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Home , Castle Island (New York), Mohicans, Munsee

istory oT t

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Photo collage 2004

iished btj the gtocbbndge-fvlunsee j~ii'stonca! (Committee /\rs/'\A IB- M'iiet" IVlemona! \_lhrarij fsduseum \\8^ 1 O fvtoh he con nuck j^oad Bowler, Wl ^TTI 6

5pnng ZOO 1 (Revised ZOOT) Ac cnowled^ements

My personal thanks go to the following:

• to members of the Stockbridge- Historical Committee for their comments and suggestions to improve the historical accuracy of this brief history of our people

• to Ruth Gudinas for her careful editing of this text • to Jeff Vele of the Mohican News, our nation's newspaper

• to Chad Miller of the Land Resource Management Office for preparing the map

Dorothy Davids, Chair Stockbridge-Munsee Historical Committee

he M uh-he-con-ne-ok

The People of the Waters that Are Never Still have a rich and illustrious history which has been retained through oral tradition and the written word. Our many moves from the East to left Many Trails to retrace in search of our history. Many Trails is an original design created and designed by Edwin Martin, a Mohican Indian, symbol• izing endurance, strength and hope. From a long suffering proud and determined people.

\¥)ecorat\ve /\rt: This is an authentic basket painting by Stockbridge/Mohican basket weavers. The basket, on display at the Arvid E. Miller Memorial Library Museum, is dated hack to the early 1800's. Design reproduced by Kristina Heath Potrykus, Mohican, Stockbridge-Munsee Band. mtr MI5TORY or THL MOHICAN NATION 5TOCK5RIDGL-MaN5LC 5AND ORIGIN AND EARLY HISTORY

I n the early 1700's, Hendrick Because the Mohican people longhouse, each family having its Aupaumut, Mohican historian, chose to build their homes near the own section. wrote that a great people traveled rivers where they would be close to from the north and west. They food, water and transportation, they The ' lives were rooted crossed waters where the land were sometimes called River Indians. in the woodlands in which they lived. almost touched.* For many, many Their homes, called wik-wams These were covered with red spruce, years they moved across the land, (wigwams), were circular and made elm, pine, oak, birch and maple leaving settlements in rich river of bent saplings covered with hides trees. Black bear, deer, moose, valleys as others moved on. or bark. They also lived in long- beaver, otter,hobcat, mink and other houses which were often very large. animals thrived in the woods, as well Reaching the eastern edge of the as wild turkeys and pheasants. The country, some of these people, sparkling rivers teemed with herring, called the Lenni , chose to shad, trout and other fish. Oyster settle on the river later renamed beds were found beneath the river's the . Others moved north overhanging banks for some distance and settled in the valley of a river up the Mahicannituck. Berries, where the waters, like those in their original homeland, were never still. They named this river the Mahicannituck and called them• sometimes as long as a hundred | ,Z selves the Muh-he-con-neok, the feet. The roofs were curved People of the Waters That Are Never and covered with bark, except KT Still. The name evolved through for smoke holes which allowed several spellings, including Mahikan. the smoke from fire pits to Today, however, they are known as escape. Several families from the Mohicans. the same clan might live in a

