Pungwe River Basin

Home , Buzi River (Mozambique), Honde River, Honde Valley, Nyanga National Park, Pungwe River, Zambezi

Government of the Republic of Mozambique Government of the Republic of Zimbabwe

A monograph of the PUNGWE RIVER BASIN

- LIGHT EDITION

A part of the project: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PUNGWE RIVER BASIN JOINT INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT STRATEGY Preamble

Water is fundamental for human survival, health and dignity and the prerequisite for human development. However, in many places of the world the freshwater resources are under increasing pressure because of over utilisation and pollution from human activities. The Pungwe River is no exception. Although the current situation is generally good, projections of future water requirements show an increasing competition between different water users. In addition the current problem of informal small-scale mining that periodically creates high suspended sediment in the river has shown that the Pungwe River and its downstream users are vulnerable for manmade activities in the upper reaches.

Management of the water resources are therefore essential to overcome current and future problems of supplying water of adequate quantity and quality to all users in the Pungwe River basin. This management must take into account the interests of all parties and sectors, including ecological factors, to enable a sustainable and equitable use of the water at the basin or catchment scale. This is known today as Integrated Water Resources Management, or in short IWRM. IWRM is a participatory planning process, based on sound science, which brings together stakeholders to determine how to meet society’s long-term needs for water resources while maintaining essential ecological and economic values. It is an interdisciplinary and collected process that promotes a cross-sectoral coordination in water management.

The Pungwe River is shared by the countries Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The Governments of Zimbabwe and Mozambique have recognised the need for sustainable water management of the river and have therefore jointly emerged on the project: Pungwe River Basin Joint Integrated Water Resources Management Strategy (the Pungwe Project in short). The Pungwe Project is a co-operative effort by the two Governments to create a framework for the sustainable and equitable management, development and conservation of the water resources of the Pungwe River basin, with the objective of increasing the derived social and economic benefits for the people living in the basin. A key element in the development of this strategy by the Project lies in building capacity for its implementation and upgrading, to facilitate effective participatory management by both the authorities and stakeholders.

The Pungwe Project is financed by the Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency (Sida), through an agreement with Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It is implemented under the auspices of the Department of Water Resources (DWR), in the Ministry of Rural Resources, Water Development and Irrigation (MRRWD&I), Zimbabwe, and the National Directorate of Water (DNA), in the Ministry of Public Works and Housing, Mozambique, on behalf of the two governments. The implementing agencies are the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) through the Save Catchment Manager’s Office, and the Regional Water Administration of Central Mozambique (ARA-Centro), respectively. The Pungwe project commenced in February 2002 and is anticipated to be finalised in April 2006. A consortium of Consultants, led by SWECO International of Sweden, assists the implementing agencies during the project.

One of the basic fundaments of IWRM is the knowledge of the current situation in the river basin. How much water resources are naturally available? What are the socio-economic conditions? How large are the potential for agricultural development in relation to soil suitability and water availability? What are the key environmental assets and how are these affected by future development? The answers to these and many other similar questions are fundamental for a successful implementation of water management. One of the key tasks of the Pungwe Project has therefore been to produce a “monograph”, describing in detail the Pungwe River basin in relation to water management. The final result of this task is an extensive report series with a main report and twelve annexes, to be used as a tool for the professionals working with water management in the Pungwe River basin.

To enable a wider knowledge among the stakeholders of the Pungwe River basin the two Governments have suggested creating a short version of the monograph. Through this shorter version the water authorities of the two countries aim to increase the awareness and understanding about the factors affecting the water resources of the Pungwe River basin and by this promote the process of water management among the stakeholders. We hope that this River Basin Monograph will give the reader an enjoyable and informative experience.

November 2006

Julião Alferes Vavarirai Choga Director Director National Directorate of Water, Mozambique Department of Water Resources, Zimbabwe

Manuel Fobra Thomas Murinye Director, ARA-Centro, Mozambique Catchment Manager, ZINWA Save, Zimbabwe

Rikard Lidén Project Director, SWECO International, Sweden A MONOGRAPH OF THE PUNGWE RIVER BASIN

Table of Contents

The Biophysical Environment 2

Socio-economic Conditions of the Pungwe River Basin 10

Water Resources of the Pungwe River Basin 14

Water Quality in the Pungwe River Basin 18

Water Use in the Pungwe River Basin 20

Water Resources Management in the Pungwe River Basin 22

Future Water Resources Development 24

Beira Harbour in the Pungwe Estuary THE BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Physiography and Drainage

The Pungwe Basin in Zimbabwe and Mozambique covers a total area of 31,151 km2, of which 1,461 km2 (4.7%) lies in Zimbabwe, and 29,690 km2 (95.3%) is in Mozambique. The main Pungwe River has a total length of approximately 400 km. The map on the opposite page shows the basin area.

The Pungwe River originates in the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, and flows in a general easterly direction through Mozambique into the Indian Ocean.

The Pungwe River rises from the western slopes of the Inyangani Mountains from an altitude of 2,500 m above mean sea level (amsl).

It flows southwards for about 20 km, where it abruptly changes course at Pungwe Falls, a location renowned for its scenic beauty, and meanders in a general easterly direction through an area known as the Honde Valley. The river then crosses the Mozambican border near Katiyo Tea Estate, approximately 60 km from its headwaters, at an altitude of about 579 m amsl.

The principal tributaries of the Pungwe River in Zim- babwe are the Honde on the right bank and the Nya- zengu, Chiteme, Nyamhingura, Nyawamba, Nyamu- kombe, and Rwera rivers on the left bank.

In Zimbabwe, the drainage area is a combination of national park area, exotic forest plantations in the upstream reaches, and mixed agriculture in the middle and lower valleys. The Nyamukwarara River, a tributary of the Honde, drains some alluvial gold mining and panning areas in both Zimbabwe and Mozambique, where it collects a large quantity of sediment that remains visible along the river beyond Tete Bridge in Mozambique.

