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The Travel´s Guide to ´S PRE-HISPANIC ARCHEOLOGICALThe Traveler´s LEGANCY Guide to PERU´S PRE-HISPANIC ARCHEOLOGICAL LEGANCY

CONTENTS CONTENTS

A UNIQUE

PRE-HISPANIC CULTURES IN PERU The emergence of the and the state The as a cultural challenge Technological foundations and community spirit

LAMBAYEQUE The true El Dorado

The royal mausoleum of Sipan The Pampa Grande citadel at Batan Grande The Tucume-Purgatorio pyramids The Chotuna-Chornamkap PRE-HISPANIC NAVIGATION

LA LIBERTAD The Moche and Chimu kingdoms

The Chan-Chan citadel Pakatnamu Temple or huaca de los Reyes Huacas of the Sun and Moon The huacas at Cao () The temple at Pañamarca The Galindo pyramids The administrative center at CERAMICS PORTRAITS: FACES OF THE MOCHICA

AMAZONAS A territory of lost

The fortress The mausoleums at Los Condores lagoon PAJATÉN AND THE LOST CHACHA CITIES

CAJAMARCA North of the empire

The Kunturwasitemple The “small windows” at Otuzco The Inca’s Baths The canal

ANCASH The origins of the Andean civilization

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Las Haldas en the Casma coastline The Temple at Sechin and the Casma valley Pampa de las -Moxeque The Chavin de Huantar ceremonial center CHANKILLO AND THE DEFENSE SYSTEMS ON THE NORTH- ERN COAST

HUANUCO A barn for the Central Andes

The temple The Huanuco Pampa administrative center.

LIMA Pre-Inca archeology in the Metropolis

Temple or huacas in Metropolitan Huallamarca Huaca

Huacas south of Metropolitan Lima The oracle

Huacas north of Metropolitan Lima The fortress

Huacas in the Highlands of Lima The “dead city” of

ICA Desert cultures

Tambo de Mora pyramids The Inca’s residence at Colorado Paracas cemeteries The Lines The ceremonial center DEFEATING THE DESERT: THE NAZCA PUQUIOS

AYACUCHO The land of the Gods

The Vilcaswamán administrative center The Wari capital The walled city of THE : A PAPERLESS BUREAUCRACY

AREQUIPA The geography of high altitude sanctuaries

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The Lady of Ampato

CUZCO The empire of the Incas

The main square or Huacaypata The temple The Saqsayhuaman fortress THE TERRACES The agricultural laboratory The aqueducts of Tipon The fortress and town of The royal estate of The Qenqo and sanctuaries The living Inca village of Chinchero The religious hub of Pisaq The Raqchi temple The fortress THE INCA TRAIL: THE GREAT LINK TO THE CONTINENTAL ANDEAN UNIVERSE

PUNO The magic of

The Llalahua cochas The Titicaca waru-warus The ceremonial center The chulpas

HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY

LOCATION AND WEATHER

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A Unique Civilization

Quite spontaneously –and almost inevitably- the counted for the emergence of civilization was that mention of Peru brings to our mind images of urban societies around the world could have ap- Machu Picchu and the . peared following the pattern set by the European Q cities of the Renaissance. However, the remarkable civilization of the Incas emerged only at a latter stage of cultural devel- Nevertheless, recent decades have seen evidence opment in the pre-Hispanic Andes. In fact, Inca –mostly coming from the Central Andes and, history scarcely spans one century in 12.000 years particularly, from Peru- against this supposedly of human occupations of Peruvian soil. universal process.

Peru is a peculiar case among the handful of foci This guide is an invitation to discover the com- of independent pre-historic human development plex and cultures that flourished in because it breaks established patterns and re- ancient Peru which were partially relegated to quires us to thoroughly rethink the concept of oblivion despite of the richness of their icono- civilization itself. graphic manifestations and the wide range of contributions they have made in uninterrupted Since the nineteenth century, one of the central succession to mankind’s technological and cul- components of the universal paradigm that ac- tural heritage during almost four millennia.

Note: The archeological legacy to which this guide refers encompasses 12 of Peru’s departments following a North to South axis. The term “Central Andes” refers to the vast territory stretching along the Andes mountain range from southern to northern . The term “Andean world” is broadly used in a similar sense.

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Pre-Hispanic

tate as the guide of a new society where kinship The emergence of the city and the state had ceased to play the most prominent role in human relationships. In the Andes, the emerg- Grandeur, rigorous straight lines, rectangular ing state fostered the construction of large ar- blocks separated by access ways and ample chitectural compounds to serve administrative, squares found in Peru’s archeological compounds religious and production ends. bring to our mind the layout of Mediterranean cities of Greek as well as Roman heritage. How- How sedentary life was organized in the Andes ever, compared to Mesopotamia, cradle of man’s is another source of amazement. Even the large first juridical and economic organization built on capital cities of Andean kingdoms and empires market and individual property principles, often had a small permanent population. Cities Andean civilization shows substantial differences. comprised sanctuaries as well as sacred palaces The first of such differences concerns agglomera- with innumerable administrative buildings lo- tion processes. Large cities like Wari, cated along roads and canals. A pro- Cajamarquilla and Chan-Chan had relatively fuse calendar of ceremonial activities performed short lives of 400 to 600 years, they were born in public spaces organized the numerous eco- suddenly and expanded quickly. Not even ceremo- nomic and political functions that characterized nial centers like Chavín or Pachacamac were oc- the life of crowded cities in other parts of the cupied continuously under the same design pat- world. tern for more than one thousand years. Taxes paid in labor and kind always arrived at Another difference lies in the fact that in West- the scheduled times, and the hierarchical posi- ern cities, roofed houses separated from other tions, duties and obligations of the ruling elite houses, i.e. the family’s place of residence, were were confirmed. A loose layout guided an unceas- the basic units and the reason for the existence ing flow of people who traveled to either pay hom- of the whole. Inside them, courtyards, passages age or taxes. With evident relation to the roads, and streets are organized around private roofed canals, mountains and other sacred places, cit- areas. In the Andes, instead, communal spaces ies basically served as a stage for periodical fes- that served political and economic functions- like tivities where the ceremonial corn beer called squares, courtyards and open areas- were the “” was abundantly poured. Thus, the state organizing core. They include sacred spaces such could count on an extended reservoir of labor at as pyramids, platforms and restricted monument the right time and place without having to con- compounds, but exclude homes. In most Medi- centrate large population contingents in big cit- terranean cities, public spaces occupy about 30% ies. By and large, most pre-Hispanic Andean so- of the total area and their monumental buildings cieties follow this model, although we can clearly are at the center of a residential belt that grew identify at least three broad categories of sites slowly and haphazardly, as shown by the maze – exhibiting pre-Inca and pre-Chimu architectural like layout of their roads and passages. In the patterns, including rural settlements of about Andes, we find the exact opposite relationship one half to 4 Ha; monument compounds serving everywhere. administrative and religious functions usually larger than 8 Ha; and dispersed religious struc- But the differences do not end there. Also chal- tures such as pyramids, and other smaller groups lenging modern understanding is the location of of closed buildings, platforms and terraces. several monument compounds that may have been cities. In the Andean highlands, they are The Andes as a cultural challenge often located at the top of almost inaccessible mountain peaks. On the Coast, they hide in gorges The peculiarities of Andean civilization can only or sit at the top of high, barren plateaus, far from be understood if we take into account that the agricultural areas. The peculiar character of Andes imposes daunting challenges and demand Andean city design stems from its origin. In creative solutions given its total or almost total Mesopotamia and most ancient Mediterranean physical isolation from other major cultures. civilizations, urban growth gave birth to the es-

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Contrary to other mountain ranges like the The South Himalayas in Asia, or the mountains of Central and Eastern Africa, the Andean mountain range At an altitude of about 3.000 masl in the High- runs from north to south and parallel to the Pa- lands, the Apurimac river valley, the Valley of cific Ocean, thus creating a vast range of east- Cuzco and the Lake Titicaca basin make up the west niches that make Peru one of the world’s second pole of development. The narrow coastal most environmentally varied sceneries, climate, strip is connected to the High Plateau by deep and plant populations. gorges distant from each other. The Pisco, Ica, Palpa and Nazca valleys play a pivotal role in Towering mountain ranges contributed to the the southern Coast of Peru, because the route to relative isolation of Andean intervalleys from the the inter-Andean basin starts at their tropical High Jungle and the Pacific Coast that headwaters. Their history reflects the area’s could only be reached by foot in at least one week harsh and extreme conditions. Scarce water, in after crossing the frozen Puna glaciers. Still, particular on the western Andean slopes, and low coastal valleys running from east to west com- temperatures in the Highlands were offset by municated somehow naturally with Highland means of technological introductions like under- intervalleys stretching from north to south or ground canals on the Coast, terraces provided conversely. Remarkable geomorphological and with forced irrigation in the Highlands, and ecological differences between Peru’s northern planting on mounds amidst fields in the High and southern Andes led to independent cultural Plateau. Poor and fragile soils were rendered developments linked however by a shared his- useful through the domestication of grains and torical destiny. These two developments poles tubers specially adapted to grow at high altitude, were divided by a constantly shifting broad bor- the abundance of South American camelids, and der band, stretching from the Fortaleza valley to a rich life in the cold ocean waters that are home the Cañete valley on the central coastal strip and to the world’s largest diversity of fish and shell- reaching the higher Mantaro river basing on the fish. Complex social and political organizations adjoining Highlands. emerged almost 2.000 years later than in the North but this development pole was the stage The North for remarkable breakthroughs like the domesti- cation of camelids, sophisticated fishing meth- The wide strip stretching from the Piura to the ods, and elaborate funerary rites. Paracas, Nazca, Huarmey valleys and rising to the upper Wari and Ica-Chincha evoke the main stages of Marañón river basin in the first center of cul- pre-Inca history in the region’s southern half. The tural development en Peru. The rivers running northern area evolves around the Titicaca area across this area –some of which like the and has its own sequence of cultural development Jequetepeque and the Santa carry waters all from Pukara to Tiawanaku to Chuquibamba and along the year- prompted the building of irriga- Churrajon. tion systems. Lower mountain heights in this region let humid air masses move freely and per- Technological foundations and community mit the growth of a humid tropical forest in some spirit highland regions, much like the tropical typically found on the eastern Andean slops. The domes- As in other part of the planet, adapting to envi- tication of tropical tubers and the diffusion of corn ronmental changes after the last ice-age led to started here. the emergence of and the fast spread- ing of sedentary life. However, Andean civiliza- Almost since the end of the pre-ceramic period tions followed a wholly different technological (around 2.700 BC) an impressive development path than the Mediterranean, South East Asian took place in this area. Names of local styles like or Central American civilizations. Among the Sechin, Cupisnique, Salinar, Mochica, most glaring differences stand the absence of Lambayeque and Chimu on the Coast and draught animals, and a limited number of Huacaloma, Chavin, Layzon, Huaraz, Recuay domesticable species that could provide large and in the Highlands remind us of amounts of animal protein. Only two ancestors later periods in the region’s rich . of the South American camelids, the guanaco and Further north, the Chira and Tumbes basins lie the vicuña –wild predecessors to the and at the border with the Northern Andes. the , respectively- were available. The gua- naco, an almost extinguished species in Peru, was

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particularly suited to living on the Coast, while cently, such as mashua -presumably aphrodisiac- the vicuña, source of the finest fleece in the world, , or maca, an equivalent of world-famous Korean lived in remote places at high elevations. ginseng. Others have been a staple in makind’s diet for several centuries, including hundreds of South American ruminants were the source of varieties and four of the world’s ten cere- wool for clothes, meat for food, hide and bones als: corn (developed independently from Mexico), for making instruments and tools, manure to cañihua, kiwicha and quenoa. Hot chili peppers generate heat and energy, and the beasts of bur- –known as aji- were included in the diet of den and transportation for long haul travel. Only Andean people since 8.000 BC, and from about after they were domesticated, it was possible for 2.700 to 1.500 BC the menu already included men in the Andes to exploit regions above 4.200 tubers and roots like manioc, mashua, potato, masl where farming is impossible. Andean men , olluco, oca and achira; legumes and required high mobility to gain access to a wide pulses including tarwi, broad beans and beans, range of ecological niches and complementary roots like yacon and jiquima; fruits including economic resources. Although it is a proven fact avocados, chirimoya (custard apples), lucuma and that domesticated llamas could live on the Coast guava, and pumpkins, and plants of in- and ritual hunting of deer and guanaco took place dustrial use like gourds and . An outstand- on the forested slopes along the coastline, exploit- ing aspect of Andean agrarian civilization is that ing sea resources was essential to provide a bal- the whole of its production relied on human la- anced diet to the people of western Andean slopes bor. Only a few rudimentary tools were available. and to produce sufficient dry meat surplus for At a later stage, the chakitaclla or wood plough later consumption. Probably, shellfish harvest- was improve by adding stone or metal points. ing and fishing supplemented by gathering and Maces to break earth clumps were the most com- incipient horticulture, sufficed to lay the foun- monly used tools until the time of the Spanish dations of small sedentary communities already conquest. On the other hand, cropping techniques towards the fourth millennium BC. Herding so- foretold the environmental viewpoints adopted cieties in the Highlands, who depended basically in the western world only towards the end of the on camelid herding for their daily subsistence, twentieth century. The most common farming emerged parallel to and independently from the system was similar to small-parcel horticulture Coast’s sedentary or semi-sedentary settlements. that allowed the best use of soils, water resources and natural fertilizers. Considering this back- Another basic peculiarity of Central Andean cul- ground, it is not surprising that individual sur- tural evolution is the wide variety of domesti- vival hinged on coordinated work among all com- cated plant species in at least three different geo- munity members. In Peru’s vast territory, the graphical areas: The High Jungle, straddling the need to count on large numbers of hands and eastern and western Andean basins; the High minds moved by a grand common goal fostered a Andean area, and the coastal desert. Some of sound sense of community belonging that is still these species have gained world recognition re- today a salient feature of Andean culture.

