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From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Foreword by Monty Don 1
Summary 2
Introduction 6
About the research 7
National map of locations surveyed and main local supply chains 8
Defining local 10
Context 12
Characterising local food webs 20
Main findings 36
Local food and the local economy 37
Local food and the local community 49
Local food and the local environment 55
Local food and local planning policies 58
Main recommendations 60
Conclusion 64
Endnotes 66
Summary of mapping locations 69
It is a sign of our increasing separation from nature that we are losing sight of where food comes from and how it is produced. The way we buy it adds to this alienation. Food, once at the heart of towns and communities, integral to their rhythm and reason, is often now a side show. It is sold in big boxes on the edge of town. Much of what we buy is highly processed, over- packaged, branded but anonymous, transported from anywhere available at any time. It is hard to remember that these ‘food products’ come from plants and animals, and are a result of myriad complex interactions of seasons and soil, and from the toil of real people. An important message of this report, and its companion reports from across England, is that this direction of travel isn’t complete. It doesn’t have to be a final destination. There still remain networks of producers, store and stall holders established in their communities supplying the best fresh, local and seasonal food. These ‘local food webs’ keep alive links to the recognisable places and landscapes where food is grown, raised or made. The businesses they support keep towns and nearby countryside diverse and distinctive. They are rooted in place and linked to real, meaningful landscapes. The 800 retailers and more than 1,700 producers identified in this project show the diversity of these networks and the abundance they offer: from Cheshire apple juices to Sussex fisheries, from Kent hops to Northumberland vegetables, and from Cumbrian lamb to Devon beef. They, and many more Local food is a powerful way to such networks and thousands more such businesses, are supplying food in form our own connections to ways which bring people closer to the land through community farms and the land, landscape and nature farmers’ markets, school meals and urban food growing, as well as in traditional shops and markets. But this report is an urgent call for action. In too many places these networks are struggling to survive. The odds are stacked against them. They must compete against the dominance of the big supermarkets, the erosion of town centres with the corresponding loss of diversity of outlets and small-scale producers and the disappearance of food from living streets. These trends continue to change and challenge the way our towns and countryside work and feel and the way our food is produced. They threaten the diversity of the farming system and they force up the scale at which farms can survive and rewrite how the land is managed. There are many recommendations here of how we can support local food. Government must fully support these food networks in its policies and guidance. Equally local councils must build partnerships with businesses from retailer to producer and their customers to nurture and grow local food webs. But we too, as individuals and as consumers, make important choices which shape the food system where we live. Local food is a powerful way to form our own connections to the land, landscape and nature. It is a chance to enjoy seasonal produce, to discover the best, most wholesome and freshest food around and the most distinctive varieties and tastes. It is our chance to support a food network that is rich with variety and diversity and meaning. It is a chance we need to seize.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
This report presents findings and recommendations from a five-year national project – Mapping Local Food Webs – to engage local volunteers across England to research their local food ‘webs’: the network of links between people who buy, sell, produce and supply food sourced locally.
The project builds a picture of local and its main ingredients, grown or food webs, their character, benefits, produced within 30 miles of where the challenges faced and the impact it was bought. For all locations, 61,000 that these networks have on people, outlets were in a core study area of their livelihoods and the character of a 2.5-mile radius circle centred on a Estimated number of jobs their town and local countryside. town or city. Producers based within across England due to local This report brings together findings a 30-mile supply zone beyond this food sales to shoppers from 19 locations to describe local food were counted as local. webs in national terms. We have collated qualitative and quantitative Main recommendations data from interviews in all locations These recommendations are for to generate combined statistics and the Government, local authorities, 16.3 shared themes and issues. The report food retail businesses, local million considers the scale and economic communities and individuals. importance of local food webs in terms Further recommendations appear Number of customers of jobs supported, turnover of outlets across the report. English local food outlets and supply chain businesses, and 1 – Government should develop the could serve each week also their social and environmental competition policy framework to importance. We include analysis of the better support retail diversity and challenging context in which these food entry to markets of new local food webs operate including current policy. entrepreneurs by preventing further We draw conclusions about how policy market concentration which could £2.7 change and actions can enable local act as a barrier for small and medium- Billion food webs to grow and thrive for the sized businesses. long-term future. 2 – Government should develop Potential annual sales national planning policy guidance from independent local Definition of a local food web and to provide stronger support for a food outlets in 750 towns local food sustainable food system by showing across England For the project we defined: how planning can promote and protect • a local food web as the network of the infrastructure and assets needed links between people who buy, sell, to buy, grow, produce and distribute produce and supply food in an area. local food. The people, businesses, towns, 3 – Government should strengthen villages and countryside in the the ability of the planning system to web depend on each other ensure the vitality of town centres by • local food as raw food, or lightly enabling local authorities to set processed food (such as cheese, conditions on the location, scale and sausages, pies and baked goods) accessibility of retail as well as to
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
restrict the dominance of particular high levels of seasonal local food and turnover; by comparison at three operators in local market areas. persuading others to do so. national chains one job is supported 4 – Government should provide per £138,000 to £144,000 of strong leadership on sustainable Key findings annual turnover.2 food procurement by setting Local economies challenging long-term targets for For the 19 locations surveyed combined Local food webs have other important food procurement for its Whitehall our analysis shows that: economic benefits: departments, agencies and other • local food sales through independent • distinctive, fresh local produce gives non-departmental public bodies outlets support total turnover of £132 outlets a strong selling point to increase food supplied from million a year; over half – £68 million • outlets contribute to the character of sustainable sources. – can, we estimate, be attributed market and other towns, drawing 5 – Local authorities and other public directly to local food sales visitors and food tourists bodies should form partnerships in • local food outlets support over 2,600 • networks of local outlets reduce risk their areas to develop food strategies jobs full-time and part-time of which for producers of relying on fewer and action plans. over 1,500 can be attributed directly larger contracts 6 – Local authorities updating their to local food sales • they offer markets for smaller local plans in the light of the • there are 2,000 supply chain businesses producers (69% were micro- National Planning Policy Framework providing locally sourced produce businesses and 28% small businesses) (NPPF) should develop policies to to these locations supporting total • local food webs are vital seed beds support local food networks by turnover of an estimated £718 for innovation and new enterprises building on NPPF policies on retail million a year and employment of trialling products. diversity and town individuality, support 34,000 people. for markets and protection of fertile land. Local communities 7 – Businesses within local food Nationally, based on extrapolations Across the 19 locations surveys showed: networks should work together to from data from all locations, we • local food outlets serve 415,000 promote awareness, access, broadly estimate: customer visits weekly; nationally, affordability and availability of local • local food sales in some 750 towns across England such outlets could food by developing a clearly defined across England through independent serve, we estimate, 16.3 million ‘local’ brand, developing shared delivery outlets (including social enterprises customers a week and distribution services, and and co-operatives) could currently be • national supermarket chains considering extended opening hours. £2.7 billion a year dominate grocery spending 8 – Supermarket chains should set • these outlets are supporting over (77% of all main shopping trips) themselves demanding targets for 103,000 jobs (full-time and part- • shoppers gave convenience (44%), stocking more local food in ways time), of which over 61,000 can be proximity/location (36%) and price which reinforce trust in local food by attributed directly to local food sales.1 (24%) as the main reasons they stocking fresh, seasonal local produce, • money spent in local food networks use supermarkets clearly defining local food, minimising will be re-circulated within the local • despite this dominance of chains, transport and committing to equitable economy for longer: it could be local independent stores and markets trading with local food producers. contributing £6.75 billion of total matter to shoppers: one fifth of 9 – Community groups should engage value to local economies shoppers used independent stores in initiatives to shape their local food • pound for pound, spending in for all or part of their main shopping; networks such as food partnerships, smaller independent local food they account for 60% of extra or neighbourhood planning, food web outlets supports three times the ‘top-up’ shopping visits mapping and community food growing. number of jobs than at national • the main reasons for using 10 – Individuals can and should act grocery chains: outlets selling smaller independent stores were: to change the way our food system significant to high percentages of quality/freshness/taste (46%), works by shopping at a wide variety of local food support on average one specific products (32%) and local outlets, supporting those that stock job for every £46,000 of annual produce (19%)
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
• shoppers’ main reasons for buying way, and should be built on to convey local food were: supporting local the wider environmental benefits of farmers and producers (56%); quality local food. 34% (54%); supporting the local economy (51%); taste (41%); food miles (34%); There are other environmental benefits: Percentage of shoppers value for money (19%); seasonal • local goes hand in hand with seasonal seeing cutting food miles as food (19%). food and reinforces an understanding a key reason to buy local of seasonality; it helps people to buy Local food webs extend choices of food that needs less energy to produce where to buy the freshest, high quality • local food needs less packaging food and enable people to shop to than food needing protection during support local producers and the local long-distance journeys £6.75 economy, to reduce food miles and to • local food supports the viability Billion eat seasonally. of independent outlets which keep Short supply chains also mean buildings in use; especially in Estimated total value of local closer connections to where food comes historic market towns this maintains food spending re-circulating from and support an awareness of character, individuality and sensitive in the local economy seasonality and the realities of food scale of use production. Benefits also come from • local food webs underpin local outlets selling local food being smaller diversity in the scale and type of local shops anchored in their local farming in the area from livestock to community: acting as social hubs; cheese to fruit cropping; they support £718 offering personal service and often genetic diversity in traditional and million informal support for the elderly and rare breeds, heirloom and heritage less mobile ; and supporting a wide varieties not suited to large-scale Estimated annual turnover range of very local good causes through processing and distribution systems. of local food suppliers donations, gifts in kind, sponsorship we researched and advertising. The scale and character of local food webs Local environment This national project provides for the • The concept of ‘food miles’ resonates first time strong evidence from across with shoppers and businesses: 34% of England of the scale and attributes of shoppers gave reducing food miles as local food webs. It confirms aspects of a main reason to buy local food; local food networks that many people numerous food web businesses cited instinctively understand. In certain it as an advantage of local food linked towns – such as Ledbury, Otley, Penrith to lower transport costs, freshness of and Totnes – there are relatively high produce and less pollution. Local food numbers of outlets selling local webs show producers across many produce, a large number of suppliers locations clustered within 10-15 miles and good availability. For their size, of outlets. Food miles indicate closer local food supports a relatively high connection to food provenance as number of jobs and turnover in and much as distance travelled. around these towns. • The scale of environmental challenges On average across all locations the Local food webs capture the can prevent people believing they highest levels of local produce are can make a difference. The food miles found at farmers’ markets and farm interactions between those concept helps shoppers to change shops as expected, but also at butchers. who produce and buy food their habits in a meaningful, intuitive They are closely followed by bakeries, from farmer to shopper
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
general grocers and fishmongers with sales and collapse of high street chains should enable better enforcement of high levels (50-75%), and delicatessens, have accelerated town centre decline. equitable supply chain relationships. greengrocers and street market stalls Further store closures are forecast. But with the NPPF failing to strengthen with significant levels (above 25%). town centre planning policy, ‘business These traditional stores, some in Farming context as usual’ seems likely. markets, are vital to thriving food webs. Farming, often undervalued, supports Excellent farm shops and farmers’ the food chain, a major employer and Conclusion markets can help increase access part of manufacturing and service Local food networks can address the where such stores are few but generally industries. But the sector faces major range of challenges set out here in three where traditional local shops have challenges. These include population important ways: disappeared there are smaller networks growth, demand shift, climate change • by contributing to the strength of of local producers and less varied local and resource depletion. Farming must smaller outlets, maintaining the produce available. National supermarket produce more with fewer resources. attraction of town centres through and some regional chains were present The food chain from farming to local food and contributing in all locations. In the main, research domestic consumption has major towards their diversity, character shows they do not stock a high impacts on greenhouse gas emissions and the community percentage of local food – from 0-4% in production, transport and the home. • by providing channels to market for at most by turnover – but with a few Food has major implications for energy new and micro, small and medium- notable exceptions. use, water use and waste, and depletion sized businesses, supporting producer of soils. The costs of many such businesses and enabling farming to Wider context impacts are not reflected in the price remain diverse and varied in production Local food webs capture the of food. There are other significant and outputs including values interactions between those who farming trends: an increase in farm size supported by consumers such as produce and buy food from farmer to and drop in farm numbers coupled with freshness, provenance and seasonality shopper. They link the retail system rising imports in recent decades. Fruit • by encouraging engagement of to the farmed land. is one example of how market forces consumers with food and, through the shaped by price and supermarket power human scale and connection within Retail and town centres have undermined domestic production. local food networks, enabling Supermarkets have risen to dominate shoppers to understand the realities, food retail and their growth has seen Land-use planning challenges and impacts of food massive decline in smaller shops, Land-use planning through national production and to choose to make a especially traditional specialist stores planning policy has a major role to difference individually and collectively. – down from 120,000 (1950s) to 18,000 play in shaping retail development, (late 2000s). Many such as butchers the nature of town centres and retail There is an urgent need for national and greengrocers sold high proportions diversity. Policy since 1996 has and local government to act to put in of local produce supplied through local sought to focus development on place the strong policy framework wholesalers and direct to store. Their town centres to keep them vibrant. needed to protect retail diversity and replacement by supermarkets with Despite supportive policy supermarket through it local food webs. Businesses, (inter)national supply chains has expansion out of town and into the community and we as individuals ‘de-localised’ our food shopping. superstores has undermined centres, all have a role to play in supporting Expansion of market share by weakened diversity and concentrated their future health. chains has been fed primarily by ownership with fewer, larger companies. out-of-town development of superstores These trends affect the markets for and hypermarkets and this growth is producers. Loss of retailers has set to continue despite recession: 44 narrowed their options. Supermarkets million square feet of new supermarkets are able, through buyer power, to drive with just 20% in town centres are down prices, forcing producers to scale planned or have permission. Internet up. The Groceries Chain Adjudicator
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Food is an essential part of our lives. It has been central to the nature of our towns and countryside since the beginnings of civilisation.3
Farming has shaped England’s they are below the radar. But as Carolyn countryside over millennia: the Steel puts it: ‘Food is all about networks; food it produces and the landscapes things that when connected add up to 30 miles it maintains are invaluable assets. more than the sum of their parts.’4 Yet the wider role of food is being The overarching aim of this report The radius around a forgotten. A multitude of factors is to make local food webs more visible location defined as the has changed the way we buy, and and better understood – to put them local supply area experience, our food. The weekly literally on the map – and make clear supermarket shop has displaced food their ability collectively to make a from market places and town centres. difference. In so doing, we argue that The scaling up of our stores into retail local food networks need sustained sheds has increased standardisation of support from individuals, the 1,873 food. National and global sourcing and community, business and policy- Number of shoppers increased distribution distances mean makers locally and nationally. food has to be packaged for transit This report begins with a summary we interviewed and for a long shelf-life. of the research and a discussion of This system has disconnected us the challenges of defining local food. from our food’s origins. Plants and The first main section reviews the wider animals disappear into large sheds too. context, considering national trends 804 The ‘denaturing’ of food has added to in retail, pressures on agriculture, our nature deficit – our decreasing and recent developments in planning The businesses we screened contact with nature – at a time when policy, particularly for town centres. for sales of local food across climate change and resource depletion The second main section builds on 19 locations pose huge challenges. Farming faces the project findings to characterise numerous challenges in an increasingly local food webs, the types of food volatile future. At the same time, available, and business models. recession and austerity bite and our The third main section brings high streets are in crisis. together findings from 19 locations These issues raise questions to form a national picture. These about the sustainability of our food findings are divided broadly into system. While some suggest that economic, social, and environmental global economic and resource pressures themes, followed by analysis of local make intensive large-scale production policies. They combine statistical and systems inevitable, our analysis of local qualitative analysis from shoppers and food webs suggests a different set of businesses to identify the benefits of priorities for the future. Local food local food webs and the challenges systems underpin the viability of they face. We set out recommendations farming, support the economy of rural on how local food webs can be better areas and towns, innovate and create supported and a conclusion. jobs, build community and connections, Throughout the report we include and enhance the countryside. The case studies which illustrate some of businesses in these networks are most the attributes and benefits we explore often small and dispersed. Individually or offer solutions and ideas for action.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Background The concept of a local food web stems from the work of Caroline Cranbrook.
In 1998 Caroline grew concerned Hastings, Darlington, Norwich and primarily through interviews with about the impact of a proposed Sheffield. Individual mapping locations local food web businesses and other superstore on her local market town were selected on population size (below stakeholders such as local councillors, of Saxmundham in east Suffolk. 10,000, 10,000–30,000, over 30,000), to town centre and market managers and She produced research to show the achieve broad coverage of the relevant local chambers of commerce. importance of the local food network. region and where there was good Data was entered and collated at This research suggested local food support from local community groups. CPRE National Office and analysed networks with similar benefits existed In each location a core study area was statistically and thematically to provide elsewhere, but further evidence defined by a 2.5-mile radius circle, findings for each location report and was needed. usually centred on the town or urban then to generate findings reported here. area. Beyond that, a 30-mile radius circle Case studies from location reports are Aims of the national project was defined as the local supply area. replicated here where relevant and are The national Mapping Local Food Webs The project employed regional based on interviews with businesses project engaged people in researching co-ordinators to recruit and support – supplemented by desk-based research their own local food web in up to three local volunteers to research shoppers’ – and with other stakeholders including towns and cities in each of the eight attitudes to local food, identify and volunteers, food activists, town and English regions. The project was interview outlets selling locally sourced market managers and planners. developed with support from Sustain food in the core study area, and For detail of the mapping research and received funding for 2007 to 2012 interview a sample of their suppliers. process for individual locations see from the Big Lottery Fund through the Co-ordinators carried out survey work Field to Fork location reports. Making Local Food Work programme. alongside volunteers. Open public The project aimed to: meetings and workshops were held to • increase the local community’s involve and consult local residents and understanding of the size and businesses, to raise awareness of issues, importance of their local food web to gather information on barriers and and its impact on local people’s lives, opportunities, and in several locations livelihoods, places and the countryside to verify findings and explore actions to • explore the relationships between support local food. Report writers and what people buy and eat and the volunteers researched case studies character of their town and the surrounding countryside • build support for greater local food Shopper surveys, business interviews and public meetings production and better supply in local outlets Engaging the local community Talking to businesses • strengthen and secure local food webs Numbers of local Number of businesses screened in 19 across the country through local and volunteers involved: 262 locations (for sales of local food): 804 national action and policy change. Numbers of shoppers Number of outlets interviewed: 403 interviewed: 1,873 Number of supply chain businesses Overview of project activities Number of public meetings held interviewed: 219 The project explored 19 locations from (launch meetings/workshops): 52 Number of case study interviews: 102 2009. These included markets towns Number of people attending and such as Totnes, Ledbury and Penrith contributing views: 1,735 and larger urban areas including
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
KEY Supply chain links Boundary of local food supply area Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) Hexham National Park Settlements
Penrith Darlington
Otley Burnley
Sheffield Knutsford
Newark on Trent
Norwich Shrewsbury Birstall
Kenilworth
Ely
Ledbury
Faversham
Yeovil Haslemere Hastings Totnes N
0 20 40 km W E
Reproduced from Ordnance Survey digital map data © Crown copyright 2012. All rights reserved. Licence numbers 100047514, 0100031673. numbers Licence copyright 2012. All rights reserved. Survey digital map data © Crown Ordnance from Reproduced Map Scale @ A3: 1:2,000,000
S From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Local supply chain into Darlington Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2011
N
W E
S
Core study area and location of main local food outlets in Darlington KEY Meat/processed meat Fruit/vegetables Dairy Cereals Eggs Fish/shellfish Drinks Preserves Baked goods Other Supply chain link Multistage supply chain link Boundary of core study area Boundary of local food supply area Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) National Park Settlements
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
The term ‘local’ is deceptively simple. It is used widely and loosely but in many ways which defy definition.
Take the example of the local shop: Defining ‘local food’ area to be processed and packaged surely a shop close to home. But There is no legal definition of local food elsewhere – sometimes exported to how close is close, and how distant is in use, except reference in a relatively do so – then transported to regional not local? Setting a boundary is more obscure EU regulation on food hygiene distribution centres before being difficult than it seems and depends on for animal products.9 The Policy delivered to the store where it is sold. context: a rural local shop may be in the Commission on the Future of Farming This means food produced within a few next village several miles away; in town and Food, set up by the UK Government miles of a store may have travelled it might be at the end of the street. in 2002 to advise on a sustainable hundreds of miles to get there. Local can also be set against much future for the food and farming sectors larger geographical areas – regional, in England, stated in its 2002 report Different modes of defining national or global. that ‘once local food becomes more ‘local food’ Local can also mean different things established, DEFRA, the Food Standards Local food has nevertheless been to different people, and is used in Agency and FFB [Food from Britain] will defined in a number of ways which are different ways depending on the need to devise an enforceable definition relevant to our project. Kneafsey et al. purpose. In terms of food, there has of “local” [as] a necessary first step for define three overlapping modes to been a rapid growth of interest in local the full benefits of local branding to be which a fourth (d) is added below.13 in recent years. Farmers’ markets, realised.’10 However, FSA research community-supported agriculture, showing that consumers have differing (a) Local food defined according to vegetable box schemes and local food views on the meaning of ‘local food’ led product, process and place attributes festivals have mushroomed across the them to conclude that it would not be This definition attributes particular country. These support a natural and possible to provide a definition for foods to a district or geographical area, simple association of local food and regulatory purposes.11 based on special attributes such as proximity – geographical closeness – There are further barriers to soils, topography, climate, local skills and are represented by businesses and establishing a tight definition of and knowledge. The best-known initiatives rooted in the area. However, local food, particularly for legal or example is the French Appellation supermarkets, operating nationally and certification use. Food production d’Origine Contrôlée system, now internationally, now reserve shelf space systems ‘can consist of complex extended across the EU via the to sell popular local or regional foods; networks of relations stretched over Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) in some cases a region or country can a variety of spatial scales’: even for and Protected Geographic Indication be described as a ‘local’ source.6 Where simple commodities many of the (PGI) systems. UK products covered the boundaries lie between a local area resources required to produce them – include Melton Mowbray pork pies, and the next scale up is open to debate, seeds, fertiliser, pesticides, machinery Yorkshire Triangle rhubarb and and ultimately depends on the context – are likely to be produced in many West Country Farmhouse Cheddar.14 and the uses to which any definition is different places.12 While few would The regulations are legally binding, put.7 Research for the Food Standards claim that all such inputs need to which protects small producers from Agency (FSA) found that consumers or could be locally produced, the imitation and consumers from also interpret the term differently importance of the issue is clear when deceptive claims. These products do not with 40% of respondents seeing it as Brazilian soybeans – a driver of have to be sold locally, which shifts the within a 10-mile radius, 20% within Amazonian deforestation – may be definition away from point of sale. the same county, 20% from a number used to fatten chicken, pork or beef sold of neighbouring counties and 20% as ‘local’ in the UK. This complexity is from a region.8 compounded by distribution systems which, for economic and logistical reasons, require food produced in one
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
(b) Local food produced, processed Association, a sustainable local food Defining ‘local food webs’ in and retailed within a defined radius economy is ‘A system of producing, the project Definitions based on distance (usually processing and trading, primarily of While the definition of local food within 30 miles) or geographical area sustainable and organic forms of food remains unresolved, this project needed (such as a county) have an appealing production, where the physical and a working definition for survey work to simplicity. In England CPRE has economic activity is largely contained proceed. The academic review which promoted a definition of local food as and controlled within the locality underpinned our research described food produced, grown and processed or region where it was produced, local food webs as ‘networks of within 30 miles of the store. This which delivers health, economic, relationships between food producers, distance has also been adopted by a environmental and social benefits to processors, retailers and consumers number of large retail chains including the communities in those areas.’15 which deliver economic, social and Waitrose, Asda, Booths and The Sustain’s definition incorporates environmental benefits within a defined Cooperative. Tesco uses a county or similar criteria such as proximity, geographical radius’.19 This combines neighbouring county definition. The fair or co-operative trade, and being concepts b) and c) above. It also National Farmers Retail and Markets environmentally beneficial or benign.16 recommended defining the scale of a Association (FARMA) has developed this Research in the US for Congress also retail study area and local area for food definition into a set of certification suggests the category of ‘local’ based supply. This conceptual understanding criteria for farmers’ markets to protect on attributes ‘mostly based on supports the final definitions used in their integrity. It uses 30 miles as the consumer perceptions of certain the project. To ensure the research ideal radius, but this can be stretched desired social or supply-chain remained practical for volunteers as to 50 miles for larger cities, or coastal or characteristics in producing “local” well as enabling CPRE to quantify remote regions, with 100 miles as the foods, such as production by a small and compare the importance of food maximum recommended. FARMA also family farm, urban farm or garden, or webs in different areas, the standard recognises distinct geographical areas farm using sustainable agricultural definitions below were used across such as counties and National Parks. practices’.17 These factors link to many all locations. others which influence demand for local (c) Local food that delivers food, such as quality and freshness, Project definitions certain benefits traceability, supporting the local Our research was based on: Sustain and The Soil Association have economy and environmental impacts. • a core study area for researching food developed definitions based on criteria outlets, based within a 2.5-mile radius related to food’s social, environmental (d) Local based on type of outlet circle from the centre of the location and economic benefits. For The Soil The US Congress research above goes • a local supply area, covering a 30-mile on to suggest a further definition based radius circle beyond this. on type of outlet. This is where ‘local’ refers to the ‘types of marketing A local food web is the network of channels used by farmers to distribute links between people who buy, sell, food from the farm to the consumer’. produce and supply food in an area. This lists ‘direct-to-consumer outlets’ The people, businesses, towns, villages such as road-side stands, on-farm and countryside in the web depend on stores (farm shops), farmers’ markets each other, and this interdependence and community-supported agriculture benefits livelihoods, quality of life and (CSA), and ‘intermediated outlets’, the quality of places. Sourced within 30 miles – such as grocers, restaurants and This project defined local food as 18 definition of local food used regional distributors. raw food, or lightly processed food (such as cheese, sausages, pies and by Asda, Booths, CPRE, East baked goods) and its main ingredients, of England Co-op, FARMA grown or produced within 30 miles of and Waitrose where it was bought.20
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Local food webs are about connections: the interactions between those who buy, sell and produce food, and the relationship between where food is produced and where it’s consumed.
