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CHAPTER 6 Leading to Learn: School Leadership and Management Styles

190 Highl ights 191 Introduct ion 193 Sal ient d imens ions of secondary school management behav iour of school pr inc ipals 198 Aspects of teachers ’ work and school management 201 Teacher appra isal and feedback and school management 203 Conclus ions and impl icat ions for pol icy and pract ice

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Highlights

• Some principals in every country have adopted the “instructional leadership” styles which are central to today’s paradigm of effective school leadership.

• However, the prevalence of such practices varies greatly by country and they are much more in evidence in some countries such as Brazil, Poland and Slovenia than they are in others, such as Estonia and Spain.

• Across TALIS countries, a significant number of principals employ both instructional and administrative leadership styles.

• Greater autonomy for the school principal in decision making about schools is not related to either management style.

• In more than half of the TALIS countries, schools with more pronounced instructional leadership tend to link teacher appraisals with teachers’ participation in professional development. Also in many TALIS countries, schools whose principals are instructional leaders are more likely to take account of innovative teaching practices in the appraisal of teachers.

• In almost three-quarters of TALIS countries, principals who adopt an instructional leadership style tend to develop professional development programmes for instructionally weak teachers.

• In more than one quarter of TALIS countries, teachers whose school principal adopts a more pronounced instructional leadership style are more likely to engage in collaborative activities with their colleagues.

• In contrast, variations in principals’ use of an administrative leadership style are unrelated to classroom practices, pedagogical beliefs and attitudes, or to the amount of professional development teachers receive.

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INTRODUCTION Teachers teach and work in schools that are usually adm inistered by managers, often known as pr inc ipals or headmasters . School adm inistrat ion is itself often part of larger adm inistrat ion un its . The cond itions of teachers ’ work ing l ife are influenced by the adm inistrat ion and leadersh ip prov ided by pr inc ipals, and it is w idely assumed that school leadersh ip d irectly influences the effect iveness of teachers and the ach ievement outcomes of students ( e.g. Hall inger and Murphy, 1986 ; OECD, 2001 ; Pont, Nusche and Moorman, 2008) .

In OECD countr ies as elsewhere in the world, school leaders face challenges due to r ising expectat ions for schools and school ing in a century character ised by technolog ical innovat ion, m igrat ion and global isat ion . As countr ies a im to transform the ir educat ional systems to prepare all young people w ith the knowledge and sk ills needed in th is chang ing world, the roles of school leaders and related expectat ions have changed rad ically . They are no longer expected merely to be good managers ; effect ive school leadersh ip is increas ingly v iewed as key to large-scale educat ion reform and to improved educat ional outcomes .

Since at least 2001, w ith its ser ies of reports, What Works in Innovation in Education , produced by the Centre for Educat ional Research and Innovat ion, the OECD has recogn ised the s ign ificant challenges faced by pr inc ipals and school managers in member countr ies (OECD, 2001) . As countr ies increas ingly turn to improv ing educat ion to address an ever more complex world, many governments g ive school leadersh ip more respons ibility for implement ing and manag ing s ign ificantly more demand ing educat ion programmes . Global isat ion and widespread imm igrat ion mean that ch ildren, youth and the ir fam ilies represent an increas ingly challeng ing cl ientele for schools in many countr ies . Also, the standards to wh ich schools must perform and the accountab ility requ ired of management ra ise expectat ions regard ing school leadersh ip to an unprecedented level .

A recent OECD report, Improving School Leadership , summar ises the chang ing landscape of schools and the ir management over recent decades (Pont, Nusche and Moorman, 2008, p . 6) : In this new environment, schools and schooling are being given an ever bigger job to do. Greater decentralisation in many countries is being coupled with more school autonomy, more accountability for school and student results, and a better use of the knowledge base of education and pedagogical processes. It is also being coupled with broader responsibility for contributing to and supporting the schools’ local communities, other schools and other public services.

Th is report argues that to meet the educat ional needs of the 21 st century the pr inc ipals in pr imary and secondary schools must play a more dynam ic role and become far more than an adm inistrator of top-down rules and regulat ions . Schools and the ir govern ing structures must let school leaders lead in a systemat ic fash ion and focus on the instruct ional and learn ing processes and outcomes of the ir schools .

These recommendat ions flow from a field of educat ion that has recently exper ienced a fundamental change in its ph ilosophy of adm inistrat ion and even in its concept ion of schools as organ isat ions . A s ign ificant research literature also ind icates that what the publ ic and other stakeholders of schools want as learn ing outcomes for students can only be ach ieved if school leadersh ip is adapted to a new model (Pont, Nusche and Moorman, 2008) . These changes are d irectly relevant to the work ing l ives, profess ional development, instruct ional pract ices, pedagog ical bel iefs and att itudes and the appra isal and feedback of secondary school teachers, all of wh ich were measured in the TALIS survey .

From bureaucratic administrator to leader for learning Changes in school adm inistrat ion over recent decades are part of a larger trend in the management of publ ic serv ice organ isat ions that can be character ised as the decl ine of older publ ic adm inistrat ive models and the r ise of a new publ ic management (NPM) model . The ideas and research find ings beh ind the NPM model in publ ic

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serv ices – flatter management structures, market-l ike mechan isms, decentral isat ion, customer or ientat ion and ev idence-based improvement of serv ices – have s ign ificantly changed the approach to organ isat ional management ( e.g. Barzelay, 2001 ; Jones, Schedler and Wade 1997 ; Sahl in-Andersson, 2000 ; Schedler and Proeller, 2000) . The effect iveness of these changes is st ill debated in educat ion research and pol icy c ircles, but it is clear that these ideas, and the debate surround ing them, have changed the terms of management .

Perhaps the most sal ient change in att itudes about school management created by the NPM trend is the centr ing of the pr inc ipal ’s act ivity and behav iour on what is referred to as “i nstruct ional leadersh ip” (Wiseman, 2002, 2004a) . The term “i nstruct ional leader ” has been expl icitly promoted for pr inc ipals s ince the beg inn ing of the effect ive schools movement around 1980 in the Un ited States (Blumberg and Greenfield, 1980 ; Bossert et al ., 1981) and cont inues to lead ideas about how pr inc ipals w ill meet the educat ional challenges of the new century ( e.g. Heck, Larsen and Marcoul ides, 1990 ; Duke, 1987 ; Kle ine-Kracht, 1993 ; Boyd, 1996 ; Hall inger and Murphy, 1986 ; Lemah ieu, Roy and Foss, 1997 ; Re itzug, 1997 ; Blase and Blase, 1998 ; Fullan, 2000) .

Dur ing the 1980s, the educat ional research and pol icy commun ities spec ifically encouraged pr inc ipals to emphas ise act ivities that would enhance or benefit classroom instruct ion and learn ing ( e.g. Nat ional Comm iss ion on Excellence in Educat ion, 1983) . Increas ingly, th is means that as managers of organ isat ions whose formal or offic ial funct ions are instruct ion and learn ing, pr inc ipals are respons ible and accountable for school outputs such as student ach ievement . In part icular, proponents of instruct ional leadersh ip suggest that pr inc ipals are the most effect ive of all potent ial instruct ional leaders because they are s ituated w ith in the school context, unl ike upper-level adm inistrators in m inistr ies . A package of reforms be ing developed by a number of OECD countr ies includes recommendat ions for greater profess ional isat ion and spec ialty tra ining for school managers with greater on-the- job manager ial accountab ility for learn ing outcomes (Pont, Nusche and Moorman, 2008) .

Along w ith the emphas is on accountab ility, the decentral isat ion of school management and the devolut ion of educat ional control have increased throughout much of the world (Baker and LeTendre, 2005) . Less central ised control has meant more respons ibility for a broader range of aspects of school management at the school level . For better or worse, th is trend translates into a more complex school governance env ironment in many countr ies .

These ideas and the assoc iated research on school leadersh ip have led to reforms of the pr inc ipal ’s role in many countr ies, from an emphas is on adm inistrat ion in terms of the school ’s compl iance w ith bureaucrat ic procedures to an expanded role wh ich comb ines adm inistrat ion w ith instruct ional leadersh ip (OECD, 2001 ; Pont, Nusche and Moorman, 2008) . Th is expanded role focuses strongly on the pr inc ipal ’s management of the school ’s teachers and the ir teach ing .

Goals of the TALIS survey of principals In each TALIS country, schools and school ing have spec ific character ist ics . School management is shaped by these character ist ics, wh ich potent ially influence every aspect of a teacher ’s job and profess ional development . At the same t ime, there are global trends towards s imilar ity in school ing and its management across countr ies (Baker and LeTendre, 2005) . For the first t ime, the TALIS survey of pr inc ipals prov ides r ich informat ion on the management behav iour and style of pr inc ipals in secondary schools in 23 countr ies on four cont inents . The quest ionna ire was des igned to answer three broad quest ions : • In an era of accountab ility and devolut ion of author ity in educat ion, what are the sal ient d imens ions of the management behav iour and style of secondary school pr inc ipals ? • To what degree have recent trends in school leadersh ip penetrated countr ies ’ educat ional systems ? • How are school leadersh ip styles assoc iated w ith the management of teachers, across the three ma in areas of TALIS : i) teachers ’ profess ional development ; ii) teachers ’ pract ices, bel iefs and att itudes ; and iii) teachers ’ appra isal and feedback ?

