characteristics • Pubic hair and underarm hair • Deepening voice and facial hair for men • Growth of breasts and menstruation for women

376 Middle Age

• Menopause for women (between 45 and 55) • Decrease in muscle mass • Graying or loss of hair • Weight gain due to decreased physical activity and reduced metabolism • Decline in sexual responsiveness

377 Old Age

• Decrease in sensory acuity • Slowing of mental processing speed • Slowing of memory encoding and retrieval • However, general information processing and general memory ability remains relatively intact • Ageism = prejudice or discrimination based on age

378 What Causes Aging?

• Programmed Theory: aging is genetically controlled; cells can only divide a limited number of times (about 50 in the laboratory) • Damage Theory: environmental damage accumulates over the years and eventually results in organ failure and death • Maximum life span is about 120 years

379 Jean Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor (Birth to 2) • Preoperational (Ages 2-7) • Concrete Operational (7-11) • Formal Operational (Age 11 and up)

380 Sensorimotor Stage

• Birth to 2 • Uses senses and motor skills to explore the world and develop schemas • Lacks Object Permanence • Object permanence means, for example, if you cover a toy with a blanket, the child knows that the toy is still there

381 Object Permanence

382 Object Permanence

383 Preoperational Stage

• Ages 2 to 7 • Child has object permanence • Child develops significant language skills • Child begins to think symbolically • Lacks Operations = reversible mental processes • Example: Do you have a brother? Yes. Does your brother have a brother? No • Egocentric Thinking: inability to take a perspective other than one’s own, M&M box contains pencils, 3 year old has trouble understanding perspective of new kid • Animistic Thinking: assumes that all objects are alive and have feelings (e.g., a ball or the sun)

384 Concrete Operational Stage

• 7 to 11 • Understands Operations = concept of reversibility • For example, understands Conservation of Volume • Can think concretely about operations, but lacks abstract thinking

385 Conservation of Volume

386 Conservation of Volume

387 Conservation of Volume

388 Conservation of Volume

http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=t7Y3cJHS4Hg

389 Formal Operational Stage

• Age 11 and up • Abstract, symbolic thinking (democracy, algebra) • Hypothetical thinking (what if . . .?) • Adolescent Egocentrism: • Personal Fable: my thoughts and feelings are completely unique – no on else can understand me • Imaginary Audience: everyone is paying attention to me

390 Criticism of Piaget’s Stages

• Infant’s cognitive abilities may develop more quickly than Piaget thought. • For example, children appear to develop object permanence earlier than Piaget thought • Preoperational children may not always be egocentric • For example, preschoolers use simpler words when talking with 2 year olds as compared to adults • Continuity of development vs. Stages of development

391 Chapter 10

Lifespan Development II

392 Attachment

• Attachment = bond between infant and parents • Is attachment innate or learned? • Konrad Lorenz’s study of Imprinting: • Geese attach to and follow the first large moving object they see • Evidence for attachment as an innate process, at least in some animals

393 Harry Harlow’s Monkey Experiments

• Wire and Cloth surrogate monkeys • Test of Freud’s theory that attachment occurs as a result of oral pleasure • Infant monkeys prefer cloth surrogate to wire surrogate mother • Contact comfort seems essential to development of attachment • Love?

394 395 The Strange Situation

• Mary Ainsworth studied levels of attachment • Studied the behavior in the presence of their mothers and in the presence of strangers • Three types of attachment 1. Secure (65%): 2. Avoidant (25%): infant does not seek comfort of mother, rarely cries when she leaves the room 3. Anxious/Ambivalent (10%): Becomes very upset when mother leaves the room. When she returns, the infant seeks closeness, but then squirms angrily to get away 396 Attachment Across the Lifespan

• Does our attachment as a young child influence our romantic attachments later in life? • Notice the way lovers coo at one another and often use pet names (the “Schmoopy” Sienfeld episode) • Some evidence that securely attached infants are more likely to grow up to more comfortable and successful in romantic relationships

397 Stages of Moral Development

• Lawrence Kohlberg • A man’s wife was near death from a rare cancer. He could not afford the drug need to save her, and he was unable to borrow the money or get the pharmacy to agree to a payment plan. The man ended up breaking into the pharmacy to steal the drug. Was this right? • Kohlberg is less interested in whether you think the man is right and more interested in the moral reasoning that lead you to your decision

398 Six Stages of Moral Development

• Preconventional Level (birth to adolescence) • Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience • Stage 2: Instrumental Exchange • Conventional Level (adolescence to young adult) • Stage 3: Good Child • Stage 4: Law and Order • Postconventional Level (adulthood) • Stage 5: Social Contract • Stage 6: Universal Ethics