The concept goes beyond that of a the grocery chains: the Competition (excluding co-ops, discount groups supply chain to look at the retail Commission found that ‘the number and independents) operated some system, and food’s wider impact on the of larger stores [over 2,320m2] located 8,400 stores, including over 5,400 quality of places, the environment and out-of-town increased from just under supermarkets (over 3,000 square feet).24 community life in both urban and rural 300 in 1980 to more than 700 by 1990 Further research by commercial areas. Because of the breadth of the and to almost 1,500 in 2007’.22 property adviser CBRE reported in idea, many factors in the wider national The net effect has been to move late 2011 that this expansion is set and international context are relevant shopping out of towns to their margins to continue well into the future with: to local food webs. or elsewhere, as well as to increase • almost 4 million square feet of car-based shopping. This scaling up new grocery retail space under Retail and town centres by national chains with access to construction The ‘death of the high street’ high levels of capital leaves smaller • planning permission already given The state of the nation’s high streets is independent stores – which to national chains for another 21.4 the subject of much media coverage proportionately sell much higher levels million square feet and an area of great concern. The 2000s of local food – losing trade, as town • applications submitted for a further saw the economy buoyed by a retail centres where they operate struggle 19 million square feet and house-price boom – and rising to compete. • more than 80% of new space in debt. With the 2008 crash, growth out-of-town developments. turned to recession. Other trends The expansion of the supermarkets affecting how, where and when we shop Supermarkets have expanded in other This 44 million square feet (4.01 million are well analysed in the Portas Review. respects. Firstly, the number of stores m2) of projected development is Portas recognises that the nation’s high operated by the national grocery equivalent to 1,635 new superstores streets are changing in multiple ways.21 chains has continued to grow rapidly (at 2,500m2).25 across all scales – convenience Secondly, the market share of the The growth of out-of-town shopping stores, supermarkets, superstores multiples has escalated. Competition A key trend over the past three decades and hypermarkets. BBC research for Commission statistics show the market has been the development of ‘supersize’ Panorama in 2010 gave an overview of share of ‘large or regional grocery regional shopping centres, often the expansion of supermarket stores of retailers’ expanding from 20% in 1950 heralded as drivers of regeneration and the ‘big four’ (Tesco, Asda, Sainsbury’s, (estimated) to 44% by 1971 to 85% retail growth. These may be out-of-town Morrisons) from 2004 to 2010, by 2007.26 Most recent 2012 figures centres (Lakeside in Essex, Bluewater in shown below.23 In 2012, the multiples indicate supermarket chains account Kent), or developed within urban areas (such as London’s newest Westfield Table A: Number of supermarket stores shopping centres at White City and Stratford). Both represent a challenge to Location (by postcode) 2004 2010 existing town centres and high streets. Birmingham 19 104 These are complemented in many towns and cities by the move to Bristol 19 76 out-of-centre stores and retail parks, Cleveland 7 59 which have enabled retailers to expand massively from relatively constrained Nottingham 12 82 town centre sites into superstores. In Sheffield 16 104 the vanguard of this trend have been
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
for 97-98% of grocery sales, with the stores mentioned above and of can bring a vicious cycle: stores close ‘big four’ around 75-76%.27 e-commerce. The decline in spending down, leading to still lower footfall, Thirdly, buildings have become on the high street as a percentage of leading to further store closures. Fewer physically much larger. Between 2006 total retail spending illustrates the shops and shoppers in town centres and 2010, Tesco increased the number long-term nature of the problem: may weaken traditional specialist food of its Extra hypermarkets (above 60,000 from 49.4% in 2000 to 42.5% in stores – butchers, greengrocers, sq ft) by 50%, from 118 to 177.28 Huge 2011, to a projected 39.8% by 2014.31 fishmongers and markets, many of superstores have appeared not only in Conversely, though not seen as a sign which are key outlets in local food webs. large urban centres but attached to of resilience, new outlets have been The trend to e-commerce in food is small market towns, where they can opening: noticeably convenience food most obviously seen in the move to dwarf the existing retail offer. For stores, supermarkets, charity shops, online ordering for home delivery by example, Hexham, Northumberland pawnbrokers, pound shops, credit the likes of Ocado, Waitrose, Tesco and (population 11,000), has a Tesco Extra unions and shoe shops.32 The overall Sainsbury’s. Potentially more positive store which accounts for 45% of all impact of this decline is fewer shoppers, for local food is the growth of weekly main shopping trips in the Tynedale spending less. Town centres lose their box schemes. There are many smaller district. Kingsbridge, Devon (pop. 6,000) attractiveness to high-spending such schemes but the major market has recently acquired a 3,700m2 shoppers, leaving those who are less share belongs to Abel & Cole and superstore and Blandford Forum in mobile or cannot afford to travel to cope Riverford. Riverford currently delivers Dorset (population 9,000) awaits a with a declining centre. Their shopping around 40,000 boxes of organic fruit 4,066m2 superstore development.29 choices are limited further. and veg a week in the UK from regional Fourthly, the grocery multiples have Recent research by Deloitte farms. Riverford advertises that it does expanded from convenience (everyday) suggests further significant reductions not air freight and has a strong emphasis goods into comparison goods – items – ‘by as much as 30-40% are foreseeable on seasonal and local, though how such as homeware, stationery, flowers, over the next 3-5 years’ – in the portfolios much would meet our project definition books, electricals, pharmacy products of stores held by retailers, a rate of loss (sourced within 30 miles) is not clear.37 and clothes as well as fuel. It is well likely to seriously damage already known that Tesco takes £1 in every £8 fragile town centres.33 Other changes of total retail spend in the UK but Related – directly and indirectly – Sainsbury’s is now the seventh largest Fundamental changes to the way to these significant changes in town clothing retailer by volume.30 Shoppers we shop centre retail are other trends. Recent may be left with little reason to visit the There has also been a marked shift to decades have seen steep declines in: town centre, threatening a whole range online shopping, or e-commerce, which • traditional specialist shops – of outlets. As the centre declines, is likely to continue to grow rapidly: smaller stores have been disappearing smaller shops find it increasingly hard internet sales of all goods have doubled since before the meteoric rise of to compete and traders disappear, since 2000 from 5.1% to 10.2% – and supermarkets, but there seems little leaving less choice, not more. even this may be an underestimate, doubt that competition from chains according to the Local Data Company.34 has weakened and subsequently The decline of town centres They anticipate internet sales could caused the closure of thousands of The recent recession has led to reach 12.2% by 2014 and 20% by independent shops, including widespread failure of high street 2020. Shopping on mobile devices butchers, greengrocers, bakeries, businesses, including household names (m-commerce) is another emerging off-licences and fishmongers, such as Woolworths, Barratts, Focus DIY, trend: BIS data indicates a growth of permanently changing the character Comet, Peacocks, Habitat and Clinton over 500% in the past two years.35 of many if not most towns Cards. Town centre vacancy rates None of this analysis considers food • pubs, which were closing at a rate of 40 average 14% nationally, though they retail as a discrete category, but there a week in 2009 and 25 a week in 201038 vary considerably. As well as the effects are clear implications. Virtual sales • bank branches and post offices – of the recession, other trends behind reduce real footfall in town centres and over 2,300 rural post offices closed this include the growth of out-of-town local high streets.36 The loss of trade between 1999 and 2009
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
• village stores, with an estimated 400 long about the forces which shape the challenges the global food closing a year39 food system and the wider impact our system faces. • traditional farm and food distribution food choices may have. But our food • Climate change will alter patterns of infrastructure, including abattoirs, supply – and our local food webs – do rainfall, affect crop growth and the livestock auctions and wholesalers.40 not operate in a vacuum. They depend way ecosystems function and mean upon regional, national and global forces, more extreme weather events, causing Scale of the food sector41 from trade, finance and policy systems production and price volatility; this The importance of agriculture to the to resource and environmental issues. presents ‘the challenge of feeding a national economy is often undervalued. larger global population ... while Around 2% of the UK workforce – Global issues – The Foresight report43 delivering a steep reduction in some 185,000 people – work in primary In 2011 the Government published the greenhouse gas emissions’. production: growing crops, raising Foresight report on The Future of Food • Competition for key resources livestock and harvesting the land and and Farming which draws on advice related to food production: pressures sea. They supply around 60% of our from a lead expert group, several on land for food production national food requirement, and hundred researchers as well as over 100 (soil erosion and degradation,44 contribute 7% of the £412 billion peer-reviewed evidence papers. The salinisation, desertification, use turnover of the food supply chain – report sets out six important drivers of for biofuels, loss to development); almost £30 billion annually.42 change which ‘will converge in the food increased global energy demand Farming underpins the food supply system over the next 40 years’ to create leading to increased prices and price chain, which employs more than 3.5 ‘the perfect storm’: volatility, with knock-on effects on million people and generates £87.4 • Global population growth from the energy-intensive fertilisers and billion in Gross Value Added (GVA). Food current seven billion to eight billion fishing costs; rapidly increasing manufacturing and processing account by 2030 then a likely nine billion or global water demand even as aquifers for 370,000 jobs and £78 billion in more by 2050; this will occur become depleted. turnover; it is questionable how much particularly in Africa and will be • Changes in consumers’ values and of this would take place without marked by movement from rural to ethics, which will influence policy home-produced ingredients. Similarly, urban areas. and consumption patterns on issues the success of many shops and • Increased demand per person linked such as national food sovereignty, restaurants, from the humble fish-and- to rising incomes, particularly for technologies (GM, nanotechnology, chip shop to triple-starred Michelin meat and fish in emerging major cloning), environmental sustainability restaurants, depends on the freshness economies such as Brazil and China; and biodiversity, and fair trade and and quality of British produce. this will increase pressure on land, social concerns. In total, the food supply chain – water and other resources, raising from production through processing serious questions about the The food system and to the retail and hospitality sectors – sustainability of food production. environmental issues accounts for 10% of UK GVA, making it • The way the food system is managed This section sets out environmental and the fifth largest contributor to GVA. At a at national and international levels: socio-economic challenges the UK food time when the Government is seeking issues include the globalisation of and farming system faces. to rebalance the economy away from markets; the emergence of new food financial services, farming and the food superpowers in BRIC nations (Brazil, Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions industry can play an important role, Russia, India, China); consolidation Food production, distribution and particularly by reducing imports and of retail, food processing and consumption contribute significant potentially exporting, in redressing the agribusiness into few very large GHG emissions globally and nationally. imbalance in the UK’s external trade. transnational corporations; the role of Energy, mainly produced from burning subsidies and market interventions; fossil fuels, is needed at every stage Global food and farming issues the ability of political and of the food system: to drive farm The plentiful supply of food in our institutional frameworks to enable machinery; to produce inorganic shops discourages us from thinking too collective responses to the many fertilisers such as nitrates; in food
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
manufacturing, packing, transport The loss of these and other habitats Refrigeration and retail, particularly for refrigeration; is linked to major declines in diversity Refrigeration makes up around 15% of in catering; for cold storage and in plants, terrestrial invertebrates and total food chain emissions in the UK, or cooking in the home. Further sources vertebrates. At the end of the 20th 3-3.5% of the UK’s total GHG emissions.57 of emissions include methane from century, some 333 farmland species Supermarkets tend to be more energy livestock, manure and food waste (broadleaved plants, butterflies, intensive than other food shops.58 in landfill, and loss of stored carbon bumblebees, birds and mammals) were Unlike greengrocers, supermarkets through cultivation and degradation declining due to agricultural practices. often put fruit and vegetables in and from cultivating wetlands. Meat Numbers of farmland birds fell by 40% refrigerated cabinets. They also tend and dairy account for around 8% of UK between 1970 and 2000, and a further to have longer opening hours (in some food consumption-related GHGs. 4% since. The number of bee colonies cases 24 hours a day). Globally, agriculture causes an in England has declined by 54% estimated 10%-12% of GHG emissions45 since 1985.52 Waste
– more if the effects of land-use change An estimated 20 million tonnes of CO2 such as deforestation are considered. Transport is associated with avoidable food and In the EU, the figure is around 9% for The transport of food is the single drink waste in the UK each year.59 agriculture (2005 data), but nearer 31% largest energy user in the food system Waste occurs at every stage of the for the whole supply chain from field and accounts for around 3.5% of the food supply chain – agriculture, to fork.46 Food generates around 18% UK’s total GHG emissions.53 There are food manufacturing and packaging, of total UK GHG emissions, and 30% also additional impacts such as distribution, retail, storage at home and if emissions from land-use change damage to roads and verges from during preparation for consumption. abroad to supply UK food consumption heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), noise There are opportunities to significantly are included.47 and air pollution as well as congestion. reduce waste at every stage. Main UK GHG emissions related to food Biodiversity and landscape transport are UK HGVs (29%), consumer Water In the UK the quality of the natural cars (23%), sea transport (15%), air The UK’s water footprint – the total environment and farming are transport (12%) and overseas HGVs amount of freshwater used to produce intimately connected. Some 70% of the (12%).54 A quarter of UK HGV movements all the goods and services in the land area in England is farmed,48 and relate to food transport.55 Air freight country – is 102 billion cubic metres much of the landscape is semi-natural, contributes disproportionately to total per year, equivalent to 4,645 litres per shaped by agriculture over millennia. transport GHG emissions: only 1.5% of person per day. Agriculture accounts for The post-war modernisation of fruit and vegetables are transported by around three-quarters of this – but 62% agriculture has increased productivity, air, but they make up 40% of all fruit of the water we use is imported ‘virtual’ but at a heavy cost to the environment. and vegetable transport emissions. water, making the UK the world’s sixth From 1947 to 1990, over 335,000km of Between 1992 and 2010, food air miles largest net importer of virtual water. Oil hedgerows were lost, with 100,000km increased by 262%, although they have crops, cotton, livestock, and coffee, tea alone from 1984 to 1990.49 Semi- recently stabilised; customer car travel and cocoa take up the largest share of natural grasslands have suffered huge increased by 31% and urban kilometres the UK’s external water footprint.60 loss through conversion to arable since – a measure of congestion – by 26%. UK food consumption has a the 1940s, with 90% of wildflower-rich Main reasons are people are driving considerable impact on the water meadows lost.50 Much of what remains further to shop owing to the rise of footprints of other countries. Spain is now protected in Sites of Special out-of-town grocery stores, increased contributes 3% of the UK’s total Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and Special demand for overseas goods and more agricultural water footprint through Areas of Conservation, but only 26 of transport between businesses as more exporting water-intensive products 710 areas/SSSIs on enclosed farmland processing and packaging of food such as salad crops, olives, grapes, are in ‘favourable condition’. Pond takes place.56 oranges, rice and certain meat products. numbers and quality have declined, Some of these are produced in water- especially in arable areas.51 stressed regions like Almeria, where
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
rising demand has led to water is imported, our food security is woven land – under the Agricultural Land deficit in aquifers and salinisation. with the fate of land in other countries. Classification66 system grades 1,2 and Imported tomatoes, which account for For example, the two largest exporters 3a – 30-40% of land developed was broadly 80% of consumption, need of fruit and nuts to the UK are Spain, BMV. Planners and government officers around four times more water than where 21.8% of land is degraded, and recently interviewed by DEFRA ranked UK-produced ones.61, 62 South Africa, with 36.91%.64 ‘preservation of BMV land ... among the bottom two of planning issues’.67 On a Soil erosion and degradation Land local scale, land lost to development Soil erosion is a major international From 1998 to 2008 over 38,000 ha may include the only soil suitable for concern. Productivity of land in some of agricultural land was lost to growing particular crops in the area. areas has declined by 50% due to soil development, more than half of it CPRE’s recent Vision for Future of Farming sets erosion and desertification at a time to housing and around a quarter to out our aspirations for truly sustainable farming when food production needs to increase transport/utilities.65 Successful policies and food by 2026. to feed a growing global population. on redeveloping brownfield sites Globally, 75 billion tonnes of soil are have helped to limit development UK farming and economic issues lost each year at a cost of roughly of agricultural land, but this still Farm size US$400 billion per year.63 In the UK, an represents the permanent loss of a Average farm size in the UK has been estimated 11.64% of land is degraded; vital strategic asset. Despite national on the rise since the mid 20th century, in France it’s 13.89% and in China policies to protect the best and while the number of small and 30.55%. Since around 40% of our food most versatile (BMV) agricultural medium-sized farms has declined. The average holding size in England – excluding very small holdings – Case study: increased between 2004 and 2009 Apple source? from 111 to 119 hectares. Small and medium-sized farms declined rapidly (from around 45,000 small farms in Apples are the UK’s second markets and the purchasing power 1987 to 34,000 in 2003, and 32,000 to favourite fruit, just after of the superstores, as well as EU 22,500 medium farms). Size increases bananas; each year we eat some policies and highly effective French may yield economies of scale, but at 680,000 tonnes. The UK is a advertising of their Golden Delicious the risk of more uniform landscapes prime environment for growing in the 1980s.74 Many apple orchards – though the rise in very small holdings apples and over 2,300 varieties have been lost: in the last 25 years could increase landscape diversity.68 originated here.72 more than half have disappeared These dramatic changes are very Yet only one in three of the apples (56%, with 31% in the past decade).75 evident in the dairy industry. Average we eat is grown here.73 The UK apple Their disappearance diminishes a rich herd size was 78 cows in 1997 rising to industry has been badly hit by a cultural and ecological inheritance. 113 today. The UK national milk herd combination of cheap fruit on global has declined by over 40% since 1980; producer numbers have halved, from 35,700 in 1995 to 17,000 in 2008.
Indigenous production The UK depends for 90% of its food supply on domestic production and 26 other countries.69 When exports which could be consumed in the UK are factored in, we are 60% self- sufficient for all food types and 74% for indigenous types of food.70
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
The stability of the UK’s food supply development of town centres – and the trend away from out-of-centre has for many centuries depended on more specifically, policies related to developments, but have by no means trade with other countries, but this retail development and competition. stopped them. According to Michael presents challenges to domestic The 1970s marked a turning point in Bach, one of the architects of this production. International and national the development of retail, with a shift policy, the clarity it has provided and grocery chains can source supplies away from town centres as the preferred its consistent application has meant internationally based on lowest location for retail growth. By the late that ‘since 2000 almost all of our top cost. UK producers farm to high 1970s, 40% of new retail floorspace was 50 city and major town centres have environmental and welfare standards outside town centres, reaching 60% in been regenerated’. He draws the lesson but are obliged to compete with imports the mid-1980s when planning policy that ‘relaxing policy produces rapid not necessarily produced to the same was relaxed. The trend peaked in 1994 response, but reversing policy has a standards. Though we continue to with ‘86% of new retail floorspace long time lag’.79 export produce, the net effect in out-of-centre’.77 Despite supportive planning policy recent years has been to depress UK Current policy derives from concern over some 15 years the prospects for production: according to DEFRA, ‘since at the impact on town centres of town centres remain challenging. 1995 the UK trade gap in food, feed and out-of-town regional shopping centres Twenty-five million square feet of drink has more than doubled.’ The trade and large out-of-centre supermarkets. supermarket expansion already in the gap between UK imports and exports in In 1996 Planning Policy Guidance 6 pipeline will continue to weaken town 2009 was £18.5 billion.71 In the past 20 (PPG6) introduced a ‘Town Centre First centres. Bach suggests ‘medium-size/ years, quantities of home-produced Policy’ which placed the burden of smaller towns will continue to lose out vegetables have decreased by nearly a proof on developers to show that if out-of-centre superstores selling quarter (23%) while imports have risen developments were not harmful to town non-food as well as food take their by over half (51%). Similarly, UK fruit centres, that more central sites that trade’ and predicts ‘further decline in production between 1994 and 2004 fell could accommodate the development the retail share of town centres due to by 24% by volume while imports grew were unavailable and that the supermarkets, the internet and retail by 38%. The UK is only 9% self-sufficient development was accessible by a parks – in that order’.80 in fruit generally and this rises only to ‘choice of means of transport’. A further 16% for fruits native to the UK such as ‘need test’ was introduced in 1999 Localism Act 2011 apples, cherries, pears and plums. enabling local authorities to refuse an The Localism Act received Royal Assent out-of-centre development if there was on 15 November 2011. Among other External costs of agriculture ‘no demonstrable need in the next five things the Act abolishes regional spatial The environmental costs of modernised, years’ and in the absence of a suitable strategies (outside London), though industrialised agriculture are often town centre site. PPG6 was replaced they remain in force until revoked. not reflected in the price of its outputs. by Planning Policy Statement 6 (PPS6) To replace the strategic regional layer These external costs or externalities, in 2005. of planning, the Act brings in a duty which are imposed on society in The policy remained substantially for local authorities to ‘engage general, have been calculated at £1 unchanged until 2009 when the constructively, actively and on an billion to £2 billion a year.76 Pretty et al. Government rationalised its provisions ongoing basis’ with neighbouring local conservatively estimated these costs on retail planning and incorporated authorities and bodies such as National broken down into damage to the them within the new PPS4: Planning for Park Authorities in the preparation of atmosphere (£316m), water (£231m) Sustainable Economic Growth. Policy development plans and strategies. biodiversity and landscapes (£126m), essentials were retained but the need A second major element of the Act soils (£96m) and human health (£777m). test had less prominence. There was is the introduction of neighbourhood policy to support the development of planning via a series of optional Land-use planning markets, including farmers’ markets. provisions – neighbourhood Background to planning policy An extensive good practice guide development plans (NDPs), The main planning policy area which is followed in 2009.78 neighbourhood development orders relevant to local food webs concerns the These policies have slowly reversed (NDOs) and community right to build
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
orders (CRBOs) – which complement • ‘recognise town centres as the heart of an application fails to satisfy the existing community planning tools their communities and pursue policies sequential test or is likely to have such as parish plans and village design to support their viability and vitality’ significant adverse impact on one or statements. These should allow • ‘promote competitive town centres more of the above factors, it should be communities greater influence on that provide customer choice and a refused’84. There is also a requirement planning decisions, such as allocating diverse retail offer and which reflect on applicants and local authorities to sites for development, and areas such the individuality of town centres’ show ‘flexibility on issues such as as housing; economic development • ‘retain and enhance existing format and scale’. requirements; retail, leisure and markets and, where appropriate, These provisions neither greatly other commercial development; and re-introduce or create new ones, weaken nor strengthen policy on protection and enhancement of the ensuring that markets remain prioritising town centres for new food natural and historic environment, attractive and competitive’.82 development. Existing policy has not including landscape. However, prevented huge expansion of out-of- neighbourhood planning must These references to a ‘diverse retail centre supermarkets. Overall, unless conform to the ‘strategic elements’ offer’ and the ‘individuality of town further action is taken, the most of the local plan. centres’ should encourage local likely outcome will be ‘business as authorities to support local independent usual’: further concentration of food National Planning Policy businesses rather than chains, which retail, continuing decline of traditional Framework (NPPF) can create the feel of a ‘clone town’. town centres, deteriorating retail The Department for Communities and In addition, local authorities are diversity and, with these, poorer local Local Government (DCLG) has described required to ‘apply a sequential test to food provision. the NPPF as a ‘a radical streamlining’, planning applications for main town replacing 1,000 pages of guidance centre uses that are not in an existing The Portas Review with around 50 with the ‘same legal centre and are not in accordance with In May 2011 Prime Minister David status’ and the same ‘core approach an up-to-date Local Plan’.83 Cameron commissioned Mary Portas, and principles’.81 The Coalition This means retail developments so-called ‘Mary Queen of Shops’, to Government’s expressed aims are to are required to use suitable town carry out an ‘independent review into make national planning policies centre sites first, then edge-of-centre, the state of our high streets and town ‘user-friendly and accessible’, ‘to free and finally, only if none of these sites centres’. The report published in communities from unnecessarily is suitable, out-of-centre sites. December 2011 outlines some of the prescriptive central government Preference is given to accessible sites ‘fundamental changes in how we shop’ policies’ and to ‘empower ... local that are well connected to the town and why high streets are declining. councils to deliver innovative solutions centre. Applications that fail this test The report makes 28 recommendations that work for their local area’. Policies can be rejected. which aim ‘to breathe economic and drafted by local planning authorities – Local authorities are also required to community life back into our high usually in the local plan – must have carry out an impact test for proposals streets’ and make them destinations ‘regard’ to the content of national over a given size – either a national again.85 Her vision sees high streets as planning policy. default of 2,500m2 (essentially a important for developing community The policies most relevant to local grocery superstore) or ‘a proportionate, and ‘destinations for socialising, food webs are those covering town locally set floorspace threshold’, which culture, health, well-being, creativity centre planning and retail development. should be lower. The impact assessment and learning’, not just retail. Of the original PPS4 two of over 20 should test the proposal for its effect on The main recommendations of value pages remain. Much detail has gone but other ‘investment in a centre or centres for local food webs are: arguably the provisions remaining are in the catchment area of the proposal’ • better town centre management via a amplified by the absence of competing and ‘on town centre vitality and viability, ‘town team’ with more entrepreneurial detail. Support for local food retail including local consumer choice and activity including markets as hubs of comes from provisions that planning trade in the town centre and wider area’. retail innovation policies should: The NPPF goes on to state: ‘Where • local setting of business rates, free
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
controlled parking, and deregulation of use class orders Case study: • levelling the playing field with out-of-town/edge-of-town to re- Portas Review and establish ‘choice and balance’ through neighbourhood planning a ‘presumption in favour of town centre development in the NPPF’, an ‘exceptional sign off for all new Mary Portas identifies the profile campaign to get people out-of-town developments’ by the neighbourhood plans set out involved in neighbourhood plans. Secretary of State and an affordable in the Localism Act as ‘a real Portas strongly argues that shops quota in all large new opportunity to get local people neighbourhood plans should consider developments; large retailers are to connected with their high the high street and what mix of shops mentor and support smaller ones street’ and to give them ‘a really and services people would like to see • defining landlords’ roles and meaningful say in the future there. A case study from Chatsworth responsibilities to discourage of the place where they live, Road in East London shows how the empty shops ensuring new activities are local Traders & Residents Association • giving communities greater say approved that contribute to is producing a neighbourhood plan to including by promoting ‘the inclusion local well-being’. enable them to better manage the mix of the high street in Neighbourhood The process of engaging with of retail outlets on their high street, Plans’ and getting people involved planning should, she maintains, the type of shops given planning in such plans; recognition that ‘The ‘help people take ownership permission and the use of upper planning system is too susceptible of, identify with and most storeys of outlets to boost footfall.88 to those who can afford an army importantly use their high street’. of lawyers’ and ‘People need a She recommends running a high powerful legitimate voice and planning needs to be a much more collaborative process.’86
Since the review, the NPPF has been published and the Government has published a full response.87 This sets out if and how Government supports her recommendations. Despite the high profile of the Review, the NPPF does not follow up its key recommendations in relation to planning for town centres. Portas does suggest a set of ideas to ‘reimagine our high streets’ including running a series of pilots to test ‘proof of concept’ and in February 2012, she and Local Government Minister Grant Shapps launched a competition to choose 12 ‘Portas Pilots’, with the winning towns benefiting from a share of £1 million to help turn around their ‘unloved and unused’ high streets. The winners were announced in May 2012.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
The Mapping Local Food Webs project used individual towns across England as study locations. It was beyond the scope of the project to study the food web across several towns and villages, which could provide a much richer picture of an area.