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Chapter outline The chapter beg ins w ith a descr ipt ion of school management behav iour based on the reports of the pr inc ipals of schools prov iding lower secondary educat ion in TALIS countr ies . It descr ibes th is behav iour on the bas is of five ind ices (or d imens ions) of management der ived from a stat ist ical analys is of pr inc ipals ’ responses, wh ich are then summar ised as two ma in management styles – instruct ional leadersh ip and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip – on the bas is of wh ich pr inc ipals are compared . The two styles are not mutually exclus ive and in fact the TALIS data demonstrate that a number of pr inc ipals use both styles to a cons iderable degree . The sect ion concludes by analys ing these management styles accord ing to the character ist ics of schools and of the pr inc ipals themselves .

The chapter then exam ines the relat ion between management styles and five aspects of teachers ’ work taken from Chapter 4 : i) bel iefs about the nature of teach ing and learn ing ; ii) teachers ’ classroom pract ices ; iii) teachers ’ profess ional act ivities ; iv) teachers ’ classroom env ironment and school cl imate ; and v) teachers ’ att itudes towards the ir job .

The next two sect ions exam ine, in turn, the l inks between school management and teachers ’ appra isal and feedback, the theme of Chapter 5, and the l inks w ith teachers ’ profess ional development, the theme of Chapter 3 . The final sect ion summar ises these find ings and draws impl icat ions for school management .

SALIENT DIMENSIONS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL MANAGEMENT BEHAVIOUR OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The quest ionna ire for school pr inc ipals was constructed w ith the a id of experts on school adm inistrat ion and organ isat ional reform and research . Var ious instruments were adopted for assess ing the manager ial behav iour of secondary school pr inc ipals and new items were also developed . The final quest ionna ire included 35 items on the management behav iour of pr inc ipals . Us ing techn iques of modern item response modell ing and factor analys is (descr ibed in the TALIS Technical Report [forthcom ing]), five ind ices of management behav iour were constructed from the responses of 4 665 school pr inc ipals in the 23 countr ies . These ind ices and the spec ific survey quest ions on wh ich they are based are d isplayed in Table 6 .1.

As w ith the ind ices in Chapter 4, analys is was conducted to test for cross-cultural cons istency of the five ind ices of management behav iour (See Annex A1 .1 and the TALIS Technical Report ). As th is analys is ind icated that countr ies ’ mean scores on these ind ices may not be d irectly comparable, analys is in th is chapter focuses more on broad compar isons aga inst the internat ional means . Nevertheless, care in interpretat ion is necessary . The analys is therefore focuses more on the pattern of cross-cultural d ifferences than on spec ific country-by-country compar isons of the index scores .

Management behaviour

1. Management for school goals – explicit management via the school’s goals and curriculum development Pr inc ipals scor ing h igh on th is index frequently take act ions to manage school ing operat ions in accordance with the school ’s goals, w ith d irect emphas is on ensur ing that teachers ’ instruct ion in classrooms a ims to ach ieve these goals . These pr inc ipals also tend to use student performance levels and exam inat ion results to set goals and promote curr icular developments . They endeavour to ensure clar ity w ith in the school about the respons ibility for co-ord inat ing the curr iculum . Pr inc ipals scor ing h igh on th is index also report that they frequently make sure that teachers ’ profess ional development act ivities are al igned w ith school goals and curr icular ob ject ives .

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As Table 6 .2 shows, there is cons iderable var iat ion as pr inc ipals in Hungary, Poland and Sloven ia are notably above the TALIS mean, wh ile those in Austr ia, Denmark, Italy and Spa in, among others, are notably below . On average, pr inc ipals in 10 countr ies are s ign ificantly above the TALIS average on th is index, wh ile 10 countr ies are below it. Also on average, pr inc ipals in Eston ia, L ithuan ia and Mex ico are at the TALIS mean .

2. Instructional management – actions to improve teachers’ instruction Pr inc ipals scor ing h igh on th is index frequently work w ith teachers to improve weaknesses and address pedagog ical problems, and also to solve problems w ith teachers when there are challenges to learn ing in a part icular classroom . Also, they often inform teachers about poss ibilities to update the ir curr icular knowledge and instruct ional sk ills . F inally, these pr inc ipals report be ing v igilant about d isrupt ive student behav iour in classrooms . In general, pr inc ipals scor ing h igh on th is index spend s ign ificant amounts of the ir manager ial t ime in attempt ing to improve classroom instruct ion .

On average, pr inc ipals in 10 countr ies, includ ing Braz il, Denmark and Malta, are above the TALIS mean and 10, includ ing Eston ia, Malays ia and the Slovak Republ ic, are below it (Table 6 .2) .

3. Direct supervision of instruction in the school – actions to directly supervise teachers’ instruction and learning outcomes Pr inc ipals who score h igh on th is index frequently use d irect observat ion of teachers ’ pedagog ical pract ices and also make frequent suggest ions to teachers on how to improve instruct ion in classrooms . These pr inc ipals also frequently mon itor students ’ academ ic efforts and work .

There is aga in cons iderable var iat ion among countr ies on th is index (Table 6 .2) . On average in 11 countr ies, includ ing Braz il, Poland and Sloven ia, pr inc ipals undertake more d irect superv ision of instruct ion than the TALIS average . Another 11 countr ies, includ ing Denmark, Ireland and Portugal, are below the TALIS average ; only Austral ia is at the TALIS average .

4. Accountable management – managing accountability to shareholders and others Pr inc ipals scor ing h igh on th is index see the ir role as mak ing the school accountable internally and to stakeholders outs ide the school . The ir role is to ensure that m inistry-approved instruct ional approaches are expla ined to new teachers and that all teachers are held accountable for improv ing the ir teach ing sk ills . These pr inc ipals also focus on conv inc ing students ’ parents of the need for new ideas and procedures at the school .

On average, pr inc ipals in 10 countr ies, most markedly in Bulgar ia, Malays ia and Norway, are above the TALIS mean on th is index and 10 are below (Table 6 .2) .

5. Bureaucratic management – management actions mostly aimed at bureaucratic procedures Pr inc ipals scor ing h igh on th is index report that it is important for them to ensure that everyone in the school follows the offic ial rules . They see the ir role as be ing s ign ificantly involved in deal ing w ith problems in the schedul ing of teachers and courses and in ensur ing adequate adm inistrat ive procedures and report ing to h igher author ities . These pr inc ipals also focus on creat ing an orderly and task-or iented atmosphere in the school .

The pattern across countr ies on th is index is sl ightly d ifferent (Table 6 .2) . In just e ight countr ies, includ ing Bulgar ia, Malays ia and Turkey, pr inc ipals score above the TALIS average, in five countr ies they are at the TALIS average, and in ten they are below it. On average, pr inc ipals in Austral ia, Denmark and Iceland are among the least involved w ith th is type of management .

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Management styles and school leadership The five behav ioral ind ices cover a s ign ificant range of pr inc ipals ’ management act ions . To further summar ise the ir behav iour, two management styles – instructional leadership and administrative leadership – were defined (F igure 6 .1) . They character ise more comprehens ively pr inc ipals ’ approach to the ir leadersh ip approach .

Pr inc ipals scor ing h igh for the first management style are s ign ificantly involved in what is referred to in the research l iterature on school management as an instructional leadership style . Th is index was der ived by averag ing the ind ices for the first three management behav iours, management for school goals , instructional management and direct supervision of instruction in the school .

The second management style can be best referred to as an administrative leadership style and was der ived by averag ing the ind ices for the management behav iours accountable management and bureaucratic management . Th is style of management focuses on adm inistrat ive tasks, enforc ing rules and procedures, and accountab ility .

Figure 6.1 Composition of the indices for instructional and administrative leadership

Management-school goals index Expl icit management v ia the school ’s goals and curr iculum development

Instructional management index Act ions to improve teachers ’ Instructional leadership style instruct ion

Direct supervision of instruction in the school index Act ions to d irectly superv ise teachers ’ instruct ional learn ing outcomes

Accountable management index Manag ing accountab ility to stakeholders and others

Administrative leadership style

Bureaucratic management index Management act ions mostly a imed at bureaucrat ic procedures

Source : OECD, TALIS Database .

1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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The two styles are not necessar ily mutually exclus ive, even though they are somet imes portrayed as such in the research l iterature on school leadersh ip ( e.g. Hall inger and Murphy, 1986) . Th is po int is re inforced by the idea of an evolut ion of school leadersh ip and a move from competent adm inistrat ion to school management wh ich includes an emphas is on instruct ional leadersh ip and a stronger focus on student learn ing . Also, as the results below ind icate, a number of pr inc ipals use both styles to a cons iderable degree . So wh ile these styles help to capture the underly ing approaches that pr inc ipals take to the ir job, part icularly concern ing teachers, they need not be mutually exclus ive in pract ice .

The recent OECD report, Improving School Leadership , recommends that effect ive school management generally comes from engagement in instruct ional leadersh ip (Pont, Nusche and Moorman, 2008) . At the same time, effect ive leadersh ip also involves adm inistrat ive accountab ility and a workable bureaucracy . The quest ion that ar ises is the extent to wh ich these two management styles have been embraced by the TALIS countr ies ’ school leadersh ip. Three notable find ings address th is quest ion .

First, as Table 6 .3 ind icates, wh ile some pr inc ipals in each TALIS country adopt an instruct ional leadersh ip style, there is s ign ificant var iat ion in its use across TALIS countr ies . In other words, the ideas and behav iour related to instruct ional management are ev ident to vary ing degrees in all TALIS countr ies, at least accord ing to pr inc ipals ’ self-reports . Even the countr ies w ith the lowest average use of instruct ional leadersh ip, such as Austr ia, Eston ia and Spa in, have pr inc ipals that focus on th is style of management .