2 3 THE BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

After crossing Zimbabwe, the Pungwe River flows in at an elevation of 1,863 m amsl. The Mucambezi the lake, the terrain is very flat, with the flood plain a south-easterly direction into Mozambique. It flows system rises south of the shallow divide separating ecosystem very sensitive to changes in the flow through mixed farmlands, traversing along the south- the Pungwe and Zambezi sub-systems. Both tributa- regime. ern border of the Gorongosa National Park (GNP), ries flow southwards into the seasonal Urema Lake, where it enters the floodplain, and thence into the which exits into Urema River and thence into the main The waters of the lake and downstream Urema River Pungwe Estuary (intertidal zone). It then flows into Pungwe stem. are generally referred to as ‘white waters’ due to their the Indian Ocean at Beira Port. distinctive yellow-ochre colour and opaqueness that The physiography and drainage pattern of the basin perpetuates downstream below the confluence with The main tributaries of the Pungwe in Mozambique is illustrated in the 3-dimensional map below. On the the main Pungwe River. are the Nhazonia, the Txatora, the Vunduzi and the opposite page a figure shows the principal tributaries Urema rivers rising from the north to join the main river of the Pungwe River in Mozambique in relation to the The lower basin is just a few metres above sea level on its left bank, and the Honde, the Metuchira and the GNP and the Gorongosa Mountain. and is often subjected to flooding during the rainy Muda from the south. The Urema system is fed from season. During low river flows sea water flows back the Vanduzi River (locally known as Vunduzi) in the Urema Lake varies considerably in size from a into the river, reaching up to about 80 to 100 km from north-west and the Mucambezi River in the north-east. minimum of about 10 km2 during the dry season to the mouth. The former originates from the Gorongosa Mountain 120 km2 during periods of high river flow. Around Climate and General Hydrology

The major influences on climate in the Pungwe River Basin are the altitude and orography (relief), in combination with proximity to the ocean. It ranges from tropical continental in the west to tropical humid in the coastal areas in the east. From the Mozambican channel the general relief is characterised by low- lying land, which rises rapidly as it approaches the eastern slopes of the Inyangani range. Orographic influences are more pronounced in the western part of the basin, where altitudes increase from 600 m to over 2,500 m amsl, over a relatively short distance. This orographic pattern forces oceanic air, when it prevails, to rise up the eastern slopes, cooling in the process, and if sufficiently moist, resulting in cloud formation and often precipitation. The cloud formation also lowers surface temperature by blocking the sun’s rays.

Across the basin, average minimum temperatures range from 22oC in the coastal areas to 9.9oC in the higher areas of Inyangani Mountain range, The physiography and drainage pattern of the Pungwe River Basin with maxima ranging from 29oC to 19.8oC as alti-

4 tude increases. In the higher altitudes all year round Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and the South East Trades. temperatures are among the lowest in Zimbabwe. These low temperatures have a moderating effect The influence of the ITCZ normally extends from around on evapotranspiration in the region, compared to November to March. The ITCZ is a complex zone where other parts of the country. the following three distinct air currents converge:

The effect of orograghy on rainfall is more pronoun- 1. The South East trades from the Indian Ocean ced in the upper reaches of the basin where there covering Mozambique and Zimbabwe is a rapid increase in altitude, as shown in the 3D model below to the right. Orographic effects on rain- 2. The South West Trades of the Atlantic fall are also clearly illustrated by the drastic change Ocean approaching Zimbabwe from the in specific runoff between gauging stations located North West and commonly referred to as on different altitudes. Zaire Air

A similar effect is also experienced in the Gorongosa 3. The North East monsoon flowing out of the Mountain, in Mozambique, which receives significantly Asiatic High in the region of the Arabic sea more rainfall compared to the surrounding areas. The South East trades are responsible for winter rainfall In general, the main rainfall influences in the Pungwe falling between April and September in the higher areas catchment area are the movements of the Inter-tropical Eastern Highlands in Zimbabwe of the basin. In the Nyanga region, winter rainfall consti- tutes approximately 12% of annual rainfall in the area. The principal tributaries of the Pungwe River in relation to the GNP and the Gorongosa Mountain

Zimbabwe 1220

1600 2730 2100

Mozambique 1330 2010 2290

1490

Rainfall in the upper Pungwe [mm/year]

5 THE BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Geology and Soils soils below the plateau range from clayey-sandy flu- vial dark soils to shallow soils with little agricultural In the western parts, the geology of the Pungwe River potential. Basin is dominated by extensive deeply incised gra- nites with occasional dyke intrusives. This geologi- Flora cal characteristic has given rise to the formation of high mountain peaks (Inyangani Mt), deep gorges The figure on the opposite page shows the distribution of (Pungwe Gorge) and valleys, as well as rapids and 16 broad vegetation types of the Pungwe River Basin. falls (Pungwe Falls) in the vicinity of the dykes. Occa- sional gneissic rock is observed in the geology of The dominant type of vegetation, that occupies the Honde River drainage area. In the central part approximately 50% of the basin, is the miombo of the Basin, in Mozambique, geology is dominated woodland. A total of five different species of miombo by the basement complex consisting of mountains woodland occur in the basin, depending on altitude (Gorongosa Mt), upland and middle plateau. Towards and rainfall. the east geology gives way to mainly sandstones in the Sena Plains and Cheringoma Plateau that are Two important vegetation relics of moist evergreen forests divided by a continuation of the East African Rift Val- occur on the Gorongosa Mountain, and on the slopes ley system. and gullies of the Inyangani Mountain range, along the border between Mozambique and Zimbabwe. These uni- The western part of the basin consists of red soils que ecosystems have been created by micro-climates of considerable depth in some areas, which become that occur in the high altitude, high rainfall areas. Around the Urema Lake and the flood plains, vast shallower in the mountain areas. Towards the east, areas are flooded during the wet season giving rise to floating pastures and conspicuous flowering water In the Zimbabwean part of the Pungwe River Basin the lilies. This lush and verdant growth gives way to a massive granite weathers to bare domes contrasting layer of brown shriveled grass in the dry season.