Nevertheless, this national market themselves strongly on this. ham), dripping, haslet, hogs pudding, project provides evidence that These locations also had supermarkets, meatballs, mincemeat, pancetta, local food networks are present to though usually on more central sites Parma-style ham, pâté, sausages (pork, differing degrees in market towns, which supported trips to the town centre. venison, wild boar), scotch eggs, larger towns and cities across the In contrast, some locations such smoked meats, tongue, tripe country. It provides a snapshot of local as Yeovil and Ely had fewer of the food webs which undoubtedly are part characteristics needed for thriving Fish of wider networks of businesses. webs. They have few small ‘local’ food Fish (bass, bream, cod, haddock, stores and outlets: instead, large herring, mackerel, plaice, salmon, sole, The scale and vitality of supermarkets, out of or on the edge of trout), fishcakes, shellfish (crab, lobster, local food webs the centre, were likely to be drawing prawns, whelks), smoked fish (haddock, Volunteers found local food on sale at a trade and offering little local food. mackerel, salmon, trout) variety of outlets in every location, with With low numbers of traditional outlets, direct links to many local suppliers, who farmers’ markets and farm shops Dairy in turn were supported by other local typically provided the best access to Butter, cheeses (e.g. cheddar, goat’s producers. Local food webs were present local food, but these were less frequent cheese, halloumi-style, Red Leicester, in all locations studied but varied in the and less accessible respectively. South Downs, Sussex Charmer, Stilton), number of outlets, supplier numbers, clotted cream, cream, crème fraîche, the range of produce, jobs supported, Types of local food available ice cream/sorbet, milk (cow’s, goat’s, annual sales and customer numbers. Most food webs provide a wide range unpasteurised, Jersey milk), Locations such as Otley, Totnes and of local produce. Outlets were checked milkshake, yoghurt Ledbury with thriving food webs were for 12 categories of produce: meat, characterised by the presence of a processed meats, fish, dairy, fruit, Fruit and nuts relatively wide range of smaller ‘local’ vegetables, eggs, preserves, drinks, Apples, apricots, blackberries, outlets with significant (25% or above) baked goods, cereals and other. blackcurrants, blueberries, cherries, to very high levels of local produce There was a rough relationship between chestnuts, damsons, gooseberries, (75-100%). Outlets stocking local the strength of the food webs and the grapes, hazelnuts, lemons (allotment food were usually independent or in depth of produce available. The list grown), pears, plums, quinces, some cases community enterprises. below gives a sense of the richness and raspberries, redcurrants, rhubarb, The highest levels were stocked, not variety of local produce across the strawberries surprisingly, at farmers’ markets and locations studied. farm shops, but also at butchers. Vegetables These were closely followed by bakeries, Meat Vegetables – artichokes, asparagus, general grocers and fishmongers with Beef, chicken, duck, game, goose, halal aubergines, beans, beansprouts, high levels (50-75%) and delicatessens, chicken and goat, hare, lamb, partridge, beetroot, broccoli/sprouting broccoli, greengrocers and street market stalls pheasant, pigeon, pork, rabbit, turkey, Brussels sprouts, cabbages, carrots, with significant levels (above 25%). veal, venison, wild boar cauliflowers, celeriac, celery, chard, These traditional specialist stores chillis, courgettes, fennel, garlic, – some in covered markets – are not Processed meat Jerusalem artichokes, leeks, marrows, widely recognised for trading in local Bacon, black pudding, burgers, cooked kale, mushrooms, onions, pak choi, produce, nor do they necessarily meats (corned beef, roast beef, pork, parsnips, peas, peppers, potatoes,
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
pumpkins, pulses, savoy cabbages, Types of producer businesses wider picture. In this section we spinach, spring greens, sprouts, Some 220 supply chain businesses were concentrate on the range of retail sprouted seeds, squashes, swedes, interviewed initially, mostly producers outlets where local food was typically sweetcorn, tomatoes, supplying directly to outlets. We did found. These include traditional Herbs – coriander, dill, parsley further samples in main locations to specialist stores (butchers, fishmongers, Salad crops – cress, cucumbers, identify businesses supplying other greengrocers, bakers), farm shops, lettuces, radicchio, radishes, rocket, producers with ingredients (see sample farmers’ markets, town covered salad packs, sorrel, spring onions, Darlington map on page 9 – multi-stage markets and street markets, box watercress supply chain links are shown in schemes, and a range of community green). The large majority (69%) were enterprises such as community- Eggs micro-businesses employing fewer than supported agriculture, city farms Duck, hen and pullet eggs – 10 people, with a quarter with turnover and gardens, and Country Markets. biodynamic, caged, free-range of less than £50,000 per annum; 28% In the following pages we review the and organic were small businesses and only 3% main types of businesses engaged in medium sized. Meat, fruit and veg, and selling local food and, where data is Preserves dairy accounted for two-thirds of local available, an assessment of their scale Chutneys, honey, jams, lemon curd, supply lines, with baked goods and nationally.89 The section closes with a mint jelly, pickles, preserves, quince drinks also important. Local supplies of review of supermarket chains. Despite conserve, relishes, vinegar fish and cereals were low but likely to their strength in the market, these do be constrained by geography (some not generally stock high percentages Drinks locations were more than 30 miles from of local food. In practice they were Ale, beer, cider, cordials (incl. the coast) and the dominance of the difficult to interview systematically elderflower), cuvee sparkling wine, east of England for cereal production. as volunteers made little progress fruit wine, ginger beer, juices, in securing interviews with local lemonade, mineral water, perry, Types of outlets store managers and were usually smoothies, vodka, wine Volunteer researchers collected data on referred back to the company’s head businesses stocking local food, focusing office. Some data is available from Baked goods mainly on retailers. In some locations company websites, annual reports Biscuits, bread, buns, cakes, cookies, volunteers also interviewed pubs, cafés, and press releases. crackers, flapjacks, fruit pies, restaurants, B&Bs and hotels to build a gingerbread, oatcakes, pasties, meat pies, pizzas, pork pies, quiches, Table B: National breakdown of producer supply lines by product type sausage rolls, vegetable pies Product type supplied Total supply lines (1,991) % Cereals Meat 397 20% Flour, granola, muesli, rolled oats Vegetables 297 15% Dairy 221 11% Other Bhajis, chilli chocolate, chocolates, Drinks 207 10% crisps, flapjacks, oils, pakoras, pesto, Fruit 199 10% rapeseed oil, salad dressings, samosas, Baked goods 194 10% sandwich fillings, sauces, savouries, soups, sushi Preserves 160 8% Eggs 143 7% Other 95 5% Fish 56 3% Cereals 22 1%
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Traditional specialist stores fishmongers shows how severe these average (mean) of local food sold Traditional food shops – such as changes have been: from nearly was 68%, bakeries 61%, fishmongers butchers, bakers, greengrocers and 120,000 stores in 1950, by 2007 55% and greengrocers 39%. Added to fishmongers – have been a feature of fewer than 20,000 remained. these are other small stores such as towns for many centuries. Typically delicatessens and wholefood stores also they are thought of as ‘independent’, Our own research brings home the selling significant percentages of local ‘small’ or ‘local’ shops, though there impact on individual towns: food (46% and 20% respectively). are different views of how these are • In Otley, there were 32 such stores in Typically these outlets enable defined.90 They have suffered a long the early 1950s and just 8 by 2011: people to buy a wide range of local history of closures in the past half- butchers (14 down to 3), greengrocers produce. Yet the amount of local century, reflecting changes in shopping and fruiterers (8 down to 1), bakeries produce they sell is often not patterns linked to increased mobility (3 up to 4) and fishmongers (7 down understood, appreciated or widely and the arrival of self-service stores to 0). In the same period general known, and local produce may not be from the US. In the past there were also grocers have also fallen from 11 to 1. labelled as such at all. Sourcing locally specialist national chains such as • In Penrith the figures are as dramatic is part of a traditional way of working, Dewhursts the butchers and Macfisheries with over 35 such stores in the early to ensure produce is of high quality and fishmongers, with hundreds of stores 1950s down to 8 by 2009. This period can be trusted. Even when local food is each. Both disappeared from the high has seen the loss of 3 bakeries (from labelled, it is not always clearly defined, street before 2000. To this category 5 to 2), 11 butchers (from 15 to 4), although our work showed strong could be added more recent types of 10 greengrocers (from 12 to 2) and 2 evidence that plenty of produce comes small outlets such as delicatessens or fishmongers (from 3 to 1). This directly from producers within 30 miles, fine food shops, cheese shops and haemorrhaging of choice and through long-standing relationships wholefood stores. diversity may continue: Penrith has with local suppliers. seen the development of two large Context: Traditional specialist stores supermarkets since our mapping work Farm shops The traditional retail sector has been with as yet unknown impacts on the There is little record of the growth of in long decline with heavy losses of town’s small shops. farm shops, but they have probably stores over the past 50-60 years. benefited from the same trends towards This fundamental change in the The mapping work makes clear that car ownership, self-service and bulk- grocery market is linked to the rise of traditional independent small shops buying that have weakened traditional self-service in the 1950s and the move like these are a central part of local town centre stores. Farm shops are one towards out-of-town supermarkets. food webs. They survive and trade on of several forms of direct selling, These in turn are related to the growth particularly in towns with stronger including farmers’ markets, pick-your- in ownership of cars and of fridges and food webs, despite competition from own and roadside stands, which offer freezers, increasing the options to buy supermarkets. Most of these outlets producers a much greater share of in bulk and less frequently. Data from (over 75% of those we screened) sell the food pound – typically 80-90% the Competition Commission for local food, and many in significant to compared to 8-10% through normal butchers, greengrocers, bakeries and high percentages. For butchers the channels to markets. Farm shops are a
Table C: Decline of traditional specialist stores 1950-2007 % reduction % reduction 1950 1982 2003 2007 1950s to 2007 2003 to 2007 Butchers 42,000 22,000 8,700 7,100 17% remain 18% Greengrocers 44,000 18,000 4,700 3600 8% remain 23% Bakeries 24,000 7,000 7,100 6,500 27% remain 8% Fishmongers 9,000 3,000 1,600 1,300 14% remain 19% Source: Competition Commission, 2008 91
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
prime and widespread source of local food: FARMA, which certifies, accredits Case study: and advises farmers wishing to set up a farm shop, suggests a model of 40% Woods Butchers, own-produced or local foods (FARMA Knutsford generally uses a 30-mile definition), 40% regional produce and 20% from elsewhere. Established for over 100 years, to go local: ‘A localised system of with an eye-catching window retailers, wholesalers and suppliers Farm shops: key figures92 display and an array of locally who know each other and work • There are 4,000 farm shops across produced beef, pork, lamb, poultry together as part of a community ... the UK and pies, Woods is a feature of is the easiest way I can ensure the • Annual turnover is estimated to be Knutsford town centre. The shop quality of our meat, and this is why our £1.5 billion (2005 figures) attracts a large number of regular customers come here.’ His suppliers are • Based on an average nine employees customers as well as tourists, keen on price too and are as competitive per farm shop they support 36,000 bringing people into the town as larger suppliers further afield. employees, many part-time centre and supporting other The recession has reduced demand traders locally. slightly. People are spending less but Our mapping model surveyed Quality and traceability are at his customers have stayed loyal. Steve outlets from within a 2.5-mile radius the heart of the business. Most meat concludes that, while their pockets of town or city centres with the explicit comes from small, local, free-range may have been hit, his customers still intention to include nearby farm shops. farms, with over three-quarters of demand quality and want to know they This revealed 25 farm shops, or 5% of produce from within 30 miles. Meat can trust the provenance of their meat. the fixed outlets we screened; 11 of is supplied directly from farms or the 19 locations we screened had one increasingly from local wholesalers, For further case studies see the Field or more present. All 23 interviewed who in turn source locally or produce to Fork reports for: stocked local, with an average (mean) their own. This helps reduce the Bakers: Otley – Bondgate; Yeovil – of 69% local produce, strongly administrative and logistical burden Ceres; Norwich – Pye confirming the view that farm shops of dealing with many suppliers, Butchers: Otley – Middlemiss Butchers; are an excellent source of local food. while guaranteeing quality and Kenilworth – Farmers Fayre; Newark – Farm shops can provide a valuable traceability. With 35 years in the Sibleys opportunity for farms to diversify and trade, owner Steve Connor knows all Greengrocers: Hexham – Justin Smart; to add value to their production. They of his suppliers well and insists there Darlington – Blair’s greengrocers also provide excellent access to local is no better way to do business than foods as well as providing essential local services when they are at or near the centre of villages. Local plans have policies to ensure that new farm shops don’t undermine existing village shops which are most easily accessible and use conditions to specify the proportion of local produce. Poorly located, however, farm shops can generate car-based shopping which can be a trade-off against the benefits of local food.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Farmers’ markets Case study: Farmers have traded their produce on markets for millennia but the idea of Picks Farm and Farm Shop, markets where only local producers sell Leicester – connecting people their own produce is a more recent one hailing from the US. In the UK the first with their food farmers’ market opened in Bath in 1997 followed in 1998 by Bristol, Holmfirth, Availability of local food in Birstall Chambers. ‘At one time we did supply Lewes and Lostwithiel. There has been is limited, but Picks Farm, just a little to restaurants and shops, but a rapid increase in the numbers of under three miles from the village it’s difficult to get the right price and markets since, but some contraction centre, stands out. A traditional much better to sell directly to the during the recent recession. family farm, the organic-certified public. We do four local farmers’ Picks Farm produces a range of markets, which are very successful, Farmers’ markets: key figures cereals, fruit and vegetables, as but we recognised that our biggest Data from FARMA, which represents and well as Dexter beef, Gloucestershire asset was being located on a main accredits many farmers’ markets, shows: Old Spot pork, grass-fed lamb, road. We started by selling whole • 750 markets in England, down from a poultry and eggs. They sell much of pigs out of our garden shed and that peak of 800 in 2008; only 200 of these this through their farm shop, which evolved to the farm shop we have are formally registered but these also stocks a wide range of other now, with our own full-time butcher, comprise some 60% of the total value local and organic produce. who will cut and joint the meat to • an estimated total turnover of £250 Selling directly to the public in the customers’ requirements, and our million a year local area significantly reduces the own tea shop.’ • 4,000 farmers and 5,000 producers distance produce has to travel from Nicky sees farm shops and of other products93 field to outlet, and by cutting out the farmers’ markets as important • 27% of households or approximately ‘middle man’ they also benefit because they can tell the story 13 million shoppers visit a farmers’ financially. ‘We try to grow, rear and behind how food is produced: market at least once a year. sell our food ourselves,’ says Nicky ‘People like the environment here and it’s not far from the city. They We found successful farmers’ markets can come here and see the turkeys, in towns and cities from Hexham to ducks and geese. People want more Haslemere. They trade in broadly knowledge. Children from the city two-thirds of the locations studied don’t easily get access to animals and and are a very recognisable element will have eaten turkey but don’t know of the local food web, although their what a live turkey looks like. We can frequency and so the access they offer help them reconnect to their food. to local food varies. Many are monthly The supermarkets can’t tell this story. but they can also be fortnightly or We can’t compete with supermarkets weekly. The form of management on price, but people are prepared to ranges from private businesses, local spend more if they know they are volunteers, the local town or borough getting something special.’ council to co-operatives of producers, a model supported by FARMA and the For further case studies see the Making Local Food Work programme. Field to Fork reports for: Not all farmers’ markets clearly Haslemere – Lower Roundhurst Farm; require goods to be locally sourced Kenilworth – Farmers Fayre; Ledbury and produced or enforce this, which – Durleighmarsh Farm shop may undermine confidence in their authenticity. As a response, FARMA has
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
a national accreditation scheme which certifies that all products come from Case study: within 30 miles (or 50 miles in the North East). Otley farmers’ market, The farmers’ market model offers West Yorkshire a number of benefits to producers, shoppers and the wider community, which exemplify the benefits of local ‘Farmers’ markets have been market itself is a ‘small network for food webs generally. shown to preserve the life of trade’ with ‘lots of trading between towns’ by benefiting the stallholders’. Businesses also For producers: immediate local economy and commented on the social benefits of • a lifeline to many smaller businesses, the wider rural economy and the market including their educational helping them to diversify into community, according to one value and their role in bringing people new areas and encouraging trader at Otley’s monthly farmers’ in the community together. entrepreneurship through a direct market – and this seems to hold The market is run as a social route to market true in Otley. enterprise, and profits go to the • a direct link to consumers and the The farmers’ market sells fresh Otley Town Partnership to support its opportunity for feedback – though and organic produce, direct from the activity in the community. Its success familiar to most service industries, producer and sourced as locally as has led the partnership to set up this is a radical concept for farmers94 possible. From just 12 stalls when it two new markets in Harrogate and • a greater share of the farm-gate price opened in 2002, the market now has Knaresborough, which are also thriving. or food pound, helping smaller farms nearly 50 during peak times – many Even so, many producers are suffering to remain viable and farm in a less more than at other markets in the from the symptoms of recession. industrialised way: producers at area. Its reputation attracts visitors farmers’ markets tend to adopt more in droves – footfall is double the For further case studies see sustainable and traditional methods national average, according to a the Field to Fork reports for: of farming and high standards of 2011 market health check supported Ely – Ely Farmers’ Market; animal welfare. by FARMA. The farmers’ market Hexham – Hexham Farmers’ Market; directly supports the rural economy Haslemere – South West Surrey For consumers: by providing local producers with a Farmers’ Market (co-operative) • a direct connection with the source of popular outlet for their produce and their food – shoppers can find out at gives customers access to a wide first hand how their meat is reared or range of distinctive local foods. how to cook unusual vegetables ‘There is a wealth of produce sold at • access to more environmentally the market, most of which comes sustainable food as well as fresh, from within 30 miles of the town,’ local, seasonal, distinctive and says manager Alan Robinson. specialist produce The farmers’ market boosts trade • minimal packaging and loose food in the town, he adds: ‘We have lots of (i.e. not in pre-packaged quantities), cafés in Otley and they now open on so avoiding waste. farmers’ market Sundays and benefit massively. They reciprocate by For the community: helping to promote the market.’ • money is recirculated – every Other outlets commented it is ‘good £1 spent on local food in a local for established traders’ and ‘brings outlet generates £2.50 for the people to town and supports other local economy95 businesses’. For stallholders the • increased footfall, supporting other
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
businesses nearby; a study of Case study: Marylebone Farmers’ Market in London showed that total annual Canalside CSA at Leasowe turnover was approximately £1.3 Farm – Leamington Spa, million with around 55% of customers spending a further £295,000 at local Warwickshire shops in the vicinity96 • a regular social space for residents to Canalside CSA was formed in 2006 to countryside ... I really enjoy the meet, chat and spend time as well as by Tom Ingall, his wife Caz and a community aspect of all the social somewhere for children to learn about dedicated group of locals. It now events too.’ healthy eating has around 150 members from ‘I really believe in the idea of • many volunteer-run markets within 10 miles. The farm covers sourcing local produce where we can,’ use funds raised to benefit 140 acres producing organic says Annie Barker. ‘It’s a shame the their community. vegetables, cereals, mushrooms produce in our main food chains has and nuts. Professional growers to come from so far away. I like Community-supported manage the site, but volunteers organic produce ... I can feel it’s just agriculture (CSA)97 get involved in growing and running been picked: it’s covered in dirt and The community-supported agriculture the organisation. it’s so fresh and beautiful and there’s model started in Japan in the 1960s Members have different reasons for lots of variety.’ where it is know as ‘teikei’ or ‘food joining. ‘Once you start eating veg with the farmer’s face on it’. The that’s fresh and local, its hard to go For further case studies see the Soil Association defines CSA as a back to supermarket vegetables which Field to Fork reports for: partnership between farmers and are flavourless,’ says Magali Fowler. Hastings – Crowhurst Community the local community, in which the ‘Knowing who’s grown your stuff is Agriculture and Upper Wilting Farm; responsibilities, risks and rewards wonderful. It’s such good quality and Ledbury – Dragon Orchard; Norwich – of farming are shared. This can be the price is either equal to or cheaper Norwich Farmshare; Otley – through ownership, investment, sharing than supermarkets. It gives me access Swillington Organic Farm production costs, or providing labour. It is a flexible model, and CSA initiatives vary greatly. Projects range from five families to 200. One community- supported farm has 8,000 investor members. They can be farmer- or community-led and produce food on one acre or hundreds. Vegetables are most common, but produce also includes eggs, bread, meat, fruit and dairy. CSAs are also developing to manage woodlands for fuel and, more recently, to produce fish.