* According to John W. Quinney, Hendrick Aupaumut commited the oral history of the Mohicans to writing, in the mid-1700's, a non-Indian took the manuscript to be published and it was reportedly lost. When found, the manuscript's first page was missing. Two versions of the manuscript exist: one in the Historical Collection and one in Electa Jones' book STOCKBRIDGE PAST AND PRESENT. What is meant by the "north and west" and "waters where the land nearly touched" is not known. The Bering Strait theory is question• able, based on current research. cherries and nuts were abundant. It such as the planting of the first seeds tensions developed between the was a rich life. — the corn, beans and squash — Mohicans and the Mohawks, and the time of harvest. Haudenosaunee people to the west. Mohican women generally were Each group wanted to maintain its in charge of the home, children and share of the business, as gardens, while men traveled greater The Munsee, part of the Lenni well as retain friendly relations with distances to hunt, fish or serve as Lenape or Delaware people, settled their European allies. Not only did warriors. After the hunts and near the headwaters of the Delaware conflicts occur between the Mohicans harvests, meat, vegetables and River just west of the Mohicans. and the Mohawks, hut the Native berries were dried. These along Their lifestyles and languages were people also were caught in wars with smoked fish were stored in similar to those of the Mohicans. among the Dutch, English and pits dug deep in the ground and French. The Mohicans were lined with grass or bark. MOHICAN TBKRITORY eventually driven from their territory west of the Mahicannituck. In the During the cold winter months, The Mohican lands extended from early 1700's, indebtedness, question• utensils and containers were carved, what is now south able land purchases and cultural hunting, trapping and fishing gear nearly to Island and on conflicts caused them to move were repaired, baskets and pottery both sides of the Mahicannituck farther east near the Housatonic were created, and clothing was (), west to Scoharie River in what were to become fashioned and decorated with color• Creek and east into Massachusetts, Massachusetts and . fully dyed porcupine quills, shells and and Connecticut. other gifts from nature. The Mohican economic pattern The Mohicans never forgot that was greatly changed by contact Winter was also the time of teach• they were relatives of many other with the Europeans. They stopped ing. Storytellers told the children tribes who had traveled with them making many traditional items how life came to he, how the earth over the centuries. Mohican leaders because new tools, iron kettles, cloth, was created, why the leaves turn red, often sent warriors to assist their guns and colorful glass heads were and so on. Historians also related allies when they were in danger of available at the trading posts. The the story of the people: how they being attacked. But these were English, who eventually replaced learned to sing, the story of their temporary alliances and did not the Dutch in this area, chose to drums and rattles, what the stars result in a powerful confederacy "civilize" all the Native people in could teach them. Children learned such as that of the Haudenosaunee what they called "New England." the ways of the Mohicans, their or . The vast lands, which the Mohicans extended family: how to relate to had used for gardens, hunting and each person, as well as to all the gifts THL COMING or fishing, began to have boundary of the Creator, and how to live with THCLUROrCANC lines and fences when shared with respect and peace in their community. non-Indians. Since their lands were They also learned that they had In September 1609, Henry Hudson, declared to belong to European responsibilities, so they began to a trader for the Dutch, sailed up the monarchs by "right of discovery," learn skills. Mahicannituck into the lands of the they found that they could not Mohicans. He found himself in an defend their ownership in the In early spring, the people set up area rich in beaver and otter, the courts of the colonists. As more camp in the Sugar Bush. Tapping kinds of furs the Dutch most coveted. and more Europeans arrived, the the trees, gathering the sap and By 1614 a Dutch trading post was Mohicans, like other Native people boiling it to make maple syrup and established on an island later named who had traditionally depended sugar was a ceremony welcoming . upon themselves and the resources spring. There were many ceremonies of Mother Earth, found themselves dependent on white people and during the year whenever something As the fur trade expanded and what they could provide. needed special "paying attention to," furs became more difficult to find. 2 The coming of the Europeans pean inhabitants gave this place the into the lands of the Mohicans affec• name "Stockbridge," after a village ted them in another catastrophic in England. It was located on the way. Europeans brought diseases near a great — with them: smallpox, measles, diph• meadow hounded by the beautiful theria, scarlet fever. Native people, Berkshire Mountains in western unfamiliar with these diseases, had Massachusetts. In this mission village, not built up an immunity to them, a church and school were built. The The Mohicans, and other Native people became and hundreds of thousands — Mohicans, as well as other Native known as Stockbridge Indians while in this Massachusetts village. sometimes whole villages at a time people who relocated there, became — perished. These diseases greatly known as the "Stockbridge Indians." were replaced by European customs. decreased the numbers of Mohicans. Eewer and fewer of the people spoke Between 1700 and 1800, European the Mohican language; thus their European Christians with mission• countries battled for control of the thought patterns about the natural ary zeal also entered Native villages land called America. The French world were altered. The ancient arts for the purpose of converting the and Indian Wars were really conflicts of basket- and pottery-making people from their traditional spiritual between England and France over continued, but other seasonal practices to . Some territories they had taken from the occupations were abandoned. In Native people, noting that the Native people who were recruited to order to survive, the Stockbridge Europeans seemed to be prospering help them fight. The Revolutionary Mohican adopted the trades and in this new land, felt that perhaps the War and the War of 1812 were behaviors of their non-Indian Europeans' Cod was more powerful, fought between the American neighbors: farming, lumbering, and agreed to be missionized. In 1734, colonists and England. The worshipping in church, sending a missionary named John Sergeant "Americanized" colonies no longer their children to schools. But as the came to live with the Mohicans in wanted to be governed by the eighteenth century neared its last their village of Wnahktukuk. He Mother country. The Stockbridge twenty years, their lives were to earnestly preached the Christian Mohicans, as well as the Oneida, change even more drastically. religion, baptized those who accepted Tuscarora and other Native warriors, his teaching, and gave them Christian supported the colonists in their KBMOVAL5 names such as John, Rebekah, revolution. In one battle, the Battle WB5TWARD Timothy, Mary and Abraham. of Van Cortlandt's Woods, a number of Stockbridge Mohi• It became apparent after the cans lost their lives. Revolutionary War, with their When the surviving numbers greatly reduced and warriors returned home, intruders (called "settlers") using they discovered that unscrupulous means to gain title plans had already been to the land, that the Stockbridge made to remove them Mohican people were not welcome from Stockbridge. in their own Christian village any longer. The Oneida, who had also The lives of the fought for the colonists in the war, Mohican people were offered them a portion of their rich drastically changed by farmland and forest. The the fur trade, European Stockbridge Mohican accepted the In 1738, the Mohicans gave John Sergeant permission to start , disease and invitation and moved to New a mission in the village. war. AU of these worked Stockbridge, near Oneida Lake, in In 1738, the Mohicans gave John together to cause a breakdown in the mid-I780's. Again they cleared Sergeant permission to start a mission their traditional Mohican life and forests and built farms. A school, in the village. Eventually, the Euro• beliefs. Their spiritual ceremonies church, and sawmill were built. The 3 tribe flourished under the leadership this journey. Some reached Kansas of Joseph Quinney and his counselors. and Oklahoma and married into other tribes. Most simply gave up But land companies, desirous of and returned to Wisconsin, which making profits from the land, pro• had gained statehood in 1848. posed that State remove