Second, the TALIS countr ies fall into two roughly equal groups in terms of the emphas is on instruct ional leadersh ip. In 10 countr ies, includ ing Braz il, Poland and Sloven ia, pr inc ipals on average engage in an instruct ional leadersh ip style above the overall TALIS average . Pr inc ipals in the 13 other TALIS countr ies are less involved in th is management style than the overall average .

Th ird, it is interest ing that in countr ies in wh ich pr inc ipals are on average more involved in instruct ional leadersh ip, they do not neglect adm inistrat ive leadersh ip. Obv iously the pr inc ipal ’s task in most schools in most countr ies involves act ions and pr ior ities from both management styles, and ind ividual pr inc ipals may be high on one and low on the other, or h igh on both, or low on both . In pract ice each of the two styles involves act ivities and pr ior ities that can be helpful in manag ing schools . The TALIS results show in fact that a s ign ificant group of pr inc ipals employs both styles, as shown by the pos itive assoc iat ion between them : about one-fifth of the d ifference among pr inc ipals in each style is related (r= .44, p< .0001) .

To demonstrate th is, F igure 6 .2 plots the TALIS countr ies ’ means on the two management styles . Seven countr ies fall into the upper r ight quadrant where on average pr inc ipals are h ighly involved in both instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip. At the other end in the lower left quadrant are n ine countr ies where on average pr inc ipals are only moderately involved in both management styles . Malta and Poland are the only two countr ies in wh ich pr inc ipals are on average more involved in instruct ional than in adm inistrat ive leadersh ip, wh ile the oppos ite appl ies in Ireland, Malays ia and Norway . Lastly, in three countr ies pr inc ipals are on average at the OECD average for adm inistrat ive leadersh ip, but in two of these, the Slovak Republ ic and Sloven ia, they are more involved in instruct ional leadersh ip wh ile in Portugal they are less involved in instruct ional leadersh ip.

Management styles and decision making Pont, Nusche and Moorman (2008) also cons iders that effect ive instruct ional leadersh ip in schools requ ires some degree of adm inistrat ive autonomy in dec ision mak ing about key components of inputs to the instruct ional process . The TALIS quest ionna ire asked pr inc ipals about the degree to wh ich they had s ign ificant input into dec isions about teachers, instruct ion, school resources and curr iculum . Wh ile there is interest ing var iat ion across countr ies, dec ision-mak ing autonomy is unrelated to e ither management style, as is clear from the distr ibut ion of countr ies w ith greater pr inc ipal involvement in dec ision mak ing (gray po ints in F igure 6 .2) and those w ith lower involvement (blue po ints in F igure 6 .2) .

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Figure 6.2 School principals according to their management styles (2007-08)

Score on adm inistrat ive leadersh ip index TALIS Average 2.0 Lower score in instructional Higher score in instructional leadership and higher score leadership and higher score in administrative leadership in administrative leadership 1.6

Bulgaria 1.2

Malaysia Turkey 0.8 Norway Mexico Brazil 0.4 Ireland Italy Hungary Portugal Slovak Republic Slovenia TALIS Average 0 Austria Lithuania Malta Poland Korea -0.4 Belgium (Fl.)

Spain Australia -0.8 Estonia Iceland

-1.2

-1.6 Denmark Lower score in instructional Higher score in instructional leadership and lower score leadership and lower score in administrative leadership in administrative leadership -2.0 -2.0 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0

Score on instruct ional leadersh ip index

Countries in gray have a higher than average principal involvement in decision making, while countries in blue have a lower than average involvement. Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

Management styles and characteristics of principals and schools Are management styles of pr inc ipals related to the ir qual ities as profess ionals and to the character ist ics of the schools they adm inister ? Research on leadersh ip of formal organ isat ions in general, and in schools spec ifically, finds contrast ing ev idence on th is quest ion ( e.g. Wiseman, 2004a, 2004b) . Some research suggests that the profess ional character ist ics of leaders and the qual ities of the organ isat ions they lead help determ ine the ir management styles, wh ile an equally s izable research l iterature suggests the oppos ite . The TALIS quest ionna ire asked pr inc ipals a ser ies of quest ions about the ir profess ional stand ing and about the qual ities of the ir school . These assoc iat ions are summar ised in Tables 6 .12 and 6 .13 .

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The results presented in th is sect ion and the sect ion follow ing, are generated from a ser ies of stat ist ical regress ion analyses wh ich exam ine the relat ion between a number of pred ictor (or independent) var iables and a pred icted (or dependent) var iable (see Annex A1 .4 for techn ical deta ils and spec ificat ions of the var iables) . Tables 6 .4 to 6.13 h ighl ight the var iables that were stat ist ically s ign ificant in these regress ions, w ith a plus s ign ind icat ing a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip and a m inus s ign ind icat ing a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip. Where no sign ificant relat ionsh ip was found, the cell in the table is left blank . Tables conta ining the regress ion coeffic ients are ava ilable on the TALIS webs ite .

Interest ingly, the TALIS results find l ittle assoc iat ion between character ist ics of pr inc ipals and e ither the ir management behav iours or overall styles . By and large the assoc iat ions are more ev ident in the instruct ional leadersh ip style than in the adm inistrat ive leadersh ip style, and no one character ist ic is cons istently assoc iated with e ither management style across all TALIS countr ies . As shown in the first sect ions of Table 6 .12 and 6 .13, ne ither the pr inc ipals ’ educat ional level nor the number of years they have been pr inc ipals is cons istently related to the ir pos ition on e ither the management behav iour ind ices or the style ind ices . For each of these var iables there is pos itive relat ion w ith the style of leadersh ip in a handful of countr ies but a negat ive one in a handful of others . The same is true for the publ ic or pr ivate school sector, the s ize of the school ’s commun ity, and the student/teacher rat io. Nevertheless, one trend is ev ident : in Belg ium (Fl .), Eston ia, Hungary, Malays ia, Norway, Poland, Spa in and Turkey, female pr inc ipals tend to use an instruct ional leadersh ip style more than male pr inc ipals .

Management styles and characteristics of evaluations of school performance Are management styles of pr inc ipals related to the character ist ics of evaluat ions of the school ’s performance and pr inc ipals ’ bel iefs about instruct ion ? In many countr ies school reforms to improve teachers ’ instruct ion and student learn ing focus on the idea of al ign ing school management w ith clear ind icators of instruct ional pract ice and student outcomes . The TALIS quest ionna ire asked the sampled pr inc ipals about the character ist ics of the ir school ’s evaluat ion, includ ing the degree to wh ich there are both internal and external evaluat ions, wh ich ind icators of the school ’s performance are important in evaluat ions, and the extent to wh ich the outcome of the school evaluat ion influence the appra isal of the school management or of teachers . These assoc iat ions are summar ised in the th ird sect ions of Tables 6 .12 and 6 .13 .

In e ight countr ies – Belg ium (Fl .), Bulgar ia, Eston ia, Korea, Mex ico, Norway, Portugal and Turkey – pr inc ipals in schools in wh ich ind icators of teachers ’ innovat ive teach ing pract ices are important to the evaluat ions tend to take an instruct ional leadersh ip style of management .

There are also some m ixed patterns . For example, in Austral ia, Austr ia, Belg ium (Fl .), Braz il, Korea, Malta and Norway, pr inc ipals have a more pronounced instruct ional leadersh ip style in schools where internal (self-evaluat ion) evaluat ions are more frequent, but the oppos ite is true in Denmark, L ithuan ia, Malays ia and Spa in. S imilar, but weaker, assoc iat ions are found between the character ist ics of school evaluat ions and pr inc ipals who adopt an adm inistrat ive leadersh ip style .

One clear trend concerns the relat ion between pr inc ipals ’ bel iefs about approaches to teach ing and the ir leadersh ip style . Instruct ional leadersh ip is used in n ine countr ies in wh ich pr inc ipals have a more construct ivist bel ief about instruct ion . In countr ies in wh ich pr inc ipals bel ieve that the task of teach ing is to support students in the ir act ive construct ion of knowledge, they are also more l ikely to demonstrate instruct ional leadersh ip. However, in 14 countr ies there is a s imilarly pos itive assoc iat ion between more adm inistrat ive leadersh ip and construct ivist bel iefs about instruct ion .

ASPECTS OF TEACHERS’ WORK AND SCHOOL MANAGEMENT Th is sect ion exam ines the relat ion between the management styles of pr inc ipals and five aspects of teachers ’ work descr ibed in Chapter 4 .

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For each aspect of teachers ’ work, the same model is est imated to exam ine the relat ion w ith pr inc ipals ’ management styles . The model stat ist ically controls for a number of teachers ’ profess ional and personal character ist ics : gender, level of exper ience as a teacher, educat ional tra ining, permanency of the ir teach ing pos ition, number of hours they teach, how many schools they teach in, and how much adm inistrat ive work they undertake . Est imated for each country, th is bas ic stat ist ical model represents the ma in components of the teacher ’s profess ional background and summary cond itions of the ir pos ition w ith in the ir school . Added to th is bas ic model are the degrees to wh ich the school ’s pr inc ipal engages in instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip styles .