CSA: key figures In the last four years, the number of CSAs in England has grown from 14 to over 80, with over 100 more in development • CSAs provide food for 5,000 families
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
and feed over 12,500 people For the community: offer, and poor location are likely to from 3,200 acres of land • CSA employment/hectare is five times contribute to this mixed picture.’101 • There are approximately 70 members higher than the agricultural average Nationally they may be suffering from per CSA on average and most • 66% trade with non-members, competition from discount retailers volunteer their labour 38% with other local businesses such as Aldi and Lidl, lack of marketing • The combined income of CSAs in • 55% of CSAs planted more hedges and promotion, and inability to change England is £7m. and trees and 61% have introduced rapidly in a dynamic retail environment. new wildlife areas The research concludes that 20-25% of CSAs operate in nearly half the survey • CSAs are characterised by more markets could close by 2020.102 locations. The rate of growth and cohesive communities, higher success elsewhere – there are 1,400 CSA employment, sharing of skills, Traditional markets: schemes in the USA and over 12,500 more local processing and concern key figures (for UK) farms selling through them98 – show the for the environment. potential. CSA offers a radical way to 2,105 markets produce and supply food, capable of Traditional markets • 1,124 traditional retail markets building strong partnerships between Markets have been a feature of human • 605 farmers’ markets communities and producers, bringing settlements since urbanisation began • 26 wholesale markets numerous benefits. millennia ago. They have been the source of innovative retailers including 47,000 market businesses For producers: chains such as Tesco, M&S and • over 45,700 retail traders • a lifeline for many farmers and an Morrisons. Yet, they have been referred • 1,000 wholesale businesses opportunity to diversify to as the ‘hidden sector’ for the lack • people can start up in farming and of national information about them 105,000 people directly employed horticulture with a relatively small available until recently. This has • 95,000 on retail markets area of land probably contributed to their being • 10,000 on wholesale markets • a secure, stable income from long overlooked by local and national members means farmers can plan government,99 though there has been £7.6 billion annual turnover accordingly, and focus on farming recent policy support in the Portas • retail market £3.5 billion • a higher, fairer return for their produce Review and the NPPF. • wholesale market £4.1 billion • voluntary help from members – on the Traditional retail markets include Source: Smith, 2009 and Zasada, 2009:65 farm and in areas like marketing. street markets and indoor or covered markets. Wholesale markets make up For members: over half the sector by value. Relative Food in various guises is an important • a regular supply of fresh, healthy newcomers associated with local food aspect both in covered and street produce, from a known, local source include farmers’ markets and Country markets. Data is not available on local • access to a local farm, where children Markets, which grew from WI markets. food sales at traditional markets. (and adults) can learn about food Traditional retail markets have suffered Yet both street and covered markets and farming from competition with supermarkets, feature strongly in food web locations • 46% say their health has improved particularly out of town, and the decline with street markets in towns such • 70% say their overall quality of life of the high street. Research in 2009 as Newark (five times a week) and has improved shows they have had a mixed Faversham (three times a week) • over a third of participants say being experience of recession in the late and important covered markets in involved has increased their skills 2000s: some have fared better than the Shrewsbury, Darlington and Burnley (77% of schemes provide training) high street, some worse.100 Krys Zasada among others. In these covered • wider benefits of outdoor exercise of the National Association of British markets 82%, 73% and 35% of food through volunteer work in the fields. Market Authorities suggests that: stalls sell local food and a valuable ‘Local factors such as lack of investment, portion sell significant quantities, quality of management and traders’ though it may not be labelled as such.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Many of these stalls are essentially Case study: traditional specialists including butchers, bakers, greengrocers and Shrewsbury Market Hall has fishmongers, with similar produce to greater potential fixed retail outlets. Traditional markets are under- recognised as purveyors of local food: Shrewsbury has been home to a It was the main destination for lack of labelling and marketing is an market since the 10th century. In food shopping for more than one in issue. Our sample of locations is too 1895 the open-air market moved to ten shoppers interviewed and used for small to conjecture the proportion of an indoor Market Hall, which was top-up shopping by around a quarter local food sold at the 1,000 or more replaced in the 1960s. This houses (23%). Yet comments from businesses markets in England, but local food was over 60 traders selling china, and shoppers indicate it needs a important at the covered markets collectables, arts and crafts, fresh significant boost. ‘Low footfall’ is a researched in particular. As accessible fruit and vegetables, meat, fish, problem and ‘better publicity’ is and affordable outlets for fresh food, cakes and bread. Of 22 food traders needed: ‘the Market Hall is hidden markets play an important role in 18 sell local food and for many, and ugly and has no sign to show providing choice and town centre including five butchers, four what it is’. Another suggested: ‘the convenience for all types of shoppers. greengrocers, two bakers and the park and ride could be marketed The presence of local food, albeit local Country Market, local food is better, specifying park and ride to the under-recognised, makes it clear that an important part of their turnover. Market Hall’. One stallholder would local food is not the preserve of middle According to site facilities manager like to see agreements between income groups or a niche product – Katie Gittins, the market brings many market traders on opening times as an impression that persists in England, benefits to the town including creating some stalls close before others, in contrast to countries such as Italy a ‘sense of community by providing putting sheets up over the stall and or France, where local food sold in shops a meeting place for many people’. giving the impression the market is and markets is part of food culture Comments from numerous shop closed. Katie Gittins agrees that across people of all incomes. managers reflect the role of the market ‘street visibility is a problem. We need as a social hub. The market has money to help make the market Country Markets continuity – core tenants stay for stand out.’ Country Markets, formerly Women’s years – and a loyal customer base. Institute Markets, bring together There’s also been a recent increase in For a further case study see the home-based producers to sell home- new customers. Darlington Field to Fork report: made, home-grown food and craftwork. Darlington Indoor Market The national organisation, Country Markets Ltd, is a co-operative social enterprise – life membership costs just 5p – operating across England, Wales and the Channel Isles. Markets are generally held in community halls or alongside other markets, usually weekly.
Country Markets: key figures • 376 markets operate across the country, each belonging to one of 65 Country Market Societies • Total annual turnover is just under £9 million with approximately 90% returned to producers
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
• The organisation nationally has 10,500 members Case study: • Just under 8,400 members are active producers with an average of 22 Broomhill Country Market producers per market. Sheffield
Country Markets are present in about a third of the study locations (Hexham, Sheffield’s Country Market meets quality, home made or home grown. Ledbury, Sheffield, Hastings, Yeovil), weekly at Broomhill, catering They can talk to producers, making and others have them within around five mainly to the local population it a friendly and fun experience. miles. They form a small but valuable including students. The market also has numerous part of their local food webs. With long Over 20 producers sell a range of environmental benefits: jars are experience of selling high quality preserves, baked goods and seasonal re-used; packaging is minimal; products, made by people in their fruit and vegetables. All produce is produce is fresh with nothing frozen; kitchens at home, they are well placed sold directly and co-operatively to and lighting is kept to a minimum; to tap into the growing interest in the the public. Shoppers know they can the customer base is very local, as provenance of food. The organisation does trust the products which are of high are most producers. not define ‘local food’ as such and some key ingredients – particularly butter, flour and sugar – may come from further afield, For the community: favoured the larger schemes with more but producers live close by and will often • support for local businesses and resources for marketing and promotion. use ingredients from their own gardens. money kept in the local economy Smaller box schemes saw sales dip. The markets offer a range of • social interaction between producers benefits to producers, customers and customers The research identified 15 box schemes and the community. • simple low-waste packaging. supplying to residents spread across nearly half of the locations studied. For producers: Box schemes Some locations had up to three • flexible, manageable work and the Local stores have delivered to homes for schemes trading. While many of these opportunity to earn extra money generations. The delivery vans of national were organic they also provided high independently, apply and develop chains are a more recent but now familiar levels of local food. The average local skills and confidence phenomenon, with home delivery food food percentage (mean) was 66%. • a low-risk route to markets and retail sales reaching £5.9 billion in 2011.103 Over half were in the highest range of outlets to sell home-produced goods Organic box schemes, which date back 75-100% local and only two in the • a sociable and co-operative network, to at least the late 1980s, are part of lowest (0-25%). Box schemes score with support from advisers, other this. There is little available data on box highly on increasing access to fresh, members and access to legal and schemes dedicated to local produce. seasonal, locally produced food technical information and tailored and, because of the range of scales, marketing and promotion materials Box schemes: key figures104 supporting diversification and smaller for indirect sales through local shops. • There are 500 home-delivery box producers. Though they don’t directly schemes for organic products in the UK support town centres, they offer an For customers: • These range from individual producers important alternative for people with • personal, friendly and pleasurable with under 100 regular customers to busy lives, without access to shops shopping experience Abel & Cole and Riverford, which both selling fresh local food, or who can’t or • affordable, wholesome, high quality, average around 40,000 deliveries per don’t want to do the supermarket run. genuinely home-made and garden- week and cover 70% of the market grown goods • The organic home delivery sector grew • seasonal and very locally strongly in 2011 – by 7.2% to £167 produced goods. million – despite recession, but growth
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
City farms and Case study: community gardens Community food growing has become Riverford Organic a hugely popular movement. Projects range from tiny wildlife gardens to fruit and vegetable plots on housing estates, from community polytunnels to large Riverford Organic began when seasonally: ‘During autumn almost city farms. Some larger community Guy Watson started delivering 100% of what goes in the boxes is farms and gardens employ paid vegetables locally to 30 friends local and seasonal.’ As Guy makes workers, while smaller groups rely on in Devon. clear the business does import some dedicated volunteers. Projects bring It now generates £41 million in produce, including from a Riverford- together community groups and help retail turnover and supplies around owned farm in France, to ‘plug the people of all ages, backgrounds and 40,000 boxes a week of veg, fruit, meat hungry gap’ and ‘imports probably abilities to improve their communities and salads to homes nationally. From account for 40% of what we sell.’ and environment. Groups may offer their family farm, the Watsons also run Riverford is part of the South food-growing activities, training three farm shops, a wholefood shop, Devon Organic Producers co-operative courses, school visits, play and sports restaurant, dairy and butchery, all of 20 farms, which work together to facilities and out-of-school schemes. of which promote, produce and sell improve efficiency. The co-operative City farms and community gardens seasonal, local and organic foods. agrees a cropping programme with provide valuable opportunities for The business now employs 450 people Riverford and the farms share labour, people in urban areas, in particular, to across the UK. equipment and expertise. Riverford connect with local food – the mapping ‘We have four farms around the acts as sales agent so members work found examples in Sheffield, country, helping us to keep our food get reasonable prices without among other locations. With their miles down,’ says Guy. ‘As demand for having to sell their own produce. community ethos, and by providing our veg boxes grew, we didn’t want to ‘The transactional cost of dealing access to fresh, very local fruit and grow any larger from the original with small producers is significant,’ vegetables, they have potential to play Devon farm. Each Riverford farm helps says Guy, ‘but it’s part of our ethos to an important part within local food us to support local farmers, provide support small producers. The world is webs and in particular helping those local employment and build a strong a lonely and brutal place for farmers on low incomes to eat well affordably. link between grower and consumer.’ and working in a co-operative is good The business is focused on socially and emotionally.’ City farms and community gardens: encouraging people to eat locally and key figures • The Federation of City Farms and Community Gardens supports around 120 city and school farms, up to 1,000 community gardens (600 are members) and over 4,000 community-managed allotments • Members employ around 550 people and engage thousands of volunteers • They have more than three million visitors and regular users every year; around 50,000 of these are school pupils • Estimated combined turnover of members is £40 million a year • Members provide around 2,500
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
training places for adults with learning disabilities each year Case study: • At least 200 new city farms and community gardens are Heeley City Farm, Sheffield in development.
Supermarket chains Grocery chains are not new. From the Heeley City Farm and its café, just outside Sheffield. Set up as a 1890s they rapidly grew to one-fifth set in a deprived area of Sheffield, social enterprise in 2004, the garden of market share in 1920, and expanded reach out to the community in supplies organic food to local shops, from 8,000 to 13,000 outlets from numerous ways. restaurants and farmers’ markets. 1920 to 1940.105 Supermarket growth ‘We work with Sure Start to help The garden also provides learning has been propelled by the advent of children learn about eating well,’ opportunities through local food self-service and the spread of mobility says farm manager Jill Brooks. ‘We courses, workshops and volunteering, through car ownership. The trend also work with children with learning educational visits for schools and towards superstores and hypermarkets difficulties. They particularly like to public events. dates to the late 1960s. From just work with animals. We provide a over 450 in the mid-1980s, there were community atmosphere and See other case studies in Field to over 1,100 by the late 1990s. To scale meeting place [including] for schools Fork reports: up, stores have moved out of town: and health services.’ Sheffield – Whirlow Farm Trust; by 2007 there were 1,500 out-of-town The farm has three growing sites Faversham – Abbey Physic Garden; superstores, and the number is growing including Wortley Hall Walled Garden Burnley – Burnley Cropshare (Growing still.106 This massive rise has been Communities Start-Up scheme) marked by the growth of Tesco’s market share, from 13% in the mid-1980s to over 30% by 2006.107 In a reverse of this trend, the multiples have also moved back into high streets through investing in the convenience retail market – Tesco Express stores and One Stops are the most prominent of the 3,000 or so stores.108
Grocery stores: key figures Grocery stores/supermarkets are categorised by their size: • traditional retail/convenience stores – under 3,000 square feet • supermarkets – 3,000 to 25,000 square feet, selling a broad range of grocery items • superstores – over 25,000 square feet, including non-grocery items • hypermarkets – over 60,000 square feet.
According to the Institute of Grocery Distribution (IGD) there are 88,441
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
grocery stores with a combined hypermarkets – offer grocery but also grow this to £0.5 billion by 2013 sales area of over 200 million square ‘comparison’ goods such as clothing, Morrisons – no data feet, comprising: pharmacy and kitchenware which Sainsbury’s – no data • 9,192 hypermarkets, superstores compete with other specialist stores in Tesco – declared sales of local products and supermarkets the town centre. Hexham’s Tesco Extra £1 billion in 2011, up from £850 million • 48,056 convenience stores hypermarket on the edge of its centre in 2009; equivalent to, we estimate, • 31,193 traditional retailers.109 takes 45% of all shopping in the district 3.5% of grocery turnover; but a higher but stocks only seven local products.113 share of food sales alone; this total is Food and groceries account for Supermarket chains remain the too high as Tesco defines local food for 50p in every £1 of retail spending. most challenging competitors to the Ireland, Wales and Scotland as food Latest data on grocery market shares specialist shops, markets and farm produced within the country. shows the following: Tesco 30.7%; shops which stock high levels of local Asda (including Netto) 17.6%; and are vital to food webs. So what c) Distribution arrangements Sainsbury 16.6%; Morrisons 11.9%. place, if any, do they have within local Asda – flexible delivery either directly The Co-operative110 and Waitrose had food webs? We assessed the ‘big four’ to store, into local depots or via a 6.5% and 4.5% of the market with – Asda, Morrisons, Sainsbury’s and network of local hubs that ‘work all multiples totalling 97.8% market Tesco – on five criteria, based on directly with small local suppliers’ and share with 2.2% at symbol groups internet research. manage the relationship for Asda117 (convenience store groups such as Morrisons – regional distribution centres Londis and Spar) and independents.111 a) Commitment to local sourcing Sainsbury’s – regional produce hubs Asda – states that local sourcing is a Tesco – no information found. Supermarkets and local food webs can fundamental part of its business and and do co-exist. Cranbrook writes: ‘The local turnover is now as large as some d) Definition of local area [East Suffolk] has benefited from major food categories; has a dedicated Asda – ‘We define local products as an approach that supports a variety of local sourcing team. those that are made locally, grown retail outlets including a range of small Morrisons – no specific reference to locally and reared locally; are a and medium-sized supermarkets in the local, but they claim to always source local taste or delicacy and recognised market towns. Within this framework British if ‘the quality, quantity and by customers as local’; indications are small businesses can not only start up value are there’; the ‘vast majority’ of Asda uses a 30-mile definition118 but flourish.’112 Supermarkets exist in vegetables are British and ‘all of our Morrisons – no definition all of the towns and cities we surveyed, standard milk is sourced regionally’.114 Sainsbury’s – no definition including those with relatively thriving Sainsbury’s – no specific reference to Tesco – ‘Local lines are those produced food webs such as Totnes, Otley local, but discusses ‘sourcing with and sold within a county or neighbouring and Penrith. integrity’ and supporting British and county in England, or within the The presence of supermarkets is not regional farmers.115 country in Ireland, Scotland an obstacle – but their number, scale Tesco – has a website dedicated to local and Wales.’119 and location may be. Moderately sized foods and local sourcing and lists local supermarkets, well located and well sourcing under ‘Buying and selling connected with town centres, draw products responsibly’ in its CSR report. shoppers and support a centre’s overall vibrancy and attractiveness. This is the b) Local food as a share of case in Totnes, with several small total sales116 Across the ‘big four’ supermarkets and one medium-sized Asda – declared turnover of local food supermarkets, the proportion Morrisons near the high street. But is £1 billion (2001-2011), so averaging of local produce by turnover larger stores at the edge or out of town £100 million a year or 0.6% on total especially in small market towns, can grocery turnover of around £16 billion remains minimal compared to shift the shopping centre of gravity and but would be a higher share of food most of the independent the largest stores – particularly sales alone; they have ambitions to outlets we screened
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
e) Local lines and suppliers Asda – works with ‘over 600 local Case study: suppliers’ and stocks ‘over 6,000 different local products’120 Booths: The Slow Morrisons – no data Food supermarket Sainsbury’s – over 3,000 own-label and branded regional products Tesco – stocks ‘approximately 4,000 Booths is a regional supermarket the current food system – 49 UK local lines and works with over 400 local chain with 28 stores across products are listed.125 As part of this, and national suppliers’ (this leaves the Lancashire, Cheshire, Cumbria, Booths now provides an outlet for a number of local suppliers unclear).121 Yorkshire and Greater range of forgotten regional foods such Manchester.123 as Morecambe Bay shrimps, Grimsby Asda and Tesco deserve credit for It has a strong reputation as the smoked haddock, Lythe Valley showing a commitment to local food, ethical choice among supermarkets, damsons, and Formby asparagus. and their support for local suppliers can and local and regional sourcing Booths has won awards from Business help to stimulate local food businesses. polices are at the heart of its in the Community (BITC) for responsible Nevertheless, the proportion of local business model. At least 25% of all business practice for support of local produce by turnover remains minimal products in its stores come from farmers and producers supplying compared to most of the independent local or regional producers and traditional breed dry-aged beef. outlets we screened. In contrast, the processors; 85% of its meat and 65% Booths’ commitment to local and regional supermarket chain – Booths of its bread is from the region; when regional produce is to be applauded, in the North West – shows that it’s in season, 100% of its tomatoes are but its growth in the small market possible for large stores successfully to British. Local air-dried ham, lamb, towns where it tends to operate can be stock impressive levels of local/regional milk, cream, sausages, cakes, breads, a challenge to smaller independent food. The East of England Co-operative cheeses, apples, venison, yoghurt and distinctive local shops. Yet, unlike is also rapidly growing its locally- and even jalapeno chillies are some national supermarket chains, sourced lines and is committed to all stocked.124 Booths sticks to supermarket format trading fairly with suppliers. A new In 2011 Booths formed a four- stores: the average store size is 18,000 model, The People’s Supermarket in year partnership with Slow Food UK square feet. Though they are opening Islington, is a social enterprise with to promote quality, provenance, new stores, their expansion plans are strong values akin to local food webs: seasonality and regionality. modest compared to others; they have access to healthy, local food at It supports educational projects no current plans to move into the reasonable prices, strong connections like The Ark of Taste, a listing of South East. to local producers that are ‘mutually exceptional foods under threat from sustaining’, minimising wastage and a community ethos at its core.122 But there is another compelling reason we have excluded supermarkets in general from the local food webs we report on here. The dominant business model of the majors (in particular the ‘big four’) is expansionist: they prey on the existing diversity of towns and local centres and, while in high streets in some areas, they develop large out-of- town stores in others to grow their market share. This undermines centres and their smaller traders. In contrast,
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
local food webs embody the values and Case study: virtues of diversity. The East of England Convenience stores Co-operative: ‘Sourced locally Convenience stores – ‘stores with sales area of less than 3,000 sq ft, open for is miles better’ long hours and selling products from at least 8 different grocery categories’126 The East of England Co-operative producers. This includes trading fairly – and general grocery stores are Society, the largest independent and honestly with local producers, familiar as ‘local’, village and corner retailer in East Anglia, has more working with them to provide quality shops. They make up half of all food than 200 outlets across Essex, products and save food miles, and stores (54%) and include co-ops, Suffolk and Norfolk. Annual increasing customer choice by multiples, ‘symbol’ groups127, turnover exceeds £350 million stocking more local products. independents and forecourts. Slow (2011-12 figures) and it employs Stable long-term relationships decline is the overall trend for this over 4,600 staff. enable suppliers to trade profitably, sector but marked by steeper decline Local sourcing began in 2007 and in many cases to expand: local for independents: dropping 3.4% with a handful of suppliers. Supplier producers such as Ken Green Fish from 20,351 (2010) to 19,652 (2011) numbers and sales of products have from Clacton or potato and crisp in just a year.128 In response, symbol grown each year. In April 2011 it producer Fairfields Farm have groups have grown as retailers join launched a new ‘Sourced Locally’ brand taken on new staff and expanded together to increase their marketing, for all its supermarket and food stores, their businesses. branding and buyer power. Other with hundreds of locally sourced ‘We put products into the store trends are the move of multiples into products. In the first year, the initiative closest to the producer and this is the sector – in 2002 Tesco bought was responsible for £7.1 million of a often just a few miles, or in some 862 stores129 – and continuing loss £7.9 million increase in food sales cases a few yards, from our stores of village shops. Community-owned sourced from local suppliers. Over £15 and where possible no more than a stores are a viable model offering million has been spent with 114 local 30-mile radius,’ says local sourcing hope to restore some village shops. suppliers to date, creating 100 new manager Kevin Warden. ‘When fresh and supporting many existing jobs produce is available it can be picked, Community-owned village stores130 at suppliers. packed and in the customer’s – key figures The Society has a five-point shopping basket within a few hours.’ • Have grown from 33 in 1991 to commitment to support its local 251 in 2011; annual growth of 19 • Have 97% success rate as new enterprises • Estimated combined sales of £33 million a year • 98% sell local produce • Typically employ around 2 staff, create 30 volunteer placements and have more than 130 members
General grocers and convenience stores were included in the screening of stores across locations for sales of local food. Of 84 screened 45 stocked local food with more independents stocking it (49%) than symbol stores (39%). Of 19
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
mainly independents interviewed, their local stock percentage by sales value Case study: was on average 29% (mean) with a pattern of a handful of stores sourcing Spar County Store, Ledbury high levels but the broad run in the 0-25% category. Though on recent figures for independent stores this could mean some 9,000 such stores in ‘When we source from local ‘Generally the prices are in line with England could be selling local food, we producers we are getting what we would buy through the lack the data to confirm this. something unique to us,’ says wholesaler.’ Downsides are that local John Ewens, store manager. producers can only supply fruit, ‘It’s the one thing that makes vegetables and salads when in season us different on the high street and dealing with multiple suppliers and local products are bound to and invoices is more work, but, says be fresher.’ John, ‘the benefits more than make County Stores stocks a wide range up for it.’ SPAR, the world’s largest of local foods: cider, beer, crisps, ice international food retail chain, is the cream, pies, bread, eggs, soft fruit, UK’s leading convenience store group, salad bags and tomatoes in season, with over 25,000 stores with sales of and meats from Gurneys, the local over £2.7 billion a year.131 Stores are butcher. Open until 10.30pm seven managed independently and if all days a week, it’s convenient for managers sourced locally like John, people wanting to buy local food out they could significantly boost the of general business hours. ‘On the local food economy. whole, customers prefer to support local producers,’ says John.
Out-of-town stores undermine town centres and their smaller traders. In contrast, local food webs embody the values and virtues of diversity
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
This section sets out the main findings of the project along the lines of the individual location reports. There are four main parts: • local food and local economies • local food and local communities • local food and the local environment • local food and local policies.