Towards the coast, in the flood plain, mangrove communities occur on inter-riverine islands and mudflats of the Pungwe-Buzi Estuary.

In the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, approximately 53 km2 is covered with alien Black Wattle and Mexican Pine, including smaller areas of Australian Blackwood. These commercially grown species are a threat to the natural ecosystem in the upland areas through invasion by wind-borne seeds and subse- quent suppression of the indigenous species.

Gorongosa Mountain

6 Specially protected species likely to be encountered • Orchids, within miombo woodlands and forests, in the Pungwe River Basin include: especially along rivers, vleis, bogs and montane grasslands • Fire lily, on the edge of the escarpment from Mount Inyangani, south of Mtarazi Falls • Cycads, in the Nyanga and Gorongosa national parks • Flame lily, at the forest margin among bracken and woodland on the highveld

• Tree ferns, in and around the Pungwe Gorge

7 THE BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Fauna • The seasonally inundated Gorongosa Tandos that links Zambezi Valley in the north with the In the Pungwe River Basin, significant occurrence Pungwe system in the south through the of large mammals is mainly confined to the protec- Urema Trough (Rift Valley) ted areas of Gorongosa and Nyanga national parks. In the GNP, Tinley has described the “spectacularly • The seasonally inundated grasslands of the rich wildlife of the Rift Valley” as being ”a conse- lower Pungwe/Buzi flood plains comprising quence of the mosaic evolution of forest thicket and approximately 4,500 km2 of wetland savannah, abutted against a floodplain grassland ecosystem of high primary productivity on base • The estuarine mangroves saturated soils”. This wildlife, comprising most of the major large tropical mammals was almost decima- • The rain forest at the Pungwe Falls (pictured to ted during the civil war of Mozambique. Efforts are the right) underway to restore this regionally important wildlife sanctuary to its previous glory. These may, howe- The above provide crucial habitats for a variety of ver, be under a new threat from current proliferating fauna, some of which are endemic and/or threatened. human settlements. Protected conservation areas include the 5,370 km2 Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique, created in 1960, and the 330 km2 Nyanga National Park in the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe.

The Beira killifish

There are some rare and vulnerable fish species in the Pungwe River, particularly in the upper reaches of the river. These cold water species dominate the upper sections of the river, where the water is of low conductivity. Warm water and marine species become more common in the lower reaches, e.g. the endemic Beira killifish, pictured above.

Vegetation types of conservation concerns

Vegetation types of conservation concern that are directly reliant on water are:

8 The Pungwe Falls in the Nyanga National Park

9 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE PUNGWE RIVER BASIN

Settlements Population nistrative centres, as well as along main roads. The population distribution in the basin, divided into sub- The Pungwe River is a shared watercourse between As at year 2003, the Pungwe River Basin had an esti- basins, is shown in the figure below. Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Consequently, the man- mated total population of 1,199,567 persons, of which ner in which water resources are utilised, and landuse is 8% resided in Zimbabwe. It is estimated that by year Economic Activities managed in the upstream riparian state (Zimbabwe) have 2023, the total population in the basin will have reached an impact on the downstream state (Mozambique). some two million persons. Economic activities among basin communities are largely agro-based. They include crop and livestock Administratively, the basin covers Mutasa Rural The overall population density in the basin is higher production, forestry, fisheries, gold mining and eco- District, Nyanga National Park, and a small part of in Zimbabwe compared to Mozambique. However, tourism. Agriculture is a mixture of subsistence dry Nyanga Rural District in Zimbabwe. In Mozambique, in the latter part of the basin, populations become land and irrigated crop farming. it straddles parts of Sofala and Manica provinces. denser in hinterland areas around towns and admi-

In general, settlements in the Pungwe River Basin consist of rural village communities, a few scattered small urban centres, growth points and commercial farms and estates. These are concentrated along the river valleys, in the flood plains, along main roads, and around administrative centres. The City of Beira in Mozambique is the main urban and industrial centre in the basin. The largest administrative and commercial centre in the basin in Zimbabwe is Hauna Growth Point. Other towns of importance in the basin in Mozambique are Chimoio on the catchment boun- dary, Gondola, Nhamatanda and Gorongosa.

Settlements in Honde Valley

10 Shrimps caught in the Pungwe Estuary rests comprising the Gorongosa National Park (GNP), a large sugar cane irrigation estate, Beira/Dondo City water supply, and prawn farming and fishing around the estuary. In the floodplain, below the Bue Maria dam site, there is a huge potential for agricultural development due to the occurrence of fertile soils and the possibility of a major dam on the Pungwe River. In addition, the ongoing rehabilitation of eco-tourism in GNP and adjoi- ning areas has the potential to create favourable conditions for economic development in the basin.

Tobacco plantations

Small-scale farming The major problems concerning health management in Mozambique are related to:

• poor coverage and, consequently, limited access to quality services

The upper part of the basin that lies in Zimbabwe sup- • access to clean water and adequate sanitation ports intensive agriculture in the densely populated Mutasa Communal Lands and large-scale commercial • lack of education on disease prevention coffee, tea and forest plantations. The southern portion of the Nyanga National Park, an important tourist loca- • low literacy levels tion, is drained by the headwaters of the Pungwe River. The City of Mutare abstracts raw water from the river • underdeveloped poverty alleviation strategies just upstream of the scenic Pungwe Falls. Sanitation facilities in the basin are still generally basic, The middle section of the Pungwe River Basin in and largely based on pit latrine or the use of the open Mozambique has hitherto been largely underdeveloped bush. Coverage is variable, with more facilities in Zim- and sparsely populated, with a potential for irrigation babwe compared to Mozambique. agriculture, tourism and wildlife development. In recent years there has been a steady increase in investments The HIV/AIDS pandemic is exerting considerable pres- in large-scale commercial farming of important crops Health and Sanitation sure on an already stressed health delivery system in such as maize, tobacco and horticulture products, par- the basin. It is estimated that about 20% of the popu- ticularly in the Manica Province. The status of health facilities in the basin is gene- lation in the basin are HIV positive, and that by 2010, rally poor, particularly in Mozambique. In Zimbabwe, the projected life expectancy will be reduced to 36.5 In the lower part of the basin, the floodplain, there which is endowed with better infrastructure, services years of age. are major natural resource, economic and social inte- are deteriorating due to diminishing resources.