As descr ibed below, the level of a pr inc ipal ’s use of the instruct ional leadersh ip style is in some cases assoc iated with the school ’s teachers ’ bel iefs, pract ices, profess ional act ivities, classroom env ironments and job-related att itudes, wh ile the use of an adm inistrat ive leadersh ip style is usually less related to these var iables . The assoc iat ions tend to be moderate in s ize and are stat ist ically s ign ificant net of the influences of the teacher ’s personal, profess ional background and work ing cond itions . It should be po inted out that, s ince TALIS is a cross- sect ional study, it is not prudent to draw sweep ing causal conclus ions from such results . That is, one should not assume from these find ings that an assoc iat ion means that management style causes teachers ’ bel iefs, pract ices and so forth . Such assoc iat ions are necessary, but not suffic ient, to draw causal conclus ions, but at the very least it can be concluded that across TALIS countr ies, secondary school pr inc ipals who have an instruct ional leadersh ip style tend to work w ith certa in types of teachers .

Beliefs about the nature of teaching and learning In Chapter 4 two ind ices were developed to summar ise teacher bel iefs and att itudes towards pedagogy : construct ivist bel iefs about instruct ion and d irect transm iss ion bel iefs about instruct ion . Construct ivist bel iefs are character ised by a v iew of the teacher as a fac ilitator of learn ing who g ives more autonomy to students ; a direct transm iss ion v iew sees the teacher as the instructor who prov ides informat ion and demonstrates solut ions . Are pr inc ipals ’ management styles related to teachers ’ pedagog ical bel iefs ?

As d isplayed in Table 6 .4 the first notable find ing is that in most countr ies the degree to wh ich a pr inc ipal manages the school accord ing to e ither leadersh ip style is unrelated to the school ’s teachers ’ pedagog ical bel iefs and att itudes .

Net of the other factors about teachers ’ profess ional background and the bas ic cond itions of the ir pos ition with in the ir school, it is only in Malta that pr inc ipals w ith a more instruct ional leadersh ip style tend to work with teachers who bel ieve in a construct ivist approach to instruct ion and learn ing, wh ile the oppos ite is true in Iceland . These teachers see the ir role as more of a fac ilitator of students ’ own inqu iry . They bel ieve in encourag ing independent problem solv ing on the part of students and also that general th ink ing and reason ing sk ills are more important than spec ific curr icular content .

In contrast, teachers who bel ieve strongly in d irect transm iss ion of instruct ion may be character ised as hav ing more trad itional att itudes towards classroom instruct ion . These teachers value instruct ion that is bu ilt around problems for students to solve wh ich have clear and correct answers and are w ith in the grasp of the learners . They see the teacher ’s ma in role in problem solv ing as demonstrat ing the correct procedure . These teachers tend to hold firm to the bel ief that teach ing facts is necessary as th is is how students accumulate knowledge . Lastly, these teachers bel ieve that a qu iet classroom is most conduc ive to learn ing . Interest ingly, as for construct ivist teachers, there is no assoc iat ion in most TALIS countr ies between e ither of the two leadersh ip styles and bel ief in th is more trad itional approach to instruct ion and pedagogy . Th is find ing is not necessar ily surpr ising g iven the results in Chapter 4 ind icat ing that across a number of TALIS countr ies there are teachers who hold both strong construct ivist and d irect transm iss ion bel iefs about instruct ion and learn ing . In Belg ium (Fl .), Hungary and Portugal a more pronounced instruct ional leadersh ip style is assoc iated w ith bel iefs in d irect transm iss ion instruct ion ; in Eston ia and Iceland a more pronounced adm inistrat ive leadersh ip style is assoc iated w ith these bel iefs .

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Classroom practices of teachers The range of instruct ional pract ices reported on by teachers is summar ised on three ind ices for structur ing pract ices, student-or iented pract ices and enhanced learn ing act ivities . As descr ibed in Chapter 4, structur ing pract ices include such act ivities as stat ing learn ing goals, summar ising former lessons, check ing students ’ understand ing and rev iew ing homework . Student-or iented pract ices involve students work ing in groups, group ing students by ab ility and d ifferent iat ing the tasks they are set and the involvement of students in plann ing classroom act ivities . Enhanced learn ing act ivities for instance have students work ing on pro jects, hold ing debates and mak ing a product . Are pr inc ipal management styles related to what teachers do in the classroom ?

As Table 6 .5 shows, as in the case of bel iefs, the degree to wh ich a pr inc ipal manages the school accord ing to a more adm inistrat ive leadersh ip style is not d irectly related in most countr ies to any of the three classroom pract ices of teachers ; the same is also generally true for an instruct ional leadersh ip style . Among the few cases where s ign ificant relat ions are ev ident, adm inistrat ive leadersh ip is more l ikely than instruct ional leadersh ip to be assoc iated w ith all three teach ing pract ices in Iceland and Malta . Conversely, in Italy instruct ional leadersh ip is more l ikely to go hand in hand w ith greater degrees of student-or iented and enhanced learn ing act ivities .

Teachers’ professional activities In Chapter 4, teachers ’ co-operat ive profess ional behav iour in TALIS countr ies is captured by exchange/co- ord inat ion for teach ing and profess ional collaborat ion . Are pr inc ipals ’ management styles related to how teachers co-operate w ith each other for effect ive instruct ion ?

As Table 6 .6 ind icates, teachers ’ collaborat ive behav iour is related to management styles in a number of countr ies . In Hungary, Iceland, L ithuan ia, Malays ia, Mex ico and Poland, where pr inc ipals use an instruct ional leadersh ip style of management, teachers are more l ikely to co-operate and work together in groups or teams for job-related purposes such as adm inistrat ive tasks, the actual teach ing of students or profess ional development . Other than in Mex ico and w ith the add ition of Norway, the same is true for more complex forms of profess ional collaborat ion : collect ive learn ing act ivities such as observ ing and cr itiqu ing other teachers ’ instruct ion and team teach ing of courses . In ne ither case is the level of adm inistrat ive leadersh ip assoc iated w ith teachers ’ profess ional act ivities .

Teachers’ classroom environment and school climate for learning TALIS teachers were asked about the usual classroom env ironment in terms of the degree of d isrupt ive behav iour and lack of attent ion by students and also about the amount of t ime they usually allocate to actual instruct ion as opposed to classroom management . They were also asked about the types of support they gave students to help them learn . Chapter 4 descr ibed the three elements used to summar ise the learn ing env ironment : classroom disc ipl inary cl imate, t ime on task, and teacher-student relat ions . Are school management styles assoc iated w ith classroom and school env ironments that are conduc ive to learn ing ?

The first column in Table 6 .7 shows that in most TALIS countr ies the classroom d isc ipl inary cl imate is not assoc iated with e ither leadersh ip style, after controll ing for certa in background character ist ics of the pr inc ipal and the school . The same is true for t ime on task (second column) . However, in Denmark, Hungary, Iceland, Malta, Mex ico and Portugal, schools w ith pr inc ipals who adopt more of an instruct ional leadersh ip style tend to have more pos itive relat ions between teachers and students, net of other factors regard ing the school and the teacher .

Teachers’ attitudes towards their job Chapter 4 also descr ibed teachers ’ level of job sat isfact ion and the ir sense of self-efficacy in terms of help ing students to learn . Are these att itudes towards the ir job related to pr inc ipals ’ management styles ?

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Table 6 .8 shows that teachers in Eston ia, Hungary, Malta and Turkey are more sat isfied w ith the ir job in schools whose pr inc ipal employs an instruct ional leadersh ip style of management . At the same t ime, teachers ’ job sat isfact ion is unrelated to adm inistrat ive leadersh ip in most countr ies . In Hungary, Malta, Portugal and Spa in teachers who see themselves as successful w ith students learn ing work in schools where the pr inc ipal has a more pronounced instruct ional leadersh ip style .

TEACHER APPRAISAL AND FEEDBACK AND SCHOOL MANAGEMENT Chapter 5 descr ibes the frequency, use and consequences of appra isals of teachers ’ work . Th is sect ion exam ines the relat ion between pr inc ipals ’ management styles and three aspects of teacher appra isals : importance of appra isal cr iter ia, ob ject ives of the appra isal, and feedback and consequences of the appra isal . The results in Chapter 5 come from teachers ’ reports about appra isals . Pr inc ipals were asked s imilar quest ions and the results are used here for pr inc ipals in schools in wh ich teacher appra isals take place regularly .

For each ind icator about the teacher appra isal process, the same model is est imated to exam ine the relat ion with pr inc ipals ’ management styles in each country . The model stat ist ically controls for a number of profess ional and personal character ist ics of pr inc ipals and character ist ics of the ir schools : gender, level of exper ience as a pr inc ipal, educat ional tra ining, the number of schools they adm inister, average class s ize, student/teacher rat io, publ ic/pr ivate status of the school and the type of school commun ity . Th is bas ic stat ist ical model covers the ma in components of the pr inc ipal ’s profess ional background and summary cond itions of schools in the pr inc ipal ’s country . Added to th is bas ic model are the degrees to wh ich the school ’s pr inc ipal engages in instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip styles . The caveat about draw ing causal conclus ions from cross-sect ional data ment ioned appl ies here as well .

Learning outcomes, teachers’ practices and professional development as appraisal criteria TALIS pr inc ipals were asked about the importance of var ious aspects of the school ing and teach ing process for use in appra isals . The rev iew of research on teacher appra isals in Chapter 5 ident ifies three cr iter ia that are cruc ial for ma inta ining and increas ing effect ive instruct ion : student learn ing outcomes, innovat ive teach ing and teacher ’s part icipat ion in profess ional development . Is the level of importance accorded to these cr iter ia in teacher appra isals related to school management styles ? S ince these aspects of teach ing are closer to school manager ial processes, there are generally more assoc iat ions between them and pr inc ipals ’ leadersh ip styles than for teachers ’ bel iefs and pract ices .

