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The origins of edible

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Dixon, G. R. (2017) The origins of edible brassicas. Plantsman, 16 (3). pp. 180-185. ISSN 1477-5298 Available at http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/75821/

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Central Archive at the University of Reading Reading’s research outputs online A native of -cliffs in the UK, wild ( oleracea) is the ancestor of many edible brassicas

ardeners’ result is full of fascinating sagas Enclosing gardens (the hortus from evolution in the wild, which are equally colourful as those conclusus of religion, art and legend) Gselection in cultivation and of ornamentals. Growing food protected crops from browsing most recently by scientifically supplies allowed the development animals and facilitated mankind’s directed breeding. The history of our of stable and civilized societies. move from hunter-gathering into permanent communities. Domestication of cereals, legumes and members of the cabbage (, also known as Cruciferae) The origins were major steps in mankind’s social evolution. The early Greek, Roman, Indian and Chinese writers recorded this development which has of edible continued into today’s societies. Brassicas provide edible , and roots that can be eaten fresh, cooked or processed. They brassicas also provide animal fodder and forage, permitting year-round meat Geoff Dixon Garden cabbage is perhaps the most familiar derived and milk production. Their proteins explores the origin of from and oils can be used in many edible products and for illumination and as vegetable brassicas industrial lubricants. For flavouring and discusses their they provide mustards and herbs. Many are also used as flexibility and ornamentals in gardens, and as green diversity manures and composting crops. The Carol Sheppard / RHS tiny, rapidly reproducing rock cress, thaliana, is widely used to study genetics and even in space research (Dixon 2006).

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Origins Wild B. napus is restricted in its ● Cabbage The popular image of Brassicas had primitive common range to northern and vegetable brassicas is probably the ancestors that evolved around 24 Scandinavia. colonized cabbage, epitomised in literary terms million years ago in the Horn of widely from the Fertile Crescent such as ‘cabbage garden’, often Africa and Arabian Peninsula (Arias into parts of Russia, , synonymous with ‘vegetable garden’. et al. 2014). Their descendants southeast and Japan (Tsunoda There are three groupings of migrated northwards into the Fertile et al. 1984). Both B. oleracea and cabbage: white-headed (B. oleracea Crescent, the region of early B. rapa possess similar genetic var. f. alba), red-headed (f. agricultural development in what constituents and have taken parallel rubra) and Savoy (var. sabauda) is now parts of Egypt, Turkey, Syria, evolutionary pathways, resulting in (Nieuwhof 1969). Selection has Iraq and Iran. similarities between their respective favoured overlapping leaves with Two key species, Brassica oleracea crops (Cheng et al. 2016). spherical, flattened or conical, and B. rapa, and a product of their compact heads formed from natural hybridization, B. napus, are, European brassicas smooth, curled or savoyed leaves. respectively, the foundations for Variants of B. oleracea probably These were suited initially for most European, Oriental and some evolved both naturally and from climates and gardening niches across oilseed and edible brassicas. Brassica selection in domestication at several Europe, but eventually moving Mike Grant napus contains the sets times and places. As a result, worldwide as convenience foods. of both B. oleracea and B. rapa relationships and naming can be (Hammer et al. 2013). Several similar, complex and confusing. Hence, for ● This brassica probably naturally formed, fertile hybrids are practical breeding and gardening resembles most closely the earliest found in the brassica family, purposes a Dutch breeder, vegetable forms, and kale (B. oleracea highlighting its diversity and Hille Toxopeus, proposed using a var. acephala) is cultivated across flexibility. This natural hybridization horticulturally based nomenclature Europe. Residual populations of was initially unravelled by a Korean (Toxopeus 1974, Toxopeus et al. original wild kale are still found in horticultural botanist, U (1935). His 1979). This involved the use of Crimea. findings are supported by molecular subspecies and variety to classify Kale types were taken by Celtic studies that have emphasized the these crop types, guided by the tribes and later the Romans from the diversity and flexibility of both wild morphology of the edible parts Mediterranean and developed into and cultivated brassicas (Bonnema and their growth habits. His work hardy, reliable food sources for et al. 2011). supported earlier classifications migrating communities resulting in Wild populations of B. oleracea and suggested by Nieuwhof (1969) many forms. These include borecole its closely associated species colonized and Wellington & Quartley (1972). or curly kale, , marrow-stem cool, moist environments on the More recent molecular studies kale, palm-tree kale, Jersey kale, coasts of western Europe and the have supported the probability of Portuguese kale and thousand- Mediterranean approximately three selection pressures exerted by early headed kale (Monteiro & Williams million years ago (Arias et al. 2014). gardeners (Purugganan et al. 2000). 1989). Kale has achieved great popularity recently as an ingredient of healthy eating. Different types of kale ● (B. oleracea var. botrytis) were known by Pliny, and cultivation of many types had spread widely across Europe by the late 15th century (Gray 1982). From these annual and biennial cauliflowers others were selected for temperate upland Tim Sandall / RHS regions, while types suitable for hot and humid tropics were developed, especially in 19th century India. ➤