11 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE PUNGWE RIVER BASIN

Education Infrastructure

The education status in the basin is variable. Whereas in Water Supply, Dams Mozambique most pupils that complete Level 1 primary school do not proceed to higher grades, in Zimbabwe, The Pungwe River Basin in Zimbabwe has only one the majority of pupils in the education system proceed large dam on the Nyawamba River, with a capacity of to secondary school. Remote areas in Mozambique are 17 million m3, and a small 40,000 m3 impoundment particularly poorly served, with the few existing secon- on the Nyamasupa River. Nyawamba Dam is owned dary schools located in the district capitals. and operated by the Eastern Highlands Tea Estate.

In Mozambique, the critical shortage of qualified There are no large dams in the Pungwe River Basin teaching staff compounds the problem. The educa- in Mozambique with the exception of 19 small dams tion network is, however, steadily developing. The used for crop irrigation. Ministry of Education is implementing short training courses to upgrade teachers in co-operation with Major Water Supply Schemes partners such as UNICEF and GTZ. Major water supply schemes located on the Pungwe River Gender and Poverty include the Pungwe Mutare Water Supply Project, and the Mafambise Sugar Estate/Beira Water Supply System. Poverty in the basin continues to be a major setback to sustainable development, despite abundant water and Other Water Supply Schemes other natural resources. This is exacerbated by entren- ched inequalities in the distribution and control of natu- Other water supply schemes comprise small piped ral resources such as land and water in favour of men. water supply schemes on tributaries of the Pungwe River in Zimbabwe, and several small irrigation sche- In Zimbabwe, women have representation in the mes in both countries. decision-making bodies such as catchment and subcatchment councils. The water sector in Mozam- Sanitation bique also recommended that women be included in water committees. It is hoped that these progres- Sanitation facilities in the catchment are largely based sive administrative arrangements will be backed by on pit latrines for rural villages, with the exception of the necessary political will to promote the partici- Hauna and Beira City where water-based systems pation of women in water affairs, and development have been developed. in general. Energy With regard to poverty, the majority of rural house- holds in the Pungwe River Basin have incomes that The Pungwe River Basin is supplied with electricity fall below a level that satisfies basic needs. from the national grids of Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

12 Roads and Railways However, traffic along the line has been greatly reduced in recent years, probably due to the combination The major centres in the basin are generally serviced of the residual effects of the civil war in Mozambique, with a good network of tarred national roads. These are and the current decline in the economy of Zimbabwe. well maintained by the national authorities. However, road communication in the remote areas is very poor, and con- Telecommunications sists of largely unserviced gravel roads and tracks. Mostly the major centres, and some large-scale com- Although the secondary road network in Zimbabwe is mercial farms and schools are served with fixed telep- better, most villages are not serviced due to the moun- hone services. Both Mozambique and Zimbabwe tainous terrain that complicates road construction. have mobile telephone services. However, coverage is also limited to the major centres and along some The Port of Beira is linked to Mutare by a railway line. sections of the primary road network.

Water intake for the Beira water supply Bridge crossing the Nyamukwarara River in Mozambique, secondary road

However, distribution is limited to the major urban and administrative centres, and some large-scale commercial farms and plantations.

The majority of the rural communities are not connec- ted to electricity, and rely on wood fuel for domestic energy. Deforestation, and the risk of soil erosion are therefore a serious threat to the natural environment and the associated wildlife habitats.

Deforestation close to the Gorongosa Bridge The Gorongosa Bridge, national road

13 WATER RESOURCES OF THE PUNGWE RIVER BASIN

Measurement and Monitoring

The assessment or quantification of water resources requires the measurement of rainfall, evaporation and stream flow on a continuous basis. Pursuant to this requirement, meteorological and water management authorities in Mozambique and Zimbabwe operate networks of gauges for the measurement of these hydrological parameters. The distribution of these stations, existing and historical, are shown in the figure to the right.

In general, available rainfall records have been collected for longer periods than river flow records. The measurement of rainfall is also more simplified such that its data is usually readily available in sufficient time length and spatial distribution.

Rainfall Stations

In the basin, Mozambique and Zimbabwe respectively have rainfall data from 77 and 18 identified stations. Three of the stations in Zimbabwe and six in Mozambique are described as synoptic because they include the measurement of evaporation data and other weather parameters such as barometric pressure, temperature and humidity.

Ideally, the distribution of rainfall stations in a catchment should be as uniform as possible, and take Flow Gauging Stations In the Pungwe Basin, flow data is available from 22 into account variations in relief. However, in the stations in Mozambique, and four in Zimbabwe. The basin, this requirement is constrained by the poor Flow gauging provides a direct measure of the surfa- lengths of these flow records range from 1953 to cur- road network coupled with the uneven distribution ce water resources of the catchment. River flows are rent. Nearly all the data series from the gauging sta- of settlements, particularly in Mozambique. Further- normally measured on a daily or continuous basis, tions contain gaps, usually where flow measurements more, a significant proportion of rainfall data in the manually or by means of an automatic stage recor- were not made for various reasons. catchment has missing data, and of questionable der. The parameter measured in the field is the depth, accuracy. which is then transformed into stream flow by means Before use in the assessment of water resources, of a previously developed rating curve. historical flow records are first screened and then repaired or extended through mathematical relations (models) with gauged rainfall.