399 Six Stages of Moral Development

1. Punishment and Obedience: What can you get away with? 2. Instrumental Exchange: Obey rules to get rewards or favors 3. Good Child: Obey rules to get approval 4. Law and Order: Obey laws to maintain social order 5. Social Contract: Belief in democratically accepted laws 6. Universal Ethics: Moral reasoning reflects individual conscience

400 Erikson’s 8 Stages of Development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1 year) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame (1-3) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12) 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (13-20) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-30) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-65) 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+)

401 Gender Roles

• Distinction between sex and gender • What characteristics are associated with femininity? • What characteristics are associated with masculinity? • Is it easier for men to express feminine traits or for women to express masculine traits? • Concept of androgyny

402 Collectivist vs. Individualistic Cultures

• Collectivist • Needs and goals of the group (e.g., family, community, nation) are deemed more important than those of the individual • many Asian countries, indigenous peoples of • Individualistic: • Needs and goals of the individual are more highly valued that those of the group • Western Europe, North America, New Zealand and Australia

403 Death and Dying

• Existential psychology (Meaningless, Aloneness, Death, Freedom) • Elisabeth Kubler-Ross: Stages of dealing with death 1. Denial: This can’t be true! 2. Anger: Why me? This isn’t fair. 3. Bargaining: God, if you let me live, I’ll . . . 4. Depression: I’m losing everyone and everything 5. Acceptance: Death is inevitable • Hospice and Palliative Care

404 Chapter 11

Motivation and Emotion

405 Motivation and Emotion

• Why do we do what we do? • What motivates us? • Why did Muhammed Yunus found Grameen Bank to lend small sums of money to poor people with no collateral? • Yunus and the bank were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006

406 Muhammed Yunus & Micro-Lending

407 Theories of Motivation

• Instinct Theory • Drive Reduction Theory • Based on the concept of homeostasis (slide) • Example of hunger • Arousal Theory • Organisms are motivated to achieve an optimal level of arousal that maximizes their performance • Inverted U curve for optimal levels of arousal (slide)

408 Homeostasis

409 Inverted U Curve for Anxiety/Arousal

Better

Performance

Worse

Anxiety 410 Sensation Seeking

• Seeking thrills and adventure (e.g., roller coasters and sky diving) • Seeking new experiences (e.g., travel, friends, altering consciousness through drugs, meditation, or trance) • Disinhibition (“letting loose”) • Easily bored

411 Theories of Motivation

• Incentive Theory (external incentives like pay) • Act to obtain desirable outcomes • Avoid undesirable outcomes • Attribution Theory (self-efficacy vs. luck) • To what do you attribute your successes? Your own effort? Luck? How will that affect your future efforts? • Expectancy Theory • If you expect to be rewarded at work, you are more likely to work harder

412 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

413 3 Major Motivations

• Hunger • Sex • Achievement

414 Hunger

• Fullness of stomach • Neurotransmitters and hormones also influence feelings of hunger • Two regions of the hypothalamus seem critical for feeling hunger and feeling full • Psychosocial factors • Time of day • Advertising • What others are doing

415 Eating Disorders

• Obesity • Anorexia • Bulimia

416 Obesity

• Obesity is defined as being more than 15% over ideal body weight • What causes obesity?

417 Causes of Obesity

• Genetic factors (slide) • Advertising • Lack of Exercise (TV couch potatoes) • Fast Food with lots of fat, sugar, and salt (Super-size meals, Big Gulp drinks) • Constant availability of junk food (slide)

418 Genetic Factors in Obesity

419 Constant Availabilityof Junk Food

420 Anorexia Nervosa

• Fear of becoming obese • Disturbance in body image • Need for control • Excessive exercise • Dangerous weight loss measures • Purging • Laxatives • Extremely low calorie diets

421 Body Image Disturbance

422 Consequences of Anorexia Nervosa

• Extreme malnutrition • Osteoporosis • Bone fractures • Interruption of menstruation • Loss of brain tissue • Death

423 Bulimia Nervosa

• Bingeing and Purging • Bingeing is eating large quantities of food in a very short period of time • Purging is vomiting, using laxatives, or extreme exercise • Impulsivity (excessive shopping, drug or alcohol abuse, shoplifting)

424 Consequences of Bulimia Nervosa

• Severe damage to the teeth, throat, and stomach (due to the acid associated with vomiting) • Heart arrhythmias • Metabolic problems • Digestive disorders

425 Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia

• What do you think causes these disorders?

426 Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia

• Physical causes (genetics, hormonal disorders, neurotransmitter abnormalities) • Media images of the “ideal” woman (slide) • Need for perfection • Need for control • Being teased about body weight • Sexual abuse • Depression • Dysfunctional families

427 Ideal Woman?

428 Sexual Orientation

• What causes someone to be gay?