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LAMBAYEQUE The True EL DORADO

Tons of , silver and copper were unearthed the top end of the scepter shows an embossed by tomb looters from the Royal Tombs of Batan decoration representing the capture of a van- Grande, Sipan and other sites in Lambayeque. quished warrior about to be sacrificed. TLater research showed that the area comprised between the Piura and Jequetepeque rivers was After placing the dead ruler’s body on a wooden one of the cradles of Andean metallurgy. When dais, his face was covered with embossed gold the Spanish arrived, pre-industrial regional plates that replicated in minute detail the shape states like the Moche –which had built large scale of his eyes, nose and chin. His right hand holds irrigation systems and developed almost every an oval gold ingot. He has a silver ingot in his metallurgical technique used in pre-Hispanic left hand. The symbolic gold-silver opposition is Peru- were still very much alive. , the found again in the chief warrior’s scepters and department capital, is one hour away from Lima garment decorations, probably as a sign of his by plane and from 8 to 10 hours by car along the power or control over the two halves of his king- Pan-American highway. The region’s weather is dom, and as a metaphorical representation of the warm, with around 20ºC average annual tem- realms of the feminine Moon and the masculine perature in summer and 15ºC absolute minimum Sun. in winter. The bottom of the sarcophagi, made of wood tied The royal mausoleum of Sipan with copper, is covered by a layer of tropical shells ( sp. and Comus sp.) coming from The first of the tombs belonging to the Lords Ecuador’s warm waters, and ceremonial clothes of Sipan was found in 1987 at the Huaca and decorations- including necklaces of embossed Rajada site by Walter Alva and other arche- gold beads shaped as human heads, and tunics ologists working with the Bruning Museum. covered with gilded copper plates resembling an It was immediately ranked, as the world’s armor. The platform carrying the body was placed most important archeological discovery in over the offerings and then covered with new lay- the last quarter century and compared to ers of ceremonial clothes. Each set of clothes in- the finding of King Tut’s tomb in the Valley cluded not only the garments, but also a set of of Kings in Egypt. chest plates made with thousands of chaquira beads, gold and silver necklaces in the shape of The evidence of funerary rites unmistakably human heads, peanuts, spiders and rays, a pair points to a strongly stratified Moche society of gold earrings, and large nose-rings. Other gold where political and religious roles were very and copper figurative elements were applied to clearly defined. The highest members of the rul- the headpiece or the dress. Rattles were tied to ing elite were priest (as in ), the chief’s waist together with the coccix protec- religious bureaucrats (as in Huaca de la Cruz), tor. princesses and priestesses (as in San Jose de Moro), or warriors (in Sipan). At the Sipan burial, Once the corps was laid right at the bottom of the number of corpses accompanying the main the funerary chamber, the priests surrounded the interment, the wealth of the attires and gold main sarcophagi with other minor ones made adornments, and the number of vessels with of- with reeds bearing the corpses of the chief’s kin ferings, leave no doubt about the prominent po- and attendants, some of whom had died months sition of the buried personage in the social pyra- or even years before him. The women’s corpses mid. The , or half-moon shaped ceremonial were placed in the opposite direction to men’s, knife –hanging from his belt or worn as the main on the other side of the principal sarcophagi. decoration on his headpiece-, the rattles, large Nearby, room was reserved from the llama’s body, earrings, and nose-rings were worn as a sign of symbolizing the means of transportation for im- distinction by war chiefs. A scepter ending in a portant personages to the world beyond. The tumi knife at the bottom symbolized the chief’s niches on the walls were filled with pots, jugs, power over the life of his vassals. The rattle at and bottles mostly representing human figures.

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We do not know if these vessels also contained Dispersed amidst an impressive carob tree corn beer or blood from sacrificed (Prosopis juliflora) forest are the monumen- humans or animals. Some of the secondary in- tal mud brick construction of Batan Grande. terments found in the chamber probably belonged The elongated towering platform walls have to the chief’s attendants, obliged to accompany been carved by the rain of El Niño weather their lord in his voyage to the netherworld. oscillations.

In 1990, two more tombs were discovered near Now known as the Poma Reserve, the forest gives the first site: the tombs of the Old Lord of Sipan the traveler a glimpse of the original scenery on and the Priest. A mud brick platform adjoining the northern Coast when powerful warlords be- two pyramidal monuments (named Huaca longing to the Sican –or Moon, in Muchik lan- Rajada) had been periodically expanded in a fash- guage- house ruled over this region. The ion similar to the temples and probably with the Lambayeque civilization, another name archeolo- same purpose of renewing the chamber’s magi- gist give the Sican culture, appeared in the ninth cal power. Undoubtedly, the platform used in the century when invading neighbors caused the col- fourth and fifth centuries AD was a collective lapse of the Mochica states. grave for various generations of Mochica rulers. It was surrounded by burials of other personages Later, the Mochica political gravity center moved related to the power structure. north to the distant La Leche basin. Sican lords spread their power over the coastal band from The Pampa Grande citadel Piura to Jequetepeque, amassing considerable wealth. One probable source of such privileged The political capital of the Mochica living position was the discovery of bronze enriched to the north of the vast Paijan plains was with copper and arsenic. built from the sixth to eighth centuries AD at Pampa Grande, on the left bank of the Batan Grande has also become very well known Chancay river. for the other reasons. In past decades, grave-loot- ers sacked innumerable funerary chambers by Th urban compound lying at the foot of the Hill digging deep wells, up to 14 meters down. The of the Gentiles spreads over a 2.000 by 2.400 royal tombs have been carved inside pyramidal meters area. Residential quarters for the elite platforms at the top of which were usually court- and the populace, warehouses and workshops lie yards, hypostylic halls, and other areas devoted around scattered on both sides of the axis link- to different ceremonial, administrative and resi- ing the main temple and other smaller ones. The dential functions. former comprises a large pyramid and two pyra- midal constructions surrounded by large walled Some document instances point to a rite where spaces. Invaluable detail about the everyday life, the construction was purposefully set on fire and production and economy of a Mochica capital city then abandoned. Photographs of room filled with surfaced during the excavations at Pampa gold, silver and gilded copper vessels, as well as Grande. Like Sipan, Pampa Grande was built at stories about tons of buried precious metals, trig- a strategic location allowing overseeing and con- gered a rush of looters to the site. trolling a vast network of irrigation canals. In every valley in the northern Coast, the canals Fortunately, some tombs escaped the greed of the laid out at the beginning of the Christian era looters. Archeological surveys have determined (Salinar civilization) carried water by gravity and that the Sican rulers were buried amongst a turned the surrounding desert into fertile farm- funerary luxury not less impressive than their ing lands. Vast and flat, the Lambayeque coastal Mochica counterparts, Gold headpieces and strip allowed the Mochica to undertake an en- masks, cinnabar-died feathers, clothes covered terprise with few equivalents in the world’s an- with semiprecious stones and tropical shells were cient history. Wide main canals, like Raca Rumi placed over the corpses on the platforms. and Taymi, connected neighboring basins, as in the case of Saña, Chancay-Reque and La Leche. More surprising are the bundles of small L- Many of these canals are still in use today. shaped metal plates like “playing cards” said to have had monetary and exchange value. The Pyramids at Batan Grande priests places the cards at the bottom of the ar-

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senic-copper well, together with some workshop mentioned in the myth may be identified as waste like wood chips and metal plate cutouts. A Chotun, an imposing pyramid near the Spanish new and modern site museum exhibits these and colonial city of Lambayeque. It is said that other remarkable features of the Lambayeque Chotuna was one of the capital cities of Naylamp’s civilization. royal house because the figurative high relief representations found there are in some cases The Túcume-Purgatorio pyramids almost exact replicas of the decorations at Huaca Dragon in Trujillo’s . Batan Grande’s imposing pyramids were abandoned towards the eleventh century AD, Archeologists tend to think that the most popu- possible due to catastrophic flooding dur- lar icon of Lambayeque art –the so-called Lord ing a massive El Niño weather phenomenon. of Sipan- actually represents Naymlap, a winged This event was paralleled by the flourish- character of slanted eyes and aquiline nose who ing of Tucume, one of the most spectacular arrived from the other side of the ocean. Naymlap monument compounds on the northern appears profusely in ceramics, textiles, and even Coast. frescoes on many walls. Sometimes it is possible to identify an obviously supernatural being por- The large terraced constructions found at trayed with the attributes of a high rank marine Tucume, that probably became the regional capi- deity accompanied by the Sun and the Moon. In tal, spread like spikes around the mountain hub. other circumstances, he appears only as a masked Some served residential and administrative func- human being wearing the divine headpiece. In- tions while others were clearly dedicated to reli- deed, Lambayeque rulers were buried wearing gious ceremonies. With a longer history than the sacred being’s mask over their faces, and with Batan Grande’s, Tucume kept its importance the corresponding attire. We can assume that the until the times of the Conquest. On top of the old rich Lambayeque imagery may actually be an pyramids, the Inca rulers added new construc- account of episodes from the dynastic myth about tions blending Inca and Lambayeque character- the supernatural origin of royal power. istics. At least one high Inca dignitary was bur- ied at Tucume bearing the mascaypacha PRE-HISPANIC NAVIGATION headband that was a symbol of his rank. The beauty and monumental aspect of Tucume re- Naymlap’s myth bears a close relationship sembles the grandiose capitals of Mesopotamia, with one of Peruvian ancient history, i.e. a fact remarked recently by Thor Heyerdahl, the navigation and the exchange of Spondylus, legendary researcher of possible pre-historic a warm water shellfish harvested at consid- maritime routes. Heyerdahl’s efforts led to sev- erable depth near the Plata island in Ecua- eral excavation projects the result of which may dor. be seen at the beautiful site museum inspired in the architectural style of the first Colonial Red and impressive, Spondylus shells were con- churches built under a rustic roof of carob tree sidered the perfect offering in the native reli- trunks. gions of Peru and Mexico (e.g. ). Spondylus first arrived at Peru’s central Coast The Chotuna – Chornamkap pyramid from Ecuador during the Late Preceramic Period (2.700-1.500 BC). Ecuadorian balsa trees also Thor Heyerdahl’s curiosity was sparked, provided a light and water-resistant wood used among other reasons, by a myth narrating in making vessels known by the same “balsa” the arrival of Naylamp, a founder of the (raft) name, Propelled by a large square sail, the Lambayeque royal lineage raft were equipped with large oars and wood planks inserted among the trunks acting as a According to legend, the civilizing hero arrived hull. accompanied by eight courtesans, one of them was in charge of throwing crushed tropical shell- Some researchers hold the rafts were capable of fish (Spondylus sp.) on the road on the Naylamp’s sailing from North to South against the Peru- feet. Naylamp most probably traveled on a raft vian or Humboldt current, reaching Chincha, 200 like the Kon Tiki vessel Heyerdahl used in his km south of Lima, to deliver their precious cargo. famous Pacific Ocean crossing. One of the places Others suggest that before the introduction of the square sale, traveling against the current was

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unfeasible, therefore proposing instead that only ing near the shore. A local reed variety known as travel by land would allow trading with totora (Schoenoplectus californicus) is still used Spondylus sp., Strombus sp.and Conus sp. shell- to build the peculiar one-man boats. After let- fish. Expansionist states like the , per- ting the reed dry for a month, it is woven into a haps Lambayeque and certainly the Inca empire, sort of kayak. The rider kneels on the raft and may have even created colonies or enclaves and rows out to the sea. Fishermen in the Pimentel introduced some other institutional arrangement district in Chiclayo are among the modern users (as taxation in the Inca experience) to avail them- of the ancient caballito de totora, or “totora reed selves of the prized mollusks. horses” as they are called locally. The Mochica also seems to have used a sort of totora catama- Despite the arguments for more sophisticated ran provided with a covered deck but with no navigational arts, the pre-Hispanic iconography sail. This vessel was large enough to carry pris- of the northern Peruvian Coast shows only one- oners and offerings to the site of the ceremonial man boats used in river travel, usually pulled by sacrifice, usually a rocky island away from the swimmers, as well as the reed rafts used for fish- shore.

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LA LIBERTAD The Moche and Chimu Kingdoms

Recent archeological findings show that the coast together with his harem and some members of of the La Libertad department was home to an- his retinue inside the platform monument built cient civilizations that in many respects were just behind his residence. The surviving members of Ran important as the Incas, Mayas or . Most the dead king’s household and other special at- of their legacy is in the form of remarkable tendants were charged with collecting tribute in temples located only a few minutes from Trujillo, kind and labor to keep the palace in good state of a city in northern Peru. This city, the repair, thus ensuring the continuity of the post- department’s capital, is 45 minutes away from humous cult to the dead monarch. Lima by plane (560 km) and lies 209 km from Chiclayo, following the northern Pan-American A total population of 26.400 residents has been highway. Average summer temperature is 24ºC estimated of which some 10.500 were handicrafts and the weather is mild and sunny the rest of makers of both sexes. A vast network of irrigated the year. farms and sunken field, as well as llama packs, ensured the uninterrupted supply of foodstuffs The Chan-Chan citadel and raw materials. In Chan-Chan, like in the Egyptian necropolis, ample quarter for artisans Spreading over more than 20 square kilo- and bureaucrats were located near the pyramids meters, the world’s largest mud brick cita- and funerary palaces to ensure the continuity of del was declared part of Mankind’s Cultural worship to the god-monarchs during hundreds Heritage by UNESCO. From a pure func- and even thousands of years after their death. tional viewpoint, it resembles more the Egyp- tian necropolis at Gizeh than the walled cit- Pakatnamu ies of Babylon. Sitting on a high plateau straddling the Located almost at the city limits of Trujillo, Chan- valley and the sea, Pakatnamu ranks among Chan (or The Great Sun in the Mochica language) the most beautiful and largest of all was the capital of the vast Chimu empire. Built Mochica, Lambayeque or Chimu sites. between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it comprises palaces, residential quarters, cemeter- Protected by two large walls and deep precipices, ies, gardens and platforms for religious perfor- Pakatnamu spreads over 1,5 square kilometers. mances surrounded by walls up to 13 meters high. It reached its present configuration during the Exquisite high reliefs sculpted with refined tech- Lambayeque period, and although the purpose niques depict geometric and animal patterns that served by its architectural layout is not perfectly evidence the unique artistry and complexity clear to modern eyes, plentiful evidence of com- reached in the use of clay in Chan-Chan in asso- plex rites, including human sacrifices, suggests ciation with the liturgy and customs of the domi- researchers this was a large ceremonial center, nant castes. in some way similar to the Pachacamac oracle in Peru’s central Coast. Located in the lower Moche valley, the Chan- Chan compound gradually expanded from an Temple or huaca de los Reyes initial core in the Cayhuac citadel and the El Higo pyramid to eventually embrace a total of what Upstream of the rises several seem to be 10 adjoining monumental citadels. temples that pre-dates Chan-Chan by more Appearances, however, are deceiving. The high than 2.000 years. Huaca de los Reyes, a 200 perimeter walls and the labyrinth of rooms Ha compound under the eight earth mound around the main squares were in all likelihood at the site, was built during built as palaces for the Chimor kings. After the the second millennium BC and required the death of each sovereign, the corpse was buried labor equivalent of 350.000 man-days.