14 Rainfall in the Pungwe River Basin Mean annual precipitation in the basin ranges from above 2,020 mm in the high elevation areas of Inyangani Moun- Water resources in a river basin, in particular surface tain range, in Zimbabwe, to about 1,180 mm in the Pungwe water, are a function of rainfall. Higher rainfall transla- Estuary. The figure below shows the mean annual rainfall tes into high unit runoff into rivers. The effect of rainfall for the Pungwe River Basin, divided into sub-basins. on groundwater depends on the relative distribution of recharge areas, the geology of the area, and the Potential evaporation lies between 1,380 to 1,590 mm, nature of groundwater movements. depending on temperature and relative humidity.

Flow gauging station F14 in Zimbabwe

Scale for measuring water depth at the E65 station in Mozambique

Flow gauging station F22 in Zimbabwe

15 WATER RESOURCES OF THE PUNGWE RIVER BASIN

2000 Surface Water Resources The table shows the relative contributions to long-term TOTAL OUTFLOW TO THE INDIAN OCEAN runoff of the basin areas in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. 1800 Exceedance of 20% (Wet year) Exceedance of 50% (Medium year) 1600 The main source of water in the Pungwe River Basin Exceedance of 75% (Dry year) )

h 1400 t

is surface water. A sound understanding of the long- Although Zimbabwe is only about 5% of the total basin n o m / 1200 area, it accounts for 28% of the total runoff. Water use 3

term surface water resources of the basin is essential m M ( 1000 in Zimbabwe is therefore likely to have a major impact w

for the sustainable development of the basin. o l f e

on water resources in Mozambique. g 800 a r e v The long-term water resources of the Pungwe River Ba- A 600

sin have been determined for the various sub-basins, The graph to the right shows the mean monthly distribution 400

and at selected locations along the main river. of stream flow at the Pungwe River mouth. On average, 200

the highest flows occur around the month of February. 0 Mean annual runoff in mm/yr by sub-basin is shown oct nov dec jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep in the figure to the right. The effect of rainfall on unit runoff is clearly indicated.

Point Area Natural MARNatural MARPercentage [km2][million m3/year] [mm/year] of total Zimbabwe 1 463 1 191 814 28% Mozambique 29 687 3 004 101 72% TOTAL 31 150 4 195 135 - Based on data from the period 1960-80

16 Groundwater Pictures of the flood in 1999 at the Pungwe Bridge in Mozambique

Large areas of the Pungwe River Basin have moderate to low groundwater potential, with the exception of small parts of the Upper Pungwe where the potential can be considered to be high.

It is expected that zones along rivers are likely to have high yields of groundwater, depending on the prevailing geology.

Floods During the 1999 and 2001 floods, high water levels persisted for periods of between 2 to 3 months at Floods frequently cause problems in the lower parts a time. These severe floods are difficult to mitigate, of the Pungwe River Basin. During the years span- though it is possible to mitigate more moderate floods ning the period 1999-2001, very high water levels oc- through the construction of dams at strategic loca- curred in the Pungwe River causing severe damage tions along the river. to riparian settlements and infrastructure, including the national road between Beira and Chimoio. The Notwithstanding their destructive effect on riparian flood of 2001 is the highest observed flood at the settlements and infrastructure, floods events are im- Pungwe Bridge flow gauging station since the com- portant for the rejuvenation of the ecology of the ri- mencement of observations in the 1950s. ver system, through their capacity to transport and deposit nutrients on which floodplain cultivation and The main feature of the floods in the lower basin is estuarine fauna depend. Groundwater well in Mozambique the very long duration of sustained high water levels.

17 WATER QUALITY IN THE PUNGWE RIVER BASIN

Sources of Water Pollution

The water quality of the basin is affected by human settlements, the geology and soil, and vegetation. Hu- man settlements invariably alter the natural state of the quality of both surface and groundwater through the different uses of land, and water use for domestic, mining, industrial, and agricultural purposes.

The main sources of water pollution in the Pungwe Ri- ver Basin are rural and urban settlements, agriculture, afforestation, gold panning and salt water intrusion. Although the latter is a natural phenomenon, it can be exacerbated by high abstraction of water from the river during the low flow season.

With the exception of alluvial gold mining in the Ny- amukwarara River, most of the potential sources of pollution are not considered to be serious at present. Large quantities of sediment are routinely released into the Nyamukwarara River as a result gold panning activities.

Ambient Water Quality

Water quality in the upper reaches of the Pungwe River in Zimbabwe is almost pristine because of the existence of Nyanga National Parks where hu- Informal gold mining activities in the Nyamukwarara River man settlements are forbidden by law. For the rest of the catchment, land-use and sanitation practice play a major role in determining the water quality in the basin’s rivers. The rural character of the basin’s settlements has a significant influence on the nature of the ambient water quality. Both point and diffuse water pollution can be expected in the basin, from large-scale commercial and communal subsistence agriculture, as well as the general sanitation practice in the basin.

18 Artisanal Gold Mining recent times, the practice has now spread to other Salt Water Intrusion areas in the Pungwe River Basin, as far downstream Gold mining has been practiced in the Pungwe River as Muda River, in Sofala Province. The tidal variations in the ocean at the Pungwe Estu- Basin for several centuries. Observations since 2003 ary are considerable being in the order of 7-8 m. The have shown a drastic increase in sediment concen- Excavation for gold mining loosens the soil, leading water intake of the Mafambisse pumping plant loca- trations in the river due to the proliferation of informal to its erosion during the rainy season. The operation ted about 90 km upstream, currently also used for the gold mining activities. Previously, mining operations also strips the protective vegetation cover, thus crea- Beira Water Supply, is therefore affected from time were confined to the Nyamukwarara River and its ting conditions for further erosion and degradation of to time. The salinity intrusion has forced Aguas de surrounding areas, in Manica Province. However, in arable land, well after the mining site has been aban- Moçambique to relocate the Beira Water Supply in- doned. take some 40 km upstream. The problem of saline water for the pumping plant serving Mafambisse Su- The eroded soil from the mining activities is deposi- gar Estate however remains and causes interruptions ted in the Pungwe River system as sediment, which in the irrigation practises. consists mainly of reddish-brown silt and clay, with a negligible proportion of sand. The fine sized sediment The tidal variation involves several cycles. Besides particles remain in suspension, exhibiting a red (och- the daily cycle with two spring tides per day the re) colour that is evident all the way to the Pungwe magnitude varies several metres in a 2-week cycle. Estuary. Further, there is a seasonal cycle with the highest tidal differences occurring twice every year. By using The suspended sediments render the water unsuita- free software the tidal levels can be calculated for any ble for drinking, washing and irrigation. They block place and time. The dates with extreme tides can the- the penetration of light into the water, thus reducing refore be easily predicted. the efficiency of photosynthesis. Fish species that are The Pungwe River in the Nyanga National Park in Zimbabwe sensitive to sediment-laden waters are also affected.