These findings come from statistical of representativeness in our survey (quantitative) and thematic location sample, which is geographically (qualitative) data collected by spread and covers small, medium and £132 volunteers, regional co-ordinators and large towns and cities. Estimates are report writers in 19 survey locations conservative as we only apply a million by interviewing outlets, producers multiplier of one for large cities. Annual sales of local food and shoppers. They were collated, Thematic findings are drawn from standardised and analysed at CPRE comments organised and coded by from independent outlets in National Office. theme locally, then checked and 19 locations Statistical analysis has been used to collated nationally. Generally we have estimate the value of local food to the only reported themes with a medium local economies of survey locations. to large run of comments (100+) Estimates are based on samples and mainly from businesses. Where £22 extrapolated to larger populations. possible themes are corroborated We have extrapolated the data further by many interviewees (20 or more). Average weekly spend on to calculate very broadly the potential Shopper surveys were analysed both local food value of local food webs nationally. thematically and statistically. We have assumed a reasonable degree 46% Growth in emissions due to shopping by car 2002-2006
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
The value to the jobs (full- and part-time), with over producers that are unlikely to be 61,000 due entirely to local food sales. available through the distribution local economy channels of supermarket chains. Key findings We carried out further analysis to Based on the sample interviewed, we compare the ratio of jobs to turnover in calculated that 69% of supply chain Attributes and benefits outlets which sell significant to high businesses were micro businesses Outlets percentages of local food with national employing fewer than 10 people. For the 19 locations surveyed with a supermarket chains (Tesco, Sainsbury’s Around a quarter had a turnover of combined population of 975,000132 and Morrisons): less than £50k per annum. Some 28% our analysis shows: • local food outlets support on were small businesses and 3% were • local food sales through independent average one job for every £46,000 medium sized. Small and medium-sized outlets are supporting total turnover of annual turnover enterprises (SMEs) are vital to the of £132 million a year; an estimated • supermarket chains support on economy: they represent 99% of all 52% – £68 million – relates directly average one job per £138,000 to enterprises, 58.8% of jobs and half of to local food sales £144,000 of annual turnover turnover (48.8%) in the private sector.137 • sales of local produce accounted for • in comparison, pound for pound, Their innovation and entrepreneurship more than 25% of turnover for over smaller independent ‘local food’ creates the large businesses of the two-thirds of outlets (148 out of 218) outlets supports three times the future: case studies indicate that local with a third of outlets selling very high number of jobs.134 food webs are important for enabling levels of local food (75% or more by business start-ups to trial products in value). The breakdown for the amount Though these figures do not factor in small-scale markets. of local food sold (by turnover) was: jobs supported locally at producers or 0-25% – 32% of outlets; 26-50% – non-food businesses servicing the local Customers 15%; 51-75% – 22%; 76-100% – 31%. food web, other research indicates that Local food outlets serve over 415,000 • local food outlets support over 2,600 this effect extends down the supply customer visits weekly in the 19 jobs (full-time and part-time) of which chain. In Devon, more than half of all locations surveyed – equivalent to two over 1,500 are wholly due to local food businesses are involved in the in five people (42.5% of population). food sales. local food sector. Producers involved in Nationally we estimate that local food the local food economy employed on outlets could be servicing over 16.3 The high percentage of local food average 3.4 full-time workers compared million people weekly. They are an stocked by independent retailers shows to the regional average of 2.3 per important part of consumer choice, its importance to their retail offer and farm.135 A US report on local foods regularly used and valued by shoppers. their viability. These outlets are an showed that fruit and vegetable farms important source of jobs (broadly not engaged in local sales employed Challenges and barriers half full-time, half part-time) and three full-time workers for every Local food enterprises support local make a valuable contribution to local $1 million in revenue, while farms economies by employing more economies of the locations we studied selling into local markets employed 13 people. However, the advent of and, we suggest, of other towns full-time workers for every $1 million.136 national retailers can undermine this. and cities and the rural areas that Highly centralised supermarket supply surround them. Supply chain businesses systems are based on fewer, larger For the 19 locations surveyed our producers. Their growing dominance For England we estimate: analysis shows 2,000 local food suppliers threatens the remaining local food • local food sales through local outlets with £718 million in estimated annual chains and the diversity of food sector (largely independent and social/ sales supported by trade within these businesses they support. It is common co-operative businesses) in 747 towns local food webs. We estimate they for supermarket planning applications, and cities133 to be £2.7 billion a year employ 34,000 people. particularly for larger edge- and • these outlets support over 103,000 Local food outlets offer direct and out-of-centre stores, to boast of job indirect markets for micro and small creation. However, at best these jobs
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
may merely displace jobs in the value per year, a local multiplier of The relationships between networks existing local food economy; at worst, £3.04 per £1 spent.144 of smaller food retailers and the local there will be a large net loss of jobs. • In Nottingham local food spending for food supply chain back to primary The National Retail Planning Forum, school meals (currently £1.65 million producers are dispersed and numerous, funded by major retailers,138 explored per year) generates over £5 million in making collecting data complex. the effects on employment following value, or £3.11 in social, economic It is easy for their presence to be the opening of 93 edge-of-town and environmental value for every overlooked. As a result, the scale, supermarkets. The results showed that £1 spent. Due to the shift in focus importance and wider benefits of local over a four-year period, there had been towards procuring food seasonally food webs are not widely recognised a net loss of 276 jobs in a 10-mile and locally, the total amount of in policy. The research presented here, radius of each of the supermarkets, money circulating in the local we believe, underestimates the scale equivalent to a national total loss of economy increased from £181,418 and economic importance of local food over 25,000 jobs.139 This study did not in 2004 to £3,826,688 in 2011. webs: our volunteers focused on retail include florists, clothes shops and • Similar studies in Northumberland and could not survey all businesses newsagents, suggesting even greater showed every £1 was worth £1.76 to using or supplying local food. For most actual jobs losses. There has been little the local economy if it was spent with locations, food service outlets (cafés, research of this nature since to inform a local supplier, but only 36 pence if restaurants, hotels) and public planning decisions, as Portas notes.140 spent outside the area. In other words, procurement, and the businesses £1 spent locally was worth almost supplying them, were not included. Context: Money trails 400% more. It was estimated that a There is rising awareness that 10% increase in the proportion of the Recommendations for action supporting local producers and retailers council’s annual procurement budget Local authorities – district councils and can support the local economy and spent locally would create an extra unitary authorities – should survey and these reasons for buying local food £34 million circulating in the map their own local food networks to rank high on our and other shopper local economy.145 ensure they are taken into account surveys.141 A number of studies show across a range of policy areas including how purchasing or procuring food Key issues economic development, tourism, the from local sources benefits the local Our research shows the valuable role rural economy and retail and town economy by re-circulating money of local food webs in creating jobs centre planning. locally. For example, the New and supporting the local economy, Government should commission Economics Foundation (NEF) concluded particularly in rural areas where other new research on the impact of out-of- that income from organic box schemes economic opportunities are limited. town developments on town centres generates about twice as much for the Conservatively estimated, local food as recommended by Mary Portas and local economy as supermarkets.142 webs could support turnover of £2.7 include impact on jobs in the wider Their research into ‘money trails’ gives billion a year at local food outlets local economy. many examples of how spending on across England and 137,000 jobs at local food keeps money circulating outlets and suppliers.146 Pound for in the local economy measured by a pound, local outlets support three times The economics of ‘local multiplier’ figure: the jobs of national supermarket chains. scale and competition • Cusgarne Organics, a farm with both Because local food web businesses local staff and local suppliers, generated keep money circulating in the local Key findings £2 for the local economy for every £1 economy, they add value to the local Over 400 comments generated by spent or a local multiplier of 2 143 economy: using a ‘local multiplier’ of interviews with outlets and producers • In Plymouth, £384,000 or around half 2.5 based on research by NEF, we were classified under this theme. the school meals budget was spent estimate local food sales through Broadly, comments about operating locally ‘on seasonal, local produce,’ local food webs nationally could within the local food market were more generating around £1.2 million of generate £6.75 billion in benefit to negative than positive at a three-to-two local economies across England. ratio. For producers there were equal
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
positive and negative comments, but also, on occasions, more local larger companies with economies of but for outlets negative comments competition for what may be a scale – one Totnes producer cited the outweighed positive two to one. limited market for local produce. additional cost of transporting 15-20 pigs to the local abattoir, compared Attributes and benefits Outlets set out several challenges: to major producers sending 200 in Many positive comments from outlets • While some said local food is cheaper, large trucks. related to the price benefits of others see it as more expensive • Supermarket expansion has changed operating within the local food market. ‘often’, ‘sometimes’, ‘occasionally’ the wholesale market and forced They made it clear that buying local or marginally – half of all negative consolidation of production, and can be cheaper, and where not cheaper, comments relate to price. In shopper market domination gives them the the quality of the produce justifies the surveys, 58% of shoppers gave cost ability to control prices: ‘Growers higher price. Comments from outlets as a reason for not buying more local have had to get bigger to supply – most of which sold local and non-local food. Outlets appreciate that local supermarkets. If they don’t supply goods – suggest local food is fairly and food producers are generally smaller supermarkets, there isn’t a market competitively priced: ‘good value and it is ‘difficult to compete with place for them. Supermarkets have for money’, ‘can be cheaper except big companies due to economy of caused this – a monopoly of growers when supermarkets have offers’, scale’. A complicating factor is that – dictating the price’ (Ely producer). ‘realistically priced’, ‘good quality supermarkets can offer cheap food • Competition is exacerbated by very food at the right price’. deals which can undercut even highly low prices: ‘food is sold at a cost Other positive comments show the competitive traders. below what it costs to produce it’ value to producers of trading in local • Local food can be seen to be more and producers bear the cost of markets. In particular, they can sell at a expensive even when it’s not: according supermarket promotions. ‘People get price which gives a real and fair return to one Hexham trader, it’s ‘perceived lured into supermarkets by cheap on their work: ‘sensible return for the to be more expensive due to its prices. They don’t realise it’s the grower’, ‘sensible prices’, ‘far better being hand-produced not because supplier who [is] subsidising 2-for-1 off financially to supply smaller it’s local’. Perceived price combined offers,’ said one Darlington producer. retailers’, ‘improved margin from with real price differences dissuade Low prices in supermarkets create supplying locally’. Some of this comes customers from buying local food. consumers who ‘aren’t willing to pay from trading directly with retailers and • Supermarket dominance can reduce a little bit extra for their product’. other outlets: ‘you can get a better supply as well as demand: wholesale return if you deal with the seller networks have been weakened and Context: Scale directly’ and ‘control over the price producers supplying to supermarkets Local food and small scale are closely of the product’ gives a ‘higher are less keen to deal with many related. Local markets are by definition percentage of the final price’. Also, smaller independent outlets: bounded in some way geographically comments reveal that returns can ‘[There’s] not so much available ... – by county, 30 miles or similar – improve as costs of supplying locally because of supermarkets’ and limiting the size of the market. Locally, can be lower: ‘cheaper to supply’, ‘cost ‘Supermarkets reap all the stuff diversity of retailers and producers effective’, ‘distribution is cheaper’ before independent retailers get further breaks up the market between and ‘less cost for the producer [on] to see it’. One Darlington outlet many players. Supermarkets operate transport and packaging’. commented: ‘Some producers sell in these markets but are usually more expensively to independent supported by national-scale operations Challenges and barriers shops [but are] desperate to get and logistics. As noted, most businesses Many comments reflect the significant into supermarkets so sell cheaper in local food webs are small: 69% challenges to smaller outlets and to them.’ of those we interviewed were micro producers of competing in tough businesses with fewer than 10 markets, mainly against the large Producers struggle to compete for a employees and 28% small businesses. supermarket chains with their low range of reasons, often interrelated: prices and one-stop convenience – • They cannot compete easily with
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
The future of markets and the failure not supporting the industry: policy which ultimately undermines local of competition policy? towards breaking up the industry choice and competition. A fundamental question is whether not promoting concentration.’ Policy ‘the concentration of the retail market should aim to support diverse and Context: From Ombudsman [is] the sign of a properly functioning dynamic markets.150 This line follows to Adjudicator approach to competition, where the a different tradition of economic The issue of buyer power of the major most efficient business models naturally thinking, closer to Adam Smith, multiple retailers has been central to eliminate their competitors, or whether which holds that a competitive the grocery market investigations the inability of small and medium-sized economic system underpins a of the CC in 2000 and 2008. In 2008 the businesses to compete in fact represents ‘free and equitable society’ and CC identified this as a potential cause the opposite: an uncompetitive that competition policy should go for concern and also identified practices market?’147 The 2000 and 2008 beyond preventing abuse of power which were passing ‘excessive risks or Competition Commission (CC) inquiries by supporting an economy of SMEs unexpected costs’ on to their suppliers into the grocery industry failed to which can drive economic growth.151 such as ‘retroactive variation of tackle concentration of ownership. contracts’.152 The CC created a new Schoenborn in The Right to Retail Key issues mandatory Groceries Supply Code concludes the CC adopted the wrong Smaller local food businesses can of Practice for all grocery retailers standard for competition by focussing struggle to compete in a retail market with annual sales of over £1 billion. on ‘abuse of market power’ and ‘harm dominated by national supermarket It recommended that a new Supermarket to consumers’.148 The origins of this lie chains. While local food in smaller Ombudsman be set up to enforce it. in how competition and monopoly policy stores can often be cheaper than at The Groceries Code Adjudicator Bill to has been shaped in the US and the UK chains and excellent value for money, bring this into being was announced in by economic theory of the Chicago its high quality can sometimes make it the Queen’s Speech in May 2012. School since the 1950s. Earlier regulation more expensive – or shape perceptions aimed to prevent small businesses that it is. Price – or perceived price – Recommendations for action being forced out of the market. The limits sales of local food. Conversely, The Government should ensure that Chicago School put greater emphasis supermarkets can, through economies legislation to establish a Grocery Chain on benefits to consumer welfare of of scale, buyer power, global sourcing Adjudicator to enforce the Grocery efficiency gains resulting from market and below-cost selling, undercut even Supply Chain Code of Practice (GSCOP) concentration. Within this supposedly highly competitive traders. self-regulating market, monopolies Supermarket dominance means would be prevented by new businesses smaller retailers may not survive, entering the market.149 especially if larger stores ‘capture’ According to LSE economist John shoppers who fail to go on to shop in 1 job Kay, the 1950s model has derailed town centres. Retail diversity, choice competition policy for the past 20 and access may suffer. Local food outlets support years. In his analysis the market Loss of smaller outlets threatens one job for every £46,000 of economy has been triumphant because the markets for smaller producers. annual turnover of three key elements: the heeding of Though supermarkets could be by far prices as signals, the role of markets as the largest market for their produce, processes of discovery and the diffusion there are risks and challenges to of political and economic power. But supplying them. Large chains can competition policy has placed too demand terms which producers with 69% much emphasis on the first to the few other markets are unable to refuse. Percentage of producers detriment of the other two, resulting Smaller producers may not be able to in ‘arcane’ and ‘inconclusive’ inquiries. supply them because of scale or other interviewed that were Kay concludes there is a need for ‘policy barriers. So the loss of retail can lead to micro-businesses (with fewer aimed at supporting the market, loss of diversity in the supply chain, than 10 employees)
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
gives the Adjudicator wide-ranging powers to scrutinise and enforce fair Case study: trade in the food supply chain and to create a more level playing field for Eddisbury Fruit Farm, other retailers These should enable it Cheshire – the benefits of to investigate proactively, and require changes to unfair practices and selling to local markets contracts brought to its attention by farmers, trade organisations, NGOs Eddisbury Fruit Farm, run by ‘It’s the little shops that offer us and other businesses in the supply the Haworth family since 1936, a fairer price,’ says Monica Howarth. chain. It should also have powers to grows 26 varieties of apple and ‘If we were to supply the quantity levy fines where necessary. produces award-winning Cheshire demanded by supermarkets, we would Cider and Cheshire Apple Juice. have to drop all our small, loyal Their product is distinctive and customers, and that is not something popular with local outlets, and they we are prepared to do.’ sell to a loyal customer base of Nevertheless, the rise of the 100-150 businesses, mostly small supermarkets has affected them. retailers, farm shops and restaurants Until 10 years ago, Eddisbury sold in Lancashire and Cheshire. around 300 apple crates a week, Eddisbury refuse to supply mostly to local greengrocers via supermarkets for several reasons. wholesale markets. But more and more Despite approaches, they weren’t greengrocers and wholesalers have offered a reasonable price. Also, disappeared. Their customer base now, they were wary of supermarkets mostly farm shops and restaurants, is not paying on time, which would more diverse and inherently less risky. put enormous financial pressure on As Monica recalls: ‘many farmers the business.153 On the one occasion who made the switch to supplying Eddisbury did supply a supermarket supermarkets have since lost their chain, they couldn’t afford the contracts, and now have nowhere else charges demanded for shelf space to turn.’ and promotion of their produce in store and pulled out.
Retail diversity, choice and access may suffer as a result of supermarket dominance
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Business networks businesses, built on trust and personal clustering effect to work: ‘All small contact. Such relationships can shops help each other. Towns need Key findings operate where outlets are co-located a good mixture of small shops to As part of questionnaire-based (‘We are market traders but we attract customers.’ Market traders interviews food web businesses were don’t like to be classed as that – were particularly aware of this asked whether they contributed to or more as one big happy family’) ‘complementary’, ‘synergistic’ or benefitted from the success of other or when businesses trade together. ‘symbiotic’ effect. There may be local businesses and if so how. This As one Totnes producer expressed it: tensions within this mix: though many and other questions stimulated a ‘We get to know customers very commented that markets attracted very large number of comments well and customers look out for trade and footfall to the benefit of all, (over 800) which we have themed your products. The manager of the some traders were wary of farmers’ under ‘business networks’. greengrocer we supply accepts markets as additional competition, anything we produce of any taking rather than attracting trade. Attributes and benefits quantity. It’s done on trust. He Perhaps a threshold effect may Comments on the value of local knows it will all be of good quality. operate – though at what level this business networks were overwhelmingly This trust is extremely important lies is difficult to say. Where trade positive by a factor of 9 to 1. In terms to the business.’ Such relationships is strong and healthy then outlets of benefits to businesses the most enable businesses to support each may be less aware of competition, important issues were: other informally, for instance by or value the stimulus it provides. • The value of businesses in a location sharing information, helping to deal But if decline has set in, possibly working together and complementing with surplus produce or promoting through significant supermarket each other in various ways, for each other’s products. growth and loss of outlets, then example by attracting shared far from benefitting from less footfall and recommending each Challenges and barriers local competition, the remaining other to customers. Key shops Few negative comments arose about businesses are left fighting over a such as specialist outlets, farmers’ business networks or trading locally. dwindling contingent of shoppers. markets and supermarkets and However, several themes emerge which certain products attract shoppers represent a challenge to local food webs: Key issues to the location, increasing trade for • The mutual dependence of clusters of Networks of smaller independent food others; this extends beyond food businesses leaves them vulnerable: retailers and other specialist outlets in outlets to other specialist outlets when one or more outlets close those town centres are mutually supportive such as bookshops which can draw nearby may suffer significantly. in drawing footfall and boosting trade. in customers. ‘Good quality stalls As one Hastings trader noted: ‘The They are important for ensuring that at the farmers’ market bring in businesses all look after each other. town centres (and high streets) can footfall,’ said one Ely trader. ‘There If you lose one it has an impact on offer the range of produce to compete is a cluster of local businesses the others. The butcher’s closed with one-stop superstores. here which gives people a reason down and this impacted our Food represents half of the average to come to the area.’ Saturday trade badly.’ If the local weekly shopping spend, so loss of food • The value of businesses trading with retail offer in the high street or a local outlets in centres undermines their each other locally (or community centre loses its attractiveness to role as a key shopping destination. trading), in particular buying from customers, especially where it can no The loss of one or more of a range other outlets or using other local longer satisfy most of their shopping of food shops – butchers, bakers, services, so re-circulating money needs, then the loss of footfall and fishmongers, greengrocers, delis, in the local economy: ‘We’re all trade can further threaten the viability wholefoods, general groceries – can mutually reliant,’ as one Haslemere of those that remain. A vicious circle undermine the attractiveness of a trader put it. of decline can ensue. location for all food shopping needs, • The importance of the relationships • Comments suggest the need for a especially if the choice of these and community formed among core of essential stores for the declines. Loss of individual shops can
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
tags and storylines Case study: • free tasting • ‘meet the producer’ events Moody Baker Wolf Pies • information in leaflets and newsletters made with Allendale • discounts.