As the first column of Table 6 .9 ind icates, h igher levels of an instruct ional leadersh ip style are assoc iated w ith the use of student test scores as an evaluat ion cr iter ion for the appra isal of teachers in Austr ia, Belg ium (Fl), Bulgar ia, Mex ico, Norway, Portugal and Spa in. A pos itive relat ion between an adm inistrat ive leadersh ip style and use of test scores for appra isals is found only in Austr ia, Denmark, Eston ia and Iceland . In Portugal and Sloven ia, student test scores are less l ikely to be used when the pr inc ipal adopts a more adm inistrat ive leadersh ip style . The assoc iat ions in these countr ies are net of character ist ics of pr inc ipals, schools and the commun ity the school serves .

As shown in the second column of Table 6 .9, s imilar results are found for the use of retent ion and pass rates of students for teacher appra isals . In Austr ia, Hungary, Ireland, Mex ico, Portugal, Sloven ia and Spa in, the use of an instruct ional leadersh ip style by pr inc ipals is assoc iated w ith the use of these student performance measures . However, in Denmark and Norway, an adm inistrat ive leadersh ip style is assoc iated w ith the use of th is cr iter ion .

The th ird column of the table shows that in more than half of the TALIS countr ies (Braz il, Bulgar ia, Eston ia, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, L ithuan ia, Malta, Mex ico, the Slovak Republ ic, Sloven ia, Spa in and Turkey) when a pr inc ipal uses a more pronounced instruct ional leadersh ip style, teacher appra isals are based on the teacher ’s use of profess ional development . The assoc iat ion is strong in a number of cases . Only in Austr ia, Braz il, Eston ia and Portugal does more adm inistrat ive leadersh ip go hand in hand w ith the use of th is cr iter ion .

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Objectives of the appraisal Chapter 5 found two contrast ing ob ject ives of teacher appra isals . One is the improvement of teachers ’ pract ices, and the other is external bureaucrat ic accountab ility . TALIS pr inc ipals were asked to what degree these two types of ob ject ives were important in the school ’s teacher appra isal process . Are these ob ject ives related to school management styles ?

The fourth set of columns of Table 6 .9 shows that in ten countr ies (Austral ia, Eston ia, Hungary, Iceland, Korea, Lithuan ia, Mex ico, Poland, Sloven ia and Turkey) pr inc ipals who adopt instruct ional leadersh ip manage schools in wh ich the ob ject ive of appra isals is to improve teacher pract ices ; adm inistrat ive leadersh ip is assoc iated w ith th is appra isal ob ject ive in only two countr ies . In most countr ies ne ither leadersh ip style is assoc iated w ith the importance school leaders attach to inform ing h igher adm inistrat ive levels of the outcome of teacher appra isals (last two columns of Table 6 .9) .

Feedback and consequences of the appraisal Chapter 5 showed that effect ive appra isals prov ide good feedback and can help teachers to improve the ir teach ing pract ices . Are feedback and its consequences related to management styles ?

The first relevant find ing is that in most countr ies the use of e ither self-evaluat ion or external evaluat ion are only weakly related to pr inc ipals ’ leadersh ip styles, in part because such evaluat ions are fa irly w idespread in most countr ies (Table 6 .14) . However, there is some ind icat ion that both k inds of evaluat ions are l inked to both styles . In part icular, in almost half of the countr ies, those schools whose pr inc ipals have a more pronounced instruct ional leadersh ip style are more l ikely to have conducted a self-evaluat ion in the prev ious five years .

The level of adm inistrat ive leadersh ip is not assoc iated w ith the amount of feedback rece ived by teachers, but in schools w ith more instruct ional leadersh ip there is more feedback g iven to teachers 1.

Pr inc ipals were also asked about var ious scenar ios involv ing feedback and its consequences follow ing an appra isal of a teacher w ith weak instruct ional sk ills . Three scenar ios were proposed : i) the pr inc ipal and others develop a tra ining programme to address the teacher ’s weaknesses ; ii) the appra isal outcome is reported to other parts of the school system for act ion ; and iii) the pr inc ipal imposes mater ial sanct ions on the teacher .

As shown in Table 6 .10, in 17 countr ies, net of other factors in the model, pr inc ipals w ith an instruct ional leadersh ip style report s ign ificantly more often that they would develop a profess ional development programme to improve the instruct ional pract ices of the weak teacher . Ne ither leadersh ip style is strongly related to the use of mater ial sanct ions or correct ive act ions external to the school .

Teachers’ professional development Chapter 3 descr ibes the extent of teachers ’ profess ional development . The relat ion between management styles and two ind icators of teachers ’ part icipat ion in profess ional development are exam ined here : the number of days of teachers ’ profess ional development over the prev ious 18 months and whether or not they would have l iked more .

For each ind icator, the teacher model is est imated for each country to exam ine the relat ion w ith pr inc ipals ’ management styles, controll ing for a number of profess ional and personal character ist ics of teachers : gender, level of exper ience as a teacher, educat ional tra ining, permanency of the ir teach ing pos ition, how many schools they teach in, and s ize of the commun ity of the school .

As Table 6 .11 ind icates, in most TALIS countr ies ne ither leadersh ip style is related to the number of days of profess ional development completed or to teachers ’ sat isfact ion w ith the number of profess ional development days that they rece ived . There is some relat ion in a few countr ies but no cons istent pattern . For instance, in Bulgar ia, Iceland, Malta and Sloven ia, the degree of unsat isfied demand for profess ional development was

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greater in schools w ith a stronger adm inistrat ive leadersh ip style, but th is was also the case in Hungary, Iceland, Malta and Turkey in schools w ith a strong instruct ional leadersh ip style .

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND PRACTICE In an era of accountab ility and devolut ion of author ity in educat ion, th is chapter has cons idered five d imens ions of the management behav iour and style of secondary school pr inc ipals . Three of these are closely al igned w ith new ideas about school management and recent recommendat ions of the OECD . One concerns pr inc ipals ’ act ions for manag ing the school along clearly stated goals based on student learn ing and performance ob ject ives . Second is management of the instruct ional qual ity of teachers in the school . Th ird is management that includes direct superv ision of instruct ional qual ity and feedback to teachers . These three d imens ions of management behav iours form the instructional leadership style .

The two rema ining d imens ions of manager ial behav iour represent more trad itional school adm inistrat ion . The first is pr inc ipals ’ act ions related to accountab ility regard ing the school ’s performance and adm inistrat ion w ith in the educat ion system . The second involves act ions taken w ith regard to schedul ing of teachers and courses and the enforcement of school pol icies and procedures . These two d imens ions of management behav iour form the administrative leadership style .

Figure 6.3 Effects of greater use of instructional or administrative leadership styles Effects that are evident in at least one-quarter of the TALIS countries 1 Number Leadership style Effects of countries Instructional leadership Greater degree of collaborat ion among teachers, both for exchange and co-ord inat ion for 6 teach ing and more soph ist icated profess ional collaborat ion Better teacher-student relat ions 6 Greater recogn ition g iven to student test scores or other student outcome measures in teacher 7 appra isals or feedback Greater recogn ition g iven to teachers ’ part icipat ion in profess ional development act ivities in 13 teacher appra isals or feedback Greater recogn ition g iven to teachers ’ innovat ive teach ing pract ices in teacher appra isals or 10 feedback A development plan is establ ished to address weaknesses follow ing a teacher appra isal 17 Administrative leadership No effects are cons istently ev ident in at least one-quarter of TALIS countr ies . 1. Results from mult i-level l inear regress ions, controll ing for teachers ’ gender, level of educat ion, years of exper ience, commun ity of the school, permanent employee, and work in other schools . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

The chapter has exam ined how these styles of leadersh ip vary from country to country and how they relate to the work of teachers . F igure 6 .3 summar ises the relat ions that are most commonly found in the part icipat ing countr ies . The follow ing conclus ions can be drawn :

New trends in school leadership are evident to varying degrees in countries’ educational systems Key results: • In 10 countr ies, pr inc ipals use instruct ional leadersh ip more ; in the other 13 they use it less (Table 6 .3) . • A s izeable group of pr inc ipals comb ine instruct ional leadersh ip w ith adm inistrat ive leadersh ip (Table 6 .3) . • Leadersh ip style is unrelated to autonomy in dec ision mak ing (F igure 6 .2) .

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Discussion These find ings suggest that the instruct ional leadersh ip parad igm has made some progress in all countr ies, but much more in some than in others . It also challenges two common assumpt ions about the spread of such leadersh ip. First, it is not necessar ily an alternat ive to adm inistrat ive leadersh ip, and an effect ive pr inc ipal is l ikely to d isplay elements of both styles . Second, s imply devolv ing respons ibilities to schools does not necessar ily tr igger a change in leadersh ip style . Th is po ints to the need for act ive intervent ions to develop the sk ills and pract ices of ind ividual pr inc ipals . It should not be assumed that structural changes in nat ional adm inistrat ive systems w ill automat ically result in a des ired form of leadersh ip.