The Pungwe River at the Tete Road Bridge in Mozambique Salt water intrusion in the Pungwe River, caused by the tidal variations of the Indian Ocean at Beira

19 WATER USE IN THE PUNGWE RIVER BASIN

Uses of Water in the Pungwe River Basin Basin it receives its water by inter-catchment transfer Water supply demand 2003: 3 through the Pungwe-Mutare tunnel and pipeline. Urban: Beira/Dondo 25 339 m /day The uses of water in the basin reflect its socio-econo- 3 mic conditions and existing water developments. The Mutare 60 480 m /day Rural water supply is in comparison with the agricul- 3 main consumers of water from the Pungwe River and Rural: Mozambique 10 306 m /day tural and urban supply very small and is generally 3 its tributaries are as follows: Zimbabwe 1 962 m /day supplied by small local groundwater schemes. 3 TOTAL: 98 087 m /day or • rural domestic consumers through piped schemes 3 Water Demand in the Pungwe River Basin and undeveloped abstraction facilities 35.8 million m /year As at 2003, water demand in the basin was estimated • the urban domestic and industrial consumers at 35,8 million m3 per year for domestic and industrial of Beira/Dondo and Mutare cities Irrigation and forestry demand 2003: 3 3 use, and between 146 and 260 million m per year for Forestry: Mozambique 7.5-10 million m /year agricultural use, including forestry and livestock. 3 • small and large-scale irrigators Zimbabwe 16-21 million m /year 3 Livestock: Mozambique 0.5 million m /year Future water demand depends on the general socio- • forestry Zimbabwe - economic development in the Pungwe River Basin. 3 Estimates indicate that in a medium development Irrigation: Mozambique 84-190 million m /year The largest water user in the Pungwe River basin is 3 scenario the total water demand in the basin will in- Zimbabwe 38 million m /year the agricultural sector. Irrigation stands in average for crease to between 750 and 800 million m3 per year in 3 more than 80% of the total use of water. The second TOTAL: 146-260 million m /year year 2025. It is estimated that approximately 15-25% largest water use is urban water supply to Beira and of this future water demand is in Zimbabwe. Mutare. Although, Mutare is outside the Pungwe River

Sugar cane plantations

Mafambisse water intake

20 Water Balance A water balance analysis, taking into account the tem- For most of the tributaries in Pungwe River Basin poral variability, shows that measures are needed to the full irrigation requirements of 2025 can be met In this context, a water balance refers to the compa- supply the Mutare urban water if the sole source should by the natural runoff. Local small-scale dams would rison of estimated volumetric use of water with total be Pungwe. In 2025 severe water shortages will oc- most probably give full assurance of supply in these available resources. cur if a dam is not constructed upstream the present areas. However, in the lower part of the basin the Mutare pipeline intake or other sources are utilised. 2025 medium requirements would originate from Mapopo River in the upper Pungwe The Beira water requirements of 2025, however will large scale sugar cane, which cannot be met without probably be supported without further infrastructure in major regulating dams. the Pungwe River, provided that the water intake is not suffering saline water intrusion.

140

120 Zimbabwe border

100

10000

9000 Beira Water intake

It is evident that water resources in the basin are cur- 8000 rently under-utilised. Considering that the long-term 7000 total surface water resources of the Pungwe River 6000 3 are estimated to about four billion m /year, the future 5000 estimated water demand in 2025 comprises only one 4000 fifth of the available resource. 3000

2000

The variation of water resources is, however, large 1000 both temporally and spatially. Cyclic pattern with 0

4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 many wet years followed by consecutive dry years 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 are typical for southern Africa. Dry periods such as 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 the one in the early 1990s set the limits for secure The figure shows the mean annual runoff for the last 50 years (Mm3/year). The red line denotes the average annual river water supply even if the average flow is normally flow. The large inter-annual variation in water resources in the Pungwe River Basin causes large demands on water man- sufficient to cover the average demand. agement. Dry spells, e.g. 1991-1995, create large stress on the water users.

21 WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN THE PUNGWE RIVER BASIN

Pungwe River Basin Management

There are five shared water courses between Zim- babwe and Mozambique comprising the Pungwe, Buzi, Sabi, Zambezi and Limpopo rivers, as shown in the figure to the right. In all cases, Mozambique is the downstream riparian state.

Water management in the two states is provided for through the following national laws:

• Mozambique - Water Act Lei No 16/91

• Zimbabwe - Water Act [Chapter 20:24] No 31/98

• Zimbabwe - Zimbabwe National Water Authority Act [Chapter 20:25] No 11/98 Country to country (bilateral) co-operation in water management is addressed through the following international conventions, regional protocols and related declarations

• The United Nations Convention on the law of the non navigational uses of international water courses, 1997

• The revised Protocol on shared waters in the SADC, 2000

• The Convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources, September 1997

• The Constitutive Act of the African Union (June 2000) and NEPAD

• The Abuja Ministerial Declaration on Water - a key to sustainable development, April 2002