429 Causes of Sexual Orientation

• Concordance Rates • Identical twins 60% • Fraternal twins 30% • Thus, both genetic and environmental factors seem to influence sexual orientation

430 Myths about Sexual Orientation

• Being raised by a gay parent • Seduced as a child by a same sex adult • Domineering mothers; submissive fathers • Unhappy heterosexual experiences

431 Prejudice about Sexual Orientation

• Nazi persecution and extermination of gays • What about gay rights? • Gay marriage?

432 Prejudice about Sexual Orientation

433 Achievement

• What motivates high achievers like Olympic medalists?

434 Achievement Motivation

• Preference for moderately difficult tasks • Competitiveness • Preference for goals with clear feedback • Responsibility • Persistence • More accomplished (people with a high need for achievement get better grades, earn more money, and excel in their jobs) • Achievement motivation appears to be learned in childhood 435 Effects of “Pay” on Motivation

Percent of Free Time Spent Drawing

Promised Reward for Drawing 9.0

Received Unexpected Reward 16.5

No Reward 17.5

0 4.5 9 13.5 18

436 Emotion

• What are the primary emotions?

437 Emotion

• Happiness and Joy • Interest • Surprise • Fear and Anxiety • Sadness • Anger • Shame and Guilt • Disgust • Contempt

438 3 Components of Emotion

• Physiology (e.g., heart pounding) • Cognition (thoughts identifying the emotion) • Behavior (e.g., smiling, attacking, running away)

439 Physiology of Emotion

• Cerebral Cortex and Limbic System • The Amygdala is important, especially for fear • Autonomic Nervous System (next slide)

440 Autonomic Nervous System

441 Behavior and Emotion

• Behavioral expression of emotions: • Running away (fear) • Fighting or yelling (anger) • Drooping shoulders and downcast face (sadness) • Moving the head back and away (disgust) • Leaning forward and moving the head forward (interest) • Dancing (joy) • Facial Expression is especially important (2 slides)

442 Name the Emotion (Paul Ekman)

A: _____ D: _____

B: _____ E: _____

C: ______F: ______

443 Name the Emotion (Paul Ekman)

A: Happy D: Fear

B: Sad E: Disgust

C: Angry F: Surprise

444 Social and Duchenne Smiles

• Social Smile (False) • Mouth is smiling, but eyes are not • Supermodel smile • Dealing with your mother-in-law smile • Duchenne Smile (Genuine) • Mouth and eyes are both smiling • Associated with genuine emotion of happiness

445 Duchenne (Genuine) Smile

446 Social (False) Smile

447 3 Components of Emotion

• Physiology (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, sweating) • Behavior (e.g., crying, running away, attacking) • Cognition (e.g., “I am sad” or “I am angry”)

• Questions • Which of these is the most important for emotion? • Which comes first when one experiences emotions? • Can one feel emotions without some of the three?

448 4 Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange • Facial-Feedback Hypothesis • Cannon-Bard • Schachter’s Two Factor Theory

449 James-Lange Theory

• William James and Carl Lange • James: “We feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble” • Thus arousal and expression cause awareness of emotions, not the other way around • Arousal and Behavior → Awareness of Emotion (Cognition) • Thus, awareness of emotion occurs after arousal and behavior

450 Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

• Do we smile because we are happy? • Or are we happy because we smile? • The facial feedback hypothesis suggests that the second is also true • Thus, the old expression “fake it till you make it” • Supportive of the James-Lange Theory of Emotion

451 Teeth Showing (increases happiness)

452 Teeth not Showing (does not increase happiness)

453 Acting

• Do actors who are portraying an emotion actually feel that emotion? • If you make an effort to smile, do you think that you will you feel happier?

454 Cannon-Bard Theory

• Walter Cannon and Philip Bard • Cognition, physiological arousal, and behavior (expression of emotion) all occur at the same time • The thalamus projects simultaneously to the limbic system, autonomic system, and the cortex • Cannon showed that animals who were surgically prevented from experiencing physiological arousal still showed behavioral expression (e.g., growling) • Similar results have been shown with paralyzed humans (they still feel intense emotion) • Thus, arousal is not essential for emotion 455 Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

• Schachter and Singer • Two factors are: (1) physiological arousal; (2) cognition about that arousal • We look to the external environment for cues as to how to interpret our arousal • If we cry at a wedding, we identify our emotion as happy • If we cry at a funeral, we identify our emotion as sad • Physiological arousal + Cognition → Emotion • Evidence (next two slides)