all Indians from within its borders. During this period a group of The pressure for removal was great. Munsee joined the people at John Sergeant recorded in his journal Stockbridge, Wisconsin, and were of August 1818, "About one-third accepted into the community. of my church and one-fourth of the Known at first as the Stockbridge tribe (70 souls) started from this and Munsee, eventually this place for White River." Their leader, community was simply called the John Metoxen, led the group to the Electa Quinney "Stockbridge-Munsee." White River area in what is now Indian woman. The first Protestant Indiana to settle among their rela• minister, as well as the first Christian The federal removal policy caused tives, the Miami and the Delaware. Temperance Union, came with the dissension among the people who When they reached their destination, Stockbridge Mohican people. Again remained in Wisconsin, which led after about a year, they found that they established a church and a school. to political divisions in the tribe. the Delaware had already been Presented with the opportunity by coerced into selling the land. But adopting the white man's government agents, some religion and education did not Stockbridge people relinquished Meanwhile, missionaries, agents assure acceptance. As long as Native their Indian status and became tax- from the state of New York and people held land, they were subject paying citizens of the , commissioners from the War to removal. As soon as the Eox River while others chose to retain their Department were negotiating with was perceived to be a major water• trihal membership and form of the Menominee and Ho- Chunk way, forces prevailed upon the government. New lands were (Winnebago) for a large tract of land Menominee to reconsider their explored, new moves considered. on which to relocate the New York negotiations. After final negotiations, As a result of the Treaty of 1856, Indians in what is now Wisconsin. the Oneida settled in the Duck the Stockbridge and Munsee moved A treaty was negotiated in 1822. Creek area. The Stockbridge and to the townships of Red Springs and The Stockbridge Mohicans were on Brotherton were moved to areas on Bartelme in Shawano County. But the move again. The group that the east shore of Lake Winnebago the conflict between the Citizen had traveled to Indiana with John in 1834. Party and Indian Party was to have Metoxen were the first to arrive, repercussions for many years to come. and they began to build a village on Meanwhile the federal government the Fox River at Grand Cackalin was forcing Indian nations to agree RL5LRVATION (Kaukauna), also called Statesburg. to land session treaties, often For the next several years, those physically moving them to lands far By the late I800's, almost every who had remained in New York distant and different from their Native nation in the United States followed, traveling by foot, wagon original homelands. In 1832, had been assigned to reservations. or sometimes steamship on the Congress had enacted President The reservation land of the Great Lakes. Andrew Jackson's Indian Removal Stockbridge-Munsee was mostly Act by which all Indians from the covered with pine forest. Earming Perhaps the first English-speaking east would be moved to lands west was attempted but the land was people in the state were in the John of the Mississippi River. A group of sandy and swampy and so forestry Metoxen group. Electa Quinney, Stockbridge Mohicans, fearing the became the base of the economy. the first public school teacher in inevitable, moved to Indian territory However, services promised in Wisconsin, was a Stockbridge in 1839. Many died while making treaties were inadequate and of h~he~con~ne-o People of the waters that are never still Tradition tells of an earlier migration from the west. • Met Henry Hudson at Schodack near Albany • Red Springs, Wisconsin • Trading Post near Albany • Land patented • Mission village at Stockbridge, Massacbusettes • Muh-he-con-nuck, Wisconsin, site of present reservation • Stockbridge, New York • 13,077 acres of FSA land put in trust status for tribe • White River, Indiana • New Stockbridge-Munsee Library opened • Kaukauna, Wisconsin • Tribe opens newly constructed bingo hall • Stockbridge, Wisconsin, near Lake Winnebago • Stockbridge Bible returned to community • Migration of some to Indian Territory, Kansas • Tribe opens North Star Casino and Bingo facility • Tribe opens new Stockbridge-Munsee Health and Wellness Center