22 National Statutes Macheke, Budzi and Devure subcatchments. Bi-lateral Co-operation

The Water Law of Mozambique The Water Act provides for the appointment of a The key instrument for bilateral co-operation on inter- Catchment Manager who is an employee of the Zim- national waters in the southern African region is the The Water Act Lei No 16/91 was promulgated in 1991 babwe National Water Authority, (ZINWA). Revised Protocol on Shared Watercourses in the based on the principle of decentralisation in water SADC. Primarily, it addresses key water management resources management, at operational level. The Catchment Manager (CM) is responsible for the issues related to the equitable and sustainable use day-today management and administration of the of shared water resources. To achieve these noble It paved the way for the creation of five Regional affairs of the Catchment Council. For expediency, the goals, the Protocol provides for the establishment of Water Administrations (ARAs) on the basis of conti- functions of the Catchment Council are delegated on watercourse commissions, also known as Joint Water guous river basins. ARA-Centro is responsible for the the CM’s office, as appropriate, in the normal course Commissions to administer interstate agreements technical and administrative management of water of business. The CM performs his duties under the on water affairs, and to provide technical advice. resources of the Pungwe, Save and Buzi river basins. direction of the Catchment Council with supervision The Joint Water Commission (JWC) for the Pungwe Its mandate also includes the planning, design, con- from ZINWA. River was created in December 2002. Its core func- struction, operation and maintenance of the hydro- tions are to advise the principal states on measures meteorological network, as well as hydraulic works. In terms of the Water Act, the principal functions of and arrangements to determine potentially available the Catchment Council are as summarised below. water, utilisation levels, reasonable demand, relevant The Water Law of Zimbabwe data and information, criteria for conservation, alloca- 1. To prepare a Catchment Outline Plan (COP) tion and sustainable utilisation, and pollution preven- The Water Act, Chapter 20:24 of 1998 is the umbrella for its river system. tion of the common water resources. law for the management and administration of all water affairs in Zimbabwe. It provides for the declara- 2. To determine and grant water use permits. tion of ‘river systems’ or Catchment Areas. There are currently seven river systems in Zimbabwe whose 3. To regulate and supervise the exercise of boundaries have been established through a Statu- rights to the use of water. tory Instrument No 34 of 2000, for the management of water in Zimbabwe. 4. To ensure proper compliance with the Act and to supervise subcatchment councils (SCC). The Catchment Area is administered by Catchment Council, an elected body of stakeholders that has The SCC is the operational arm of the CC in the been created through Statutory Instrument 209 of regulation and supervision of the exercise of rights to 2000, to control and administer water affairs in the water within the area for which it was established. catchment. Each Catchment Area is subdivided into subcatchments, to provide for water management by In addition to its secretarial and advisory responsibi- an elected subcatchment council within a more loca- lities, ZINWA Save Catchment Office has other core lised river subsystem. functions related to engineering services for the pro- vision of water supply, hydrological data collection The Pungwe Subcatchment in Zimbabwe falls inside and analysis, as well as pollution control. the jurisdiction of the Save Catchment together with the Odzi, Upper Save, Lower Save, Lower Save West, Signing ceremony for the Pungwe Project

23 FUTURE WATER RESORCES DEVELOPMENT

Water Resources Development

The development outlook of the Pungwe River Basin depends on a number of issues, some of them not directly in the hands of the basin population and of a macro-political and economic dimension. However, both countries have recently adopted policies which aim at promotion of a sustainable development and use of the water resources as a mean to fight poverty, and support economic development in other sectors of society.

Agriculture is the main economic sector in the Pungwe River Basin in both countries. The potential for a future expansion of the agriculture activities in the basin is extensive, however the present hydraulic infrastructure is only able to support a fraction of the potential. Increased diversification of crops is taking place, although the dominating crops are still tea, tobacco and sugar cane.

There are no immediate plans for larger industrial estab- lishments in the basin partly because of the lack of sup- porting infrastructure. Agro-industrial developments are slowly growing and have a potential to increase along with growing agriculture and irrigation activities.

Urban and Rural water supply systems are in need of major rehabilitation and expansion to meet national goals for efficient water use and coverage levels. Flooding is frequent in the lower parts of the Pungwe Gorongosa National Park would play an important Both Beira and Mutare display very high water losses River Basin. Future irrigation and hydropower dams role in tourism development of the basin, attract- in their distribution systems. on the Pungwe River may to some extent mitigate the ing eco-tourism, but will require rehabilitation and effects of floods in the lower basin, but there is also a upgrading of its status. The Pungwe, Honde and The hydropower potential of the Pungwe River in need to install flood forecasting and flood protection sys- Nyamukwarara river valleys and the Nyanga National Mozambique should be seen as an interesting possi- tems in the basin. Park in the upper catchment in Zimbabwe, with their bility in the national and regional context, as the power surrounding mountains and plateaus, form some of system is interconnected with the Cahora Bassa The impact on the river from gold mining activities in the most spectacular, varied, and interesting scenery hydropower plant. Direct Power Export/Exchange the upper catchment is a major problem from a water in the whole of Southern Africa, and is a candidate for between Mozambique and Zimbabwe is another inter- quality point of view in the Pungwe River. The impact World Heritage status. esting possibility. is currently the most apparent environmental problem that needs urgent attention.

24 Stakeholder Participation Stakeholder meeting in Dondo, Mozambique

Stakeholder participation and consultation are key elements in the development of the Pungwe River Basin. A participatory approach is needed in order to reach consensus for the future development and thus safeguarding that interests and concerns of stakeholders are taken into account in the process of iden- tification and design of projects and programmes.