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Probably one of the political and religious cen- ters of the Cupisnique civilization, Huaca de los Reyes is well-known for its sculpted, carved pot- tery often mistaken for Chavin ceramic. Judging from its Carbon-14 dating, the Cupisnique style may have spread beyond the valley only after Huaca de los Reyes was abandoned. In its final form, this group of three large platforms (each 160 by 120 meters at the basis and six meters high) located around a rectangular square is pre- cisely aligned along the cardinal points. On its summit six temples of stone and mud mortar were built. A fine stucco plaster covers the walls, square-shaped 1,50 meters wide columns and the rooftops of the arches opening to U-shaped atrium. On the façade decorated with sculptured clay friezes, some well-preserved images clearly represent the heads of 12 mythical ancestors with mouths full of sharp fangs. Each of the complex head sculptures stands 2 meters tall is 1,80 meters deep.

Huacas of the Sun and Moon

The kingdom of Chimor can be traced back to the Moche –for the name of the valley- or Mochica, as these people are called in the pre-Hispanic language of the neighboring Lambayeque department. The Chimor Huaca of the Moon, La Libertad Domingo Giribaldi / PromPerú spread between the second and eighth cen- turies AD along 700 km of between the val- leys of Piura and Huarmey. the high platforms, they erected large rectangu- On the left bank of the Moche river, 8 km from lar molded- columns reclining against each the city of Trujillo, was located the main power other. People from several groups must have con- center of the Mochica civilization, at the sol and tributed their labor as tax paid to the state to Luna Huacas, as they are known today. The Sun build the temple. Huaca- or temple- is the largest of all pre-His- panic pyramids and compares by volume to the The pyramidal Cerro Blanco (White Mountain) Egyptian pyramids at Saqqara. Its construction is 500 meters away. At its foot stands the Huaca required some 143 million mud bricks. Unfortu- de la Luna or Moon Temple (95 x 85 x 25 meters) nately, a sizable part of this edification was de- in sharp visual and ceremonial contrast to the stroyed by looters who in 1602 cut the pyramid . It comprises three indepen- in two by making the river’s waters flow through dent ceremonial compounds, each possessing a its middle. system of restricted access ways, wallet court- yards and roofed halls. On the walls, polychrome An impressive cross section left by the river wa- paintings and high reliefs seem to have been ters shows the successive development stages of made only yesterday. At present, most areas are the pyramid, both outwards from the core and protected with roofs and provided with walkways upwards from the basis. As other similar con- for visitors. The temple’s external walls are deco- struction from pre-ceramic times, the Moche rated with high relief motifs of fanged deities, temples were subject to periodical renovations with hair made of monster snakes ending in after their users had carefully covered with dirt heads of marine birds. A Similar divinity guard the areas that were no longer in use. To build

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the main entrance to the central complex, flanked polychrome relief scenes that cover the on each side by a sliding viper crowned with a façade. condor head. On the wall surrounding the large square near Both characters appear again in the scenes the main building, images of dancing priests – painted on Moche ceremonial pottery to describe wearing either a headpiece and crown that re- myths and ritual practices. One of the person- mind us of the feminine deity, or a frayed tee- ages is represented as a fisherman wielding his shirt like male partner, the owl-spider divinity- power over the seas. The other one appears as are depicted together with the procession of na- living in the heart of the mountains. Usually de- ked prisoners tied with ropes around neck. A row picted as an owl or a spider in the company of of supernatural spiders decorates the top frieze baths, this divinity stands for the night and the of the façade. On the north-west corner of the netherworld. The knife and the head, he holds in façade, a small roofed room stands on a low plat- his hand, shows his third for human sacrifices. form. Its outside walls, the vestibule’s walls and Some scenes show the sacrifice of victims pushed the ceiling were decorated with mythological downhill to kill them in his honor. scenes –mostly well-preserved- of ritual combats between groups of warriors. Some private inner temple chambers to which access was restrictive were also decorated with A mythical deity attends these mythical repre- mural paintings, the most renowned among sentations against a nocturnal seascape. On a few which depicts some scenes from the myth about ceremonial jugs, delicately drawn line-paintings the “rebellion of things” where the warriors’ narrate a sequence of rituals honoring the deity. clothes and weapons rebelled against their mas- Prisoners defeated in combat are taken on reed ters, defeated them in combat and offered the boats to the islands where they will be sacrificed prisoners’ blood to a supernatural couple: a male by bleeding their jugular vein, an offering that god with an owl face and a woman with braided the gods of the sea rewarded with plentiful fish- snakes as hair. Often, the woman is seen drink- ing and sea lions for hunting. Possible these cer- ing from the first quarter Moon while sailing the emonies took place totally or partially at the sea, thus leading weapons, and processions of temple. prisoners decorated the walls along the ramp leading into the main building. From the summit of the pyramid, the visitor will notice the difference between this and Egyptian Between the two Huaca temples there is a flat or Maya pyramids. As in the Moon Huaca, the area long believed to have been a square or a corridors and halls -some of which are covered vacant lot. Excavations have revealed that the by roofs resting on columns- follow each other at area is in fact full of constructions. A whole city the top of the edification. Several are decorated now hidden under the sand, it depended on the with reliefs and painting of multiple colors. In two temples for its livelihood. A broad avenue some areas, the scary god of the world below running parallel to the Moon temple channeled wields his ceremonial knife and severed head. In human traffic and divided the cult and the resi- other areas, three-story high walls preserve their dential areas. Small squares with a single access intact decoration where we frequently see the point were surrounded by houses of several face with snake hair and pointed fags. rooms. Next to them, the workshop produced re- ligious paraphernalia, ceramics and metal ob- Like in the Moon Temple, whenever the Cao jects. Its dimension and orderly layout give the temple had to be rebuilt, additional funerary ensemble a clear urban aspect. chambers were built. Probably, the reconstruc- tion itself was related to the death of an impor- The huacas at Cao (El Brujo) tant bureaucrat or priest.

Probably, the political and religious Unfortunately, for some reason the chambers Mochica capital in the Chicama valley were opened and their occupants moved else- richer in water and farming land than the where. The ceramic vessels found there, some of Moche area, was located in Cao where two which are of exceptionally high quality, can be pyramidal buildings sit on the shore facing seen at the Wiese Foundation Museum in each other. One, El Brujo -or The Sorcerer- Trujillo. Another exceptional piece found there stands out for the rich and well-preserved is a carved wood column with a capital depicting

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a priest and two rampant felines facing him. eighth centuries of our era, Galindo undoubtedly achieved a greater political weight than the Sun The temple at Pañamarca and Moon temples. The Moche finally yielded to external pressure towards the end of the eighth For decades, the images of fierce warriors century AD. led to believe that the was built on a purely military foundation. The administrative center at Viracochapampa Results of recent research about Moche iconog- raphy have questioned this belief. Apparently, To better understand the cultural identity their religious cult and complex ceremonies re- of the Highlands invaders who contributed volved around the relatively peaceful relations to the end the Mochica civilization, we must among various ethnic groups who lived along the travel deep into the mountain region of La northern Coast. The complex power ideology, so Libertad, to a compound located some 2,5 characteristically represented in the rich Moche km from . iconography, may even reflect the cohesiveness between one or several multiethnic Moche states. Viracochapampa is an architectural compound built to serve administrative functions in the As a matter of fact, the most important building . Its size and design make it similar on the Moche states’ southern frontier was not a to Pikillaqta in Cuzco and Azangaro in Ayacucho. fortress but the Pañamarca temple located in the Walls about 2 meters high divide the large (581 Nepeña valley. There, a set of elevated boulders x 574 meters at the base) trapezoidal area into of whimsical shapes merges beautiful with the squares, open areas and courtyards of carefully sugar cane fields. These rocks were considered planned architecture. sacred by the users of Moche pottery (second to seventh centuries AD) and so they decided to Typically, the courtyards are surrounded on three build two pyramids – one small and the added sides by covered archways while the fourth arch- walled squares and more elevates rooms. The site way leads to a rectangular room with niches on is well known for its large-scale mural paintings the walls. There has been with niches on the illustrating myths and religious ceremonies. walls. There have been many debates about the function of this layout. The similarity with Greek, The Galindo pyramids Roman and Renaissance urban layout led to be- lieve these were also cities of the same kind but Weather changes recorded in the expansion recent excavations show that the sites had a very rings of high Andean glaciers show that the short permanent population, despite their large seventh and sixth centuries BC were hard surface area. Instead, the planned modules prob- times for the residents of the northern Coast. ably functioned as warehouses and lodging ar- eas for the visitors who arrived to pay their trib- The Moche culture knew very well to fend off the ute either in kind or in labor (the so-called mita) negative effects of droughts and catastrophic rains. Still, the political consequences of those An imposing aqueduct, 800 meters long, 16 phenomena must have been severe for the Moche meters wide and from 6 to 10 meters high, is prob- rulers. Indeed, several clues point to sudden mass ably related to this remarkable administrative movements of population on the northern limits center. The waterway runs through the entire of the Moche area of cultural influence, both in La Cuchilla flatlands, the granaries and circular the Highlands and on the Coast, announcing the warehouses at Amaro Mountain and the monu- emergence of a new cultural phenomenon: the mental mausoleum at Marca Huamchuco. Evi- Wari civilization. Quickly emerging new capitals, dence found in the region points to an indepen- located in strategic places and equally distant dent cultural development antedating the Wari from critical irrigation and defense locations seem occupation which does not seem to have been very to fit into this context. In the Moche valley, for long (600 to 800 BC), because Viracochapampa instance, rulers made a decision to build a large was never finished. Although the ceramic and settlement around imposing pyramids. Galindo, architectural findings leave no doubt about its as the site is called, is surrounded by walls prob- relationship to Ayacucho, there is debated about ably for defense purposes. Between the sixth an the exact nature of this link. However, the preva-

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lent opinion is that Viracochapampa was the pro- makers as well as explain the unexpected appear- vincial capital of an expansionist state with Wari, ance of realism as away to depict the unique fea- in Ayacucho, as its administrative center. tures of individual human faces. Most of these presumed portraits represent males who per- A religious system probably originating in formed ritual functions as attendants and priests. Tiawanaku, on the shores of Lake Titicaca in They delivered the victims’ blood to supernatu- Puno, may have been at the origin of the politi- ral beings, carried rattles and banners, danced cal doctrine upheld by the latter -often appear- and took part in orgiastic heterosexual rites. ing in the kero vases and other fine ceremonial vessels- are characters with radiant headpieces Contrary to conventional wisdom, effigies of dig- followed by a retinue of bird-like attendants of nitaries are infrequent and those that have been Tiawanaku inspiration. found correspond to supreme priests who preside over track competitions and other rituals from Ceramic portraits: faces of the Mochica their comfortable seats at the top of the pyra- mids. Birds, felines or tassels decorate their fine Amazing realism, expressiveness and varied turbans. Rulers are distinguished from priests and detailed facial features characterize the by their war clothes and the helmet-shaped head- Mochica ceramic portrait vessels that are piece. one of the most interesting and enigmatic aspects of Peruvian pre-Hispanic art. Numerous portraits show characters with loose long or short hairstyles who may be sacrifice vic- Exact replicas of human faces appeared only late tims and executioners of bloody rituals, like in and exceptionally in art. The dramatic realism the bottles with the stirrup handle used as de- of Roman republican portraits was probably born posits for ceremonial liquids and blood in par- from the custom by the deceased person’s rela- ticular. tives of wearing masks representing other dead relatives. Made using a wax mold taken from the Then why to make portraits of individual sacri- dead person’s body, the masks were subsequently fice attendants and their victims? Apparently this kept in the family altar, thus may have been born ceramics were not actual individual portraits in the fashion of sculpting a truthful representa- the western sense of the word –although their tion of human faces. makers were undoubtedly inspired by real faces- but were rather type faces. The facial features, A different origin may explain the intricate bal- paintings, tattoos and details of the headpiece, ance between ideological representation and the earrings and nosering may have served to rank unrepeatable naturalness of some Egyptian the person portrayed in the ceramic within a com- dignitary’s effigies originally kept in chambers plex ethnic and political structure. destined to funerary cult. They were principally meant to protect the shape of the body from de- Mochica material culture and, in particular their cay and propitiate the return of the soul. icons, make us think of group of one or several multiethnic states sharing a common religious Due to their variety and expressiveness, Mochica ideology. Ritual combats facing warriors from representations stand at a par with the Roman various ethnic groups or places, exhausting race figures and in number they equal Egyptian ones. competitions and human sacrifices served both We may wonder though about the identity of the as propitiation rites for the well-being of the com- characters immortalized by the ceramists. The munity and for young people’s initiation. list is long but definitely limited to the power elite. Among the characters we can perfectly dis- Almost surely, the expressive faces on Mochica tinguish sick people suffering multiple skin le- bottles were not meant to remember gone rela- sion, women with the unmistakable braided hair, tives or to honor their rules. Rather, they were and corps almost down to their skeletons. The placed in tombs as a sign of the dead person’s pot-makers also made reproductions of super- fully –entitled membership in Mochica society natural animals and other beings, including their and who therefore was expected to perform peri- divinities. odically the roles ascribed to him by reason of kinship and political function. This peculiarity gives us a clue to try and unveil the likely reasons driving Mochica handicraft

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AMAZONAS A territory of lost cities

The department of Amazonas is one of the least cause of their size and characteristics. Three en- known, but at the same time one of the most beau- trances to the fortress, two to the East and one tiful regions of Peru. More than 500 archeologi- to the West, are designed as huge funnel-like Tcal remains- rock paintings, fortresses, sar- hallways ending in a small opening to allow the cophagi and citadels- confer its landscape a mys- entrance of just one person at time. Crags and terious and intriguing halo. It was the scene for precipices on three of its four sides make the for- the discovery of tens of “lost cities” in the second tress effectively impregnable. half of the twentieth century. Chachapoyas (2.334 masl) –the capital of the department- is 1.191 km Inside, the citadel is divided in quarters at dif- from Lima and can be reached by car from ferent elevations, each comprising several dozen Chiclayo. Always hot, with an average annual circular buildings of great artistic and esthetic temperature of around 25ºC, Amazonas is the inspiration. Stones are distributed precisely, best visited between May and September to avoid complemented by rhomboidal friezes and high- excessive rain and enjoy the lush vegetation. reliefs figures, mostly anthropomorphic. Seem- ingly reserved to the Chachapoya chiefs, the The Kuelap fortress quarters in the upper town have façades deco- rated with friezes in geometric fretwork. Curi- The most impressive tourist attraction in the ously enough, the houses and buildings lack win- North East of Peru is Kuelap, a gigantic dows. Instead, they are protected by watertight monument of 400 million cubic feet of con- stone roofs from the abundant rainfall, (frequent struction material, three times the volume in this area). The visitors’ attention is called to of Egypt’s Great Pyramid. an extraordinary circular construction that stands out in the southern end. Known as the The archeological compound is located on a rocky “ink well”, this structures is almost 6 meters high slope 3.000 masl and sits on two huge overlying and shaped as an inverted cone. Most probably artificial platforms built stone by stone. Most it was destined to ceremonial use. impressive in Kuelap are the huge defense walls (30 meters high by 600 meters long) around the The mausoleums at Los Condores lagoon so-called “lower town” and “upper town”. Thou- sands of bromeliads render especial beauty to a A high crag with a view to heaven-like La- construction entirely carved in limestone show- guna Negra was where the Chaschas de- ing a variety of finishings, the best of which are cided to build their huge funerary chambers. definitely found in the sacred rooms. These ru- ins –584 by 110 meters at the base- are often com- Six almost intact mausoleums have been discov- pared to Saqsayhuaman and Machu Picchu, be- ered on one of the steep wooded slopes bordering Los Condores lagoon, one day and a half away from the locality of Leimebamba. They contain -some in wood coffins- idols, wooden spears, abundant and varied pottery and sugges- tive rock paintings. Each of the funerary cham- bers sheltered a great quantity of bundles belong- ing to several generation of people probably re- lated by kin. Ceremonial clothes with rich Chacha and Inca iconography were used as covers alter- nating with rags of simple cloth. Evidence shows that the same space had been occupied not only by the Sachapuyas (Chachas), but also by the Inca and Chimu. In fact, the Incas led by Tupac Kuelap Fortress, Amazonas Yupanque conquered this region around 1470. © Mylene D’Auriol / PromPerú

