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“Turkishness” in Two Jacobean Plays

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“Turkishness” in Two Jacobean Plays Masaryk University Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies English Language and Literature Anna Mikyšková The Image of “Turkishness” in Two Jacobean Plays Bachelor‟s Diploma Thesis Supervisor: Mgr. Filip Krajník, Ph. D. Consultant: Mgr. Alexandra Stachurová 2015 I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography. .............................................................. Anna Mikyšková I would like to thank to my consultant, Mgr. Alexandra Stachurová, for her assistance and valuable advice. Table of Contents Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 1. Historical Context ......................................................................................................... 5 1.1. The Powerful Ottoman Empire .......................................................................... 5 1.2. Anglo-Muslim Relations in the Renaissance Period ........................................ 10 1.3. Perception of the Turk within the European Literary Tradition ...................... 17 1.3.1. Turkish Sources Circulating Europe ......................................................... 18 1.3.2. The Scourge of God .................................................................................. 21 1.3.3. Response of the English Drama ................................................................ 24 2. Literary Analysis ......................................................................................................... 28 2.1. A Christian Turned Turk .................................................................................. 29 2.2. The Renegado ................................................................................................... 40 2.3. “Turkishness” and the English Dramatic Conventions .................................... 51 2.4. “Turkishness” as a Mirror of “Englishness” .................................................... 56 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 64 Works Cited .................................................................................................................... 67 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 72 Resumé ............................................................................................................................ 73 Introduction English early modern drama has been a subject of significant attention of literary criticism for a considerable period of time. The numerous plays of this period being staged even nowadays testify to the cultural importance of the achievement of English Renaissance dramatists. One of the reasons why drama written in the 16th and 17th centuries in England has always enjoyed great popularity is its intrinsic quality of reflecting, reacting on, and interpreting the current issues of the early modern period, one of these being the English experience with foreigners. A complex debate has evolved around the way in which the English playwrights were capturing the encounter of the Englishmen with the inhabitants of the various foreign countries, and particularly great attention was paid to the Anglo-Turkish contact, for example in the writings of Edward Said, Nabil Matar or David J. Vitkus. This thesis explores two English Jacobean plays set in a Turkish environment, A Christian Turned Turk (Robert Daborne, 1612) and The Renegado (Philip Massinger, 1623), with regard to the image of “Turkishness”, i.e. the stereotypical portrayal of the Turks and their culture. As England began to develop commercial relations with the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean in the late 16th century, more and more English subjects came into contact with Muslims and subsequently, shared their impressions of the experience with their compatriots at home. Such contacts could have been of various natures, such as trade, battle, piracy, or captivity. In this way, the unknown, dangerous, but, at the same, time very attractive Islamic lands became an issue about which the English were very anxious. It could not have taken much time until this topic arrived on stage, a place where general interests could be discussed, commented on, and subsequently mocked. English early modern dramatic texts thus represent a useful means for studying the Anglo-Islamic encounter from the English perspective. 1 The increased interest in exploration of the English treatments of the Islamic world on the scene of literary criticism was ignited by Edward Said‟s work Orientalism which has been very influential since its publication in 1978. In this work, Said demonstrates that the Western perception of the Orient has been artificially constructed and that this misconceived representation of the East has been followed, and maintained, in most Western narratives. This revolutionary observation has spurred an ongoing debate that has not ceased to this day, and numerous literary works have been reread, contributing, for instance, to the development of post-colonial approaches to literature and culture. However, as far as the Renaissance period is concerned, Said‟s theory cannot be applied to the texts written in the 16th or 17th centuries. As Professor Nabil Matar in his exhaustive overview of the relations between England and Muslim countries in the Mediterranean area during the early modern period from the English perspective, Islam in Britain, 1558-1685, pointed out: even though the “Orientalism” theory is valid for the period of British colonialism since the 18th century, it is not applicable to the period preceding it (11). Scholars such as Nabil Matar and Daniel J. Vitkus who concentrate on the Anglo-Turkish experience in the early modern period agree that in the Ottoman Empire England encountered an exceptionally strong enemy who endangered the insular kingdom not only by means of its military power, but also proved to be a serious cultural and religious competition for a country with a recent history of religious instability. The Ottomans thus embodied a threat that had to be confronted. Because the English government was very much interested in the revenues from the flourishing trade with the sultan, the campaign against the Turkish dominance were launched at least rhetorically on two remaining fronts – in church and on stage. In their efforts to convince the English public of their superiority over the Turks, especially the English 2 playwrights succeeded in constructing an imaginary reality where the European Christians were always victorious over the Muslims from the East, and this rhetoric was maintained even at the expense of historical or cultural accuracy. Moreover, the researchers on this period argue that the long tradition of defining the English self against the Muslim Other was eventually reflected in the self-determination of English identity. To demonstrate these observations, two English Renaissance plays are examined in this thesis, A Christian Turned Turk by Robert Daborne, first published in 1612, and The Renegado, written by Philip Massinger in 1623. Although both plays are set in Tunis, the playwrights fail to provide an accurate image of this North African multicultural centre where different ethnicities and religions were exposed to each other and where, as a result, the notions of national or religious allegiances came into question. There are several reasons for this inaccuracy. Firstly, the authors of the English origin in the 17th century could not have had sufficient knowledge of the Muslim world to create a true representation of the Orient; secondly (and more importantly), Jacobean dramatists viewed the Turkish society through the lenses of their Anglocentric perspective, burdened with European prejudices, superstitions and a long history of anti-Muslim religious polemic, which ruled out any possibility for objectivity. As a consequence, the plays say more about the English than about the Turks. This thesis, therefore, explores the English representation of “Turkishness” in the two aforementioned Jacobean plays, where the term “Turkishness” is understood as a stereotypical portrayal of the Turks and their culture. After taking into account the historical context of the period and the depth of knowledge the Englishmen might have had about the lands of the Ottoman Empire, the present study shall proceed to the literary analysis of A Christian Turned Turk and The Renegado, which will demonstrate 3 how the image of “Turkishness” was formed and, subsequently, confirmed in the dramatic tradition of the Jacobean period. In addition, the term “Englishness” is introduced, denoting the ideology of English superiority from which the stereotypical representation of the Turks originates. Lastly, the impact which the Anglo-Turkish experience might have had on the formation of English identity is taken into consideration. 4 1. Historical Context The early modern period in Europe was a time of exploration, territorial expansion and international contact. The European countries of which the most powerful was the Habsburg Monarchy were engaged in the struggle for colonial dominance in the Americas in the West, and at the same time they competed in the Southeast in the lucrative trade in the area of the Mediterranean Sea. There, the Europeans encountered the peoples of the Ottoman Empire. These two
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