Brewery Wolf Ale, Hexham ‘External’ marketing: • joining local producer organisations ‘What’s in a wolf pie?’ people system to help local businesses (e.g. Produced in Kent), local or ask the Moody Baker curiously... work together in their home town of regional branding schemes and No, it’s not made with a wild Alston – for example by arranging town loyalty schemes canine but with Wolf Ale from for one retailer to bring back stock • local media adverts, including Allendale Brewery. for another from markets. Allendale newspapers, magazines and The baker and brewer sell Brewery uses Northumberland malt brochures, including school and alongside each other at Hexham and many of their ales are named parish magazines farmers’ market. The Moody Baker is after local wildlife, such as Golden • websites a co-operative artisan bakery with Plover and Curlew’s Return. They’re • newsletters and leaflets food ethics at its core. They use local reviving an old local tradition – • attending events such as festivals, ingredients where they can, and have the original brewery folded 120 agricultural shows, farm open days, set up a community distribution years ago. farmers’ markets and campaigns • sponsorship, donations and involvement in community events. have a knock-on effect on other outlets, leading to a vicious circle of decline in Businesses Informal marketing the vitality and viability of the centre. promotion and • conversations with customers marketing • word of mouth from customer Recommendations for action to customer Local plan policy needs to support Key findings • businesses recommending each other. ‘one-stop shop’ town centres. Shoppers As part of business interviews we need to be able to meet all their asked ‘What would help to sell more This range of activities could be deployed shopping needs, especially for food, local produce?’, which generated over more widely and systematically to in town centres if they are to compete 400 comments. promote local food, producers and with out-of-town and internet shopping. outlets, and local food webs generally. Local authorities should recognise Attributes and benefits the interdependence of smaller outlets A large number of comments from Challenges and barriers and the key role of food outlets for businesses under this theme – over a About one in 20 comments referred attractiveness, choice and access. quarter – reflected the need for more to the constraints some businesses They should act to support the range promotional activities (advertising, faced regarding promotional work. and depth of retail outlets in the publicity) and better marketing. These included the high costs or centre and to ensure centres offer a A further half indicated the kinds ineffectiveness of advertising range of essential services through of promotional activities businesses (‘Advertising is a waste of money planning policies, active town centre are already engaged in or looking to – [it] doesn’t bring in enough management and business rate relief. undertake. These include: customers to justify costs’) and lack of time to market the business, In-store marketing: particularly for smaller businesses • presentation of produce via store with few staff. displays and attractive shop fronts A wider barrier identified was • labelling, branding, logos, product the need for better awareness and
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
understanding – and more education Case study: to achieve this – of food issues among the general public. Issues mentioned Faversham Food Walks included building awareness of the realities of farming and food production, encouraging consumers Eight circular trails along public serving local food and ale and B&Bs. to try new foods, ‘making more rights of way around the town were Local businesses have already customers more aware of what is launched in May 2011. noticed the improved footfall since local food and where it is produced’ Maps and detailed notes guide the the walks were launched; they provide and the ‘need to connect people with walker through orchards, crop fields scenic walks for local people as well their food’. and grazing land and highlight local as attracting visitors to the area. Some well-established businesses history, farming and local food The maps are available online: felt little need to actively promote producers. The walks also pass pubs www.faversham.org/walking themselves, but a few sounded notes of caution: ‘Local food producers seem to rely on word of mouth but sometimes word of mouth is not Case study: enough’ and ‘There are many local producers that have terrible Haslemere Rewards marketing strategies and therefore we don’t hear about them unless we are approached.’ Haslemere Rewards is an award- Customers earn points when they A significant number of outlets winning customer loyalty scheme, buy from businesses taking part, and wanted more information on what local with over 30 businesses in get discounts and promotions. The producers are out there. There is a need Haslemere town centre and the latest innovation allows customers to for ‘An information resource on who surrounding area participating. pass their loyalty points on to a local local suppliers are’, where they are school. It’s a scheme now copied in and what they have to sell. Some other places across the country. producers suggested that some form of joint initiative to bring them together could help. Case study: Key issues In many locations local food was often Totnes Local Food Hub not clearly defined or labelled leading to a perception of poor availability. Outlets too are unaware of the presence The Hub is a member-owned social It will also work with the Hub project of suppliers. Businesses lack time enterprise which has received to get young children eating fresh, and other resources to market their finance from the Local Food Fund healthy, local food. As Holly Tiffen, products, and the range, choice and to provide affordable local food a Hub volunteer, explains: ‘We want value of local food are not widely to residents and a fair price to address the difficulties faced by appreciated. Shoppers may not know to producers. small, local producers in marketing which food is local and cannot make It will provide an umbrella structure their produce, and provide a way for an informed choice. for producers and the Children’s Centre people – of all levels of income – will act as a central distribution point. to access good, fresh, local food.’ Recommendations for action Government should build on the first two Rural Development Programmes for
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
during transport. Shorter journey times Case study: also ensure it remains economically viable for smaller farms to move small ‘Local to Ludlow’ – from numbers of animals. Several producers small shoots to deep roots suggested that a smaller local abattoir gave them confidence they would get back meat from their own animals – Ludlow in south Shropshire is baked, smoked or processed by the an important consideration for renowned for its local food, its stall holder within 30 miles of the businesses trading on quality. John traditional high-street, town154, with no “bought-in” produce Sherrell, who farms near Totnes, Devon, independent shops and seven allowed.’ The market and local explained that during the foot-and- Michelin-starred restaurants. businesses displaying the logo mouth outbreak in 2001 ‘the local Its distinctive ‘Local to Ludlow’ apply these criteria. The managing abattoir couldn’t take the animals brand’ goes back to 1999 and a food team visits new applicants, advises so we sent them to an industrial and farming voluntary group led by them where to find the best local abattoir in Cornwall – when we got Kate and Peter Norman dedicated to producers and processors and it back we didn’t even know if it was promoting the use of local food and promotes them via the Local to our beef or not.’ drink in the town. Along with the Ludlow website. Smaller abattoirs also play a vital Local to Ludlow brand, this led to What are the secrets of the role in dealing with non-standard a successful farmers’ market and brand’s success? ‘Dedication, livestock including horned cattle, deer, local food directory. The brand has motivation and commitment are bison and traditional, native and rare its own professionally designed and the keys,’ says Tish Dockerty, breeds as well as organic. Traditional trademarked logo. Initially awarded co-ordinator of the market and other native breeds in particular graze to local shops selling significant Local to Ludlow initiatives. Also, the meadows, pastureland and heaths, amounts of local food, it has since scheme works, she explains, because including nature reserves and SSSIs – spread to restaurants, cafés and bed Ludlow is a very small town and it essential for biodiversity and landscape & breakfasts that sell or use locally is well-known among local people. conservation. These animals mature sourced foods in their products or Public scrutiny means the brand more slowly and do not readily fit meals. Local to Ludlow’s definition of isn’t abused: businesses take it and supermarket models: the local meat local is: ‘food or drink that is grown, their reputations seriously. sector gives them an economic value, reared, caught, brewed, pickled, while outlets benefit from distinctive, high-quality local meat.155
England to ensure there is adequate to highlight businesses selling local Challenges and barriers funding for local food and community food and set up local food trails to There is a mutual dependence between food enterprises. Outlets should improve encourage food tourism and build the local meat sector, supporting the marketing of local food by: defining better links between towns and their infrastructure such as abattoirs, the local food clearly; signposting local local countryside. farming sector (particularly the small food in their store through shelf and traditional livestock sectors) and sections, shelf labels, blackboards etc; the landscape and habitats they help to giving out information on producers; Abattoirs manage. Yet, as food retail continues organising tastings and ‘meet the Key findings to consolidate, there is pressure for the producer’ events. infrastructure that services it to do the Attributes and benefits same to achieve greater economies of Local authorities should develop new ‘Cutting down the distance travelled’ scale. It is important for the survival projects to link local producers and was a significant concern for livestock of local meat outlets and smaller outlets. They should support production farmers. This is important for animal livestock farms which supply them of town centre and local area maps welfare as animals suffer from stress that smaller local abattoirs survive.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Context Without local abattoirs, the local meat Shopper surveys indicate that In the early 1960s there were over 2,300 sector and the smaller and traditional convenience is a major draw of out-of- abattoirs in England, with many smaller livestock farmers who depend on it town/edge-of-town shopping where plants serving local butchers via local would struggle to survive. Smaller local free parking is usually provided. livestock markets. By the 1990s this abattoirs reduce the stressful transport number had fallen to 660. A number of livestock and can handle non- Challenges and barriers of factors have contributed, including standard livestock, which maintains Many comments mentioned problems development of the motorway network, diversity in meat production and relating to parking and signage. more stringent EU regulation and animal genetic stock. Businesses mentioned the negative restructuring of the retail sector. impact of lack of parking and car access Better road transport has enabled Recommendations for action to town centres, increased parking larger ‘livestock agri-business centres’ Government needs to support access to charges and parking restrictions. to develop, leading to the closure of local abattoirs and ensure small and Poor signage may affect the popularity smaller livestock markets. Also highly medium-sized abattoirs do not face of markets, while some outlets and significant is the concentration of retail disproportionate inspection costs. producers in the countryside mentioned trade at supermarkets and the scaling Local planning authorities the difficulty in getting permission to up and concentration of businesses should give support and protection to put up signs. serving them. In the early 1960s assets and infrastructure vital to local traditional butchers’ shops accounted food supply including local (smaller- Key issues for 97% of retail meat sales but by scale) abattoirs. Town centres face significant problems 1990 supermarkets had over 40% of the in continuing to attract shoppers when market in beef, veal and pork.156 The the alternative for an increasingly number of butchers’ shops has declined Parking and signage mobile population is to visit an dramatically, from over 40,000 in the Key findings out-of-town retail centre with easy early 1960s to as few as 6,500 today.157 and ample car parking, usually free. Attributes and benefits Town centre parking is also being lost Key issues A few comments confirmed the to development (including the building Small abattoirs have disappeared and importance of location to business of supermarkets), reducing the supply. are threatened by further concentration success, mentioning that convenient Parking charges and restrictions can of retail and disappearance of butchers. access for customers boosted sales. be another disincentive to town centre shopping. Car-centric shopping has brought Case study: increased congestion, pollution and noise. In contrast, town centres provide The new local abattoir – opportunities for linked shopping trips, CS Meats accessible to most people through sustainable travel choices (walking, Abattoir and butchery CS Meats They know what they get back is cycling, public transport). If out-of-town was set up in 2004 in Sherborne, theirs and that the animals are shopping displaces local shops, it leaves Somerset by Charlie Goodland, a respected and well treated,’ says people with less choice and access registered animal welfare officer. Charlie. As well as cattle, pigs to food, especially older people or They pride themselves on humane and sheep, the slaughterhouse is non-car users. slaughtering and specialise in licensed for bison, water buffalo, Food shopping presents a particular smallholders and small farmers rather farmed deer, goats and wild boar, problem. Public transport may not than large contracts. ‘Here we serve and holds organic and Freedom be a viable option for carrying a each producer privately and directly. Foods accreditation. large amount of food shopping home. But if stores in walking distance have disappeared and parking provision in
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
town centres is poor, then shoppers may feel they have little choice but to Case study: shop out of town. Ely: trade, traffic Recommendations for action and transport Local authorities need to make it easy for shoppers to use the town centre for food and other shopping by: Traffic is a significant problem for of Convenience Stores, section 106 • improving the quality of the street Ely, with its historic and heavily agreement funds are also being used environment so people want to spend touristed centre. Congestion is to subsidise a bus service to take more time there as well as walking set to worsen as the city grows. shoppers out of town, which could and cycling routes to it The district council is working further damage the centre.161 • ensuring there is frequent, regular, with Cambridgeshire County Council The Council’s Local Transport Plan comfortable and affordable public to develop sustainable transport looks to manage parking demand and transport, which is well publicised strategies, but other policies could encourage use of more sustainable and promoted undermine their effectiveness. For modes of transport, such as walking, • levelling the playing field between example, a southern bypass for the cycling or public transport. However, town-centre shops and out-of-centre town is offered as a solution to traffic new charges for parking in the supermarkets/stores, such as by congestion, but there are plans to city centre have generated strong ensuring adequate parking provision158 fund it via an out-of-town retail opposition. The conundrum is that and introducing schemes to reduce development. This risks diverting this policy gives supermarkets, charges for off-peak parking as more trade from the city centre most of which provide free parking, recommended in the Portas Review.159 and, perversely, increasing car use. an advantage over independent local A 2007 survey160 provides evidence food shops, and so it may encourage Businesses should work with local that out-of-town shops mean more more car use not less. To strike a authorities to develop: car use: significantly more shoppers balance, the council could explore • home-delivery schemes and cycle- use their cars to get to the out-of- other options including reinstating trailer loan for bulky shopping to town Tesco superstore (96%) than free parking at restricted times, such enable shoppers to use sustainable shops in the city centre, such as as market days, weekends or late transport choices for their main shop Waitrose (64%) and Ely market afternoons as Portas suggests.162 in the centre (46%). According to the Association • a loyalty card scheme to incentivise local shopping trips that can be done on foot, by bicycle or public transport and offers discounts on parking costs.
Without local abattoirs, the local meat sector and the smaller and traditional livestock farmers who depend on it would struggle to survive
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Access to markets have closed, stalls have closed.’ Recommendations for action (Ely traders) Local authorities and other market Key findings • ‘[We need] more outlets – the organisers should support more number of outlets is reducing over frequent farmers’ markets – weekly or Attributes and benefits time – 75% reduction over 10 years.’ fortnightly – and ensure they are well Though we received relatively few (Burnley trader) promoted and sited – e.g. in market comments on this theme, it clearly Traders in many locations wanted squares and traditional market halls. emerged that: markets, particularly farmers’ markets, Public procurement is an important • the local food market in general is an to be more frequent: ‘regular markets potential market for local food. important outlet or the only way to every week, rather than just Local public bodies should take into go: ‘[The] farm is not big enough to monthly.’ Some towns wanted markets account the new Public Services (Social sell to supermarkets – local market to be sited more prominently – ‘in or Value) Act 2012 which requires local is the only option’ and ‘Farmers’ near the retail centre with access to authorities, when entering into public markets are a viable economic footfall’ (Ely) or ‘in the market square’ procurement contracts, to give greater model for small farms to access (Shrewsbury). Market squares do not consideration to economic, social or the market, especially if you cannot always function as such, and markets environmental well-being during the get your product into shops.’ can often be hidden away (Knutsford). pre-procurement stage. Local public • local street, covered or farmers’ procurement officers can increase markets give small businesses In Hexham, a town with a large rural opportunities for local producers to affordable access to customers: one hinterland but sparse population, a bid for contracts by: Haslemere baker identified the local high proportion of local producers said • setting criteria for the freshness, market as an opportunity ‘to sell in the local food market was too small. seasonality and frequency of delivery a prominent county town without In similar rural and sparsely populated of produce the overhead of a permanent shop’. counties, the population may not be • training staff on how to get the best Country Markets notably offer a able to consume the amount of food from catering contracts supportive, low-cost entry point for produced locally unless the popularity • splitting larger contracts into suitable people new to food production. of local food increases. size lots • advertising to local producers through Challenges and barriers Key issues the competitive tendering process.163 Producers are restricted by a lack Smaller producers have lost many of outlets: one in ten producers traditional routes to market. Businesses confirmed this. Some pinpointed a can struggle to grow as their market pattern of decline and the challenge of shrinks, particularly if they are unable the supermarkets. This was so for Ely, or unwilling to meet the demands of a relatively small local food web, but large retailers. Local food markets open also where the web was thriving: up opportunities for entrepreneurs, • ‘Many outlets [are] failing every but their scale can be limiting for larger year. In the last 20 years changes businesses – particularly in sparsely occurred. [We] used to supply five populated rural areas. The challenge outlets in Cambridge, since reduced is to grow the local market so it can to two, used to have three market support and satisfy the needs of smaller traders, now only one.’ companies and act as a launch point • ‘There’s less outlets. They close and for new businesses. don’t open up again. Supermarkets Traders in many locations are taking their trade. They pick an industry and destroy it. There are wanted markets, particularly less people producing, less people farmers’ markets, to be selling it. Local fruit and veg shops more frequent
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Shopper attitudes These figures reflect national trends While convenience in general and a of high supermarket use, but also nearby location in particular remain to local food show nearly a quarter of shoppers relevant, many shoppers using Key findings sampled rely on other shops for their independents show a marked interest Shoppers in every location were main shop. Convenience is key, in the quality of food and a range of interviewed by local volunteers using including being able to shop under issues related to choice, including a standardised questionnaire, revised one roof and saving time. The ‘other’ specific and local products. The ‘other’ after pilot surveys in six locations. category includes a general preference category includes friendliness of Where questions used in pilots remain, for supermarkets, habit, lack of staff, relationship with owners and findings are reported for all 19 survey alternative or familiarity, as well as environmental reasons, including locations. Where questions were loyalty cards, staff discounts, quality reducing food miles. altered, only answers from 12 or 13 of service, cleanliness and pleasantness main locations are reported. We list of shop. There is a high degree of What do you understand by the the number of shoppers answering consistency in these figures across term local food? any given question as N (e.g. N=440). all locations. (based on closed responses; For further information on the N = 1,150 shoppers in 12 main locations) survey process, sampling and Where do you do any extra shopping 3% analysis see the research process for food and why? 5% report at www.cpre.org.uk. • Over a fifth of shoppers sampled 11% 28% used independent stores for all or Main findings of shopper survey part of their main shopping. Around 60% of extra shopping trips were Where do you do your main food to local independent stores and shops and why? markets, suggesting that they Supermarkets dominate grocery form an important part of the retail • 26% spend, accounting for 77% of all mix (based on open responses main shopping trips (based on open by 1,200+ shoppers from main responses by 1,500+ shoppers in locations only). 27% 13 locations) From the region Main reasons given for shopping Main reasons given for shopping at independent stores From within 30 miles of an outlet at supermarkets (Based on open responses; From the county (Based on open responses; N = 440+ shoppers in 12 main locations) From a local shop N = 870+ shoppers in 13 locations) Other From England 50 50 46% 44% A large majority of shoppers defined 40 36% 40 32% local food to be from within the region 30 30 (28%) or closer (53%). No distinctive 24% trends emerged as to why the 20 18% 20 19% 19% 15% 14% 16% percentage choosing different 12% 12% 11% 10% definitions varied across the country. 10 6% 10 Some locations may reflect a stronger 0 0 regional identity such as Norwich
Price Other Ethics Other (42%) and Ely (40%) in East Anglia Quality or Darlington (58%) in the North East Convenience Convenience Accessibility Quality/ Local produce freshness/taste Specific products – though for regional neighbour Proximity/location Proximity/locationAvailability/choice Hexham this sank to 30%. Availability/choice/range Support small businesses
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Do you buy local food? If you buy local food what are the (based on local as produced three main reasons you choose to within 30 miles of the store) buy it? (based on closed responses; (based on closed responses; N = 1,900 shoppers in all 19 locations) N = 1,300 shoppers in 12 main locations, when asked to select their 8% three most important reasons from 4% the options listed)
60 56% 54% 51% 50 41% 40 34% 30 19% 19% 20 15% 12% 11% 10 9% 88% 5% 0 Yes Taste Other Quality Health No
Supporting the Seasonal food Protecting theAnimal welfare I don’t know local economy Value for money Reducing waste and packaging local countryside Supporting local Reducing food miles farmers and producers
The overwhelming majority of shoppers Responses reflect a wide range of said they buy local produce, although social, personal and ethical reasons. they were not asked how frequently. The results are comparable to industry 56% This seems to conflict with recent estimates such as the IGD’s: ‘52% of estimates such as the IGD’s, which shoppers claimed to purchase local Percentage of shoppers suggest around 43% of people bought products in order to support local purchasing local products local produce in 2011.164 There could producers, a quarter (25%) to support to support producers be several reasons for this difference. local retailers, and over a fifth (22%) It could suggest a selection bias in our to keep jobs in their area... Supporting shoppers, although efforts were made local/British producers has now become to survey at sites across locations to the most important ethical criterion minimise this risk. It may be the case for shoppers (48%) when it comes to 4 in 10 165 that giving shoppers a clear definition as choosing grocery products.’ Value Proportion of shoppers used in the project made it easier to for money features strongly. A broad answer ‘yes’. Finally, shoppers may range of environmental reasons (food prepared to pay more for perceive local food to be good so answer miles, seasonality, waste, countryside) local food as they think they should. accounts for over 1,000 responses. 54% Percentage of shoppers who buy local food for its quality
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Why don’t you buy more local food? in supermarkets, for example, may how much local food they buy in a (based on open responses; come across very little local food. large weekly supermarket shop. N = 800 shoppers in 13 main locations) Explicit references to access, Nevertheless, this data suggests that opening hours, having to travel far and many shoppers across 12 locations 58% 60 parking problems were classed under sampled – potentially committed ones 51% 50 accessibility, but these overlap with – do successfully buy around 30% of convenience. Some shoppers are put their food from local producers. 40 off by needing to shop in many small 30 25% stores, making multiple trips and lack of time. Interaction – 20 14% 12% 10% business to customer 10 2% 2% How much do you spend on food and 0 how much on local food per week? Key findings
Cost Other (based on open responses; N = 780 The information under this theme was Quality shoppers in 12 main locations who elicited from businesses interviewed Accessibility answered both questions) mainly when asked: Why do customers Availability/choiceConvenience/time Regression analysis was used to test use the business?’ and ‘What are the Awareness/informationGrow own/buy enough/ not priority for a correlation between household advantages of selling local food?’ incomes and percentage of food spend Over 300 comments reflect the Price and limited range of local produce on local produce, based on a sample relatively high importance of this are major deterrents to shoppers of 600 shoppers who also disclosed theme. There was an overwhelmingly buying more. The number of shoppers their incomes. positive response from outlets and citing price indicates that local produce • The shoppers who answered both suppliers, with only three negative is generally seen to be or is more questions spent on average around comments recorded. expensive. However, a recent IGD survey £22, or just under a third of their suggests ‘more than four in ten (42%) weekly food budget (£71), on Attributes and benefits of shoppers claim they are prepared to local produce. The main benefits mentioned are pay extra for locally produced foods, • Shoppers across all income bands in different for outlets and producers. increasing from 38% since December of the locations surveyed buy local food, Across smaller outlets there were three last year.’166 Local food may not be seen suggesting that it is not a preserve of key benefits to selling local food: to be cheap, but, for reasons of quality the better off. Regression analysis • Many comments show the importance and ethics, many shoppers see it as showed no significant relationship of good customer service in the good value for money. between the percentage of the weekly success of local food businesses. Many shoppers said local produce shopping spent on local food and This is something they value and was not readily available, with very few household income. achieve, with a focus on friendly staff outlets stocking it except farm shops The average spend of a third of building good personal relationships and farmers’ markets. Shoppers also household food spending appears with customers through direct cited the difficulties of seeking out high given national data on grocery contact. There were examples of local produce in places where they did spending. There may be a selection exceptional customer service, such most of their shopping – generally bias towards shoppers who buy local as a sausage maker producing supermarkets – or getting to shops that in the main sample. Many shoppers gluten-free sausages for one customer. stocked it, such as parking problems not answering were excluded from ‘Customer service [is] very important and inconvenient opening hours. It is the sample, which may skew figures – [we] will find or make products to difficult to distinguish in responses upwards: it is easier too for shoppers customer specifications’ (Burnley between genuinely poor availability who actively seek out local produce to trader). Staff are likely to be more in the area or poor awareness among work out what they spend in particular knowledgeable about the products shoppers of where to find local produce outlets such as farmers’ markets or they sell in specialist shops than in – those who do most of their shopping local butchers than to calculate supermarkets, often because they
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
know the producers in the local of staff: not only their efficient work but ‘At a greengrocers people will supply chain. their personality, sense of humour and try different varieties because • The importance of staff and moods. They can stand or fall by somebody serves them [or] suggests customers being able to have a chat whether staff make the shopping they try it’ (Ely producer). and get to know each other is also experience congenial. Larger food stores mentioned frequently: ‘People get are less obviously reliant on the way We might conjecture, too, that personal to know us here and we get to individuals interact with customers contact with staff who in turn know know them,’ ‘We know people and and so can offer a consistent, if less local producers brings shoppers closer they come in for a natter,’ ‘[We] personal, service, while the advent of to where their food comes from and provide an alternative shopping self-check-out machines offers builds trust. As one Ely trader put it: environment – more sociable, more shopping without human interaction. ‘Our customers know us and so they personal, familiar.’ trust the product – [it] leads to • These are all related to creating a Key issues loyalty.’ We might also expect this friendly and enjoyable atmosphere in Direct contact between staff and connection to reinforce the values the shop which encourages customers customers is a valuable aspect of what which shape people’s shopping habits to come back: ‘regular customers smaller businesses do and one which and their willingness to buy for reasons come here because they like the contributes to their success. There are other than price. Because they are people – they come here to see the likely to be wider benefits too: connected to it through more than a people’ (Totnes outlet). • The social interaction stores offer may brand name – and there are fewer be an important form of personal degrees of separation than in long Customer interaction was also seen as contact for those who live alone and supply chains – shoppers may care important by suppliers in business-to- may suffer isolation, especially the more about where their food comes business transactions: elderly; the need to shop for food from and how it is produced. • Customer service is very important to regularly and frequently means this suppliers, and they appreciate the contact can be an important part of Research into social benefits of value of this in the local supply chain. being connected in a community. small stores • Businesses felt local supply enabled • Chatting or interaction is part of Shopping is an inherently social them to provide a better service. building community: social contact process, and small stores play a vital • Service is built through direct contact builds trust which can feed into role. Research confirms the important with customers, so developing wider forms of co-operation and role of small local shops as social personal relations. Importantly, it is mutual support. centres or hubs which are critical to easier for customers to give feedback: • Personal, friendly contact creates the community life.167,168 This role as a direct, immediate, honest feedback opportunity for customers to put in meeting place can reinforce a shared was frequently mentioned as enabling special requests or to give feedback, sense of togetherness. The friendliness producers to provide a better service. which can help businesses improve of small shops where local customers ‘When you do something wrong their service and be responsive. are recognised and greeted can develop the customers tell you and so the • Local food may be relevant to a sense of belonging which contributes quality increases,’ said one Ely fostering conversation in the first to well-being.169 trader. ‘This is only possible because place as other comments suggests Much of the evidence is collated by the consumer and producer are in customers ask about provenance, how Clarke and Bunga who reviewed the direct contact.’ food is produced or how to cook it; the economic and social role of small distinctiveness of local food presents stores.170 They cite various studies Challenges and barriers an ideal opportunity to converse and which show the role of such stores There were very few negative comments give advice or recommendations in building relationships through on this theme. We might conjecture, about the food itself. Also, personal familiarity, creating ‘emotional though, that personal contact can be contact offers an opportunity for connections’ in a friendly environment double-edged. The success of a smaller shopkeepers to recommend and, through their social function, business may depend on key members customers try something different: meeting a variety of needs including
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Small local shops are critical to community life