456 Schachter and Singer (1962)

• Volunteers injected with epinephrine (adrenaline), but told it was vitamins to improve vision • Group 1: Correctly informed about side effects of tremors, heart racing, and excitement • Group 2: Incorrectly informed that side effects would be itching, headache, and numbness • Group 3: Told nothing about side effects • Subjects were then waited in another room with a confederate of the experimenter who either acted happy or angry

457 Schachter and Singer (1962)

458 Sex and Bridges

• Randomly selected men were approached by an attractive female and asked to give their responses to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) • Two bridges were used: one very high and frightening; the other low and not frightening • Men on the high bridge were more likely to give romantic or sexual responses to the TAT. They were also more likely to contact the female research assistant by telephone • Interpreted as supportive of the Two-Factor Theory of Schacter and Singer 459 Culture and Emotion

• Are emotions the same across all cultures? • Paul Ekman’s research suggests that people in all cultures can recognize the following emotions: • Happiness • Sadness • Anger • Fear • Surprise • Disgust

460 Culture and Emotion II

• Although there does seem to be universal recognition of basic emotions across all cultures, cultures also differ in their display rules • For example, Asians and American are less likely to embrace or hold hands with someone unless they are a close relative or friend • In contrast, Latin Americans and Middle Easterners are much more likely to embrace or hold hands, even with casual friends • American men and women also differ in their display rules 461 Polygraph Machines (Lie Detectors)

• Blood Pressure • Heart Rate • Respiration Rate • Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) -- sweating

462 Polygraph Test

463 Polygraph Test Output

464 Functional MRI and Lying

465 Chapter 12

Personality

466 What is Personality?

• What is personality in general? • What are the primary traits that make up personality?

467 Definitions

• Personality: Relatively stable and enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors • Traits: Relatively stable and enduring characteristics that can be used to describe someone

468 Five-Factor Model of Personality

• Dictionaries contain at least 4,000 words that are personality traits • Factor analysis reduces them to their principal components • Five factors emerge – The Big Five

469 Five-Factor Model (The Big Five)

• Extraversion vs. Introversion • Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability • Agreeableness vs. Disagreeableness • Conscientiousness vs. • Openness

• Acronyms: OCEAN or CANOE

470 Five Factors (The Big Five)

471 Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality

• Sigmund Freud • Three levels of consciousness: • Conscious • Pre-Conscious • Unconscious • Three levels of personality • Id • Ego • Superego

472 3 Levels of Consciousness (Freud)

473 3 Levels of Personality (Freud)

• Id • Unconscious • Immature, impulsive, irrational • Sexual and aggressive urges • Pleasure Principal • Ego • Somewhat Conscious • Responsible for planning, problem solving, reasoning • Must channel the impulses of the id in constructive ways • Reality Principal • Superego • Somewhat Conscious • Internalized parental and societal standards • Constantly demanding perfection, hence unrealistic • Morality Principal 474 Freud’s Structural Model of Personality

475 Defense Mechanisms

• When the ego fails to satisfy the urges of the id or demands of the superego, we feel anxiety • Defense mechanisms are ways to reduce that anxiety • Example: An alcoholic buys a bottle of vodka (in response to his id), but then feels guilty (in response to his superego), can reduce his anxiety and guilt by rationalizing and saying to himself, “I work hard, so I deserve some pleasure”

476 Defense Mechanisms and Examples

• Repression: Forgetting the details of childhood abuse • Sublimation: Channeling aggression to hard work and competition • Denial: Drug addict refuses to admit his addiction • Rationalization: Justifying bad behavior like a defense lawyer • Intellectualization: Discussing painful events unemotionally • Projection: Accusing others of being angry, when it’s really you • Reaction Formation: Opposing homosexuality, when in fact you are conflicted about your own sexuality • Regression: Behaving as though a child once again • Displacement: Turning anger toward a boss onto one’s spouse or children

477 Defense Mechanisms

478 Psychosexual Stages of Development

• Freud • Five stages • Oral (0 to 18 months) • Anal (18 months to 3 years) • Phallic (3 to 6 years): Oedipus Complex • Latency (6 years to puberty) • Genital (puberty to adult) • Freud believed that if a child failed to deal appropriately with a particular stage he became fixated • Orally fixated • Smokers, Alcoholics

• Anally fixated (anally compulsive) 479 480 How to Access the Unconscious

• Dreams • “The royal road to the unconscious” - Freud • Slips of the tongue • Free Association