While neither leadership style is consistently associated with teachers’ beliefs and practices, there is evidence to suggest that instructional leadership is related to important aspects of the management of effective instruction in schools

Key results • In most countr ies, pr inc ipals ’ leadersh ip style has l imited d irect assoc iat ion w ith teachers ’ bel iefs and pract ices or w ith the amount of profess ional development teachers rece ive, after other factors are controlled for (Tables 6 .4, 6 .5 and 6 .11) . • However, more pronounced instruct ional leadersh ip is assoc iated w ith manager ial aspects of teach ing, such as the use of effect ive and support ive teacher appra isals and feedback processes to improve instruct ion (Table 6 .9) . • In many TALIS countr ies an instruct ional leadersh ip style is assoc iated w ith schools that make more frequent use of an appra isal process a imed at student learn ing outcomes and at teachers ’ use of profess ional development . It is also assoc iated w ith adopt ing spec ific profess ional development plans ta ilored to help weaker teachers to improve the ir teach ing pract ices (Tables 6 .9 and 6 .10) .

Discussion The use of instruct ional leadersh ip by pr inc ipals is assoc iated w ith aspects of the management of instruct ion that is in l ine w ith recent research and pol icy recommendat ions for develop ing teachers in schools . Support ive appra isals and feedback from wh ich teachers can judge and improve the ir profess ional pract ices is a cruc ial part of effect ive teacher management . S imilarly, al ign ing teacher appra isals w ith student ach ievement outcomes is a sound manager ial pract ise to focus teachers ’ efforts on what really counts in the educat ional process . The same is true for recogn ising the use of profess ional development of teachers in the appra isal of teachers ’ work . Finally, school leadersh ip that develops profess ional development plans to fit ind ividual teachers ’ needs, as assessed by appra isals, completes the manager ial process for support ing effect ive teachers . The fact that in a number of countr ies, pr inc ipals who employ a s ign ificant level of instruct ional leadersh ip run schools w ith th is kind of process for appra ising and develop ing instruct ion po ints to poss ible benefits to nat ional school systems in tra ining pr inc ipals to use instruct ional leadersh ip techn iques .

The lack of strong relat ions between school leadersh ip behav iour and teachers ’ pract ices, bel iefs and att itudes (after other factors are controlled for) is an interest ing find ing . It is cons istent w ith other research that shows the impact of school leadersh ip to be ind irect and m itigated through the act ions of teachers and others . To some extent the find ing also echoes the analys is in Chapter 4 wh ich showed that, in the ma in, teachers ’ pract ices, bel iefs and att itudes vary to a far greater extent among a country ’s teacher populat ion generally than between teachers in d ifferent schools . Such ind ividual ity among teachers illustrates a challenge for school leaders to address the needs of a heterogeneous group of teachers in seek ing to ach ieve common school goals .

It should also be noted that TALIS focuses on secondary school teachers and pr inc ipals, the former of wh ich are l ikely to be sub ject spec ial ist and w ill develop spec ific att itudes and pract ises w ith in the ir academ ic field .

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Given th is, pr inc ipals ’ management styles in secondary educat ion may be expected to have less of an influence on teachers ’ pract ices and behav iours than m ight be the case in pr imary educat ion . Instead as descr ibed above, secondary school leadersh ip has its most s ign ificant impact on teachers through the overall manager ial process that al igns appra isal w ith ach ievement outcomes and both of these w ith profess ional development .

ADDITIONAL MATERIAL The follow ing add itional mater ial relevant to th is chapter is ava ilable on l ine at : 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

Table 6 .4a Results of mult ilevel l inear regress ions, exam ining the net effect of instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip on teacher bel iefs (2007-08) Table 6 .5a Results of mult ilevel l inear regress ions, exam ining the net effect of instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip on teach ing pract ices (2007-08) Table 6 .6a Results of mult ilevel l inear regress ions, exam ining the net effect of instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip on co-ord inat ion and profess ional collaborat ion among teachers (2007-08) Table 6 .7a Results of mult ilevel l inear regress ions, exam ining the net effect of instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip on classroom cl imate, t ime spent on learn ing and teacher-student relat ionsh ip (2007-08) Table 6 .8a Results of mult ilevel l inear regress ions, exam ining the net effect of instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip on teacher ’s job sat isfact ion and self-efficacy (2007-08) Table 6 .9a Results of mult ivar iate l inear regress ions, exam ining the net effect of instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip on aspects of teacher appra isals (2007-08) Table 6 .10a Results of mult ivar iate l inear regress ions, exam ining the net effect of instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip on pr inc ipal ’s use of three scenar ios to improve an instruct ionally-weak teacher (2007-08) Table 6 .11a Results of mult ilevel l inear regress ions, exam ining the net effect of instruct ional and adm inistrat ive leadersh ip on teachers ’ profess ional development (2007-08)

NOTES

1. Based on a regress ion analys is of leadersh ip style and teachers ’ responses to whether they rece ived feedback or not .

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Table 6.1 School principal leadership behavioral items (2007-08) Items in behavioral indices for principals in lower secondary education

Indices Item name Description of the item Management-school bcg15a I make sure that the profess ional development act ivities of teachers are in accordance w ith the teach ing goals of the school . goals index bcg15b I ensure that teachers work accord ing to the school ’s educat ional goals . bcg15d I use student performance results to develop the school ’s educat ional goals . bcg15 j I take exam results into account in dec isions regard ing curr iculum development . bcg15k I ensure that there is clar ity concern ing the respons ibility for co-ord inat ing the curr iculum . bcg16m In th is school, we work on goals and/or a school development plan . Instructional bcg15g When a teacher has problems in h is/her classroom, I take the initiat ive to d iscuss matters . management index bcg15h I inform teachers about poss ibilities for updat ing the ir knowledge and sk ills . bcg15l When a teacher br ings up a classroom problem, we solve the problem together . bcg15m I pay attent ion to d isrupt ive behav iour in classrooms . Direct supervision bcg15c I observe instruct ion in classrooms . of instruction in bcg15e I g ive teachers suggest ions as to how they can improve the ir teach ing . the school index bcg15f I mon itor students ’ work . bcg15 i I check to see whether classroom act ivities are in keep ing w ith our educat ional goals . Accountable bcg16a An important part of my job is to ensure m inistry approved instruct ional approaches are expla ined to new teachers, management index and that more exper ienced teachers are us ing these approaches . bcg16d A ma in part of my job is to ensure that the teach ing sk ills of the staff are always improv ing . bcg16e An important part of my job is to ensure that teachers are held accountable for the atta inment of the school ’s goals . bcg16f An important part of my job is to present new ideas to the parents in a conv inc ing way . Bureaucratic bcg16h It is important for the school that I see to it that everyone st icks to the rules . management index bcg16 i It is important for the school that I check for m istakes and errors in adm inistrat ive procedures and reports . bcg16 j An important part of my job is to resolve problems w ith the t imetable and/or lesson plann ing . bcg16k An important part of my job is to create an orderly atmosphere in the school . bcg16o I st imulate a task-or iented atmosphere in th is school . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

Table 6.2 School principal leadership behavioral indices (2007-08) Indices for styles of leadership of principals in lower secondary education 1

Indices for instructional leadership Indices for administrative leadership

Direct supervision Management-school Instructional of instruction in Accountable Bureaucratic goals index management index the school index management index management index Mean (S.E.) Mean (S.E.) Mean (S.E.) Mean (S.E.) Mean (S.E.) Australia 0.47 (0 .10) -0 .80 (0 .08) -0 .15 (0 .08) -0 .29 (0 .08) -1 .00 (0 .09) Austria -0 .99 (0 .05) 0 .14 (0 .06) -0 .47 (0 .04) -0 .11 (0 .06) 0 .00 (0 .07) Belgium (Fl.) -0 .34 (0 .08) -0 .15 (0 .07) -0 .40 (0 .05) -0 .54 (0 .06) -0 .34 (0 .05) Brazil 0.42 (0 .08) 1 .10 (0 .05) 1 .08 (0 .05) 0 .63 (0 .06) 0 .28 (0 .06) Bulgaria 0.47 (0 .11) -0 .12 (0 .07) 0 .62 (0 .07) 1 .32 (0 .10) 0 .87 (0 .09) Denmark -0 .77 (0 .13) 0 .88 (0 .09) -0 .88 (0 .03) -1 .65 (0 .07) -1 .37 (0 .05) Estonia 0.03 (0 .07) -0 .93 (0 .07) -0 .79 (0 .04) -1 .04 (0 .06) -0 .56 (0 .04) Hungary 0.67 (0 .06) 0 .46 (0 .07) 0 .20 (0 .07) -0 .09 (0 .07) 0 .50 (0 .09) Iceland -0 .29 (0 .10) -0 .44 (0 .08) -0 .41 (0 .04) -0 .72 (0 .07) -0 .75 (0 .07) Ireland 0.30 (0 .08) -0 .24 (0 .07) -1 .31 (0 .07) 0 .30 (0 .07) 0 .10 (0 .07) Italy -0 .74 (0 .06) 0 .68 (0 .06) 0 .63 (0 .08) 0 .13 (0 .06) 0 .60 (0 .04) Korea -0 .28 (0 .06) -0 .27 (0 .06) 0 .46 (0 .05) -0 .14 (0 .06) -0 .70 (0 .10) Lithuania 0.06 (0 .07) 0 .03 (0 .07) -0 .20 (0 .04) m m -0 .18 (0 .07) Malaysia -0 .30 (0 .09) -0 .87 (0 .08) 0 .35 (0 .06) 1 .03 (0 .05) 0 .91 (0 .06) Malta 0.27 (0 .10) 0 .76 (0 .11) -0 .21 (0 .07) -0 .24 (0 .09) -0 .13 (0 .10) Mexico 0.10 (0 .08) -0 .38 (0 .06) 0 .87 (0 .06) 0 .53 (0 .07) 0 .47 (0 .09) Norway -0 .31 (0 .06) 0 .12 (0 .07) -0 .68 (0 .04) 0 .79 (0 .06) 0 .31 (0 .06) Poland 0.83 (0 .08) 0 .25 (0 .08) 0 .94 (0 .03) -0 .27 (0 .06) -0 .14 (0 .06) Portugal 0.41 (0 .06) 0 .25 (0 .04) -1 .73 (0 .07) -0 .15 (0 .07) 0 .15 (0 .08) Slovak Republic 0.22 (0 .07) -0 .98 (0 .11) 0 .87 (0 .06) 0 .25 (0 .05) -0 .21 (0 .05) Slovenia 0.63 (0 .05) 0 .37 (0 .05) 1 .16 (0 .04) 0 .08 (0 .04) -0 .06 (0 .05) Spain -0 .67 (0 .08) -0 .40 (0 .07) -0 .82 (0 .08) -0 .88 (0 .07) -0 .24 (0 .09) Turkey -0 .40 (0 .14) 0 .49 (0 .13) 0 .36 (0 .09) 0 .61 (0 .09) 1 .04 (0 .12) TALIS average 0 .00 (0 .02) 0.00 (0 .02) 0.00 (0 .01) 0.00 (0 .02) 0.00 (0 .01) 1. Country values that are shaded are not stat ist ically d ifferent from the TALIS average . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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Table 6.3 Management leadership styles (2007-08) Indices of leadership styles adopted by principals in lower secondary education