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Chimu presence could be explained by the sys- tem of mitimaes (entire populations of settlers Although their pottery is undoubtedly related to removed from their place of origin) that the certain types of ceramics in the lower Amazon, Quechua used to control defeated populations. the more sophisticated monuments basically fol- low a clear Andean pattern. Apparently, the Even for modern and expert adventures reach- Chachapoyas ethnic group migrated from the ing Los Condores lagoon is no easy accomplish- Andes to settle in the steep mountain jungle, ments, belying the apparently fluid contact there successfully repelling attack from neighboring was between so diverse peoples. Swamps, Steep groups. Mountain ranges dot the road from Leimebamba to the mausoleums partially shrouded by a wa- This civilization’s natural borders were the ter curtain that descends from the summit. The Marañon River to the West, the Huallaga River fast-flowing and crystalline river glows as it to the East, Bagua to the North and the Abiseo crosses the huge granite crags. Small and dense River to the South, in the present departments forests of ferns and orchids cling from the smooth of Amazonas and San Martin. Although the walls at impossible angles. Tourists can learn Sachapuyas (from sacha: mountain and puyo: about several aspects of this spectacular archeo- fog, after the constant cloud cover hanging over logical area at the recently inaugurated site mu- the area) settled in intricate jungles, the central seum outside Leimebamba. artery of this civilization is undoubtedly the Utcumbamba River. Exquisitely green, the river PAJATÉN AND THE LOST CHACHA CIT- flows amidst a jungle landscaper of reeds, and IES molle and tara trees. After passing under two remarkable colonial bridges near its headwaters Since the Gran Pajaten was discovered in in Leimebamba, the river’s course narrows to run the neighboring department of San Martin, flanked by towering mountains, until it reaches many explorers have headed to this north- the broad plains around tropical Bagua, where eastern region to look for lost cities in the its waters merge with the Marañón. depth of the jungle. Later, the discovery of the Karajia sarcophagi, the expeditions by Since the valley is so narrow, the Sachapuyas American explorer Gene Savoy to the Gran built their main villages on mountain ridges, stra- Vilaya and the finding of almost one hun- tegically controlling the main affluents to the dred mummies in Los Condores lagoon at- Utcubamba River. Exceptionally conserved build- tracted world’s attention to Chachapoyas. ings still show us their exquisite architecture, including La Petaca, La Congona, Cerro Olan, The language they used was forever lost in the Macro, Ollape, , Gran Pajaten, first year of the Spanish conquest, but linguistic Kuelap, Karajia, Levanto and many others built research has found that there may have been a between 900 and 1450 AD. that were still in use linguistic relationship between Inca place names at the beginning of the Colonial period. typical of this area and the Chibcha of .

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CAJAMARCA North of the empire

Yanacocha is one of the largest and most mod- the eighth and second centuries BC. In any case, ern gold mines in the world. Its forerunners date their pottery, goldsmithing, sculpture and archi- back to the eighth century BC, when the tecture show several similarities with Chavin, a YCajamarca goldsmiths made sumptuous crows contemporary culture of the Highland area. for the priests of the ancient temple of Kunturwasi. The city of the northern Highlands, Imposing walls and stairways have changed the is 856 km from Lima (55 minutes by plane). That mountain into a pyramid with squares and city can also be reached by land from Trujillo or temples at its summit. One of the platforms at Chiclayo (about 300 km west). Visits are recom- the top was used to bury the members of the mended between April and October, the sunny priestly elite. Crowns and other gold plate and season in the Highlands region of high humid- embossed ornaments have been found inside the ity. chambers.

The Kunturwasi temple Figurative motifs in the pottery are similar to those in the architecture: deities with impressive The oldest evidence of goldsmithing in fang and/or eagle or owl features, or severed hu- Cajamarca comes from the old site of man heads. Visitors can see them at the modern Kunturwasi (San Pablo district), where site museum. dwellers from nearby villages in the second millennium BC started to transform the The “small windows” at Otuzco mountain summit for ceremonial purposes. 8 km of road separate Cajamarca from the Representatives of the Cupisnique culture, from Otuzco windows, an impressive ensemble of the Coast, probably settled in Cajamarca between funerary niches literally carved on a rocky crag.

Little windows of Combayo, Cajamarca Carlos Sala / PromPerú

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Some of these holes are simple niches, others Inca. It was precisely there that the Spanish communicate with a corridor and through it, with arrived to capture him. The stone niches carved in the heart of the rock mass. En- canal and piping system that mix hot and cold sembles similar to Otuzco’s are found in water and open to the public. Bambamarca, Quilcate, San Cristobal, Cerro Yanüil and a larger one in Combayo. The Cumbemayo canal The tombs are completely depredated, and little is known about the rituals linked to them. The An astounding canal that relies on relatively pottery suggests they were used by the high humidity of the northern Highlands of Cajamarca Culture of the Late Intermediate Pe- Peru to collect and transport water along riod (900-1470 AD). almost 8 km, even climbing upwards in some stretches. The Inca’s Baths In Cajamarca, the highest part of the Andes is a The pre-Hispanic site known as the Inca´s grassland area or jalca that captures water like Baths is 6 km from the city. It is an orderly a gigantic sponge. set of structures, baths, canals and ponds of sulfurous water coming from volcanic At a place known as Cumbemayo, 3.670 masl, a hotsprings. hydraulic system consisting of a 7,6 km canal, out of which 4,5 km are carved in rock, started Historical accounts state the baths were a ritual diverting waters from the Pacific to the Atlantic resting place for , the last reigning basin 500 years ago.

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ANCASH The Origins of the Andean Civilization

An exceptional trip along the coastline to Ancash elers will find Sechin hill, one of the oldest ex- |awaits all visitors who wish to understand how amples of monumental art in the . about 4.700 years ago critical foci of sedentary Alife appears in the small valleys surrounded by A rectangular layout temple with rounded cor- one of the driest deserts on the planet, and of ners built over several centuries and in stages, CHAVIN DE HUANTAR, the first cultural mani- during the first half of the second millennium festation in the Americas rightfully deserving BC, the Sechin temple features a stone covered being called a civilization. Huaraz (3.050 masl), façade depicting figurative low reliefs that enve- the department’s capital located 400 km north of lope the whole construction. The entrance gate, Lima and 200 km from the sea (Paramonga), can symbolically protected by flanking warriors be reached trough a paved road in excellent state wielding their weapons and provided with sump- of repair. Visits are best from April to October, tuous headpieces, leads to the elevated internal and ideal from June to August. atrium, the sacred-most place in the building. To its sides, severed body parts (trunks, heads, ver- Las Haldas and the Casma coastline tebrae, limbs) spurt blood upwards to create a macabre frieze. Accounting for the impressive A beautiful ceremonial scenery makes Las Haldas strength of this artwork are ritual combats where the most remarkable of a string of temples – the defeated combatants had to offer their lives and first in the New World – that amaze us for their blood to ancestral divinities in exchange for the monumental proportions and early date, among communities well-being. which are Salinas in Chao, and Carral- Chupacigarro in Supe, and El Paraíso in Chillon. The modern site museum near the temple ex- hibits reproductions of the multicolor reliefs and Las Haldas ceremonial compound is located south scale models of the buildings, introducing us to of the Casma valley (300 km north of Lima) sit- the valley’s amazing ancient history, a place that ting on top of rocky outcroppings by the seashore. for reasons still unknown to us is home to the Four squares along a single axis facing an irregu- largest number of monument compounds from larly shaped pyramid, these buildings, featuring the second and third millenium BC found on the stone walls and clay mortar, were erected by entire Peruvian Coast. Further into the valley people ignorant of pottery, other than making not far from the museum is the Sechin Alto com- small figurines in raw clay. Nowhere else on pound – the largest temple built in the Americas Earth were primitive farming communities ca- in the second millenium. Its main pyramid (250 pable of sharing their efforts to such a grand by 300 meters at the base and 44 meters high), scale. The compound’s units effectively cover from like all pyramids of its time, grew in stages until 8 to 58 Ha and required mobilizing up to 100.000 reaching its present form. tons of building materials. On the other hand, hamlets in the vicinity are smaller than one hect- During more than five hundred years, genera- are. In Egypt, Mesopotamia, Central America tion, people renewed the ceremonial center per- and China, 30 or more centuries had to elapse haps to inject new life to the deities. Courtyards, from the emergence of agriculture to the build- enclosed areas and roofed rooms from the old ing of the first initial religious temples that can temple were carefully buried with landfill to build be truly called monuments. new areas for religious cult, in a process repeated at leas once every hundred years. The front walls The temple at Sechin and the Casma valley were covered with mud friezes (in the early peri- ods) or granite blocks weighing up to two tons. The earliest temples in the Americas are in Facing the imposing central pyramid are four Casma valley, a wonderful oasis surrounded by rectangular plazas lined one after another along white sand dunes. At the fork of the valley, trav- a 1.400 meter axis. Several smaller pyramids surround the main compound.

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collection of Recuay civilization artifacts (0-700 Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeque AD). Beautiful multicolored ceramics, massive stone sculptures, and tenon heads illustrate the Not less impressive for its size, decorations main illustrate the main elements of the religious and regular design reminding us of an ur- and political life of a people that competed with ban settlement, is the Pampa de las Lla- the Mochica for the control of the Coastal oases. mas-Moxeqe compound (1800-1400 BC). The war lords – dressed in richly decorated at- tires depicting their divinities – and the women An axis providing perfect symmetry over 1.100 in their entourage are the leading participants meters connects the compounds three compo- in these rites. nents: the large rectangular plaza in the middle and two imposing monuments at the ends. On Chavin de Huantar, located at 3.150 masl in the the southwest, the step Moxeque pyramid fea- upper Mosna river valley, is located half way tures rounded corners and is 160 x 170 meters at between the Coast and the Jungle regions, sepa- the base and 30 meters high. Several smaller rated from either by two towering mountain buildings and atriums at the top can be reached ranges. The Old Temple (eighth to third century by stairs. BC) is particularly well preserved thanks to the semi-quarried stone used to build it. It comprises Obviously used as a temple, the building’s façade two pyramid-shaped bodies reclining on each is decorated by deep niches with sculptures of other that were erected on a vast platform sys- human figures up to 3,20 meters high made with tem housing a labyrinth of some 14 galleries. The clay in different colors. temple’s “U” shape was inspired by the sacred architecture of the central Coast with a circular A different type of pyramid (140 x 140 x 9 meters) plaza in the middle. The main gallery still houses is situated at the other end of the axis (Huaca A) the principal cult image: an obelisk called the in Pampa de las Llamas. A stairway cutting the Lanzon or great Spear. The New Temple re- façade at the middle leads to a labyrinth of roofed sembles the constructions of its type found on areas, with rounded corners and walls lined with the Coast and northern Highlands, i.e. a mas- niches. sive truncated pyramid with a rectangular foun- dation on top of which sit two chapel-like build- Around 70 smaller rectangular buildings line up ings placed along a façade adorned with a figu- along both sides of the center axis all the way to rative portico. The similarities are no coincidence the grand square. The monumental character and as proven by the offerings placed inside galleries planning required in building the compound sug- by people who came from a radius of about 800 gest this may have been the capital of the oldest km, from Cajamarca to Paracas. kingdom in the Andes and the Americas. The fierce iconography on the Tello Obelisk – The Chavin de Huantar ceremonial center originally standing in one if the squares- gives us a glimpse of Chavin doctrines. It shows two For reasons not yet totally clear, during the ninth mythical bird-tailed alligators of opposite sex century BC the large temples on the Coast were joined in unnatural intercourse whereby they abandoned for good while two centers in the exchange body fluids flowing from their mouths, Highlands –probably oracles- gained the devo- noses and genitals depicted as serpents. Their tion of people both from the Coast and Highlands. hind legs are placed below ground level while the They were Kunturwasi in Cajamarca and Chavin, forepaws rise to the sky. Their acolytes -–the jag- in Ancash. uar for the male divinity and the fishing eagle for the female deity – suggest the divine couple To reach Chavin we must first make a stop in divides their power between the two confines of Huaraz, capital city of the Ancash department. the universe: the jungle and the sea. If so, the Ancash offers visitors a wide range of tourist cir- image was an attempt at explaining the mystery cuits for nature, adventures and mountaineer- of life and the eternal cyclical exchange of wa- ing lovers. In Huaraz visitors should not miss the ters between the heavens, earth and the sea. Municipal Museum that houses an important

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Another couple of supernatural beings guards the of the Wiracocha universe and is replicated in entrance to the New Temple, a portico divided the night sky as the merging arms of the Milky into two equal segments, one light and the other Way, near the Southern Cross . dark, as if evoking the joining of day and night. Both are winged beings and of opposite sex: the Chankillo and the defense systems on the North- male deity is shown as a hawk and the female as ern Coast an eagle. Different classes of lesser gods are also represented in the Tello Obelisk, and on the Chankillo –an easily reachable site on the plaques decorating the sunken small squares fac- Pan-American highway- was the stage of ing the façade, to thus configure a rich pantheon unceasing ritual combats to gain supremacy of mythical ancestors. The dual and four-some over land and other resources. partitions (couples and groups of four characters in symmetric opposite arrangements) appear Chankillo occupies the summit of one of the many again and again as the guiding principles in the barren hills on the fringes of the valley, right in sculpted ornamentations. the middle of the desert. Probably its construc- tion dates back to the times immediately before Judging from its decor and layout, the temple the fall of this civilization, although it continued was designed to mimic the universe and con- to be used after the fall of Chavin de Huantar in ceived as the fruit of the union of two portions of the last four centuries before our era. The struc- the world, complementary with and opposed to ture is comprised of three high concentric walls each other: one masculine and the other femi- all built of semi-quarried masonry of which some nine, in conformance with the principle that four meters from the ground have been preserved guides the beginning of life itself. Each of the to our days. A total of five gates restrict access parts was in itself made up of two mutually criti- by means of diagonal walls that direct traffic side- cal halves because each needed its own day and ways, and by fences. Symmetrical stairways al- night, its own rainy and dry seasons. Priests of low access to the circus from the center of the the Old Temple descended inside the building to edifice. Two circular towers and an eight-sided render tribute to the Great Spear god, lord of the building stand out inside the defense circuit. netherworld whom they conceived as a feline- man emerging from the dark jungle to drink its Together with other sites, Chankillo served as a victim’s blood. On the contrary, the priests of the defense line along the river banks of the Viru, New Temple climbed to the summit of the pyra- Santa and Casma valleys. Casma also features a mid to make offerings to heavenly deities (the group of seven imposing walls, 5,50 meters high male hawk and the female eagle). Building the and as thick as 2,70 meters as the base, that run temple at the joining of two rivers may not be a along hundreds of meters up and down desert coincidence either. In the religious beliefs of mountains where they provided a backdrop for Quechua-speaking peoples, this union –or ritual where they provided a backdrop for ritual tincumayo- symbolizes the strong driving forces battles and young warriors’ passage rites to man- hood.