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A classification that relates cauliflower types with their region of cultivation was proposed by Crisp (1982), specifying Northwest European biennials, Northern European annuals, Italian, Asian and Australian types. Recent breeding programmes have incorporated genes taken from ancient Italian landraces, producing an increased range of curd colours Geoff Dixon and shapes. Cauliflower

● The relationships

between cauliflower and broccoli Carol Sheppard / RHS (B. oleracea var. italica) were clarified by Massie et al. (1996) and by King (2003). Their research shows that Kohl rabi the cauliflower curd arose in southern Italy from a heading Oriental brassicas calabrese broccoli via an Selections of B. rapa are grown intermediate Sicilian crop type. extensively throughout Asia, Originally, the term broccoli showing a diversity which equals that (from Latin brachium, arm or branch) Geoff Dixon of European brassicas (Mizushima & described a range of edible floral Broccoli Tsunoda 1969). Originally, B. rapa shoots, including some from spread from the Fertile Crescent (Thompson 1976). The ● The succulent, into Mongolia, China and then to term is now restricted to head types edible swollen-stemmed kohlrabi Japan. Much of its diversity probably carrying terminal , (B. oleracea var. gongylodes) gained developed after its primitive types including multiple green (calabrese), popularity in central and southern reached China (Kumazawa 1965). purple or white flowers. Europe from the 15th century However, headed Chinese cabbages Green broccoli is a popular onwards. Those areas remain its now dominate cropping, with convenience vegetable and breeding European culinary stronghold, in adaptations for various climate for raised concentrations of contrast to the UK where it is little zones. Differentiating types of chemicals thought to be beneficial used. It is also well established in Asian vegetable is complicated by to health has increased its value. China and Vietnam. the diversity of local selections and names applied by Chinese, Japanese ● Although known Brussels sprouts and other Asian growers. in medieval Europe, Brussels sprouts (B. oleracea var. gemmifera) became ● Pak choi This is perhaps the popular in 18th-century Brussels. most ancient of Oriental brassicas, Subsequently, French and English evolving in cultivation during the gardeners identified their value as 5th century AD. Pak choi (B. rapa winter vegetables. Locally adapted, subsp. chinensis) is grown widely open-pollinated land-races were throughout Asia, although Japanese selected for use in early autumn, gardeners still call it the ‘Chinese mid-season and late winter. vegetable’. Pak choi has also gained

Japanese breeders produced F1 popularity in ,

hybrids in the mid 20th century, Geoff Dixon and Europe, encouraged by providing breeding models for Asiatic migrants. Subspecies chinensis hybridizing other brassica crops. is the ‘large white cabbage’ of China,