481 Freud’s Couch

482 Freudian Slip (Slip of the Tongue)

483 Freudian Slip (Slip of the Tongue) “Last time we were disgusting sadistics

… I mean discussing statistics” – John Kelley

484 Neo-Freudians (Jung)

• Carl Jung • Analytical Psychology • Unconscious also contains positive and spiritual forces in addition to sexual and aggressive urges • Personal unconscious versus the Collective Unconscious • Collective Unconscious is universal and identical for everyone. It contains Archetypes: • Anima: feminine personality • Animus: masculine personality

485 Humanistic Theories

• Unlike Freud who considered that we are driven by unconscious urges of the id toward sex and aggression, humanist believe that people are fundamentally good and are driven toward self-fulfillment • Carl Rogers • Abraham Maslow

486 Carl Rogers

• Poor mental health results from a mismatch between one’s self-concept and actual life experience • Congruence is a good match between a person’s interests and her environment • Example: An artistically inclined person whose family devalued art might become maladjusted. • In contrast, if her family valued art highly, she would more likely have health self-esteem. • Unconditional Positive Regard = caring and supportive attitude toward others with no strings attached

487 Abraham Maslow

• Hierarchy of needs (slide) • Self-actualization is an in-born drive that all people have • All humans strive for self-actualization, but only a few achieve it fully (e.g., Ghandi, Einstein)

488 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

489 Julian Rotter

• Social-Cognitive theorist • Internal Locus of Control is the idea that you control your own destiny • External Locus of Control means that you feel that you cannot control your own destiny

490 Behavioral Genetics and Personality

• Family, Twin, and Adoption studies • About 50% of the variability in personality appears to be genetic • Only about 15% of the variability in personality is due to shared environment (the common life experiences that siblings might have) • About 35% of the variability in personality is non- shared environment (unique experiences for each individual)

491 Personality Assessment

• Structured and unstructured interviews • Objective test (e.g., the MMPI – the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) • Projective tests • Rorschach Inkblot test (Slide) • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Slide)

492 Rorschach Test

493 Thematic Apperception Test

494 Chapter 13

Psychological Disorders Abnormal Psychology Psychopathology

495 On Being Sane in Insane Places

• David Rosenhan, 1972 • Published in Science • 8 pseudo-patients complained of auditory hallucinations (“dull, hollow, thud”) • 12 different hospitals admitted these “patients” • Once admitted, all acted normally • Average length of stay was 19 days • Discharged with diagnosis of schizophrenia in remission

496 On Being Sane in Insane Places II

• David Rosenhan, 1972 • Published in Science • Hearing of the results of Part I, one hospital claimed that it could not be fooled • Staff were told that one or more pseudo-patients would attempt to be admitted • Out of 193 patients, 41 were considered imposters, and an additional 42 were considered suspect • In reality, there were no pseudo-patients, and all patients were genuine

497 Abnormal Psychology

• What defines abnormal behavior? • What are some examples of psychological disorders?

498 Abnormal Psychology

499 Abnormal Psychology

• Violation of social norms • Statistical infrequency • Disability or dysfunction (e.g., inability to work or to have relationships with others) • Personal distress (e.g., fear of flying is not a problem unless you need to fly frequently for work or personal reasons)

500 DSM-5

• DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, 5th edition) • Specifies the currently accepted criteria for all mental disorders

501 DSM-5 Summary

• Anxiety disorders (phobias, PTSD, OCD) • Mood disorders (depression, bipolar) • Psychotic disorders (schizophrenia) • Personality disorders (dependent, borderline, antisocial) • Substance abuse (alcohol, drugs, nicotine) • Eating disorders (anorexia, bulimia) • Dissociative disorders (dissociative identity disorder) • Delirium, dementia, amnesia

502 Anxiety Disorders

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) • Panic Disorder • Agoraphobia • Specific Phobia • Social Anxiety Disorder • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) • (1) contamination/washing, (2) harm obsessions/checking, (3) symmetry and ordering, (4) unacceptable thoughts, and (5) hoarding • Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

503 Mood Disorders

• Major Depression • Signs and Symptoms: SIGECAPS (sleep, interest, guilt, energy, concentration, appetite, psychomotor, suicide) • Bipolar Disorder (“manic depression”) • 1% lifetime risk

504 Causes of Depression

• Chemical imbalance in neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepeniphrine, dopamine) • Learned helplessness theory of depression • Failures in life are internal, global, and stable • Internal (“it’s all my fault”) • Global (“I screw everything up”) • Stable (“This will never change”)

505 Schizophrenia

• Lifetime prevalence = 1% • Psychotic: out of touch with reality • Delusions are mistaken beliefs or thoughts (“I am pregnant with Jesus Christ”) • Delusions of grandeur (I am the Queen of England) • Delusions of persecution (everyone is out to get me) • Delusions of reference (people on TV are talking about me) • Hallucinations are imaginary sensory perceptions (hearing or seeing things that aren’t there) • Language and thought disturbance (“word salad”) • Emotional and behavioral disturbances