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HUANUCO A Barn for the Central Andes

The Central Highlands and Jungle have been The Huanuco Pampa Administrative cen- inhabited by since remote times. The ter Lauricocha cave, for example, contains human Tremains, the oldest found in Peru, dating back to Huanuco Pampa, the most important Inca cen- the last Glacial Period (10.000 years). Besides, ter in the region, is located in Dos de Mayo, a the oldest temple in America –Kotosh- is also in providence about 150 km from the city of Huanuco. Central Jungle geography character- Huanuco. It sits on a plain at 3.800 masl over an izes a great part of the department that is the area of 2.500 square meters. Among its remains, most accessible amazon region from Lima. The Huanuco Pampa, or Huanuco Viejo (old city of Huanuco (2.000 masl) lies 400 km from Huanuco), as it is also known, features the Lima, 360 km from and 179 km from kallankas, large rectangular halls for state-or- Junin. It is advisable to visit the region between ganized functions. Also to be seen are the colcas April and October. or deposits for huge amounts of corn, tubers and manufactured goods. More than 500 circular and The Kotosh Temple rectangular colcas have been identified. They have a total storage capacity of approximately Just 5 km from the city of Huanuco lies 40.000 m3. These deposits are aligned along the Kotosh (2.100 masl), a group of temples built slopes surrounding the site, and were built so that with quarried stones joined with mud mor- temperature and wind would create a surprising tar in stage starting in the year 2.000 BC. refrigerating effect in their interior. Huanuco Pampa was also a manufacturing center, where Up to 11 buildings have been identified in some products were prepared and transformed for their sectors, built in stages from the initial Ceramic further redistribution to the population, espe- to the Early Horizon periods. The temples are cially textiles, which were very much appreciated not large. On the contrary, they are rectangular goods during the Tahuantisuyu times. constructions of curved corners not exceeding 20 m2. They are all oriented to the southwest. In- The Inca center had access to end control over a side, seats run along the walls and a circular fire- large variety of resources, as well as a numerous place in the central part is connected to the out- and well-organized population. Given its eco- side through a ventilation duct running under nomic and political importance, Huanuco Pampa the floor. Some of the oldest constructions are was connected to to the north and to Cuzco the Nichitos Temple, the Crossed Hands name to the south through the main road that ran along comes from two crossed arms modeled in mud the mountain range and was part of the Capac on one of the building´s inside faces. Similar con- Ñan, the great . Huanuco Pampa structions have been found elsewhere in shows a planned pattern of streets and buildings Huanuco, in the highlands of Ancash and, re- converging towards a large square in the middle cently, on the coast of the Kotosh-type temples’ of which an or ceremonial platform was tradition, originating in the Eastern Highlands, built with finely-carved stone blocks. The ushnu seems to represent a very old religious ideology is an architectural element of profound symbolic whose spread is still unknown. content present in many Inca administrative sites and related to a series of ritual and political events aimed at legitimizing the domination of new territories.

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LIMA Pre-inca archeology in the metropolis

Differently from colonial buildings, the main pre- ing it. Pucllana must have been the administra- Hispanic archeological remains in Lima can be tive center of religious and productive activities found, as should be expected, outside the His- in the valley, as may be gathered from its archi- Dtorical Center of the city or in coastal valleys close tecture and the site. Archeologists have recov- to it. Lima, the capital of Peru, is located at sea ered textiles, pottery – decorated in red, white, level and virtually in the middle of the Peruvian black, gray and orange- rests of corn ears, beans, Coast. Because of its importance as a port dur- broad beans, custard apple, pacae fruit, and al- ing the Colony, it is the only South American city pacas, llamas, guinea pigs, and ducks, as well as located close to the sea. Its benign weather knows finished and mollusks from the Pacific. no seasonal extremes (12°C-20°C in the winter and 19°- 30°C in the summer) and varies little Huacas south of Metropolitan Lima between the day and night, so it is a tourist city 365 days a year. The Pachacamac oracle

Temples or huacas In Metropolitan Lima Pachacamac, an ancient pre-Columbian oracle, dominates the fertile Lurin valley, 31 Huallamarca Huaca km south of Lima, and can be reached by the south Pan-American highway. This well- An important archeological compound in the San known ceremonial center amazed the Span- Isidro district is the small Huallamaca go from ish conquerors and undoubtedly the Incas the third century AD to the advent of the Incas themselves when they arrived at the coast. in the fifteenth century. Apparently, Huallamarca was a ceremonial center used by a Entirely built with adobe mud bricks, it ranked priestly elite, as sown by floors with little wear together with Cuzco among the main religious and tear. A long sequence of use and abandon- centers of pre-Hispanic Peru. Pilgrims from the ment of the center reveals changes in the most remote palaces arrived there from the most funerary habits over a long period of time. Dur- remote places arrived there to pay homage to the ing the early intermediate Horizon (stages 3 and Pachacamac God, creator of the world and its 4), corpses were wrapped in bundles covered with creatures. The Inca section of the archeological a mock head, a sort of mask made from fabric or compound (1440-1533) is the best-preserved area. painted wood. The site includes palaces, squares and carefully restored temples and has a site Museum hous- Pucllana Huaca ing an interesting collection of artifacts. Pachacamac was a pan-regional religious center This huaca is located in downtown modern whose origins remain little known. It seems to Miraflores district over a surface of about 5 have been built as an important center of power Ha. at the beginning of the Early Intermediate Pe- riod. Max Uhle, a reputed German archeologist, An administrative and ceremonial center for the discovered a temple of that period whose facade Rimac valley residents during the Early Inter- was painted in red. This temple is known today mediate Horizon (fifth to eighth centuries AD), as the Old Temple. Uhle´s findings, especially it features a 500 meters long, over 100 meters pottery and textiles, feature motifs from the wide and 22 meters tall massive truncated pyra- Highlands, which in many cases are of clear High mid, built of small adobe bricks on a landfill. Plateau inspiration. Another construction named Besides, it is surrounded by a set of smaller the Painted Temple was built at a later stage, equally remarkable areas, as well as rooms, hall- maybe at the end of the Intermediate Horizon ways, courtyards and ramps with a fine plaster (ninth to tenth centuries AD). The name comes finishing, and in some cases painted yellow. The from the remains of the frescoes on its walls. remarkable height of this ancient adobe build- ing is evidenced when from its top the visitor can During the ninth to fifteenth centuries AD con- observe the sea the modern buildings surround- struction speeded up driven by the powerful ide-

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ology linked to the god honored at the side. The The next stop in Lima should be temple-palaces reminding us of the Near and Cajamarquilla, one of the large urban cen- Middle East zigurats and known as “ramp pyra- ters in the Rimac valley, only comparable to mids” date back to this time. Fifteen of these so the Pachacamac site in neighboring Lurin. called “provincial temples” have been identified. They were the fruit of the effort of several cen- 15 km east of Lima up the Central Highway, tral Coast communities’ efforts to legitimize their Cajamarquilla lies in a gradually narrowing por- belonging to a surprisingly prestigious religion. tion of the Rimac valley where hills become taller, The coexistence of temples from different peri- steeper and numerous. Sitting at the crossing ods during this time and the presence of offer- point of the main irrigation canal intakes that ings coming from coastal areas contribute to the carry water to the fields downstream, hypothesis that Pachacamac functions as an Cajamarquilla was a regionally important cen- oracle (European chronicler of the sixteenth cen- ter between the sixth and seventh centuries AD. tury narrate that the supreme deity was the The citadel itself covers 120 Ha on the left bank Earth god Ichma). When the Incas settled in the of the Huaycoloro ravine. The “dead city” of central Coast, they acknowledged its power and Cajamarquilla comprises pyramids, squares, effectively included it in their expansionist poli- streets, rooms and perfectly recognizable maze- cies. However, they also built a new sanctuary like quarters sitting in the middle of a barren on the summit of the rocky hill: the imposing landscape, very well-protected from possible Temple of the Sun. From it we can observe the occurring in the rainy season. Human ceremonial center to the east and the Pacific burial remains in various quarters witness to the Ocean to the west (as well as two nearby islands complex and dynamic life of the site. Artifacts that have been Hispanic times). As a whole, found there reproduce the ornamentation typi- Pachacamac represents one of the most impor- cal in the valley and other motifs from the Coast tant hubs in the long, complex and dynamic pro- and southern Highlands. Numerous under- cess of Andean regional integration. ground silos were used to store food and supplies. Chicha corn beer was prepared in open court- Huacas north of Metropolitan Lima yards for celebrating. Water systems met the people’s daily needs. The Paramonga fortress Towards the eighth century AD, the place seems Paramonga, a terraced pyramidal of impec- to have been abandoned, but a fresh cultural cable preservation, lays 200 km north of thrust brought it back to life. Gradually, the Lima and can be easily reached by the pan- people of Cajamarquilla added several new build- American highway. ings on top or by the side of the old ones, until the site reached its present disorderly aspect. The summit of a natural mound on the fringe of agricultural fields was completely transformed Puruchuco through the construction of five high layered ter- races. Restricted access doors lead to the sum- Puruchuco served as the residence and pal- mit, where there is a solitary and small construc- ace of the chieftains that ruled during and tion of four rooms. Characteristic pottery and shortly after the Inca conquest of the Rimac large rectangular dispel any doubts about river valley east of Lima, along the present its Inca origin while the defensive appearance is Central Highway. deceitful, because the building probably did not have military but religious functions. Inciden- Built with rectangular adobe bricks, the square tally, the compound is still one of the major Inca Puruchuco residential palace is confined by a constructions on the coast, together with the thick wall, 4 meters high and 60 cm wide, that pyramid of the Sun in Pachacamac that re- surrounds a coherent array of rooms, courtyards sembles this fortress because of its construction and hallways, some for public functions and oth- characteristics and colorful plaster. ers reserved to private use.

Huacas in the highlands of Lima The modern site museum houses valuable pre- Inca artifacts found in the area, and many oth- The “dead city” of Cajamarquilla” ers from around the Rimac valley.

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ICA Desert cultures

In Ica, Andean man from the Coast changed the Also outstanding in the residential sector to constraints of the desert into life-giving oppor- which restricted access may be gained trough a tunities through enhanced knowledge and tech- double-threshold entrance gate (3.300 square Inology that allowed him to make the best pos- meters). Inside, a series of rooms lies separated sible use of harsh water and weather conditions. by courtyards and hall ways, two of which in- Also, the art of these people flooded the monoto- clude ponds built with Cuzco style carved stones. nous landscape with color and profound enigmas. Several rooms in this area are closed by painted Ica, the department capital, located 300 km south fences (red, white and yellow), while some sepa- of Lima and 104 km north of Nazca, can be rating walls exhibit triangular and crenellated reached along the Pan- American highway. The decoration. region can be visited throughout the year, be- cause its warm weather (an annual average of Evidence of niches and trapezoid windows at dif- 24°C) is amazingly bright and stable. ferent levels are accompanied by the remains of friezes depicting figures made of painted and Tambo de Mora pyramids high-relief mud decorations.