In Zimbabwe, water users and other stakeholders are organised in the Pungwe Sub-Catchment Council, a legal body under the Water Act. In the Zimbabwean part of the Pungwe River Basin, the Pungwe Sub- Catchment Council is fully operational, has its own office in Hauna and has two paid employees. In the Mozambique part of the Pungwe River Basin ARA- Centro, being a relatively new institution, has just recently established the Pungue Basin Committee. The development of water resources infrastructure key role in the joint development of water resources will preferably involve an intensive process of stake- of the Pungwe River Basin. They will drive the water holder consultations, as part of the preparation of management in liaison with the stakeholders and feasibility studies and implementation activities. Two carry out the key activities of the development pro- aspects need to be distinguished. The first is the grammes. Also the general growth in water use will formal consultation process that any infrastructural require capacity to exercise the authority in terms of development of such a magnitude will require, mostly planning, approval, and supervision. focused on the directly and indirectly affected parties, such as the land users and communities that reside For the future joint management of the transboundary in the areas affected by the dam construction and the Pungwe River there is further a need for a compre- reservoir. The second aspect is that the development hensive bilateral agreement between Zimbabwe and of hydraulic infrastructure, being part of a vision for Mozambique. Both countries have ratified the revised These stakeholder forums ensure that information on local and regional economic development, should be Protocol on Shared Watercourses in the SADC the demands from the water users and other parties considered an opportunity to involve stakeholders in region and a Joint Water Commission has already reaches the water authorities, while information on that economic development process. been established. An agreement based on among regulations and technical issues goes the opposite others the information in this monograph is thus the way. Development programmes on e.g. water demand Institutional Roles and Bi-lateral Agreements next step of implementing a joint integrated water management, rural water supply, increased reliability management of the water resources in the Pungwe of rainfed agriculture and small-scale irrigation and The regional water authorities in Mozambique and River Basin. legalising the informal gold miners should be initiated Zimbabwe, ARA-Centro and ZINWA Save, will have a through the stakeholder participation process.

25 ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS THE PUNGWE PROJECT

The Pungwe Project is financed by the Swedish International Development Co- ARAs Regional water authorities of Mozambique operation Agency (Sida), through an agreement with Zimbabwe and Mozambique. CC Catchment Council The project is implemented under the auspices of the Department of Water CM Catchment Manager Resources (DWR), Zimbabwe, and the National Directorate of Water (DNA), COP Catchment outline plan Mozambique, on behalf of the two governments. The implementing agencies are the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) through the Save Catchment Estuary A section of the river near its mouth that experiences tidal activity Manager’s Office, and the Regional Water Administration of Central Mozambique from the sea (ARA-Centro), respectively. Fauna Animals The project receives technical assistance from a consortium of consulting compa- Flora Vegetations nies and institutions led by SWECO International AB of Sweden. Other consortium members are listed below. Geology A study of the rocks in the earth’s crust • CONSULTEC – Consultores Associados, Mozambique GNP Gorongosa National Park • IMPACTO – Projectos e Estudos de Impacto Ambiental, Mozambique Hydrology A study of surface water resources and their temporal and spatial variation • UCM – Catholic University of Beira, Mozambique JWC Joint Water Commission • ICZ – Interconsult Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe MAP Mean Annual Precipitation • ARCADIS Euroconsult, The Netherlands • OPTO International AB, Sweden MAR Mean Annual Runoff • NCG – Nordic Consulting Group of Sweden Orography Relief • SMHI – Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. Physiography General relief and its relationship to the river system Pungwe River Baseline information and data on the socio-economic and biophysical The results of the project that are partly presented in this report are a joint effort from Monograph conditions in the Basin the Client, Funding Agency and the Consultant team listed above. All contributions to the project from the members of the above organisations as well as external persons Rating curve The physical relationship between the surface water level of a and organisations are greatly acknowledged. stream and its discharge SCC Subcatchment Council Information on the Pungwe Project can be obtained at www.pungweriver.net. Stage The surface water level of a stream measured against some specified datum ZINWA Zimbabwe National Water Authority

26 LITERATURE CONTACT DETAILS

The Pungwe Project has produced the following major reports: For further information about the Pungwe Project or the ongoing IWRM work in the basin, please contact: The Pungwe Monograph Report (April 2004): ARA-Centro - Beira Main Report Mr. Manuel Fobra, Director Annex I Surface Water Resources tel. +258 23 324168 or 324153 Annex II Hydrometric Networks fax +258 23 324163 Annex III Hydrological Data Quality & Modelling e-mail: [email protected] Annex IV Groundwater Resources ZINWA Save - Mutare Annex V Dams and other Hydraulic Works Mr. Thomas Murinye, Catchment Manager Annex VI Water Quality and Sediment transport tel. +263 20 60926 Annex VII Water Demand for Water Supply & Sanitation fax +263 20 62848 Annex VIII Water Demand for Irrigation and Forestry e-mail: [email protected] Annex IX Fisheries SWECO International Annex X Conservation Areas, Wildlife and Tourism Mr. Rikard Lidén, Project Director Annex XI Infrastructure tel. +46 40 167281 Annex XII Socio-economy fax +46 40 154347 e-mail: [email protected] Development Scenario Report (December 2005): Sida (Asdi), Maputo Volume I Main Report Mrs. Gunilla Ölund Wingqvist, Programme Officer, Regional Water Resources Volume II Activities of the Stakeholder Component tel. +258 21 480300 Volume III Technical Report fax +258 21 480390 Volume IV Institutional Capacity Building e-mail: [email protected]

Joint IWRM and Development Strategy Report (November 2006)

Part I The Strategy Part II Justification Part III Annexes

27 The Pungwe River Basin Joint Integrated Water Resources Management Strategy (IWRMS) is a co-operative effort by the Governments of Zimbabwe and Mozambique to create a framework for the sustainable and equitable management, development and conservation of the water resources of the Pungwe River Basin, with the objective of increasing the derived social and economic benefits for the people living in the basin. The Pungwe River is a shared watercourse between the two countries.

The Pungwe Project is financed by the Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency (Sida), through an agreement with Zimbabwe and Mozambique. A team of consultants from Sweden, Netherlands, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, lead by SWECO International, conducts the study together with the implementing agencies in Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

This Pungwe River monograph makes an introduction to the Pungwe River Basin and the basis for water resources management in the river basin. The report aims to give the reader an overview of the current situation in the Pungwe River Basin regarding the legal and institutional framework for water management, water resources, water demand, development options and environmental and socio-economic conditions.

ARA CENTRO

CIDDI - UCM