I I Original Mohican S J Territory

Various moves from late 1700's to 1936

• • • Scouting groups looking for land West of the Mississippi poor quality. Poverty prevailed for people had heen reduced and by most people. Treasured wampum the prohibitions that had been belts and other cultural artifacts, placed on them. Such a person craft materials and even traditional was John Collier, an advocate for clothing were sold to collectors for American Indian people. After he a pittance. was appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs by Franklin Roosevelt, In 1887 the General Allotment he prevailed upon Congress to pass Act was passed by Congress. This the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA). law divided up reservation lands This law made it possible for Indian and allotted portions to individual communities to get funds from the people. This was not new to the federal government to reorganize Tribal presidents Harry Chicks (above) Stockhridge Mohicans, whose lands their tribal governments and retrieve and Arvid E. Miller (below) cared for their had heen allotted in Massachusetts, some of the lands which they had community and strived to make New York, Kaukauna, and "down lost. The IRA, along with the improvements for their people and land. below" in Stockbridge. The policy tenacity of dedicated tribal leaders proved to be a very successful way during the hard years of the late of removing land from tribes by nineteenth and early twentieth making it possible to deal with centuries — leaders such as Carl individuals who had little experience Miller and others — made possible with private ownership. Some people the continuation of the Stockbridge- who needed money sold their Munsee people as a nation. allotments to business dealers who wanted the forest for lumbering. It is ironic that the Stockbridge- Some dealers connived to get the Munsee regained about 15,000 acres land, and some elements were huilt in the township of Bartelme. This into the Act of 1887 allowing lumber western portion of the reservation barons to secure unallotted lands. lands had been clear cut, making it This happened on the Stockbridge submarginal or useless and therefore Reservation. The lumbering eligible for repurchase for American president. The second president, companies cut down the trees and Indian use. Of the total 15,000 Arvid E. Miller, was a leader of his moved out, leaving land with little acres, however, only about 2,500 people for twenty-six years. He was economic value. were placed in trust for the tribe, one of the founders of both the now officially called the National Congress of American Some families sold lakeshore "Stockbridge-Munsee Band of Indians and the Great Lakes Inter- property in order to make their Mohican Indians." Shortly after Tribal Council. In 1972, the mortgage payments on land they the mid-1930's, families began remaining 13,000 acres of land had purchased or to which they moving into the rough buildings were placed in trust, and tribal held title. Other Indian individuals that were once the headquarters of members received compensation lost their allotments because they the Brooks and Ross Lumber (about eighty cents an acre) for were unable to meet tax or loan Company. By the end of 1937, the lands that had been taken in payments. Thus the tribe began to tribe had a new constitution based eastern Wisconsin. see its reservation land disappear. on a Bureau of Indian Affairs model, Hard times continued and grew and the Stockbridge-Munsee had a 5TOCKBKDGL-MJN5En even worse during the Great land base on which to rebuild homes TODAY Depression in the 1930's. for the people. Today, on Shawano County Road Some Americans were disturbed A new tribal council was elected A in northeastern Wisconsin, a by the conditions to which Native with Harry A. Chicks as its new sign announces the reservation 6 of the MOHICAN NATION. animals. People have reported Numerous structures are needed Circling the Many Trails symbol seeing a white deer and also a cougar. to house the tribal government, the are the words "Stockbridge-Munsee tribal court, legal department, Band of Mohican Indians." The Some early homes still provide MOHICAN NEWS in the comm• term "Mohican Nation" acknow• shelter, including a few stone unications department, tribal ledges the tribe's sovereignty and houses that are now on the National administration and roads depart• its government-to- Historic Registry. However, mobile ment. The Mohican Family Center government relationship features a full-size gym, with federal, state, exercise room, aerobics county and township room, and youth center. governments. The words In addition, a new "Stockhridge-Munsee comprehensive health Band of Mohican Indians" and wellness center, acknowledge the including medical, dental people's history. and behavioral health facilities, has recently The Stockbridge-Munsee opened. Community is still located on this reservation in The Pine Hills golf Wisconsin, although course has expanded to enrolled tribal members eighteen holes, and the live in other parts of new clubhouse provides Wisconsin, the United fine dining on weekends. States and the world. The The original clubhouse reservation boundaries has also been expanded encompass the two town• and serves as a meeting ships of Red Springs hall and banquet facility. and Bartelme. The sandfilter/waste- water treatment facility Some of the tribe's will provide drinkable families live on trust land water to parts of the which is assigned to tribal reservation, and several members for their use. roads are newly paved. Others live on privately- owned lands within the The pow-wow grounds reservation boundaries, as have been groomed for do some non-Indians. the annual gathering Approximately half of which is held the second the tribal population of The Stockbridge-Munsee coininiinity has grown in many ways over the weekend of August. past 60 years. about 1,500 live on or near Sweatlodges are used the reservation. homes, apartments and more and frequently, at many sites on the more permanent homes continue reservation. Over the past sixty-some years, to add to the housing opportunities the Stockbridge-Munsee have not on the reservation. New apartments The Mohican North Star Casino only survived but the community for the elderly, called the Moshuebee and Bingo enterprise can he has grown in many ways. First of Apartments, are attached to the credited with much of the Mohican all, the forests have returned, and Elderly Center where meals and Nation's economic progress. The with the forests so have deer, bear, other activities are provided. casino is the largest employer in waterfowl, wild turkeys and other Shawano County. Over half of the r