In the valley of Chincha (200 km south of Paracas cemeteries Lima), we find Centinela Tambo de Mora, a series of pyramidal mounds, mostly from the Paracas (235 km south of Lima) is known Late Intermediate period. for the beauty of the natural scenery, the richness of its funeral ritual, the quality of All the mounds are built with large blocks, ex- its textiles, and its advanced knowledge of cept in the Inca section, where they were made surgery dating back to 2.500 years ago. Al- with rectangular adobe bricks. The four roads most 60% of the patients who underwent cra- departing from this site seem to have had a cer- nial trepanations are estimated to have sur- emonial character and served to communicate vived the operation. with other settlements in the valley. The archeo- logical compound, extending over a surface of In 1925, Peruvian archeologist Julio C. Tello approximately 400 by 1.000 meters was probably unearthed the first remains of the Paracas civi- the capital of the Chinchas, a coastal civilization lization. Their splendid fabrics- witnessing to a reputed for its remarkable commercial and sail- rich magical vision of this civilization’s social life- ing skills. were woven in cotton, the wool of South Ameri- can ruminants or a mix of both, and decorated The Inca’s residence at with brightly colored embroideries in woolen thread. One of the most frequent characters is Situated at only 566 masl and about 50 km depicted as a line drawing of bird-and feline-like from the coast, halfway between the Coast human beings holding a scepter, severed heads, and the Highlands, this important archeo- arrows, plants and various emblems. It is vari- logical site is the most representative Inca ously represented in standing and flying position, settlement on the Peruvian coast. looking straight ahead or to the side. The oldest Paracas human remains date back to at least Tambo Colorado (250 km north from Lima) was 5.000 years BC, attesting to impressively probably the Inca and his retinue’s residence in continuos human habitation in an oasis and the central plains region. A large trapezoidal desert environment that seems to have changed square enclosed by four walls with niches fea- little in thousands of years. Around approxi- tures platforms and benches to the south and mately 400 BC The peninsula started to look like west. Noteworthy is the small ushnu platform to a gigantic cemetery. Generation after generation the west that was used during Inca times for ritu- buried their dead in the desert sand, thus turn- als. ing the area into a land of the dead. Tombs were dug deep in the shape of a bottle. A large under-

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ground chamber that could hold 30 to 40 indi- soil is light yellow. This allowed the Nazcas to viduals wrapped in fabrics was accessed through draw these large figures on the plain by simply a long and narrow well. This configuration is at removing the reddish film, generally a few centi- the origin of the Paracas Caverns name given to meters thick, until they achieved a remarkable this stage of their evolution. Hundreds of these effect of light lines over a dark backdrop. burials were found by Tello in the 1920s, funda- mentally in the Cerro Colorado zone, near the The design of figures at scale does not seem to present day Paracas site museum. have been a substantial problem if we consider that the methods of using grid patterns to de- Towards 200 AD, funeral habits changed. At this sign textile motifs, and laying out the ground to new stage- Paracas Necropolis- the grouped in- build temples and canals were arts which the dividuals were interred at a lesser depth, fre- peoples of Ica had known for long and at which quently among the garbage in houses of former they excelled. However, the meaning of these occupations, although always in funerary bundles enormous representations is the subject of ongo- wrapped in textiles, located one next to the other. ing debate. For Maria Reiche, the German math- Wari Kayan and Cabeza Larga, cemeteries of this ematician that studied them for more than 40 type, provide many of the best evidence of tex- years, the lines were a gigantic agricultural and tile art and pre-Hispanic surgery. The fabrics religious calendar. Others hold that they were wrapping the buried corpses, a product of their just ritual paths. More recently, some hold that creative work, were made of cotton using natu- figures were a sort of “hydraulic map” of the ral dyes. They are one of the most outstanding valley. In any case, carving the was achievements of Andean techniques and aesthet- possible only through the joint action of peoples ics. During its complex history, the peninsula brought together by religion and faith. became also attractive for the inhabitants of neighboring regions. Pottery found in the Paracas The Cahuachi ceremonial center Necropolis burials, specially the most recent one, shows a series of cultural patterns originated in Nazca (200 BC-900 AD) is the name of one of the immediately neighboring valleys, Pisco and the most famous pre-Columbian Andean Chincha, area of the Topara culture. civilizations. Reputed around the whole world for its fine pottery and for the enig- The Nazca Lines matic lines and figures drawn in the Palpa and San José plains, this culture saw its first Some of the world’s most famous geoglyphs development in the Rio Grande basin, about can be seen in the arid San José plains on 400 km south of Lima and many kilometers the southern bank of the Ingenio river. On away from the sea. Cahuachi spreads over the barren, dry plain, the Nazcas, but also 150 Ha of arid hills and dunes. more recent occupants, carved geometric fig- ures and animal silhouettes in a gigantic The ancient Nazca people built their pyramidal scale that has not been replicated elsewhere temples by terracing the fossil sand dunes. In the on Earth. lowers parts, smaller architectural mounds, streets and squares give the site a general city Representations of spiders, humming birds, mon- aspect. However, this is a deceiving appearance keys, reptiles, fish and other beings cover more because Cahuachi was a ceremonial center, a than 1.000 square kilometers, some around 300 sacred destination of Nazca pilgrims between 100 meters long, like the guanay bird (280 meters) and 500 AD. The ceremonies in the place included and the pelican (285 meters). Among the human the construction of temples using thousands of figures, the most enigmatic is that known as the conical or wedge adobe bricks. Each participat- extraterrestrial. Innumerable figures crisscross ing community demonstrated their true belong- the plain, sometimes 30 meters wide and up to 9 ing to their religious community by singing, danc- km long. How these figures were made has been ing and banqueting, thus explaining why in explained quite well. The desert is covered by a Cahuachi there is little garbage, while offerings reddish film of dirt that has remained stable for abound (pan flutes and musical drums, sacrificed thousands of years thanks to the absence of llamas and guinea pigs, fine textiles, human buri- strong winds and . Under this cover, the als and pottery representing deities). The ceremo-

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nial site, center of the social, political and reli- where needed by simple gravity, as in the val- gious life of the region, became very busy when leys of northern Peru. But in the southern val- the pilgrims arrived at a scheduled date to then leys, where the slopes are less marked, pre- His- recover its peace under the care of the priest and panic societies found other technological answers a very small care-taking population. for taking water away from its natural course and defeated the ongoing threat of desert, made DEFEATING THE DESERT: THE NAZCA even worse by the strong winds blowing in the PUQUIOS region.

The Nazca valley also has evidence of large By means of series of deep wells spaced every 20 hydraulic projects. Taking advantage of the meters, Ica people reached the water table. The water table, which was close to the ground, wells can still be seen around. They were com- the ancient Nazca developed an under- municated by means of a network of a network ground filtering gallery system, known as of galleries for circulating water. Careful moni- puquios, to irrigate the areas lacking sur- toring of the ditches’ inclination and lining them face water. with stones to minimize leaks allowed to bring water to the surface to finally store it in circular These clever galleries, known as puquios, suc- reservoirs or qochas, from which it was trans- cessfully met the challenge of hash water condi- ported to the fields by canals. To date, 35 puquios tions in the valley’s middle sections, a 15 km have been identified, many of them still in use. stripe where water can only be found under- Numerous galleries covered with boulders and ground. The lack of surface water is due to the roofed with large stone slabs and huarango tree fact that the Nazca desert is regularly interrupted (Acacia machracanta) branches are still seen in by small valleys made up by the driest rivers of the area. Also, every 10 to 20 meters vents per- the Pacific. Coast, which carry water only in the mitted air circulation and the periodical clean- summer and even then irregularly. In these con- ing of the galleries. These were often built at more ditions, simple detouring canals are useless, be- than 10 meters of depth over an average length cause the river and its small tributaries torn into of 500 meters. An exceptionally long gallery how- barren dry courses. Irrigation ditches are effec- ever reaches 1.5 km long and even runs under a tive when the sloping ground can take the water riverbed.

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AYACUCHO The lands of the gods

Pisco on the coast and the Highland of on the west side of the square. An 8 meters high Huancavelica and Ayacucho have been tradition- pyramid formed by overlying quadrangular plat- ally linked by a flow of myths, gods, ideas, rulers forms, it includes a fine gate with a double thresh- Pand goods since the times of Chavin (400 BC). old in middle of the upper level, where there is a Standing along the roads connecting the two re- finely carved stone block. Chronicles state the gions are the monuments that bear witness to rock was used to offer sacrifices to the Sun. The successive stages of domination: the Spanish Inca’s square was quasi-trapezoid and bordered along the roads connecting the two regions are by terraces on the east and north sides. About the monuments that bear witness to successive 1.500 meters south, some 700 deposits or qolqas stages of domination: the Chavin, the Wari, the were found by Spanish chronicler Cieza de León Incas and, finally, the Spanish conquerors. about 1548. A beautiful stone panel carved in fine Ayacucho (2.750 masl) is reached after a 45 cells can be seen on the eastern slope. It is 100 minute flight from Lima or after a 4-5 hour drive meters wide and three meters high. The “sacrifi- from Pisco (235 km south of Lima) through an cial stone” is in the same area. On one of its sides excellent paved road. The most recommended there is a hole from where two zigzagging gut- visit time is April to October (with average tem- ters come out to embrace the stone before join- peratures of 8-16° C). ing again.

The Vilcaswaman administrative center The Wari Capital

Founded by Pachacutec in the second half Wari -the first pan-Andean state- emerged of the fifteenth century AD Vilcaswaman, in Ayacucho between 550 and 800 AD. Its 110 km from Ayacucho (3.470 masl), was the capital, also called Wari, is located 25 km first Inca administrative center in the north of Huamanga, in the department of Chinchaysuyu. Ayacucho (2.740 masl).

The settlement of about 2 square kilometers com- Wari is an example of urban planing and pre- prises a large square and homes assigned to Hispanic engineering techniques. Its urban core, Tupac Inca Yupanqui and , two stretching over about 400 Ha and home to 40.000 late Cuzco sovereigns that lived here on a tem- inhabitants, is located strategically to gain easy porary basis. These are also two religious build- access to the central Coast and Jungle, while ly- ings known as the Temple of the Sun and the ing halfway between the northern and southern Ushnu sanctuary. Built in stone following the Highlands. To control these vast four regions, the Cuzco Style, the Temple of the Sun is located at Wari state built provincial administrative cen- the south end of the square over three overlying ters that depended on its capital. The most im- platforms. The first, at the bottom, is crenellated. portant were Pikillaqta (Cuzco), Cerro Baul The second has large and small niches and lower. () and Viracochapampa (northern Its architectural characteristics make it the Highlands). Wari controlled many colonies in dif- greatest sanctuary built during the ferent regions that supplied it with resources like Tahuantisuyu period. The temple of the Sun can , textiles, cotton, and corn. Wari be reached from the square up two flights of stairs is internally divided in functional sectors. Re- 30 steps each. A Catholic church, San Juan markable Cheqowasi sector or cemetery area, is Bautista, was built in Colonial times on top of a network of underground funerary chambers at the old Temple of the Sun. The Acllawasi or several levels. Built with rectangular, circular “House of the Virgins of the Sun” was behind the and quadrangular slabs, these chambers prob- temple. A wonderful finely carved polygonal wall, ably hosted rulers and aristocrats. Another sec- ponds, canals and interior walls still stand. tor, Moradochayoq shows the earliest evidence of the site’s occupation, and provides additional One of its kind in the Tahuantisuyu, the other support to the hypothesis of permanent contacts monument is the sanctuary or ushnu standing with the Tiawanaku culture that evolved at the

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same time 1.500 km away in the Lake Titicaca techniques based on the used of colored basin. This site comprises a small temple built strings that were as efficient as they were partially underground with stone, strongly sophisticated. resembling the small Putuni (Tiawanaku) temple, also a partially underground temple. On And in spite of the demeaning modern connota- the other hand, the central god of the Waris was tion of the “bureaucrat” term, the first Spanish the “god of the scepters”, an adapted version of conquerors who saw the Inca State still at work the Tiawanaku god represented in the so-called had only words of praise for the efficiency of the Gate of the Sun (Puno). A third sector worth no- state apparatus. How was this possible when ticing is Capillapata, a large group of trapezoid writing and reading were apparently unknown and rectangular constructions up to 400 meters to the Incas? Thanks to endless Andean creativ- long and with stone walls over 10 m high. Fi- ity in handling information. The well-known Inca nally, the Ushpaqoto sector exhibits sculptures road network, the road inns knows as tambos, of modeled human figures. Evidences of work- the sending of encrypted information with quipus shops and warehouses have been found here. carried by teams to relay runners called , and the quipus themselves, together with spe- The walleed city of Pikillaqta cialized interpreters known as quipukamayocs were all logistic arrangements Pikillaqta or “city of fleas”, thus called be- within a highly sophisticated communication cause of the numerous four square meter system. rooms located over a hill dominating the beautiful Lucre lagoon (3.806 masl), is the Quipus, which earliest examples date back to the largest pre- Inca city in Cuzco and is entirely seventh century AD, from Wari origin, were ba- Wari. sically numerical records where figures referred to quantities of nonnumber classes recorded in One of the most representative Wari sites is the quipu. These classes included population Pikillaqta, this civilization’s most important ad- headcounts, farm output, important dates, capac- ministrative center and symbol of the Wari state ity at state warehouses, quantity and type of in the Cuzco region. At the same time, it was a products stored, and –of course-military service ceremonial center and a place of residence for and labor time owed to the state. Handling of aristocrats, priests and temporary workers. A the data so stored demanded knowledge and use model of urban planing, the walled 50 Ha area of alla basic arithmetic operations, as well as was densely occupied for 150 years from 700 to more sophisticated mathematical operations in- 850 AD. Located 32 km from the city of Cuzco, cluding matrices and hierarchical functions. Pikillaqta is built over large rectangular and Quipus permitted to record, and then express, a square fields of restricted access. Streets and cor- symbolic numerical order at the very same level ridors connect the various areas separated by of abstractions as written narration. walls over 12 meters high. To the northeast, a remarkable compound comprising more than 500 The quipu´s mathematical structure seems to standard- size elements can be entered only have been powerful enough to allow encoding of through one door. These rooms were used as tem- mathematical propositions. In turn, the encryp- porary lodgings for visiting workers. Other sec- tion key for a specific class could also be encoded tors comprise two floor houses with painted and and decoded by a quipucamayok, or master of plastered walls. quipus, elsewhere. Evidence suggests a standard- ized encryption process was already underway. The Quipus: A paperless bureaucracy If quipus were thus used, at least in some cases by specific users, then they were indeed evolv- Bureaucracy inevitable makes us think of ing into a writing system. large offices crowded by bored workers who classify huge stacks of documents. It is even Quipus and numbers hard to imagine a state that will function without some sort of coded information. Quipus were made with a main cord from which However, the well-organized Inca state did other secondary strings hang. Hanging cords exactly that by resorting to Quipu memory were organized in several subclasses separated

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by a gap in the primary cord, and organized by knots required from two to nine turns, each turn color pattern, type of thread and other distinc- standing for digits from two to nine, while an “8” tive marks. Non.numerical class markers re- shaped knot stood for number one. Digits were ferred to specific categories. Each set of hanging knotted at the furthest end of the primary cord. cords was in turn attached to a higher-level cord Bundles of simple knots tied together stood for running in the opposite direction to the hanging figures to the power of 10. The higher on the cord. This cord gave the set’s total. Additional string, the higher the power. For instance, two subsidiary cords were tied to the hanging and knots together, one level above the primary dig- higher level cords, and so on. its meant 600 and so on. Zero was represented by the absence of knots in the corresponding nu- Number information was represent by the form merical position. and spacing of knots in the hanging cords. The

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AREQUIPA The geography of high altitude santuaries

Usually known for its elegant and sober colonial Juanita lived 500 years ago, when she was sacri- architecture in ashlar stone, and for the incom- ficed on the Ampato glacier (patron god of the parable agricultural terraces in the Colca can- region), probably to stop the anger of the Uyon, the world’s second deepest, Arequipa has Sabancaya volcano that was erupting at that more recently caught the world’s attention as its time. The sacrifice Qapac Cocha ceremony volcano- dominated geography has emerged as a started at huacaypata (Cuzco’s main square) and scenery for amazing archeological sites. The city was dedicated to a number of sacred mountains, of Arequipa (2.350 masl) can be reached by plane islands and other magic places around the from Lima (1.021 km away) in 60 minutes, Cuzco Tahuantinsuyo or Inca Empire. (516 km) or , in Puno (281 km). Visits to Arequipa will be most enjoyable between April Healthy and beautiful children between 5 and and October when temperature fluctuates be- 15 years of age chosen from different villages in tween 8°C and 16°C. the four suyus or regions of the empires were sacrificed as the close to the rite. The victims were The Lady of Ampato buried together with human figurines, miniature animals, pottery and jewelry to ask the huacas Named “Juanita”, out of affection, this for good health for the Inca and stronger rela- of an Inca young girl about 14 years tions between Cuzco and the provinces. Archeo- of age was found in perfect state of conser- logical evidence of this ritual has been found in vation on the summit of the Ampato moun- numerous high altitude Inca sanctuaries, some tain (6.310 masl). The study of her remains as distant as the Aconcagua glacier in . will provide us a better understanding of the habits and diet of ancient Inca empire popu- lations.