Instructional leadership 1 Administrative leadership 2 Mean (S.E.) Mean (S.E.) Australia -0 .22 (0 .09) -0 .72 (0 .08) Austria -0 .59 (0 .05) -0 .06 (0 .06) Belgium (Fl.) -0 .40 (0 .08) -0 .49 (0 .05) Brazil 1.17 (0 .07) 0 .51 (0 .06) Bulgaria 0.43 (0 .07) 1 .23 (0 .10) Denmark -0 .34 (0 .09) -1 .68 (0 .06) Estonia -0 .76 (0 .06) -0 .89 (0 .05) Hungary 0.59 (0 .07) 0 .24 (0 .09) Iceland -0 .51 (0 .07) -0 .81 (0 .07) Ireland -0 .56 (0 .08) 0 .22 (0 .06) Italy 0.26 (0 .08) 0 .41 (0 .05) Korea -0 .04 (0 .07) -0 .46 (0 .08) Lithuania 3 -0 .05 (0 .06) -0 .20 (0 .08) Malaysia -0 .37 (0 .09) 1 .09 (0 .06) Malta 0.37 (0 .09) -0 .20 (0 .09) Mexico 0.26 (0 .08) 0 .56 (0 .08) Norway -0 .39 (0 .05) 0 .62 (0 .05) Poland 0.91 (0 .07) -0 .22 (0 .05) Portugal -0 .48 (0 .06) 0 .01 (0 .07) Slovak Republic 0.05 (0 .09) 0 .03 (0 .05) Slovenia 0.97 (0 .05) 0 .01 (0 .04) Spain -0 .85 (0 .09) -0 .62 (0 .08) Turkey 0.20 (0 .15) 0 .92 (0 .11) TALIS average 0.00 (0 .02) 0.00 (0 .01) 1. Average of the ind ices for Management-school goals, Instruct ional management and D irect superv ision in the school . 2. Average of the ind ices for Accountable management and Bureaucrat ic management . 3. The score for L ithuan ia in the Adm inistrat ive leadersh ip index is based only on the Bureaucrat ic management index because of m iss ing data in the index for Accountable management . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

Table 6.4 Relationship between school leadership style and teachers’ beliefs about instruction (2007-08) Significant variables in the multilevel linear regression of the indices for school leadership styles and the indices for beliefs about instruction in lower secondary education 1,2

Example: In Belg ium (Fl .), teachers who work w ith a pr inc ipal w ith a more pronounced instruct ional style of leadersh ip have a stronger bel ief in a d irect tranm iss ion approach to teach ing .

Teacher beliefs: Direct transmission Teacher beliefs: Constructivist Dependent on: Dependent on: Instructional leadership Administrative leadership Instructional leadership Administrative leadership Australia Austria Belgium (Fl.) + Brazil Bulgaria – – Denmark Estonia + Hungary + Iceland + – + Ireland Italy Korea Lithuania Malaysia Malta – – + + Mexico Norway Poland Portugal + Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Turkey 1. Var iables where a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip was found are ind icated by a “+” wh ile those where a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip was found are shown with a “–”. Cells are blank where no s ign ificant relat ionsh ip was found . S ign ificance was tested at the 5% level . 2. Controll ing for the teacher ’s gender, level of educat ion, years of exper ience, employment status, whether they work in another school and the s ize of the commun ity in wh ich the school is located . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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Table 6.5 Relationship between school leadership style and teaching practices (2007-08) Significant variables in the multilevel linear regression of the indices for school leadership styles on the indices for the following teaching practices in lower secondary education 1, 2

Example: In Iceland, teachers use structur ing teach ing pract ices more frequently if they work w ith a pr inc ipal adopt ing a more pronounced adm inistrat ive style of leadersh ip.

Teacher practices: Structuring Teacher practices: Student oriented Teacher practices: Enhanced activities Dependent on: Dependent on: Dependent on:

Instructional Administrative Instructional Administrative Instructional Administrative leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership Australia Austria Belgium (Fl.) Brazil Bulgaria Denmark Estonia Hungary + Iceland + – + – + Ireland + Italy + + Korea – Lithuania + Malaysia Malta – + – + – + Mexico Norway – Poland + Portugal Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Turkey 1. Var iables where a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip was found are ind icated by a “+” wh ile those where a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip was found are shown with a “–”. Cells are blank where no s ign ificant relat ionsh ip was found . S ign ificance was tested at the 5% level . 2. Controll ing for the teachers ’ gender, level of educat ion, years of exper ience, employment status, whether they work in another school and the s ize of the commun ity in wh ich the school is located . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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Table 6.6 Relationship between school leadership style and co-ordination and professional collaboration among teachers (2007-08) Significant variables in the multilevel linear regression of the indices for school leadership styles on the indices for co-ordination and professional collaboration in lower secondary education 1, 2

Example: In Hungary, teachers are more l ikely to exchange and co-ord inate in the ir teach ing act ivities if they work w ith a pr inc ipal who adopts a more pronounced instruct ional style of leadersh ip.

Exchange and co-ordination for teaching Professional collaboration Dependent on: Dependent on:

Instructional leadership Administrative leadership Instructional leadership Administrative leadership Australia Austria Belgium (Fl.) Brazil Bulgaria Denmark Estonia Hungary + + Iceland + – + Ireland Italy Korea Lithuania + + Malaysia + – + – Malta – + – + Mexico + Norway + Poland + + Portugal Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Turkey 1. Var iables where a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip was found are ind icated by a “+” wh ile those where a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip was found are shown with a “–”. Cells are blank where no s ign ificant relat ionsh ip was found . S ign ificance was tested at the 5% level . 2. Controll ing for the teacher ’s gender, level of educat ion, years of exper ience, employment status, whether they work in another school and the s ize of the commun ity in wh ich the school is located . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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Table 6.7 Relationship between school leadership style and classroom disciplinary climate, time on task and teacher-student relation indices (2007-08) Significant variables in the multilevel linear regression of the indices for school leadership styles and the indices for classroom disciplinary climate, time on task and teacher-student relations in lower secondary education 1, 2

Example: In Denmark, teachers are more l ikely to report better relat ions w ith students if they work w ith a pr inc ipal who adopts a more pronounced instruct ional style of leadersh ip.

Percentage of time dedicated to actual Classroom disciplinary climate teaching and learning in class Teacher-Student relation Dependent on: Dependent on: Dependent on:

Instructional Administrative Instructional Administrative Instructional Administrative leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership Australia + Austria Belgium (Fl.) Brazil Bulgaria Denmark + Estonia Hungary + Iceland – + – + + Ireland Italy Korea Lithuania Malaysia Malta + – + – + – Mexico + Norway Poland Portugal + Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Turkey 1. Var iables where a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip was found are ind icated by a “+” wh ile those where a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip was found are shown with a “–”. Cells are blank where no s ign ificant relat ionsh ip was found . S ign ificance was tested at the 5% level . 2. Controll ing for the teacher ’s gender, level of educat ion, years of exper ience, employment status, whether they work in another school and the s ize of the commun ity in wh ich the school is located . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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Table 6.8 Relationship between school leadership style and teacher’s job satisfaction and self-efficacy (2007-08) Significant variables in the multilevel linear regression of the indices for school leadership styles and the indices for teacher’s job satisfaction and self-efficacy in lower secondary education 1, 2

Example: In Eston ia, teachers tend to be more sat isfied w ith the ir jobs if they work w ith a pr inc ipal who adopts a more pronounced instruct ional style of leadersh ip.

Teachers’ job satisfaction Teachers’ self-efficacy Dependent on: Dependent on:

Instructional leadership Administrative leadership Instructional leadership Administrative leadership Australia Austria Belgium (Fl.) Brazil Bulgaria Denmark Estonia + Hungary + + Iceland – + + Ireland Italy Korea Lithuania Malaysia Malta + – + – Mexico Norway Poland Portugal + Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain + Turkey + 1. Var iables where a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip was found are ind icated by a “+” wh ile those where a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip was found are shown with a “–”. Cells are blank where no s ign ificant relat ionsh ip was found . S ign ificance was tested at the 5% level . 2. Controll ing for the teacher ’s gender, level of educat ion, years of exper ience, employment status, whether they work in another school and the s ize of the commun ity in wh ich the school is located . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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Table 6.9 Relationship between school leadership style and objectives of teacher appraisals (2007-08) Significant variables in the multilevel linear regression of the indices for school leadership styles and aspects of teacher appraisals in lower secondary education 1,2

Example: In Austral ia, a greater importance is g iven to innovat ive teach ing pract ices in teacher appra isals if the school pr inc ipal adopts a more pronounced instruct ional style of leadersh ip.