506 Former Subtypes of Schizophrenia

507 Causes of Schizophrenia

• The many different forms of schizophrenia suggests that there are likely many different causes • Genetics • Neurotransmitters • Brain abnormalities

508 PET Scans and Abnormal Psychology

509 510 Substance Abuse and Dependence

511 Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

• Multiple Personality Disorder • Dissociation is a way of escape by blocking out painful memories • More common among women • Controversial diagnosis • Sexual abuse as possible cause

512 Personality Disorders

• 10 diagnoses, arranged in 3 clusters • Cluster A (odd or eccentric): Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal • Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, erratic) Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic • Cluster C (anxious and fearful) Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-Compulsive • “Weird, Wild, Wussy”

513 Antisocial Personality Disorder

• “Psychopath” or “Sociopath” • Very little personal distress, therefore little motivation to change • Often charming, persuasive, and intelligent • Evidence for both genetic and environmental causes

514 Borderline Personality Disorder

• On the “borderline” between neurosis and psychosis • Impulsive • Instability in mood, relationships, and self-image • Self-mutilating behavior common • Suicide risk • People with borderline often had abusive or neglectful family upbringing • Sexual and physical abuse

515 Gender and Psychological Disorders

• Women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression, anxiety disorders, borderline personality disorder, eating disorders, and dissociative identity disorder • Men are more likely to be diagnosed with substance abuse, antisocial personality disorder, • Men are also much more likely to be sentenced to prison • Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder are about equally prevalent in men and women

516 Chapter 14

Therapy

517 Psychoanalysis

• Making the unconscious conscious is the goal • Assumes that conflicts from childhood are the root of many of the patient’s problems • Techniques include: • Use of the couch • Free Association • Dream Analysis • Analyzing Resistance • Analyzing Transference • Interpretation

518 7 Essential Features of Psychoanalysis

Seven Essential Features 1. Focus on expression of emotion 2. Exploring attempts to avoid painful feelings (resistance and defenses) 3. Identification of recurring themes and patterns 4. Focus on past experience, especially childhood 5. Focus on interpersonal relations 6. Focus on the therapeutic relationship (transference and counter-transference) 7. Exploration of wishes, dreams, fantasies

519 Psychodynamic Therapy

• Basic principles are similar to psychoanalysis • Treatment length is shorter (months rather than years) • Sessions are less frequently (weekly rather than daily) • Face to face rather than using the couch • Therapist tends to be more active and focus more on material that is more readily accessible to consciousness

520 Behavior Therapy

• Uses principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning • Aversion therapy uses classical conditioning to increase anxiety so as to diminish the attractiveness of an addiction (e.g., Antabuse, or smoking simultaneously a very large number of cigarettes) • Systematic Desensitization: • Relaxation training (diaphragmatic breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, calming imagery, self-hypnosis) • Exposure to progressive higher levels on the person’s anxiety hierarchy

521 Behavior Therapy

• Uses principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning • Aversion therapy uses classical conditioning to increase anxiety so as to diminish the attractiveness of an addiction (e.g., Antabuse, or smoking simultaneously a very large number of cigarettes) • Systematic Desensitization: • Relaxation training (diaphragmatic breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, calming imagery, self-hypnosis) • Exposure to progressive higher levels on the person’s anxiety hierarchy

522 AversionTherapy

523 Behavior Therapy

• Shaping uses operant conditioning (rewards and punishments) to shape behavior • Often used with children, especially autistic children • Token economy • Controversial use of punishment (e.g, mild electric shock given when institutionalized children act out by attempting to injure others or themselves)

524 Behavior Therapy

• Modeling Therapy uses the principles of social learning theory • Albert Bandura had people with snake phobias observe others handle snakes. Within 2 hours people with snake phobias were allowing snakes to crawl on their arms and around their necks • Assertiveness Training often involves the therapist modeling more appropriate behavior

525 Cognitive Therapy

• Assumes that the root of psychopathology lies in faulty thought processes • Automatic Thoughts = Negative self-talk • Cognitive Restructuring: Exploring unexamined beliefs and weighing the evidence for and against those beliefs (e.g., a depressed person’s belief that a break-up means that no one will ever love him again)

526 Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

• Aaron Beck • Automatic thoughts • Faulty thinking • Selective Perception (focus only on negative events) • Overgeneralization (drawing negative conclusions about yourself) • Magnification • All-or-nothing thinking • Clients are taught to recognize automatic thoughts and faulty thinking and then try to change their thoughts and actions