those of disadvantaged groups: the I haven’t got the heart to charge have recognised corporate social elderly, socially excluded, financially them.’ (Hastings trader) responsibility functions which deprived, and less mobile.171 Studies • ‘We do not have a formal delivery promote their charitable activities show that small shops can foster a service but a local member of staff and community support. Smaller sense of security, reduce isolation regularly delivers to our customers local businesses, which have been and support the independence on the way home.’ (Knutsford trader) doing this for years, could do more to of shoppers. reinforce the message that they serve They also meet the needs of For some, deliveries are an extension of their local communities. consumers by adapting to the local other community support: ‘[We] often population and tailoring their product provide informal support, help out Key issues ranges. This tailoring of stock and the regular customers with problems, Delivery services have existed for many services they offer can also generate sometimes home visits, help carry years and are not restricted to smaller customer loyalty and a shared sense of heavy shopping. [We] serve as the shops. Supermarket deliveries and box culture, a sense that this is ‘our’ shop.172 hub of the community in many ways schemes are widespread and widely Conversely, the closure of small and offer first aid’ (Sheffield trader). advertised, and can be convenient for community shops leads to a reduction busy households. However, smaller in social contact.173 Supporting local good causes, shops can offer a more personalised community events and organisations service and take orders for deliveries Across the range of locations very high by phone or in person in ways that the Informal support to proportions, often all, of the businesses major chains do not – vital for those the community interviewed offer cash and in-kind who don’t use the internet. support for community initiatives, The motivation for small food shops Key findings events and organisations. The range offering deliveries is a mixture of good There were more than 250 comments of events and organisations is wide: business sense (offering customers a about how businesses contribute to the the Brownies, care homes, charity better service, boosting loyalty and community, especially from outlets. auctions, classes, community centres, custom) and altruism and goodwill fêtes and festivals, fundraising for towards loyal customers. For smaller Attributes and benefits hospitals, hospices and charities, businesses, the cost in time and effort Deliveries local campaigns, Neighbourhood may be disproportionate to the returns. Numerous outlets provide delivery Watch, sports clubs, talks, village in Delivery services are valuable for food services, particularly to the elderly, bloom competitions. The type of shops, especially those selling more raw disabled and less mobile. These services support includes running stalls, food – meat, dairy, fish, fruit and veg are often free or come at a cost to advertising, donations in cash and – which is bulky and heavy. As we have the business: produce, organising events and classes, seen, these shops tend to sell high • ‘Some of my customers are elderly and providing venues and facilities. proportions of local food. and disabled and would find it very While it is difficult to quantify such A significant aspect of the informal difficult to get to a shop. I deliver to support, the responses clearly show support offered is the relationship them.’ (Norwich business) how deeply embedded many local food with personal service. Helping people • ‘We have many elderly customers businesses are within their communities. carry shopping to their car, home and that have been shopping with us for hospital visits, keeping items back for years and they often ask us to bring Challenges and barriers customers who ask for them, personal them things when they cannot get All comments bar one were positive and informal delivery services: these out – which we do with pleasure no under this theme. Surveys didn’t are likely to depend on personal matter how small an order.’ investigate how well businesses connections built up over time. (Sheffield trader) advertised delivery services or • ‘We don’t oversell this service as how they generally support their it’s a massive cost. If it’s one of communities, and this may go under- our “old dears” we do it for free. recognised. Larger corporate businesses
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Education Examples abound. An Ely trader cited Key issues ‘school tours to the farm, which has This theme raises some important and training a positive impact because it teaches issues about the relevance of local food kids about where their food comes webs to food and farming education. Key findings from’. The owner of a Totnes business Larger integrated food businesses – Over 150 comments, overwhelmingly ‘spends several hours a week agri-businesses – don’t preclude school positive, came in response to questions teaching kids how to grow veg at visits or open days. But with fewer, about how businesses support or the local school.’ A Sheffield enterprise larger farms, informal or family contact strengthen the local community. works ‘with Sure Start to help with a local farm is less and less likely. Producers in particular offered children learn about eating well’ In contrast, the presence of local food opportunities for people to learn and with people with special needs supply chains means more farms and about how food is produced. and learning disabilities. One Hastings a greater diversity of farm types around business taught 2,500 children to to educate people both informally and Attributes and benefits make cheese through a ‘connect more formally, as in the examples above. A third of comments relate to outlets with the countryside’ schools event. Educational activities can be a and producers educating young people Other examples of educating and useful promotional tool for producers about food, farming, healthy eating, engaging with the public included: selling directly to the public. Local food seasonality, growing their own • talks and demonstrations webs offer other advantages for food vegetables and home cooking in • open days and visits and farming education: various ways, such as: • volunteering and work experience • smaller local food businesses may • talks to schools and school groups • classes, courses and other forms of be naturally closer to their local • local school visits to farms and shops learning in areas such as cookery, communities and more familiar • open farm days and tours. chocolate making, planting, pig and and approachable as they supply chicken keeping, cider making, local outlets, have more connections organic growing and milling. through family and friends or sell from the farm • micro and small businesses, possibly Case study: using artisanal methods of production or raising a variety of livestock, are Farm-to-school and Food for Life likely to be more understandable and appealing to children (and adults) In the US, the Department of about how food is produced and, than specialised, industrial-scale Agriculture (USDA) began pilot using local produce from local agri-businesses. farm-to-school programmes in the farms, to experience fresh fruit and late 1990s. vegetables in the classroom. Recommendations for action By 2010, there were more than In the UK the Food for Life Communities, schools and local farmers 2,000 such programmes across 50 Partnership has worked over five should work with the Food for Life states.174 These can be described as years to make food a core of the Partnership to build links between food ‘efforts to serve regionally and locally curriculum. Over 4,250 schools served in school cafeterias and local produced food in school cafeterias’.175 enrolled on the programme are producers. This could enable children Successful programmes vary widely adding to children’s experience of to increase their intake of fruit and and can come from farmers food through farm visits, cooking vegetables and learn about how food themselves, schools, parents or the and growing. Over 450,000 children is produced. Local farmers could build wider community.176 The objectives are are eating Food for Life Catering relationships with local schools and to improve nutrition for school children Mark accredited meals using freshly offer farm visits to develop children’s by serving healthy meals but also to prepared, locally sourced ingredients. knowledge about farming, food give children the opportunity to learn production and the links between what they eat and their local countryside.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
The quality and protecting the local countryside: landscapes and countryside. Outlets • ‘Many dairy farms have closed so and producers could do far more to character of town we feel it’s important to keep the advertise this. and countryside cows grazing and the cheese- making alive’ (Yeovil business) Key issues Key findings • ‘Buying meat from local farmers, There are two main issues above. Over 300 comments were generated for example supporting traditional Firstly, there is the role of smaller local by questions about how businesses upland farmers’ (Hexham trader) outlets in supporting the fabric of a supported the character of the area • ‘Selling products that protect town. This role is linked to scale and or vice-versa, and how the businesses a particular landscape’ character of the store. Older town were working to reduce their (Penrith business). centres typically have older building environmental impact. stock which can house smaller outlets. A fifth of outlets referred to their role in Local independent traders keep such Attributes and benefits maintaining historic or listed buildings: outlets in sensitive use, and bring in Businesses commented significantly there were numerous mentions of footfall and trade generally. Local food on three main roles of their businesses: ‘keeping an important building in use’, outlets can both offer local access to • supporting the quality and character supporting the heritage and historic basic foodstuffs and offer something of their town character of towns large and small. different to visitors and tourists. • supporting the quality and character National chains with heavily branded of the surrounding landscape Producers shop fronts can damage town centre • maintaining historic and listed Producers made similar comments character particularly in historic towns. buildings in use. but, being mainly in rural areas, they Too many national chains can create focused on maintaining the quality the feel of a ‘clone town’, undermining Outlets and character of the countryside its attractiveness to shoppers and Around half of all comments refer to through land management and more visitors. Chains, especially supermarkets, how they contribute to local character, specific initiatives such as agri- may also want to operate from larger particularly of market towns, and environmental schemes (Environmental stores, which may not fit into historic attract trade, including tourists. This is Stewardship). Benefits included: centres. Pressure to re-develop or build particularly true for markets: • keeping traditional listed farm further out can threaten the retail • ‘Local food produce selling in a buildings in use, especially through health of the whole centre. market town enhances the feel of production-related diversification Secondly, local food webs underpin the town’ (Newark trader) • maintaining field boundaries – diversity in the farming system by • ‘[It] preserves the idea of Haslemere hedgerows, stone walls and fences supporting direct selling or short as a town with individual shops • using buffer strips, conservation supply chains and diversification into rather than chains’ (Haslemere trader) headlands on arable fields and processing and retail. Both of these • ‘The business attracts tourists vegetation to protect water courses offer a better return to producers. who then shop in other outlets or • maintaining permanent pasture This has important ramifications, eat in cafés and restaurants during for grazing most notably retaining diversity in their trip’ (Hexham business) • retaining ‘traditional’ farming methods. scale, production, genetics and land • ‘We’re a piece in the jigsaw. [There management in the farming system by: are] more people in town on market Challenges and barriers • enabling small and medium-sized day than any other day. It brings Although some of the environmental producers to survive without scaling people in.’ (Ely trader) initiatives mentioned are required up to compete in commodity markets for payments from the Common • supporting diversity in crops locally as A significant number of outlets (69) – Agricultural Policy and other schemes, there is a market for a wider range of some of these were also producers we believe there is a strong connection produce and less pressure to themselves – mentioned their role in between local food production and specialise to survive supporting farmers in managing and more diverse and sensitively managed • adding value to traditional methods of
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
land and livestock management; on grass – is richer in the long-chain production and sourcing. These could this means producers can resist the fatty acids we need;177 heritage apple target designated landscapes such as pressure to intensify and industrialise varieties such as Egremont russet National Parks and AONBs, then be production, which could damage contain up to 10 times more nutrients extended to national landscape habitats and landscape features, than modern cultivars.178 They may be character areas and habitat types. and can keep fields small, retaining locally distinctive or unique, lending a more hedgerows strong sense of place to the area, and Food miles and • avoiding loss of farmsteads to non- support important habitats, such as farming uses and shrinking of future wildlife-rich traditional orchards, environmental impact food production capacity upland pastures and meadows. • providing markets for crop varieties Key findings and livestock breeds less suited to Recommendations for action mass retail because they do not fit The Government should target future Attributes and benefits standardised systems or long-distance rural development funding under Pillar The SAFE Alliance’s Food Miles Report transport or aesthetic criteria. II of the Common Agricultural Policy (1994) first set out the concept of ‘food These often taste better and may towards schemes across England to miles’ and makes clear that it ‘isn’t just be more nutritious. Research shows support high standards of environmental about distances’ but ‘some of the wider that grass-fed beef – usually from management and conservation of social and ecological implications of traditional breeds raised to finish special habitats linked to local food international food trade’.180 Yet it has generally come to be understood more narrowly to mean the distance food is Case study: transported from producer to consumer The Peak District and the environmental impact of 179 that transport. Environmental Quality Mark Outlets and suppliers across many survey locations cited reducing food The Environmental Quality Mark use of energy and water; miles as a key advantage of trading in (EQM) is a certification scheme minimization of waste; and providing local food. The research identified which aims to help protect the Peak environmental information to 1,710 producers in 19 locations (an District National Park by building customers. Auditing ensures average of 90 per location) supplying a sustainable supply chain. continued compliance. into towns and cities from within 30 The first of its kind in England, it The EQM aims to draw on local miles – and often closer. Food miles has grown to over 90 businesses in four distinctiveness and provides a also resonated with the public we categories including Farming and Food business incentive for conserving interviewed: over a third of shoppers and Drink Producers. The scheme is special Peak District habitats. For gave it as one of three main reasons free to join and was designed to be example, conservation standards they bought local food (34% of 1,200 replicable elsewhere, especially in tackle loss of wildflower-rich hay shoppers). This is in addition to the Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty meadows by requiring land managers many who did so to support local and National Parks. to keep 10% of their holding in good businesses – an integral part of the To qualify, businesses must conservation condition. Similar rules original food miles concept. demonstrate high standards of apply to woodland, moorland and environmental management and care of historic and landscape Challenges and barriers high quality care of the National Park’s features such as dry stone walls. The food miles concept has sometimes special environment. Categories Certified producers or retailers must been a lightning rod for attacks on the assessed include: conservation of the also use their purchasing power to concept of local food. Critics point out National Park; use of locally grown and support EQM-certified farmers. that international trade can help made products and services; efficient smallholder farmers in poorer countries improve their standard of living181, that
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
transport is only a small portion of the by car rose by 46% between 2002 intensive than imported salad from total energy use for food production, and 2006.188 Spain: it is out-of-season fruit and and that reducing meat and dairy vegetables that require more energy to consumption would have a more Key issues produce within the UK.191 This is where positive environmental impact than How useful are food miles as a guide to local food scores well, since local and buying only local food.182 Research by food’s environmental impact? To some seasonal usually work hand in hand. Manchester Business School is cited to extent, this depends upon the audience. Shoppers should choose seasonal and challenge the environmental case for DEFRA has considered using food local where possible, with local food local food.183 Using life cycle analysis miles as an indicator of sustainable generally a good guide to seasonality. (LCA) data on the environmental development.189 For policy development Secondly, the researchers conclude impacts of various food types, the a wider set of measures is surely that, though individuals shopping at, authors conclude that the argument needed to assess the sustainability say, a neighbouring farm reduces for a lower environmental impact of of the food system. Carbon footprint transport, ‘evidence to generalise this to local food is weak and that ‘global labelling has progressed, but while the entire food transport system is not sourcing could actually be a better measuring GHG emissions captures decisive’.192 For shoppers, then, buying environmental option for particular some impacts of energy use, it fails to locally sourced food close to home foods’.184 For example, tomatoes address other environmental impacts makes sense, but for policy makers a grown in Spain use less energy of food on water use, pollution, waste, higher evidence threshold is needed. than those grown out of season biodiversity and landscape. Finally, because of the system in heated glasshouses in the UK: To be widely acceptable, a measure complexities and the ‘wide variation in tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers grown needs to be broad, but to gather data the agricultural impacts of food grown all year round in hothouses cause across so many factors is a challenge. in different parts of the world’193 185 disproportionately high CO2 emissions. The Manchester study looked at LCA processors and supermarkets need to as a more comprehensive measure, be more discriminating in selecting Context: The GHG impacts of but concluded that the data on particular food types for their food transport environmental impacts is ‘patchy’: environmental impact. The transport of food accounts for indeed, it did not identify a single around 3.5% of the UK’s total GHG published full LCA of a product that a Recommendations for action emissions.186 The importance of UK consumer would buy.190 Added to Government should fund further transport varies for food type and mode this, the debate needs to continue research to develop an indicator for of transport. For example, for field- about which impacts are relevant: the sustainable food. grown fruit and vegetables, transport Manchester study, for instance, does Businesses and local authorities emissions tend to be a significant not consider congestion, noise, or the should encourage local shopping trips part of the total, whereas for meat and loss of soil and land for food growing to for locally sourced food and access to dairy products the agricultural stage develop infrastructure to service global shops on foot, bike or public transport. generates most emissions.187 Air freight distribution (roads, ports, warehousing). Businesses should promote food contributes a large proportion to total In fact, the Manchester research miles as the concept engages people in transport GHGs: the 1.5% of fruit and usefully suggests different conclusions shopping to cut unnecessary transport vegetables transported by air make up for different audiences. For Government, of food. 40% of all fruit and vegetable transport it only finds weak evidence for ‘a lower Businesses should minimise the emissions. While production methods environmental impact of local preference GHG emissions of local food deliveries can be improved and emissions in food supply and consumption’, but a by using the most sustainable fuels reduced, development of clean high perhaps unreasonable bar is set for such as electricity from renewables or transport fuels is still in its infancy. this test of when ‘all food types are biodiesel from waste vegetable oil. Driving to shop for food plays a part considered’. For consumers, the example Shoppers should buy seasonal, local too: cars contribute around a quarter of tomatoes above is helpful. Seasonal food as a simple way to reduce their of the total GHG emissions of food food – for example lettuce field-grown own environmental footprint. transport. Emissions due to shopping in the summer in the UK – is less energy
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
We analysed local plan policies for their potential to support local food webs in 15 locations, and extended the research further to identify examples of supportive policies at other local planning authorities.
Key findings diversity of shops in the borough settlements existing local services and opportunities for small will be protected to support Strengths and opportunities businesses.’ (Islington, CS14) the sustainability of these Policies with potential to support local communities. This will be food webs related to: town centre first (ii) protecting shops that provide achieved through requiring (11 locations), farm shops (6), local food essential services: new retail developments to be (5), agricultural land (5), markets (4), • ‘The vitality and viability of located in the existing centres rural economy (3), green procurement centres will be safeguarded and wherever possible and to be of (1), and change of use from retail (1). where appropriate enhanced by an appropriate scale and There are some exemplar policies in encouraging a diversity of uses character to reflect their role place, but plenty of scope for local and resisting the loss of shops and function.’ (Waveney, CS10) authorities to broaden the range and where this would unacceptably depth of policies on local food. The harm the retail function, character (iv) including additional tests in wider review unearthed similar issues of the centres or shopping sequential policies: but with some good examples of policies provision in the centres. Shops • ‘Retail development will only be on retail diversity, aspects of local food that provide essential day-to-day permitted where it is of a scale and support for street markets (less so needs for the local community consistent with the catchment for farmers’ markets). All policies cited such as baker, butcher, appropriate to a centre’s position were adopted from 2007 to 2011. greengrocer, grocer, specialist in the hierarchy’ unless a need ethnic food shop ... will be can be shown Town centre first and retail diversity protected from changes of use • edge-of-centre sites must be While national policies PPS4 and now away from retail.’ (Hackney, CS13) ‘easily accessible by pedestrians, the NPFF support town centres by • ‘To fulfil their role in providing cyclists and public transport from requiring sequential and impact tests, vital day-to-day shopping the surrounding catchment area some local plan policies go further by: facilities for local communities and ... close to other facilities (i) specifically supporting smaller- in both urban and rural areas, which will encourage linked trips scale and independent outlets: the retention and enhancement and ... not separated from that • ‘Sites in Darwen will cater for a of Local Centres and corner centre by a major orbital traffic range of retailing including shops will be supported.’ route’ and should ‘result in a net smaller-scale provision such as (North Lincolnshire, CS14) reduction in length of vehicular that operated by the independent trips’. (Norwich, SH03) sector.’ (Blackburn with (iii) ensuring the scale and location of Darwen, CS12) new retail developments suit the Local food • ‘Islington will retain the primacy character of the area: (i) The strongest statement of policy of retail shops in the borough’s • ‘The vitality and viability of all on local food we found is by town centres and shopping areas Town and District centres will be Shropshire Council: and actively promote independent maintained and enhanced so they • ‘Shropshire Council will plan retail. Major retail developments continue to act as the focus for positively to develop and will be required to provide a good a range of activities, including diversify the Shropshire economy, supply of smaller retail units to retail uses. Mixed-use schemes supporting enterprise, and maintain and enhance the will be encouraged. In smaller seeking to deliver sustainable
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
economic growth. In rural areas (iii) The New Forest National Park As well as the examples of good the Council recognises the Association makes a useful practice outlined above, there is scope continued importance of reference to local foods in for policies to support: farming for food production Policy CP4: ‘Measures to reduce • the relationships between retail and supporting rural enterprise the National Park’s overall diversity and sales of local food, local and diversification of the environmental footprint include food production, diversification and economy, in particular areas supporting local food production’ the health of the local rural economy of economic activity associated which builds on support in the • the role local food can play in with agricultural and farm South East Regional Economic supporting urban and rural character diversification, forestry, green Strategy: one of the priorities for and creating distinctive attractions tourism and leisure, food and rural areas is to assist the food and for tourism drink processing, and promotion farming sectors and support the • the value of local food retail in of local food and supply chains.’ development of premium local providing markets for new and (Shropshire CS13) products and the land-based innovative food producers and • ‘Promoting connections between products supply chain. processors and the stimulus this visitors and Shropshire’s natural, can provide to the local economy cultural and historic environment, Context: the National Planning in jobs and growth. including through an enhanced Policy Framework (NPPF) value of local food.’ (Shropshire CS16) Local authorities have a 12 month Other supportive elements generally transitional period to review and revise lacking in existing local plans are: (ii) Other policies tend to focus on local their local plans to take account of the • ensuring development is of an food growing in urban or urban new NPPF. This will be a significant appropriate scale and character for fringe areas, but nonetheless offer challenge for resource-strapped local the location important ways to increase access authorities but is also an opportunity to • setting a locally specific threshold to fresh healthy food: add policies to better support local food (such as 1,000m2) above which new • ‘Support opportunities for healthy webs. Developing new local plan policies developments should be tested for and active lifestyles through in relation to local food is urgent as: their impact on the town centre promoting and supporting • NPPF policies on retail diversity, • support for development of new local food-growing and urban individuality, markets and agricultural markets or improving existing ones agriculture’ (Tower Hamlets SP03) land take on greater importance • extending impact testing to other • ‘The promotion of the urban in a much compressed body of local centres and the wider rural and fringe as part of the green network planning policy local food economy and encouraging opportunities • the absence of detail in the NPPF • defining food stores as ‘essential local for multi-functional uses such means local plans should address the services’ with proximity criteria for as new allotments and local issues for their area more specifically access for local residents food production.’ (Brighton and • retail diversity policies need to be • restricting change of use from Class Hove, SA4) strong to protect against unsuitable A1 (shops). • Other examples include Leicester developments, and avoid drawn-out (Policy CS2: Green Infrastructure) appeals and public inquiries Recommendations for action which encourages new allotments • strong policies supporting diverse Local authorities updating their for local food growing, and retail and local food will be reflected local plans in the light of the NPPF Islington (Policy CS15) to ‘create at the community level in should add policies to support local a greener borough by supporting neighbourhood plans. food networks. See page 61 for local food production through further details. the protection of existing food Weaknesses and threats growing sites’. Despite examples of strong policies, local plans in most locations are not strong or comprehensive enough.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
This section contains our main recommendations for the Government, local authorities, food retail businesses and local communities.
Recommendation 1 above a set market share/size the importance of food within key Government should re-examine introducing or expanding large policy sections including: the competition policy framework format stores. This would address • recognising the strategic importance to better support retail diversity one of the main recommendations of of retaining farm land for food and entry to markets of new local the Competition Commission in 2008 production by the efficient re-use food entrepreneurs which called for the introduction of a of land that has been previously ‘We need a more sophisticated local competitiveness test for planning developed (brownfield land) understanding of what a good deal for permission. Introducing a wider • protecting the most fertile grades of consumers is, looking simply beyond competition test into planning control land – best and most versatile – for price-based considerations to include would extend this policy to prevent strategic and local food production, community well-being and long-term the proliferation of smaller format save in exceptional circumstances sustainability.’ Mary Portas195 neighbourhood stores operated by the • prioritising farm diversification into The Government should develop same single operator (see below). the production, processing and, where competition policy to reframe it addresses local need, retail of local consumer interest beyond a narrow Recommendation 2 food which supports the rural price-based approach. There needs Government should develop national economy, communities and to be an approach which defines fair planning policy guidance to provide countryside character196 competition clearly in a way that stronger support for a sustainable • supporting access to local abattoirs supports retail and producer diversity food system and local and regional food particularly in local markets. This The Government should give due distribution hubs (such as the Heart should promote access to markets recognition in its approach to planning of England Fine Foods model). for new businesses and support the to the strategic importance of food. development of small and medium- This should recognise its importance Recommendation 3 sized businesses as engines of to community health and well-being, Government should strengthen the economic growth. This would help to retail diversity, land use and ability of the planning system to deliver an economic framework that management, economic development, ensure the vitality of town centres develops stronger and more diverse transport, ecosystem functioning and National town centre planning town centres in support of town centre the landscape. It should also recognise policies should also be strengthened. policies in the NPPF. Such a policy the supportive role planning can play in This should enable local communities base would strengthen local food addressing the challenging economic, and their councils to plan for and webs, allowing them to respond to social and environmental issues which achieve retail development of the right increasingly demanding pressures the food system presents and in scale and location to support or revive on farming and food production shaping the development of a more town centres and enhance their due to scarcity of resources and sustainable food system ‘from field character and diversity. This in turn environmental limits. to fork’. This would enable planning would help to secure the future of the The new policy should be reinforced to address in an integrated way the traditional stores and markets which by considering how legally enforceable relationship between what we buy sell high percentages of local food and controls could help avoid further and eat, and support for the retail, are critical to thriving local food webs. market concentration in food supply distribution and production systems New powers should ensure local people, and retailing in order to prevent further that can provide wide access to through their councils, are able to reject loss of diversity and remove barriers healthy, sustainable food. development which is inconsistent with to entry to markets. It would apply In the longer term, the NPPF a local plan and which would undermine nationally to prevent all food retailers should be revised to refer clearly to local access and the role of town
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
centres as the ‘heart of their Recommendation 4 broad-based public support for communities’.197 This should enable Government should provide strong a comprehensive and strategic the achievement of the Government’s leadership on sustainable food approach to food planning for their aspiration that ‘local people and their procurement area. This should start with a survey accountable councils’ should ‘reflect The Government should set of local food producers and suppliers the needs and priorities of their challenging long-term targets for based on the local food web concept. communities’ and for planning to ‘be central government food procurement Models of good practice are already genuinely plan-led, empowering local to increase food from sustainable developing in parts of the USA and the people to shape their surroundings’.198 sources. This would: UK. For example, Bristol and Plymouth In the longer term, the NPPF should • raise public awareness of have adopted ‘food charters’ to engage be revised to enable local authorities sustainable food key stakeholders and policy-makers. to set conditions on the location, scale • set an example for other public bodies Other towns and cities have built and accessibility of retail as well as to (including prisons, schools and the NHS) formal food partnerships to carry out restrict the dominance of particular • help to develop a supply base in-depth research and develop detailed operators in local market areas by: • help form relationships between strategies. In 2006, Brighton and Hove • setting limits on total gross retail caterers and local producers City Council was the first local authority floorspace need proportionate to the • harness billions of pounds of public in the UK to develop a comprehensive size of town199 expenditure to support sustainable food partnership, strategy and action • re-introducing a strong ‘quantitative’ fresh, seasonal and local production. plan. The strategy covers sustainable test of need for new retail floorspace food procurement, food waste, above a locally determined threshold, EU regulations prevent giving food access, education, economic with new floorspace permitted only preference to a supplier on the basis development and climate change. in exceptional circumstances and of location or distance but the Other areas following this approach usually for re-development Government may legitimately set include Durham, Cardiff, Herefordshire, • setting maximum sizes for new requirements for freshness, frequency Liverpool, Manchester, Middlesbrough floorspace of shops selling day-to-day of deliveries and production standards, and Sheffield, but many more essentials (‘convenience’ goods) including organic. These could support should develop their own local food including food and explicitly smaller local producers. Targets could partnerships to extend the benefits excluding format requirements follow the Dutch Government example they can bring.202 as a basis for policy exceptions for catering services by setting • requiring local authorities to show sustainability targets by a specified Recommendation 6 how they will promote diversity in date. Under this approach suppliers Local authorities updating their designated retail areas must meet sustainability criteria, local plans in the light of the NPPF • requiring retail formats to be adapted for example relating to caught and should add policies to support local to enable re-use of existing retail farmed fish, free-range livestock, food networks and storage buildings to support and minimal energy glasshouses, The revision of local plans by local town centres with food ingredients travelling the planning authorities in the light of the • incorporating a local competitiveness shortest possible distance.201 new NPPF is an important immediate test via a policy presumption that any opportunity to support local food new small or medium-sized food store Recommendation 5 networks. Local authorities should put would require planning permission.200 Local authorities and other public in place a suite of policies to strengthen This should operate to ensure that bodies should form partnerships in local food webs by building on NPPF no net addition to that operator’s their areas to develop food strategies policies on retail diversity and town presence in the market area would and action plans individuality, support for markets and be allowed where its market share Local authorities should work with protection of productive agricultural already exceeded a locally prospective partners such as other land. This will also give a framework determined threshold. public bodies, local businesses and for neighbourhood plans to support community groups to build local food.