Factors considered in teacher appraisals Objective of teacher appraisal is to inform an Retention and pass rates of Professional development Innovative teaching administrative level above Student test scores the students undertaken by the teacher practices the school 3 Dependent on: Dependent on: Dependent on: Dependent on: Dependent on:

Instructional Administrative Instructional Administrative Instructional Administrative Instructional Administrative Instructional Administrative leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership Australia + Austria +++ + + Belgium (Fl.) + Brazil + + Bulgaria + + + Denmark + + + Estonia + +++ + Hungary + + + + Iceland + + + Ireland + + Italy + Korea + Lithuania + + Malaysia Malta + Mexico + + + + + Norway + + Poland + Portugal +–+– + Slovak Republic + Slovenia –+ + + + Spain + + + Turkey + + 1. Var iables where a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip was found are ind icated by a “+” wh ile those where a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip was found are shown with a “–”. Cells are blank where no s ign ificant relat ionsh ip was found . S ign ificance was tested at the 5% level . 2. Controll ing for the pr inc ipal ’s gender, level of educat ion, years of exper ience, employment status, whether they work in another school and the s ize of the commun ity in wh ich the school is located, the publ ic/pr ivate status of the school, the student-teacher rat io and average class s ize in the school . 3. School board, mun icipal ity, school d istr ict and school inspectorate . Source : OECD, TALIS Database. 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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Table 6.10 Relationship between school leadership style and outcomes of teacher appraisals (2007-08) Significant variables in the multilevel linear regression of the indices for school leadership styles and the actions taken if a teacher appraisal reveals weaknesses in the teachers’ work, in lower secondary education 1, 2

Example: In Austr ia, a tra ining or development plan is more l ikely to be prov ided for a teacher if the pr inc ipal adopts a more pronounced instruct ional style of leadersh ip.

A development or training plan is established for the teacher to address Material sanctions The underperformance is reported the weaknesses in their teaching are imposed on the teacher to another body to take action Dependent on: Dependent on: Dependent on:

Instructional Administrative Instructional Administrative Instructional Administrative leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership leadership Australia Austria + Belgium (Fl.) + Brazil + Bulgaria + + + Denmark Estonia + Hungary + Iceland + Ireland - Italy Korea + Lithuania + Malaysia + Malta + + Mexico + Norway + + Poland Portugal + Slovak Republic + + + Slovenia + Spain + Turkey + 1. Var iables where a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip was found are ind icated by a “+” wh ile those where a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip was found are shown with a “–”. Cells are blank where no s ign ificant relat ionsh ip was found . S ign ificance was tested at the 5% level . 2. Controll ing for the pr inc ipal ’s gender, level of educat ion, years of exper ience, employment status, whether they work in another school and the s ize of the commun ity in wh ich the school is located . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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Table 6.11 Relationship between school leadership style and the professional development of teachers (2007-08) Significant variables in the multilevel linear regression of the indices for school leadership styles on aspects of teachers’ professional development in lower secondary education 1, 2

Example: In Bulgar ia, teachers are more l ikely to want more profess ional development than they undertook if the school pr inc ipal adopts a more pronounced adm inistrat ive style of leadersh ip.

Number of days of professional development taken Teachers wanting more professional development than during the last 18 months they received in the last 18 months Dependent on: Dependent on:

Instructional leadership Administrative leadership Instructional leadership Administrative leadership Australia Austria Belgium (Fl.) Brazil Bulgaria + Denmark Estonia Hungary + Iceland + + + + Ireland Italy Korea Lithuania Malaysia Malta – + + + Mexico Norway Poland Portugal Slovak Republic Slovenia + Spain + Turkey + 1. Var iables where a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip was found are ind icated by a “+” wh ile those where a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip was found are shown with a “–”. Cells are blank where no s ign ificant relat ionsh ip was found . S ign ificance was tested at the 5% level . 2. Controll ing for the teacher ’s gender, level of educat ion, years of exper ience, employment status, whether they work in another school and the s ize of the commun ity in wh ich the school is located . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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Table 6.12 Relationship between the background characteristics of the principals and their school and the use of instructional leadership style (2007-08) Significant values for principals in lower secondary education

Frequency Influence of school Criteria in school of school School principals’ characteristics School characteristics self-evaluation evaluation evaluations Gender (Female) of education (Master or Level higher) ) of experience ( < 5 years Years of experience ( 6-15 years) Years in other school Work Constructivist beliefs about instruction school Public Village Locality of the school: Town Locality of the school: Student-teacher ratio of class size Average Once in 5 years during more or years 5 Two scores test Student teaching practices Innovative professional Teacher’s development school the of Appraisal management (high influence) individual the of Appraisal teachers (high influence) Australia + Austria + + + Belgium (Fl.) + – + + + Brazil + + + Bulgaria + + – + + Denmark ++ +––– + Estonia + + + + Hungary + Iceland ++–+ –– – – + + Ireland + – – Italy – a + + Korea ++ ++–+ Lithuania – + – – Malaysia + +–– –– + Malta + + Mexico + + + Norway + + + + + + Poland + – – Portugal + + + Slovak Republic a + Slovenia a + + Spain + –+– +–+ + Turkey + + + + – + + – Note : – Var iables where a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip was found are ind icated by a “+” wh ile those where a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip was found are shown with a “–”. Cells are blank where no s ign ificant relat ionsh ip was found . S ign ificance was tested at the 5% level . – “a” denotes that the var iable is not ava ilable . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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Table 6.13 Relationship between the background characteristics of the principals and their school and the use of administrative leadership style (2007-08) Significant values for principals in lower secondary education

Frequency Influence of school Criteria in school of school School principals’ characteristics School characteristics self-evaluation evaluation evaluations Gender (Female) of education (Master or Level higher) ) of experience ( < 5 years Years of experience ( 6-15 years) Years in other school Work Constructivist beliefs about instruction school Public Village Locality of the school: Town Locality of the school: Student-teacher ratio of class size Average Once in 5 years during more or years 5 Two scores test Student teaching practices Innovative professional Teacher’s development school the of Appraisal management (high influence) individual the of Appraisal teachers (high influence) Australia + +–– + Austria – + + Belgium (Fl.) + + Brazil + + Bulgaria + +++ + Denmark + + – + Estonia + + Hungary + ++ +– Iceland + Ireland + + – Italy – a + Korea – – + + + Lithuania + – Malaysia + – – Malta + + Mexico + ––– Norway + + + Poland +– + + Portugal – + – Slovak Republic a + Slovenia a Spain + + Turkey + + + + Note : – Var iables where a s ign ificant pos itive relat ionsh ip was found are ind icated by a “+” wh ile those where a s ign ificant negat ive relat ionsh ip was found are shown with a “–”. Cells are blank where no s ign ificant relat ionsh ip was found . S ign ificance was tested at the 5% level . – “a” denotes that the var iable is not ava ilable . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

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LEADING TO L EARN : S CHOOL L EADERSHIP AND M ANAGEMENT S TYLES CHAPTER 6

Table 6.14 Correlation between leadership styles and types of evaluation 1 (2007-08) Correlations for school principals in lower secondary education

Instructional leadership Administrative leadership School self-evaluation External evaluation School self-evaluation External evaluation Australia 0.24 0 .10 0 .14 -0 .01 Austria 0.20 0 .21 -0 .03 -0 .01 Belgium (Fl.) 0.34 0 .14 0 .21 0 .10 Brazil 0.31 0 .26 -0 .05 -0 .01 Bulgaria 0.10 0 .19 0 .02 -0 .06 Denmark 0.23 0 .25 0 .30 0 .25 Estonia 0.09 0 .06 0 .16 0 .07 Hungary 0.11 0 .16 0 .00 -0 .02 Iceland 0.22 0 .18 -0 .09 0 .26 Ireland 0.22 0 .17 0 .19 0 .08 Italy 0.09 0 .09 0 .03 0 .17 Korea 0.21 0 .16 0 .18 0 .14 Lithuania 0.14 -0 .03 0 .10 0 .01 Malaysia 0.28 0 .10 0 .22 0 .18 Malta 0.30 0 .01 0 .15 -0 .11 Mexico 0.11 0 .06 0 .06 0 .05 Norway 0.12 0 .14 0 .11 0 .07 Poland 0.08 0 .12 -0 .02 0 .01 Portugal 0.14 0 .12 0 .16 0 .15 Slovak Republic 0.19 0 .06 0 .03 0 .09 Slovenia 0.12 0 .16 -0 .02 0 .10 Spain 0.23 0 .13 0 .33 0 .12 Turkey 0.15 0 .40 0 .06 0 .15 1. Whether or not an evaluat ion was conducted in the prev ious five years . Note : Correlat ions that are s ign ificant at the 5% level are shaded in l ight gray . Source : OECD, TALIS Database . 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/608025205225

Creat ing Effect ive Teach ing and Learn ing Env ironments : F irst Results from TALIS – ISBN 978-92-64-05605-3 © OECD 2009