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CUSCO The empire of the incas

The Incas were the most advanced political, eco- ginning of Colonial times and where now stands nomic and cultural entity in Andean pre-Hispanic the Cuzco Cathedral. In Hurin Cuzco (the lower evolution. They were also a powerful civilization quarter) lived the supreme priest. There were Tthat spread its domains to the kingdom of Quito Limacpampa square and the Temple of the Sun and much of Chile and Bolivia. Building on (Coricancha). Residents in the upper quarter held former complex societies like the Wari civiliza- the social supremacy in the city. Diarchic gov- tion, they founded their capital in Cuzco (1.200 ernment was reflected by this dual distribution. km southeast of Lima) and built provincial ad- ministrative centers along more than 4.000 km. How the palaces looked can be gathered from the They have left evidence of a complex military, existing remains. Each group contained wide theocratic and patriarchal State with great po- courtyards (canchas), rooms surrounded by litical and religious power. When the Spaniards- smaller rooms, and long roofed buildings remind- and the new epidemics brought by them- reached ing of a basilica (Kallankas). Except for the Sapan Cuzco, the empire, already undermined by a frat- Inca residence, the palaces were inhabited by the ricidal war between Huascar and Atahualpa, col- members of panacas, that is the families of dead lapsed. Cuzco (3.400 masl) is located 1.200 km Incas. from Lima (a 55-minute flight). The recom- mended visit time is from April to September (dry Other members of the Incas elite and the non- and sunny weather). However, it must be noted Inca population residing in the capital lived in that temperatures in the region change consid- village-like settlements, scatters among the ter- erably according to altitude and time of the day. races, canals and agricultural fields distributed around the monument center. A very complex The main square or Huacaypata institutional system forced all of Cuzco inhabit- ants to maintain 328 sacred spots (huacas) in- According to legend, Cuzco (3.500 masl) was cluding rocks, springs, caverns and religious con- founded by the mythical couple of Manco structions scattered within and beyond view. Capac and . Large scale remod- eling, around 1438 AD, was the work of the The Coricancha temple tenth historical Inca Pachacutec, whose name stands for “cataclysm”, “crisis”, The most important and sumptuous temple “transformation”. Works followed an urban in the Tahuantinsuyo was the Coricancha layout representing a puma. The animal’s or Temple of the Sun, which occasionally womb was the huacaypata square dividing sheltered images of Thunder and Wiracocha, Cuzco in two halves from which four roads deities brought from different regions, and departed, thus allegorically separating the mummies of Inca kings. area into four large spaces called Chichcaysuyu, Antisuyu, Collasusyu and The temple’s inner ritual was restricted to priests, Contisuyu, the four suyus or major regions the Inca and the . Its only entrance was on that made up the Tahuantinsuyu empire. the north side and it had a central courtyard sur- rounded by buildings made of fine stonework. The monumental sector, located beneath Curving walls and a series of springs and ter- Sacasayhuaman, occupied a triangular space, races can be seen to the southwest. Gold sculp- which- imitating the shape of a puma- spreads tures representing at certain festivities. Stone between two rivers, Tullumayu and Saphi. The rooms were covered with gold and silver plates. sector include 11 palaces grouped around two Imaginary lines (ceques) radiated from this centers, as well as trapezoid square, presently temple, linking the huacas and serving as re- the Plaza de Armas, the residence of women minders of dates and places for the ceremonies. (acllahuasi) and the temples of the Thunder At fixed dates, representatives of non-Inca popu- (Hatun Cancha) and or Marker of the lations arrived in Cuzco from all over the empire World (Quishuar Cancha), destroyed at the be- to adore and play tribute to the Tahuantinsuyo

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gods. ing terraces on both sides the valleys. During the Inca period extensive terracing work led to The Sacasayhuaman fortress reconfiguring and leveling whole valleys. Ter- raced agriculture meant more dense farming and Built over a hill to the west of Cuzco by tens higher, less fluctuating yields. By providing more of thousands of workers provided only with land suitable for farming, terraces probably of a few metal tools, the fortress sheltered a New World crops. temple to the Sun built in carved stone. Terracing may have started as long ago as 900 Constructed during the Tupac Inca Yupanqui, years BC on the banks of Lake Titicaca. Since Huayna Capac and Huascar reigns, this huge 300 AC the construction of terraces for agricul- fortress comprises a series of staged platforms ture spread until it covered a large part of the on the north esplanade that deserves the visi- central Andes, and it boomed during the empire tors most especial attention. Its cyclopean archi- as part of a systematic state policy for improving tecture required using huge and heavy carved land and expanding colonies that was in force stones that fit each other in almost invisible until just before the European conquest. Spread- joints. Each of its three platform levels is over ing corn and associated irrigation techniques was 200 meters long. At the summit, a series of build- seemingly the reason for building terraces in ings and terraces include three circular buildings Andean valleys. Above the upper altitude limit comprises three concentric rings of walls. In this for growing corn (3.200 to 3.500 masl), rainfed same sector were the Temple of the Sun and farmland in the higher valleys and in the high warehouses for weapons, soldiers’ clothes, base Plateau was devoted to other staples like tubers metals, silver, gold, covers and war materials. (potatoes, oca, olluco) and local cereals (quenoa, Other equally complex and interesting sectors cañihua). Certain terraces kept as family gardens complete this monumental site. In the sector were probably reserved to special varieties of known as “the slide”, carved stones in the shape some food crops, spices and medicinal plants, or of small altars and ramps deserve attention. to species of ceremonial meaning. On the east- These are vestiges of an artificial circular pond ern slope of the Andes, a special class of terraces for ritual use, as well as several water canals and was devoted to growing coca, considered the underground passages, with niches and small “mother plant”. stairs carved on the walls. A huge carved stone called the “tired stone” finishes the list of remark- The moray agricultural laboratory able sights. Only 38 km away from Cuzco, almost a half The terraces hour drive, are the mysterious four circular terraces of Moray that resemble gigantic fin- Among the greatest achievements of Inca ger prints on a high plateau at 3.500 masl. engineering were the agricultural terraces built to feed an estimated population of some As Recent research has shown, the terraces at 10 million inhabitants, basically with pota- moray were used for adapting plants to new toes and corn, two crops that later became weathers and environments, and are additional part of the world’s diet. proof of the highly sophisticated level of agricul- tural knowledge reached by the Incas. At the Built by cutting the mountain sides in the shape experiment station, the large conic depressions of stairs, the terraces were separated by pirkas 47 to 84 meters deep cut in limestone made it or stones walls, and filled with fertile soil to possible to replicate on each ’s depth. achieve the optimum use of rain and water. Resembling a sunken amphitheater or an artifi- A blending of resistance and functionality, the cial crater, the terraces were built by erecting terraces helped to prevent landslides caused by containment walls filled with fertile land and rains in deep and narrow Andean valleys where provided with complex irrigation systems. Tem- the surface area of land that can be irrigated is perature differences between the top and bottom severely limited. Besides, during the rainy sea- of these depressions permitted using each ter- son, downhill runoff seriously jeopardizes farm- race for adapting many different plant varieties ing fields and valley populations. Pre-Hispanic (more than 250 plant species). The Incas are re- Andean societies solved both problems by build- ported to have organized the agricultural produc-

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tion throughout the Tahuantinsuyo from the ex- four streets parallel to the stream, with their re- perience gained at the moray site. spective crossing roads, making up a total of 15 blocks of houses built over old carved-stone walls, The aqueducts of Tipon located north of the main square. Careful atten- tion should be paid not only to the area’s design, This beautiful compound of agricultural but also to the Inca-epoch walls and even the in- terraces, long stairs and stone canals is lo- terior of houses. After a while, visitors will fell cated 20 km south of the city of Cuzco. transported in time. Ollantaytambo boasts res- taurants, hotels and horse and mountain bicycle Apparently, Tipón was part of the royal estate rental services. A dirt road climbs up to the belonging to Inca Yawar Huaca, and at the same Málaga opening (4.200 masl) and dives into the time, a place devoted to religious adoration and High Amazon forest, crossing villages like pic- agricultural experiments. The site’s functional turesque Huilloc, the some of renowned wayruros and aesthetic harmony, typical of Quechua ar- or porters. chitects, is remarkable. They drove the water through fine stone structures, either in the form The royal estate of MachuPicchu of aqueducts- some of them underground –or ca- nals, falls and spillways. Peru is known all over the world for Cuzco and Cuzco for Machu Picchu. Because of its The fortress and town of Ollantaytambo incomparable beauty, its harmonious land- scape and the spiritual strength it trans- The fortress of Ollantaytambo (2.846 masl), mits, this Inca citadel has the privilege of located at the end of the road making part of that chosen group of world of the Incas, 61 from Cuzco, was named af- class monuments that millions of people in ter the legendary Ollanta, a chieftain fa- the five continents dream of visiting. mous for his romance with a princess, the daughter of Pachacutec. In July 1911, an American scientific expedition led by Hiram Bingham arrived at the Urubamba Ollantaytambo is divided in two sectors, accord- river canyon, a warm and humid region of large ing to the dual Hanan and Hurin scheme, sepa- vegetation. The majesty of a landscape combin- rated by a rivulet (Patacancha) that flows north ing distant glaciers and gigantic ravines that to south along an old Inca canal. The upper sec- poured their waters into the quiet river amazed tor occupies a hill and part of the rivulet’s banks, the expeditioners. Bingham was obsessed with where there is a large square and a series of adobe discovering Tampu-Tocco, the mythical city of the brick and stone rooms. A beautiful stone known first Incas reported by some chronicles. On July as the “Ñusta Bath” can be seen to one side of 24, after a difficult ascent to the mountain known the square. The top of the hill can be reached by by the place’s inhabitants as Machu Picchu (2.350 stairways built between terraces. At the summit, masl), Bingham discovered among the vegetation we find plastered-wall rooms, the Temple of the an extraordinary compound of ruins. The ex- Sun and other fine buildings of cyclopean size. plorer thought he had found the lost capital of Finally, a half-finished wall of finely polished and the Incas, without imagining that instead of solv- carefully fitted stone blocks featuring high relief ing a mystery he was unearthing another one motifs found between the Kachijata quarry and that would last throughout the twentieth cen- Ollantaytambo reveals that the building process tury. If that citadel with buildings as gorgeous was suddenly interrupted. The site is completed as the most beautiful ones in Cuzco was not with ponds, carved rocks and several hectares of TampuTocco, what was it, then? Why did the agricultural terraces with their respective canals chronicles fail to write about this marvel of Inca and stairways. architecture? The powerlessness of science to Large courts with four rooms and a courtyard answer these questions made the mystery grow separated by stone streets and squares of orthogo- even more and the most imaginative theories nal design like a chessboard form the lower sec- were proposed. tor. The peasants who live there today have not modified the original quite closely a small urban The territories where Machu Picchu is located center of Inca times. The best preserved area, to were conquered by Inca Pachacutec, the ruler the point of being a living museum, spans the who had the merit of converting the small Inca

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kingdom, which did not reach much beyond Cuzco, into a vast and powerful empire. Pachacutec ordered the construction of Machu Picchu as proof of his military exploits. Moreover, he had done likewise before when, younger, he conquered Pisaq and Ollantaytambo. Subse- quently, remarkable Inca buildings were built there. Pachacutec lived in the memory of his people not only as a wary conqueror, but also as a great con- structor and as the ruler that reformed religion and organized the official ritual to their minut- est details. This argument supports the theory Machu Picchu Citadel, Cuzco that Machu Picchu was a place its creator deemed Terra Incógnita / PromPerú appropriate for the adoration of imperial gods. In fact, beside the finely finished buildings, suit- reached by helicopter (30 minutes) or by foot (4 able for the residence of a ruler, there are many days down the Inca Trail). Considered one of the others presumably destined to religious func- world’s most extraordinary landscaping works, tions. The place’s topography was characterized Machu Picchu looks down the summit of a moun- by rocky cone-shaped peaks, caverns, snow- tain overlooking the deep can- capped mountains. It is located at a tight curve yon, in the middle of tropical forests. It is com- of an impressive canyon combining essential fea- prised of two large areas: an agricultural one and tures for a religion that focuses on the relation- an urban one. The first is basically formed by ship between man and nature. five groups of terraces irrigated with waters de- scending through canals and ponds. It also has Pachacutec likely visited the citadel of Machu food warehouses and lodging for the farmers. The Picchu sporadically. Apparently several families second comprises the sacred area, with temples, of royal lineage lived there, as well as priests and squares and royal mausoleums carved to exquis- priestesses that adored the sun, the snowed- ite perfection, like the Temple of the Three Win- capped mountains (apus) and natural phenom- dows, which commerates the mythical origins of ena. The site’s dwellers did not exceed one or two Inca founders coming out of the three sacred cav- thousand in number and lived off what was grown ern of Paqarictambo. Notable among adoration in the terraces surrounding the citadel and on places, are rocky outcrops and carved stones, the slopes of neighboring mountains, like Wiñay usually called intiwatanas, which have astro- Wayna. When the Spanish conquest came about, nomic and religious functions. A sacred stone, a sacred place, which could only exist as part of a characteristic of important Inca centers, sits in highly organized State, lost its reason for being. the main square. The set is completed with Not only the victorious gods had changed, but priest’s houses, hostels for pilgrims and tombs. also the farmers and servants that fed the priests, The stairways, streets, hallways and carved stone who came from very far away lands, as it was canals can be seen everywhere in this archeo- usual in the Inca empire, felt the moment had logical site right across from the spectacular arrived for them to return to their places of ori- mountain that may be reached gin. On the other hand, it was natural for con- up a steep stone-paved road. querors not to value a place like Machu Picchu: the Inca agricultural compounds, a prodigy of The Qenqo and Tambomachay sanctuaries agricultural science and hydraulic engineering, interest them only as they felt safe, or close to Two places surrounding Cuzco that stand large tribute-paying populations. Thus, the sanc- out for their ritual architecture are the sanc- tuary was swallowed by plants and oblivion tuaries of Qenqo and Tambomachay. which, paradoxically, permitted its conservation to present. Qenqo is a huge rockly mound with carved stairs, holes and gutters, probably made to deposit By far, Machu Picchu is the most important tour- chicha (corn beer) drank during Inca rituals. This ist attraction in Peru. It is located three hours site is completed by a semicircular courtyard by train from Cuzco, although it can also be defined by an isometric wall with several large