527 Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

• Albert Ellis • A–B–C–D Approach • Activating Event (negative job evaluation) • Irrational Beliefs (I screw everything up; I’m a failure) • Emotional Consequences (depression) • Disputing Irrational Beliefs (challenging irrational beliefs – I can do better next time; the boss is a tough taskmaster; everyone occasionally screws up; what about the times when I have succeeded?; what would I tell a friend about this situation?) 528 Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

• Video of Treatment with Gloria (1st 6:30 minutes): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sHSnYKkeWgE

529 Gestalt Therapy (Fritz Perls)

• Video of Treatment with Gloria (1st 6:30 minutes): http://video.google.com/videoplay? docid=-7783892062037622697#

530 Humanistic Therapy

• Carl Rogers • Client-centered therapy (client rather than patient) • Four Techniques: • Unconditional Positive Regard • Empathy • Genuineness • Active listening • Reflection • Paraphrasing • Clarifying • Treatment with Gloria (1st 7 minutes): http:// www.youtube.com/watch? v=m30jsZx_Ngs&feature=related 531 Group, Family, and Couples Therapy

• Multiple patients seen simultaneously • Group therapy (advantages?) • Self-help groups such as AA, OA, NA • Family therapy • Identified patient is often scapegoated • Over-involvement • Systems theory

532 Biomedical Therapy

• Pharmacology (medications) • Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT; “shock therapy”) • Psychosurgery

533 Psychopharmacology

• Psychiatric medications typically influence neurotransmitters systems, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine Four classes of psychiatric medications • Anti-anxiety (“minor tranquilizers”) • Antipsychotics (“major tranquilizers”) • Mood Stabilizers (to treat bipolar disorder) • Antidepressants

534 Anti-Anxiety Medications

• Older medications were the barbiturates, which were extremely dangerous in combination with alcohol and are rarely used now • Newer medications include the benzodiazepines, including, Valium, Xanax, Librium, Klonopin • The most common side effect is drowsiness

535 Antipsychotic Medications

• All antipsychotics appear to work by decreasing neuronal transmission in the brain • Consequently the most common side effect is drowsiness (hence the name “major tranquilizers”) • Older medications were the phenothiazines, including Thorazine and Haldol; side effects include tardive dyskinesia, a severe irreversible movement disorder • Newer medications include the atypical antipsychotics that include Risperdal and Seroquel, which so far seem to have less severe side effects; however, rapid weight gain for some patients has been reported

536 Mood Stabilizers

• Antipsychotic medications (“major tranquilizers”) are commonly used for symptoms of mania • Antidepressants are usually avoided because of the risk of “flipping” the patient into a manic episode • Lithium is the most common mood stabilizer • Side effects include increase thirst and appetite, followed by weight gain • Lithium does not have a noticeable effect on mood (e.g., euphoria) or cognition (e.g., drowsiness)

537 Antidepressants

• Older antidepressants include the tricyclics such as imipramine • Newer antidepressants include the SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), including Prozac, Paxil, Celexa, Lexapro, Zoloft • Despite a great deal of positive press, the efficacy of antidepressants over placebo has recently been brought into question (next slide)

538 Average Patient Improvement

Drug Placebo

539 Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

• In the past was used for schizophrenia, now primarily used for severe depression • Electrical current passed through the head from two electrodes triggers a seizure • Mechanism unclear (possibility of powerful placebo effects) • Side effects include confusion and some temporary memory loss • Controversial (One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest)

540 Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

541 Psychosurgery

• Frontal lobotomy • Portuguese neurologist Egon Moniz noticed a calming effect when the fibers connecting the frontal lobes to the thalamus and hypothalamus were cut • 40,000 frontal lobotomies were performed in the US on schizophrenics, many done in mental hospitals without anesthetics or formal operating rooms (patients were first rendered unconscious by ECT) • The advent of antipsychotic medications ended the practice of ECT and lobotomy for schizophrenia • Precise surgery now sometimes done for very severe OCD 542 Chapter 15

Social Psychology

543 Social Psychology

• The study of how other people influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

544 Abu Ghraib: Why were prisoners abused?

545 Abu Ghraib: Why were prisoners abused?

• Are some soldiers simply sadists? • A few bad apples? • Or is everyone capable of sadistic behavior given the right circumstances • The person vs. the situation • Personality Psychology vs. Social Psychology

546 Fundamental Attribution Error

• The tendency to judge another person’s behavior as arising from their character or their personality rather than from their situation • For example, concerning the abuse of prisoners of war at Abu Ghraib, we tend to think that soldiers were bad apples, sadists. And we tend not to think that their behavior was influenced by their situation.