182 September 2017 PlantsmanThe while var. narinosa is the ‘small white cabbage’ (Min 1957). Selections bearing narrow, flat petioles are probably closest to the original plants. colour varies between white and green, the former is an autumnal vegetable while the latter has greater cold tolerance and bolting resistance. types of pak choi (B. rapa var. rosularis) have thick, lustrous leaves arranged in tight concentric rings. Some types of pak choi are grown for their edible flowering shoots, with selections varying in Geoff Dixon colour from yellow to purple. Chinese broccoli (B. oleracea var. alboglabra) is also used for its The particular headed shape of China and parts of . flowering shoots and is more closely Chinese cabbage with wrapping Chinese cabbages are popular related to European brassicas, leaves was first recorded in China in worldwide as salads, stir-fry and particularly kales, but probably 1753. These probably reached Japan steamed vegetables. In some parts entered China in antiquity (Larkcom from Shandung in the Meiji Era. of Asia they are used in preserved 1991). Shapes of Chinese cabbage are and fermented dishes, such as All types of pak choi have gained grouped as non-, half- and complete- in Korea. widespread international popularity headed types with long, short, as ingredients of fresh, salad and stir- tapered, round-topped, wrapped- ● Strong-flavoured, loose- fry dishes. over and joined-up forms. leaved greens known as mizuna and Variants have been selected for mibuna (B. rapa var. japonica) are ● Chinese cabbage Much of the leaves overlapping at the top of the probably of Chinese origin but variation in Chinese cabbage (B. rapa conical head, and these are called have been cultivated in Japan since subsp. pekinensis) was developed by heavy-leaved, early-maturing and antiquity. Mizuna has a low, bushy Chinese gardeners during the last round-headed, and are adapted for shape with deeply dissected, dark 600 years. Derivatives reached warmer climates. There are also green foliage while mibuna has Korea in the 13th century, southeast requirements for that are longer, thinner, green leaves Asia in the 15th century and Japan in cold-tolerant, since the crop is now (Larkcom 1991). the 19th century. grown almost year-round in north Possibly some at least of these ➤ Tim Sandall / RHS Bob / RHS Martin

Pak choi Mizuna

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related swede,. developed from resulted, such as the examples B. napus, was first recorded in 17th described by Ciancaleoni et al. (2014). century Sweden (Sturtevante 1919). In the 20th century these It was then used in England as part diversity traits encouraged of crop rotations invented during the scientifically directed .

Agricultural Revolution. In North The result is a wide availability of F1 America swede is referred to as hybrids designed initially for . commercial growers but with significant benefits for gardeners, Directed breeding in terms of vigour, reliability and Variation in and selection of brassicas freedom from pests and diseases. by gardeners was encouraged by Examples of more recent the flexibility and diversity of open- developments include miniature pollinated landraces developed for cauliflower, broccoli and cabbages Rebecca Ross / RHS millennia in Europe and Asia. These suited for smaller households, diversity traits offered opportunities variation in cauliflower curd colours, is an ancient crop for improving yield, quality and, and changes in the entire form of crucially, tolerance to locally Brussels sprouts to give ‘kale brassicas arose from hybridization important pests and diseases. sprouts’. The last, also known as between B. rapa and related Numerous locally adapted cultivars ‘flower sprouts’ or ‘’, is said to species. be a cross between Brussels sprout Plant breeders have produced and kale. cultivars of mizuna that are heat- Introducing greater succulence, or cold-tolerant while mibuna fares flavour and health-promoting best under cooler conditions. properties are key objectives for brassica breeders. Brassicas contain ● Turnip (B. rapa var. naturally occurring chemicals, such rapifera) are highly regarded in Japan, as sulphorathane, that are claimed to whereas in Europe they are mainly reduce proneness to human diseases regarded, at least since the mid 20th such as coronary failures, cancers and century, as animal fodder. They are strokes. As a result, new cultivars are Miniature cauliflower is a recent the oldest recorded B. rapa crops as Geoff Dixon coming into production containing development, aimed at smaller Greek descriptions exist from the households and the snack market increased concentrations of these time of Alexander the Great. His substances. empire included much of the Fertile Crescent and from there seed Kale sprout or kalette is a modern probably travelled into Asia. For marketed as versatile and easy to prepare developing civilisations turnips provided a reliable staple food. The extent of the usefulness of turnips may be gauged from the multiplicity of forms selected by early gardeners, classified by Sinskaia (1928) and Shebalina (1968) as Afghan, Asia Minor and Palestine, Japanese, Russian, Teltou, and West-European turnips. There is now an increasing consumer interest

in succulent, early turnips such as Tozer Seeds White Milan types. The morphologically closely

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Conclusion Although not in the Brassica , For gardeners this relative ease The naturally flexible attributes of we should not forget the vast of breeding offers better crops with the Brassicaceae for exchanging genes amounts of genetic knowledge that improved environmental benefits. across species and genera simplifies have resulted from studies of rock the task of plant breeders when cress, . Its Prof. Geoffrey Dixon is an developing improved cultivars. biological simplicity and ease of Honorary Senior Research Fellow This does, however, cloud still culture under laboratory conditions in the School of , Policy further the taxonomic relationships have enabled studies revealing and Development, University of within the Brassicaceae, particularly molecular processes of huge Reading. He owns GreenGene the boundaries between species botanical, zoological and human International, a biological and within Brassica itself. medical value. horticultural consultancy.

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