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niches that surround a thin stone slab or wanka clock) sector comprises carefully built buildings, enclosed in a chamber, like an image inside its terraces and ceremonial ponds. A small semicir- own chapel. cular chamber stands out in this sector for its elegant wall enclosing a small rock outcrop, Tambomachay is a very remarkable place of re- carved on its sides and with a bulk in the center, fined architecture made up of platforms, niches to which tradition ascribes the function of a sun- and ponds still used today. The spillways carry dial. The Pisaq compound is remarkable for the water from a higher spring. In Inca times, it was disposition, shape and standardized sizes of the a secret place devoted to the adoration of water, buildings, which are grouped around small court- and one of the sanctuaries comprised in the yards of restricted access through double-thresh- ceques system of Cuzco. old gates. These buildings form the Acqllawasi, or dwelling of the virgins. The most important huacas in the Cuzco area can be seen from Tambomachay. One of them is The Raqchi temple Huanacaure, a sacred mountain that played a transcendental role in the mythical foundation The largest and most beautiful temple built of Cuzco. to commemorate Wiracocha Pchayachachi (maker of the wall) is found along the road The living Inca village of Chinchero to Sicuani (119 km south of Cuzco) in San Pedro de Cacha (3.485 masl). Built at the time of Tupac Inca Yupanqui, Chichero is a compound of squares, ramps, Raqchi had a great reputation as and was an terraces and finely carved stone chambers. important destination for pilgrims, a fact that The remarkable terrace built with carved explains the warehouses and other buildings stones bordering one side of the main square around the temple that served as dwellings for will not go unheeded. priests, servants and the populace. Its rectangu- lar layout with four large walls (92 m long by 25 To have the village built as a place of rest and m wide) features two entries on the south side merry-making, the Inca donates houses to Cuzco and an altar in the side opposite the doors. In- aristocrats and kept some houses to himself and side the temple, there is a longitudinal diving the royal family. During Colonial times, the wall made of delicately carved stone and adobe present Catholic church was built over what prob- bricks over 12 meters high. The internal struc- ably was a temple of the Sun. Its altar is covered ture is completed with 22 cylindrical columns with gold leaf and its walls are decorated with made of carved adobes and holding the roof of paintings of the Cuzco school. The site gathers this chamber more than 2.300 square meters people from different places who come every Sun- large. Its walls were plastered and painted red. day to barter subsistence products. Both men and women of the numerous communities attending The Choquequirao fortress the Sunday fair wear colorful and varied clothes. The Manco Inca dynasty resisted the Span- The religious hub of Pisaq ish conquerors during 40 years (1536 to 1572) from this fortress in the Vilcabamaba area. This Inca site, located at 2.900 masl in the The Spanish conquerors were never able to middle valley of the Vilcanota river or Sa- expel them from it. cred Valley of the Incas, sits on a small mountain on whose slopes and summit its The building of Chocquequirao is the work of Inca occupants built beautiful buildings and ter- Pachacutec successors Tupac Inca Yupanqui races. (1471-1493) and Wayna Capac (1493-1527). Household and ceremonial pottery has been Pisaq is an exquisite example of engineering for found here that bears both the classic Cuzco style land and water management and the transfor- and also from other populations who came to live mation of a natural landscape into a cultural one. here to build and permanently populate the area. The Intiwatana and Pisaq sectors ar among the Most likely, they were experienced farmers who main constructions. The sacred Intiwatana (sun knew how to build and use farming terraces in

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high Amazon forest areas. Located at 3.050 masl one of the most famous trekking routes in Peru. on the border with department of Apurímac, the During four days of journey, trekkers cross vari- Choquequirao archeological compound was not ous altitudes and environmental systems be- built to be a place of easy access. Reaching it de- tween 2.800 and 4.000 masl, while at the same mands two days of disciplined march, largely time enjoying a spectacular view of the most im- compensated by the beauty of the landscape that pressive glaciers in the region. Before reaching wayfarers cross from the beginning of their ex- Machu Picchu, the Inca Trail goes through the pedition. beautiful citadels of Phuyupatamarca and Wiñay Wayna among other 16 archeological compound. The road starts at Cachora (2.300 masl), a small The 40 km route ends at the relaxing hot springs town in the Apurímac department, after travel- in Aguas Calientes (2 km from the train station). ing four hours on the mostly paved road from Cuzco (145 km paved and 10 km of dirt road). Two large longitudinal roads make up the Inca Mule packers can be contacted there who can also road system. A coastal one, from Chile to Tumbes. act as guides. A local family offers accommoda- The other one, paved with stones, was the tion and the only telephone in town. Approxi- kingdom’s backbone linking Cuzco to Quito mately 40% of the Choquequirao Inca ceremo- through the Highlands. It was equipped with nial center has been cleared of vegetation. The gutters, bridges, containment and defense walls, remaining area is formed by a complex terrace elevation ramps and stairs in many stretches. system built on extremely steep slopes. A very The great road or Capac Ñan was at some places impressive stairway of 180 terraces has been re- 16 meters wide. In other segments the road had cently spotted. It descends from one of the cer- two lanes, one paved and wide for the Inca, and emonial center flanks and reaches the river open the other, a narrow dirt road for the cargo and to swimming. his assistants. In the southern coast, at Quebrada de la Waca, we can still see a road across the Choquequirao was probably one of the entrance Andes for transporting fish from the Coast to the check point to the Vilcabamba region, and also imperial capital. an administrative hub serving political, social and economic functions. Its urban design has followed Most important among all roads, however, was the symbolic patterns of the imperial capital, with the so-called Chicnchaysuyu road. Built during ritual places dedicated to the Sun () and the the reign of Tupac Yupanqui, it was the largest ancestors, to the earth, water and other divini- state undertaking during the imperial phase of ties, with mansions for administrators and the Cuzco Quechuas, when the Cañari territory houses for artisans, warehouses, large dormito- and the humid northern highlands were annexed ries or kallankas and farming terraces belong- to their social organizations which permitted ing to the Inca or the local people. Spreading over them to develop an admirable road technology 700 meters, the ceremonial area drops as much that took advantage of previous designs and that, as 65 meters from the elevated areas to the main ironically, was a precious gift to their conquer- square. ors.

The Inca Trail: The Great Link to The Con- In its northern portion, the Capac Ñan from tinental Andean Universe Cajamarca to the Ecuadorian province of Loja, the road passed by the Mariviña and bola ware- Not only did the Inca roads symbolize the houses. In Cuenca, a place of admirable roads, power of the state around a space articu- the largest warehouses were at Tambo Blanco, lated by 23.000 km of roads, but were also Tomebamba itself, Paredones and Ingapirca, in the link between the real and the supernatu- the area called Hatun Cañar. ral, between the earth and the goals within a cultural universe spanning from the north The Incas’ arrival at present-day Ecuadorian ter- of and Chile to the Venezuela ritory brought about the transformation of so- plains. cial space. Work was organized following a re- volving system for supplying goods and service At kilometer 88 of the Cuzco- Quillabamba rail- to all state structures, roads and warehouses. The ways is Qorihuayrachina, the starting point of road’s superb characteristics were constantly

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maintained through the system described above dent information. Journeys were organized so and rod building during the most recent and high- that there would be a tambo or travelers’ inn est stage of Inca expansion. approximately every 30 km. Larger royal inns were almost palaces, with warehouses for food To the south, the roads were those in the and supplies called collcas, meeting halls, and contisuyu and the Collasusyu that the Incas split accommodation for permanent service personnel. in two, the Umasuyu and the Urcosuyu on the Chaskiwasis were inns for the foot postmen or eastern and western borders of Lake Titicaca. chaskis. Other smaller posts were available to Connecting roads linked main ones. Large, cir- wayfarers and postmen. The most reliable esti- cular royal warehouses can be seen along the mations put the total number of road inns at present border between Arequipa, Puno and somewhat over two thousand. Human energy was Cuzco (the Contisuyu and the Collasuyu). A administered by Andean society in harmony and church built on Inca foundations reveals the balance with a harsh environment. It was a way warehouse was still used in Colonial times for of measuring and using space that Western wine and people traveling between Arequipa and knowledge and technology failed to understand Cuzco. and preserve. Studies on the ancient Andean people’s vision of the world and technology could Historical information is readily available about make a valuable contribution to human resource this road system such as that related to the tech- management and adaptation to the natural en- nology used in the bridges, traffic, orientation and vironment. maintenance system. But there is other less evi-

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PUNO The magic of Lake Titicaca

Puno is fundamentally a high plateau (3.500- cient populations rose to another challenge 4.800 masl). Its landscape surprises because of posed by Lake Titicaca and its tributaries: Pthe vast Lake Titicaca (8.300 square kilometers), floods. the highest navigable lake in the world (3.812 masl), and the snow-capped peaks flanking its To counteract floods, gigantic furrows- four to 10 eastern side The foundation myths and several m wide by 100 m long and one m high- improved legends mention the lake and its islands as the drainage, soil fertility and created water mirrors sacred origin of the Inca forefathers and gods. to defend plants from hail and frost. Dating back Tauile, Amantani, Suasi and now home to to be found scattered over 142.000 Ha. Recent Quechua and Aymara populations of farmers and research has shown potato yields 40% higher weaves. there than on mountain slopes or plains.

The Llallahua cochas The Pukara ceremonial center

Located in the high altitude Highlands or This 4 square kilometers archeological site, Puna, over 3.850 masl, these cochas (la- in activity around 150 AD, is located at 3.825 goons) are a system still used today by the masl and 106 km from Puno. It stands out current indigenous population for raising for its monumental architecture boasting a their cattle and intensive farming. group of pyramidal mounds built over echeloned platforms. In the Titicaca high plateau, framing systems evolve under very adverse weather conditions The most important among them is Kalasaya, that constantly jeopardize production. There, where stucco walls were painted yellow. On the unstable weather translates into prolonged eastern and upper sector of the pyramid, sits draughts, flooding, hail and frost that old popu- what is left of a small temple called Red and lations of the area fought through clever agricul- White, of semicircular shape open through a tural technologies. stairway to a square, sunken plaza. Human rests and fragments of gold, silver and copper artifacts The cocha system, for example, is made up of have been found in the funerary chambers on small rainfed artificial lagoons linked by canals each side of the square open to the outsides to manage water within and among cochas. Soil through double threshold gates. A series of small provides natural fertility. chambers of obvious ritual function can be seen Always humid, the ground breeds abundant bio- surrounding the higher side of the plaza. The mass, that the system turns into fine, nutrient- faces of the platforms were decorated with stone rich soil. sculptures, presumably those of The Beheader, sculpted, fish images, and a stone-slab decorated Cochas also contributes to fight frost, one of the with representations of lightnings. Excavations greatest challenges of high-altitude framing. have revealed a group of profusely decorated cer- Water mirrors acting as heat pumps, the cochas emonial vases and small stone sculptures placed store heat during the day and transfer it when in niches. the sun sets, thus preventing frost. Sloping sides help circulate air, specially when a draft rises The Sillustani chulpas from the water mirror, also contributing to miti- gate frost. Dating back to Inca times, Sillustani is 4 km from the Hatunqolla site, capital of the The Titicaa waru-warus Qolla kingdom. It is famous for its chulpas (tombs), built to host the bodies of the Umayo In the lower, lees steep reaches of the High peninsula aristocrats. Plateau, between 3.800 and 3.850 masl, an-

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Variously sized, the chulpas can be 12 meters high not endure the effect gives almost 300 days of sun- and either rectangular, square or circular. Many shine and warm temperatures all year (up to 35°C are built rustically, others are fine Inca stonework, in the summer). and others still are built in adobe brick. Rainy season in this region is from November to Superb construction techniques were used in March which are considerably increased due to their internal false vault and lateral rock inter- The El Niño weather phenomenon. locking. Outside they are made with polished and cushioned ashlar, showing cornices and relief THE ANDES animal decorations. The Andes has two very well-defined seasons: the Typical Inca materials combine with Qolla ele- dry season, between April and October, charac- ments. Some evidence shows that many chulpas terized by sunny days, very cold nights (often were painted in white. Similar chulpas can be freezing) and the absence of rain (ideal for trav- found in places like Viscachani, Paro-Paro and eling); and the wet season (improperly called Katati in the same region. “winter”), between November and March when rainfall is heavy (generally over 1.000 mm). A typical characteristic of this region is the marked LOCATION AND WEATHER variation in temperatures range from highs of 24°C at mid-day and lows of 3°C at day-break. The Pacific Ocean borders the Peruvian coast, The climate in the highlands is dry, pleasant and which is located in the central region of South ideal for growing a great variety of crops. America. Peru’s population is 24 million inhabit- ants while its surface area covers 1.285.215 Jungle square kilometers (comparable to all of Spain, and Italy combined). Peru ranks as one The Jungle can be divided into the high-jungle of the 20 largest countries on the planet. Owing or mountain fringe (over 700 masl) and lower to its location, its coasts have always been a vital jungle (below 700 masl). The climate in the high for seafaring vessels and for trade in the sub- jungle is subtropical and mild, with plenty of rain, continental region. Additionally, Peru claims sov- (around 3.000 mm per year) between April and ereignty over 200 nautical miles and has territo- October. Nights are always cool. The lower jungle, rial rights over 60 million hectares in the Ant- on the other hand, has two distinct seasons de- arctic. fines in direct relation directly to their distance from the . The dry season, between April Coast and October (ideal for tourism), features sunny days and high temperatures, which normally top Peru’s extensive and arid desert coast is the re- 35°C. sult of the cold Humboldt ocean current and the presence of the Andes to the East. There is al- River water levels during these months drop radi- most never any rainfall in the central and south- cally and roads are easily traveled. The rainy ern regions of the Peruvian coast, which has two season, between November and March is char- distinct seasons: winter between April and Octo- acterized by frequent downpours (at least once a ber and summer between November and March. day) and by tough road conditions. Humidity in During the winter a dense layer of cloud covers the jungle is very high throughout the year. The the sky and there are frequent light showers and southern region also sees the occurrence of friajes drizzles. Although it seems much colder because or surazos: cold fronts that arrive from the ex- of the high humidity, the temperature rarely falls treme southern tip of the continent from May below 12 °C . During the summer on the other through August. During these cold snaps, tem- rise to 30°C. The northern region of the coast does peratures tend to fall to 8-12°C.

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