547 Self-Serving Bias

• The Fundamental Attribution Error does not apply to judgments about our own actions • When we succeed, we attribute success to our own effort or ability • When we fail, we attribute failure to outside factors • Note that many depressed people show a reversal of the self-serving bias. That is, they tend to discount their successes by attributing them to luck, and they tend to over-react to their failures by attributing them to their own personal characteristics

548 Person vs. Situation

• Why does someone act in the manner that they do? • Is it because of who they are? Or is it because of the power of the situation? • The Fundamental Attribution Error suggests that we judge others’ actions as being due to who they are, and we tend to disregard the power of the situation • The Self-Serving Bias suggests that we acknowledge the power of the situation only when it is in our own interest: • when we do something wrong we assume it’s not our fault, but rather the influence of the situation. • When we do something right, we assume that it is because of our good qualities, not because of the situation.

549 Cognitive Dissonance Experiment

• People completed a boring task, and then were asked to lie and tell the next person that the task was interesting • In one condition, people were given $1 to lie • In the other condition, people were given $20 to lie • After they lied to the next person, the subjects attitudes toward the boring task were measured • Which group thought the task to be more interesting? The $1 group or the $20 group? • You Tube Video (5 minutes): http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=korGK0yGIDo

550 Cognitive Dissonance

• Surprisingly, the $1 group thought the task was more interesting • Why?

551 Cognitive Dissonance

• People are motivated to maintain consistency between their thoughts, feelings, and actions • The $20 group had a good reason for lying, and therefore, they could maintain their belief that the task was boring • The $1 group had a less good reason for lying, and so there was cognitive dissonance between their action (saying the boring task was interesting) and their thought (knowing the task to be boring) • To reduce the cognitive dissonance, people in the $1 group changed their attitude about the task and considered it to be more interesting. 552 Cognitive Dissonance

• Smokers know that smoking causes lung cancer and other diseases and yet they still smoke • Smokers therefore experience cognitive dissonance • How do they reduce this dissonance?

553 Cognitive Dissonance

• Smokers know that smoking causes lung cancer and other diseases and yet they still smoke • Smokers therefore experience cognitive dissonance • How do they reduce this dissonance? • Tell themselves that only a subset of heavy smokers will get lung cancer • Say to themselves, that you have to die of something • OR: Stop smoking

554 Prejudice and Discrimination

• Prejudice refers to an attitude toward others • Discrimination refers to actions taken against others based on prejudice • What causes prejudice and discrimination?

555 Causes of Prejudice and Discrimination

• Social Learning • Mental Shortcuts (an attempt to simplify a complex world) • Competition for Limited Resources • Displaced Aggression, especially when the source of frustration is too powerful to be attacked • Evolutionary Psychology • Implicit Attitudes (IAT Test)

556 Diffusion of Responsibility or The Bystander Effect

• Kitty Genovese, raped and stabbed repeatedly for more than a half hour • 38 neighbors witnessed the attack, but none intervened or called the police • If everyone is responsible, no one is responsible • Youtube video (3.5 minutes): http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=OSsPfbup0ac

557 Stanley Milgram’s Experiments

• Video • Minutes 0-15; 25-35 • The entire 45 minute video in on reserve at Halle Library

558 Stanley Milgram’s Experiments

• Imagine that you are a participant in a study of learning that involves administering increasing levels of electrical shocks to people who made mistakes • Would you continue to shock the learner, even if the learner screamed in pain? Even if it appeared that the learner might possibly die? • What is your best guess as to how many people in the general population would administer seemingly lethal electric shocks?

559 Milgram’s Results

560 Conclusions of Milgram’s Experiments

• A surprisingly large percentage of people (about 65%) will follow orders that appear to involve delivering a lethal shock to another person • People are remarkably unwilling to defy authority • Would you have delivered the 450 volt shock?

561 Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Study

• 24 undergraduates • Randomly assigned to role of prisoner or guard • Zimbardo acted as superintendent • Prisoners were arrested and booked by police, then transferred to Stanford • Prisoners and guards were dressed for their roles (slide) • Things quickly got out of hand • Guards became sadistic and prisoners became fearful and depressed • The Stanford Prison Study illustrates the Power of the Situation 562 Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Study

• You Tube Videos (29 minutes; view minutes 0-3:00 and 5:00-8:00 and 19:00 to 24:00): http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=FkmQZjZSjk4 • The Power of the Situation

563 Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Study

564 Asch’s Conformity Experiment

• A classic experiment demonstrating our tendency to conform to group pressure • You Tube video of experiment (2 minutes): http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=iRh5qy09nNw

565 Elevator Conformity Experiment

• A classic experiment from the old TV show Candid Camera demonstrating our tendency to conform to group pressure • Video: Link • The “herd mentality” or “we are all sheep”

566