Many Trails Park & Campground Powwow Grounds The Stockbridge-Munsee Community Administration Building Ella Besaw Center

Band of Mohican Indians Headquarters Store N Tribal Offices Arvid E. Miller Memorial Library-Museum (Wea-tuk Village)

Stockbridge-Munsee Family Center

Maquaw Den Daycare & Electa Quinney Headstart Mohican Housing Authority

Public Safety Building

Education Office

Roads Department

Arrowhead Log Homes

Stockbridge-Munsee Health and Wellness Center

Mohican Veteran's Memorial

Ahtowuk Apartments

Konkapot Lodge

Mohican North Star Casino and Bingo

Mohican RV Park

Little Star Convenience Store

Lutheran Indian Mission Church and School

Many Trails Banquet Hail Pine Hills Golf and Supper Club

Map of points of interest and business on reservation. almost 600 employees are non- encourage students to progress in climbed Monument Mountain. Mohicans. The casino also and advance their education. Research has been done in the contributes to the economy of the Stockbridge Historical Room, the county. Numerous buses arrive Back in the early 1970's, Bernice New York State Historical Library at the casino daily; deliveries of Mfiler requested space from the in Albany, the Huntington Library casino and bingo supplies, foods Tribal Council for the purpose of in and in numerous and beverages, fuel, paper products, preserving the papers and artifacts of other libraries and museums. cleaning supplies and other her late husband, Arvid E. MiUer. The research library includes: hooks, necessities attest to the economic An active historical committee, con• hand-written letters, notes, maps, contributions of the casino in the sisting of elders and anyone else photos, geneology records and more. area. The recently opened Little interested in trihal history, committed The museum collection includes: Star Gas Station and Convenience themselves to gathering everything baskets made of splints and birch bark, Store provides employment that is knownahout the Stockbridge- arrowheads, stone axes, war cluhs and and service. Munsee/Mohican people. A "ditto- other original arifacts. machine" newspaper was started and Through Repatriation artifacts The children from the reservation sharedcommunity news for about recently returned to the Library/ attend school in the Bowler and ten years. Museum include a wampum belt and Gresham Public Schools. Many of ceremonial pipes. the high school graduates go on Gathering history required travel As a result, the Arvid E. Miller to college, technical school or a to homelands in the east. Since Memorial Library Museum is an university. Tribal members hold 1969 at least twenty research trips excellent resource for students and degrees in law, medicine, education, have been made. Traveling in scholars involved in research. The engineering, architecture, science, caravans of autos or by bus, youth Library/Museum welcomes visitors fine arts and other disciplines. The and elders have visited the Mission from near and far daily. It can also be Stockhridge-Munsee Education House and burial grounds in visited on the tribe's website Board oversees programs meant to Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Many www.mohican.com. anc Brasser, Ted J. Jones, EJecta. RIDING THE FRONTIER'S CREST: STOCKBRIDGE, PAST AND PRESENT, OR, MAHIKAN INDIAN CULTURE AND CULTURE CHANCE. RECORDS OF AN OLD MISSION STATION. Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, 1974. Springfield: Samuel Bowles & Co., 1854.

Brasser, Ted J. "Mahikan" in Mandell, Daniel R. VOLUME 15, NORTHEAST of the HANDBOOK OF CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN A NATIVE AMERICAN NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. COMMUNITY: EIGHTEENTH CENTURY STOCKBRIDGE. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. Unpublished MA thesis, 1982.

Colee, Philip S. Miles, Lion G. THE HOUSATONIC-STOCKBRIDCE INDIANS: 1734-1749. INDIAN LAND OWNERSHIP IN COLONIAL Unpublished PhD dissertation, 1977. STOCKBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS: 1739-1818. Unpublished paper. May 25,1989. Davidson, John N. MUH-HE-KA-NE-OK, A HISTORY OF MOHICAN NEWS. THE STOCKBRIDGE NATION. Published bimonthly by the Mohican Nation, Milwaukee: Silas Chapman, 1893. Stockbridge-Munsee Band,

Dunn, Shirley W. N8476 Moh-he-con-nuck Road, Bowler, WI 54416. THE MOHICANS AND THEIR LAND: 1609-1730. Fleishmanns, NY: Purple Mountain Press, 1994. Ruttenber, E. M. HISTORY OF THE INDIAN TRIBES OF HUDSON'S RIVER, Dunn, Shirley W. No. 95 in the HISTORICAL THE MOHICAN WORLD: 1680-1750. PUBLICATION SERIES. Eleishmanns, NY: Purple Mountain Press, 2000. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1971. Savagian, John C. Erazier, Patrick. A CAPTIVE COMMONWEALTH: THE MOHICANS OF STOCKBRIDGE. THE TRIBAL REORGANIZATION OF THE Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992 STOCKBRIDGE-MUNSEE NATION UNDER THE (now also in paperback). PATRONAGE OF UNITED STATES INDIAN POLICY: 1934-1942. Unpublished MA thesis. Guthrie, Margaret. University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, 1984. "The Return of a Pious Gift"- Savagian, John C. THE MILWAUKEE JOURNAL, June 2,1991, pp. 27-31. THE TRIBAL REORGANIZATION OF THE STOCKBRIDGE-MUNSEE: ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS IN Heckewelder, John. THE RE-CREATION OF A NATIVE AMERICAN COMMUNITY: HISTORY, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE 1930-1942 in the WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY, INDIAN NATIONS WHO ONCE INHABITED Vol. 77, No. I (Autumn, 1993). AND THE NEIGHBORING STATES. Arno Press and New York Times, 1876, I97I. Wallace, Paul A.W., ed. Hopkins, Samuel. THE TRAVELS OF JOHN HECKEWELDER IN HISTORICAL MEMOIRS RELATING TO THE FRONTIER AMERICA. HOUSATONIC INDIANS, Volume 5 of THE MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WITH NOTES Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press, 1958,1985. AND QUERIES. New York: William Abbott, 1911. Westmeier, Karl-Wilhelm. THE EVACUATION OF SHEKOMEKO AND THE EARLY MORAVIAN MISSIONS TO NATIVE NORTH AMERICANS. Lewiston: Edwin Mellon Press, 1994.

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