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Local authorities should draw on schemes such as reward cards, of their commitment to more existing good practice to develop food maps and trails sustainable operations policies which: • increasing access, convenience • define local food clearly and distinctly • promote a good retail mix including and service to their customers by from regional or national food to small independents agreeing late opening nights or support local ‘branding’ and help • address the scale and location of Sunday opening or running shared reduce shopper confusion new development ensuring it is well delivery schemes • encourage direct deliveries to store or integrated with the town centre • developing shared distribution hubs, via local distribution hubs or regional • set a locally appropriate floorspace processing facilities or sales schemes hubs where these lie between the threshold for impact assessment of such as box schemes, to reduce supplier and the store new stores distribution, administration and • trade equitably with local food • include in the impact assessment of sales costs and enable bulk buying producers to support long-term ‘the wider area’ or ‘catchment’ the and storage investment in innovation and high effect on local food businesses • seeking funding from Rural ethical and environmental standards • maintain shops and markets in local Development Programme measures • support the role of the Groceries Code centres as essential services and ensure • working with policy and decision- Adjudicator to reassure customers easy walking, cycling and public makers, local bodies and community they trade fairly with their local and transport access to main food shopping groups to support a food strategy regional suppliers. • support food-based farm and action plan for the area. diversification – consistent with Recommendation 9 policies to protect the character of Recommendation 8 Community groups should develop the countryside from inappropriate Supermarket chains should set and engage in initiatives to shape development – to help grass-roots themselves demanding targets for their local food networks economic growth, including through stocking local food in ways which Local community and civil society food tourism reinforce trust in local food groups – along with parish and town • protect vital assets for local food Supermarkets should use their councils – are ideally placed to shape such as small abattoirs and livestock market power positively by re- their local food networks proactively. marts, fertile farm land and land for engineering their supply chains They should develop or get involved community food growing. progressively to re-localise them and in a wide range of tried and tested set themselves auditable targets to initiatives – raising awareness, Recommendation 7 do so. This would help reduce food collecting information, developing Businesses within local food networks and air miles, cut the impacts of local policy and directly improving should work together to promote road freight such as congestion and supply of local food. These can help awareness, access, affordability infrastructure damage to roads as to support and strengthen diverse, and availability of local food well as increase markets for smaller human-scale, adaptable and localised Local food businesses should local producers, support the rural ways to produce, trade and improve capitalise on their common interest economy, aid innovation in the the quality of the food we eat. and existing relationships to share supply chain and increase access to Initiatives successfully trialled resources, expertise and knowledge local foods. They need to do this in elsewhere include: to develop the local food market. ways which maintain consumer trust • joining with local businesses and They should develop joint approaches in the values of local food through public bodies to develop a food to address the challenges and barriers clear provenance, cutting food miles partnership for the area they face as smaller local food businesses and by supporting producers with • getting involved in developing the in highly price-competitive markets. equitable trading relationships. neighbourhood plan and including They should explore a range of Supermarket chains should: clear statements on the kind of initiatives which could include: • set targets to stock significant shops needed • developing a clearly defined local amounts of seasonal, local food – • under provisions in the Localism Act brand (e.g. ‘Local to Ludlow’) and for example 10% by 2025 – as part 2011, registering a list of assets of
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
community value such as village shops and pubs to give a right to Case study: buy in the event of closure • mapping the local food web using the a month of eating locally toolkit at www.cpre.org.uk to collect information for instance for evidence to change policy or planning decisions, to support new outlets or identify Kent is known as the Garden of a baker using all Kentish ingredients, gaps in local provision England, so what better place to so made her own bread. Other • writing a local food guide for shoppers try truly eating locally? Mapping discoveries included rapeseed oil or to link outlets and suppliers volunteer Bridget Neame decided from Romney Marsh and local dried • getting involved in community food to eat only food from Kent during fruit leather. growing, a local CSA or setting up a June. She found an amazing Did it cost more to eat locally? community food enterprise. variety – but was also shocked to Bridget found she bought less food, discover how many of her regular didn’t waste anything and made Recommendation 10 purchases weren’t made locally. better use of her vegetable patch and Individuals can and should act to There was a good selection of the hedgerows for foraging. It took change the way our food system works fruit, vegetables, milk and cheeses a lot of thought and planning, and People can act individually to but finding butter and yoghurt was she spent more time in the kitchen improve the food we eat and the way harder. There was plenty of meat adapting recipes. it is produced and supplied. Every time and eggs, as well as fresh fish. The experiment has changed we shop for food we vote with our Cereals were disappointing though, Bridget’s food buying habits. Pasta, wallets or purses for the kind of food considering the amount of arable rice and pulses, as well as tea, coffee system we want. By shopping widely land in Kent. Bridget discovered two and occasional chocolate, are her for local food you can help to support refurbished heritage mills grinding main non-Kentish ingredients, a variety of shops, contribute to better flour and rolled oats from Kentish but now 80% of what she eats comes livelihoods, and add to the quality and grain, but that was all. She didn’t find from Kent. health of the community, the town and the environment where you live. People can help their local food web in a number of ways: Twenty-four ways to make a difference • try a 30:30 diet, sourcing 30% of your food from within 30 miles or nearer ‘How food shapes our lives in the Demand that whoever we buy our • use the most local outlets that stock future is up to us. Whoever we are food from, whether local grocers or high levels of seasonal local food and wherever we live, we can make supermarkets, they source our food • ask in shops, supermarkets, cafés choices together that would make ethically on our behalf. Get political and other places where you buy food an enormous cumulative difference. about food. Demand government where it comes from; make businesses We can choose to eat ethically. action. Learn to read food labels. think about their buying policy and Protect the countryside by ‘eating Cook more. Invite our friends over give them feedback to help them the view’. Demand transparency in the for dinner. Get invited back. Eat with improve their ranges of local food food chain. Eat less meat and fish and our kids. Buy them baby frying pans • remember: every time we shop for pay more for it when we do. Support for Christmas. Teach them to cook. food, we’re sustaining a particular local farmers through box schemes, Enjoy food more. Dig up the back kind of farming or food production. farmers’ markets, or community garden. Start composting.’ supported agriculture. Buy from our local food shops if we are lucky enough Carolyn Steel to still have them. Talk to shopkeepers Hungry City: about food; let them know we care. How food Shapes Our Lives.203
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
The UK food system has been significantly re-engineered over half a century. Food supply, though never fully local in modern times, has been largely de-localised.
Titan stores that have taken the stores are too far to walk to, too difficult social lives. While the nature of what lion’s share of the market have to reach by bus, so they require us to we eat shapes us, the food we eat and replaced a now almost unimaginable drive. With food gone, there is one less how and where we buy it shapes the diversity of locally owned and managed reason to visit the centre. With fewer character of our towns, countryside and shops, stores and stalls – greengrocers, visits and less trade a spiral of decline communities. If we buy from a range of butchers, bakers and fishmongers – begins. This revolution, no less radical shops we can help them survive. If we with ubiquitous national brands that sell because of its gradual nature, has shop at one only, it alone will survive. a vast array of products from around reshaped habits and towns – to the Every time we eat we farm something the globe. Less commented upon has extent we are now asking what town somewhere, be it chickens, cabbages or been the loss of their counterparts – centres are for. cheese. Just as critically, farming alters the wholesalers, abattoirs, livestock The impact of these changes the land it needs to produce our food markets, processors and producers – in spreads beyond town centres. The loss and the wider environment. Both tilling the local supply chains which supported of outlets has reduced the options for the soil or grazing it have measureable them. Many town centres are hollowing producers to get to market. The fewer and less quantifiable effects, intended out. Local land has become logoland. larger businesses which remain can and unintended, on soil fertility, water Local food webs depend on town make harder demands and there are and air quality, wildlife, habitats centres and local high streets. As the few other places to go. Businesses and landscapes. locations studied for this report show, have to grow to find economies of The impact of our food choices may outlets need to share the footfall of scale, or find new channels to market, be visible locally but also plays out on a shoppers drawn in by a cluster of or go under. The steady flow of dairy larger stage. The UK imports much of its businesses. But as big name retailers farmers leaving milk production tells food and this makes demands on global are collapsing town centres continue its own story. agriculture. While trade in food can add to decline. In truth, this damaging Some will ask why this matters. to our food security, the stability and situation has been a long time in the If stores and farms get bigger and resilience of farming globally in the making: food was the canary in the avowedly more efficient because future is in doubt. The Foresight report coalmine, but it was ignored. It is the market forces drive down costs then reveals the many pressures farming and product we need to shop for regularly surely the consumer must benefit? the food system face, from famine to and frequently, but which has over Our food basket has got cheaper. obesity, soil, water, minerals, land and decades moved out of many town Our food shopping is easier and more other resource pressures, rising energy centres. An interplay of factors – convenient. The shopper surely benefits costs, population growth and, last and car ownership, busier working lives, again? But food, and the networks perhaps uppermost, climate change. high town centre rents and rates, the that provide it are, this report argues, Farming globally faces demands to expansion of grocery chains, loss of a special case. Few products affect us produce more with a shrinking asset smaller, local traditional food shops – and the world around us as elementally base. To conserve and stabilise the has contributed. and fundamentally as food. So, though ecosystems on which we depend The move of food out of town to price and convenience are important, we must strive to minimise food’s functional sheds – superstores and they aren’t all that count. In fact we environmental impact and, where hypermarkets – has driven up scale have failed to count all that matters. possible, reverse some of the damage and driven down prices. Grocery chains Food is different from other things done through driving production for fighting for market share with rock- we buy. Clothes warm and adorn us but the past half century. bottom pricing have speeded the what we eat can underpin or undermine These major challenges which retail decline of smaller stores unable to our health and well-being. It gives and farming face in turn affect local compete. Into the bargain many such structure and shape to our family and food networks and this raises questions
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
central to this report. Local food forms a breeds, varieties and genetic to our choices it matters. In a world relatively small share of the overall food diversity, and the artisanal and where crisis appears to pile upon market. Its supply chains have declined traditional products and production crisis, it is crucial that we nurture the so they no longer fulfil a major role in that the industrial food system can sense that we individually and so our national food supply. squeeze out. Commodity markets collectively can make a difference. Can local food networks help to need consistency; local markets tackle these challenges and in what can support variety. They can A final question to address is: can the ways? If they can, how can they best add value to products through local food market grow enough to be supported in doing so? This report a range of qualities that shoppers begin to re-localise our food supply? shows there are three main ways that seek: freshness, seasonality, To stabilise then expand supply must they are important: distinctiveness, provenance and be the goal, but an immediate challenge reducing impact, be it food transport, is superstore expansion pulling trade 1. Local food contributes to thriving packaging, on animal welfare or from centres and threatening business and individual town centres. It gives the wider environment. diversity. Supermarkets should grow smaller outlets a strong selling their local lines and be part of the point. It attracts customers for its 3. Local food supports consumer solution. If it is ‘business as usual’ and distinctiveness, taste and freshness, and citizen engagement with food. town centres continue to decline, this or wanting to shop in ways that help In a market which fails to internalise research tells us something of what the environment and support local the wider costs of the food system, could be lost: networks of micro and businesses. Local food outlets can the market alone cannot drive the small local food businesses in towns bring in visitors and tourists for the changes to make the system more and dispersed across the countryside food itself or the town character they sustainable. This challenge needs and the contribution they make to help maintain. The interaction they to engage policy- and decision- local economies, communities and engender supports community and makers, businesses of all scales, countryside. Where local food networks connection. Food and especially local and communities down to individuals: remain, there is cause for optimism. food needs to remain in town centres, we all eat and are all implicated. As if in response to the bland uniformity and visibly so, to support access for A major challenge is how to engage of omni-present chains, new ways to all, footfall, character, diversity, consumers in the issues. Local food shop for food have burgeoned. Farm distinctiveness and, not least, the offers one important way to do this. shops, farmers’ markets, box schemes, pleasure of shopping. Local food helps shoppers understand social enterprises such as community- where their food comes from and supported farms and community food 2. Local food webs support the viability care about the people who produce growing projects are enriching choice of a diverse farming industry and it and the challenges they face. and adding to the diversity of local through it the health and character Local food reintroduces and stores and markets. They give hope of the countryside it maintains. reinforces connections with the that these networks can, with the right They provide vital channels to market realities of seasonality, of what can support, thrive and grow. The primary for new, small and medium-sized be and is produced – potatoes with intention of this research is to make businesses and fair pricing between soil, apples with blemishes, knobbly these networks more visible. It is up to producer and buyer. This supports carrots – and reducing transport, policy-makers nationally and locally to investment and innovation and packaging and waste from plot to put in place the right framework so they secures livelihoods. They act as ‘seed plate. Vitally, the context in which we can be nurtured and expand. Ultimately, beds’ to cultivate business start-ups buy food matters. The human scale whether as businesses, communities or and help established businesses to of local food networks, contact with individuals, we all need to engage to innovate and expand. The range and retailers and producers and local make it happen. distinctiveness of food locally links to land give meaning to what we available supports diversity in the buy and can reinforce our sense that farming systems that produce it. buying locally makes a difference. Local networks can support the Scale is not all but in giving meaning
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
1 Note: we are not able to estimate the total number of 26 Competition Commission, 2008, cited in Schoenborn Wise Moves: Exploring the relationship between food,
businesses supplying to local supply chains because 2011:14 transport and CO2, Transport 2000 Trust, http://www. across all towns many suppliers will overlap and this 27 NamNews Kantar World Panel UK Grocery Market Share thepep.org/ClearingHouse/docfiles/wise_moves.pdf would lead to double counting. Analysis for 12 weeks to 15 April 2012 http://www. [accessed 14 12 11] 2 This is on a head count basis as we do not have figures kamcity.com/namnews/mktshare/2012/kantar- 54 DEFRA, 2012a, Food Transport Indicators to 2010, for retailers of full-time equivalent (FTE) staff april12.htm [accessed 13 05 12] January, http://www.defra.gov.uk/statistics/files/ 3 Steel, C., 2008 Hungry City – How Food Shapes Our 28 Based on figures for Extra stores from Tesco given defra-stats-foodfarm-food-transport- Lives, Chatto and Windus in Simms, A., 2007, Tescopoly, Constable, p.94 and statsnotice-120110.pdf [accessed 12 05 12] 55 4 Steel, 2008:324 The Grocer, 17 April 2010 DEFRA, 2005, The Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator 29 of Sustainable Development, http://archive.defra.gov. 5 Cranbrook, C., 1998, Food Webs, CPRE; Cranbrook, C., http://www.tescopoly.org/ [accessed 20 04 12] 30 uk/evidence/economics/foodfarm/reports/ 2006, The Real Choice – how local food can survive the Portas, 2011 documents/foodmile.pdf [accessed 15 11 11] supermarket onslaught, CPRE 31 Local Data Company (LDC), 2012, End of year Vacancy 56 Cabinet Office, 2008:85 6 Tesco defines local lines as ‘those produced and sold report 2011, February, p.6 57 Garnett, 2008:38 within (...) the country in Ireland, Scotland and Wales’. 32 ‘Multiple retailers closed 14 stores a day on average 58 http://www.tesco.com/greenerliving/greener_tesco/ across Great Britain in 2011, says PwC and Local Data Elsayed, M. A., Grant, J. F. & Mortimer, N.D., 2002, what_tesco_is_doing/local_sourcing.page Company analysis’ 17 February 2012, http://www. Energy use in the United Kingdom: non-domestic [accessed 14 04 12] ukmediacentre.pwc.com/News-Releases/ building stock, Global Atmosphere Division of DEFRA. 7 Kneafsey, M. , Lambie, H., Dowler, E. & Inman A., 2008, Multiple-retailers-closed-14-stores-a-day-on- 59 DEFRA, Food Statistics Pocketbook 2011, http://www. Mapping Local Food Webs Concepts and Methods average-across-Great-Britain-in-2011-says-PwC- defra.gov.uk/statistics/files/defra-stats-foodfarm- Interim Report Part 1, SURGE, July and-Local-Data-Company-analysis-11d4.aspx food-pocketbook-2011.pdf [accessed 12 05 12] 8 COI, 2007, Local food Omnibus Research Report [accessed 22 05 12] p.50 & 54 – Prepared for the Food Standards Agency by COI, 33 Deloitte, 2012, The changing face of retail, March, p.2 60 Chapagain, A. & Orr, S., 2008, UK Water Footprint: http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/ 34 LDC, 2012:6 the impact of the UK’s food and fibre consumption localfoodreport.pdf [accessed 25 04 12] on global water resources, WWF-UK, August 35 BIS data cited in Portas, 2011:9 9 61 The definition of local is ‘contained in EC Regulation 36 British Tomato Growers Association, 2010, press release 853/2004 but this relates solely to hygiene rules for Portas, 2011:9 ‘Yes We have no tomatoes!’ 16 March, http://www. food of animal origin.’ LACORS, 2007, Use of the Claims 37 http://www.riverford.co.uk/about_riverford/ britishtomatoes.co.uk/pressroom/view. “Local” and “Seasonal” October, http://www.lacors.gov. [accessed 27 February 2012] shtml?rec=45 [accessed 12 05 11] uk/lacors/ContentDetails.aspx?id=17856 38 ‘Last orders: Twenty-five pubs “are closing every 62 Chapagain & Orr, 2008:22 [accessed 25 04 12] week”’, Daily Mail, 16 March 2011, http://www. 63 Eswaran, H., Lal, R. & Reich, P. F., 2001, ‘Land 10 Policy Commission on the Future of Farming and Food, dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1366720/Last-orders- Degradation: An overview’, in Bridges, E. M., Hannam, 2002, Farming and Food – a sustainable future, Crown, Twenty-pubs-close-week-loss-thousands-jobs. I. D., Oldeman, L. R., Pening de Vries, F. W. T., Scherr, January, p.46 html#ixzz1nawNtfn9 [accessed 27 2 12] S. J., & Sompatpanit, S., (eds). Responses to Land 11 LACORS, 2007; COI, 2007 39 Cassidy, J., ‘SOS Save our shops’, BBC News Online, Degradation. Proc. 2nd International Conference on 12 Kneafsey et al., 2008:6 30 March 2011, [accessed 27 02 12] http://www.bbc. Land Degradation and Desertification. Oxford Press. co.uk/news/business-13568374 India, http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/papers/ 13 Kneafsey et al., 2008:7-9 40 House of Commons All-Party Small Shops Group, 2006 land-degradation-overview.html [accessed 14 12 11] 14 Uses milk from herds reared and milked in Somerset, High Street Britain:2015 64 FAOSTAT, 2011, ‘Land degradation’, http://faostat.fao. Dorset, Devon or Cornwall, http://www. 41 org/site/375/default.aspx [14 12 11] farmhousecheesemakers.com/pdo-our-provenance/ Main source of data: Royal Agricultural Society of 65 [accessed 19 05 12] England (RASE) Members Agribulletin, 2011, UK Food DEFRA, 2012b, Review of the weight that should be Chain Supply report, 25 May given to the protection of best and most versatile (BMV) 15 Soil Association, 2001, Local Food Routes, Bristol 42 Cabinet Office, 2008, Food: an analysis of the issues, land, Final Technical report SP1501/TR by Amec 16 Sustain, 2002, Sustainable Food Chains – Briefing 1 January, p.76 Environment and Infrastructure UK Ltd and Asken Ltd Local Food; Benefits, obstacles and opportunities 43 Foresight, 2011, The Future of Food and Farming, Final for DEFRA, p.vii 17 Johnson, R., Cowan,T. & Aussenberg, R.A., 2012, Project Report, The Government Office for Science, 66 Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1988, The Role of Local Food Systems in U.S. Farm Policy. London, pp.13-16 http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/ Agricultural Land Classification of England and Wales, Congressional Research Services Report for Congress. foresight/docs/food-and-farming/11-546-future-of- October, http://archive.defra.gov.uk/foodfarm/ January 20 p.7 food-and-farming-report.pdf [accessed 27 04 12] landmanage/land-use/documents/alc- 18 Johnson et al., 2012:5 44 According to Foresight, 2011:15: ‘the International Soil guidelines-1988.pdf [accessed 12 05 12] 19 Kneafsey et al., 2008:11 Reference and Information Centre has estimated 67 DEFRA, 2012b:vii-ix 20 The researchers clarify this: ‘As such local food webs (2009) that of the 11.5 billion hectares of vegetated 68 DEFRA, 2007c, Observatory monitoring framework are not trading highly processed products e.g. tinned land on earth, about 24% has undergone human- – indicator data sheet: farm size, http://archive.defra. goods, frozen ready meals, microwave meals etc.’ induced soil degradation, in particular through erosion.’ gov.uk/evidence/statistics/foodfarm/enviro/ Kneafsey et al., 2008:11 45 IPCC, 2007 cited by Garnett, T., 2008, Cooking up observatory/indicators/b/b1_data.htm [21 11 11] 21 Portas, M. 2011, The Portas Review – an independent a storm: Food, greenhouse gas emissions and our 69 Half of this (49.5%) comes from within the UK and half review into the future of our high streets, 13 December, changing climate, Food Climate Research Network, from the other 26 countries Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, http://www.fcrn.org.uk/fcrn/publications/ 70 Food Production to Supply Ratio, calculated as the pp.7-10 http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/ cooking-up-a-storm [accessed 16 11 11] farm-gate value of raw food production (including business-sectors/docs/p/11-1434-portas-review 46 Garnett, T., 2008 for export) divided by the value of raw food for -future-of-high-streets [accessed 20 04 12] 47 DEFRA, 2007a, Food Chain Greenhouse Gas Briefing, human consumption. 22 Competition Commission, 2008, cited in Schoenborn, cited in Cabinet Office, 2008:85; Audsley, E., Brander, 71 DEFRA, 2011:35 – The figures were £32.5 billion for A., 2011, The Right to Retail – Can localism save M., Chatterton, J., Murphy-Bokern, D., Webster, C. & imports compared to £14 billion for exports Britain’s smaller retailers? ResPublica/Association of Williams, A., 2010, How low can we go? An assessment 72 Clifford, S., King, A. & Davenport, P., 2007, The Apple Convenience Stores (ACS), April, p.3 of greenhouse gas emissions from the UK food system Source Book, Hodder & Stoughton 23 and the scope reduction by 2050, Report for WWF and http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12007835 73 DEFRA, 2010, Basic Horticultural Statistics, 21 July, [accessed 20 04 12] Food Climate Research Network 48 http://defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/foodfarm/ 24 Institute of Grocery Distribution (IGD), 2012, UK National Ecosystem Assessment (UK NEA), 2011 landuselivestock/bhs/documents/bhs.xls [accessed UK Grocery retailing, 17 April http://www.igd.com/ 49 UK NEA, 2011 17 10 2010] index.asp?id=1&fid=1&sid=7&tid=26&cid=94 50 Pretty, J., 2002, Agriculture – Reconnecting People, 74 Trewin, C., 2007, ‘Ten Green Apples’ in Clifford et al., [accessed 20 04 12] Land and Nature, Earthscan, p.121 2007:25-29 25 ‘Supermarkets’ plan to build thousands more stores 51 UK NEA 2011:71 75 From 1999/2000 to 2009/2010 4,007 hectares revealed’, The Guardian, 21 December 2011, http:// 52 (16 square miles) of apple orchard land was lost; www.guardian.co.uk/business/2011/dec/21/ UK NEA 2011:29, 71 53 DEFRA, 2007b, Defra Food Transport Indicators to 2006, 1984/1985 – 2009/2010 11,096 hectares (43 square supermarkets-plan-build-thousands-stores, miles) was lost [accessed 20 04 12] cited in Cabinet Office, 2008:85; Garnett, T., 2003,
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
76 Pretty et al., 2000 & Hartridge and Pierce, 2001, cited 99 Zasada, K., 2009, Markets 21 - A Policy & Research 122 http://www.thepeoplessupermarket.org/ in Pretty, 2002:57 Review of UK Retail and Wholesale Markets in the 21st [accessed 20 05 12] 77 Bach, M., 2011, Presentation to All Party Parliamentary Century, The Retail Markets Alliance, November 123 http://www.booths.co.uk/store-finder.htm Group On Town Centres, 25 January 100 Smith, J., 2009, Traditional food retail markets: the [17 04 12] 78 Department for Communities and Local Government hidden sector? A geographical analysis, Unpublished 124 http://www.booths.co.uk/news-article/Booths-and- (DCLG), 2009, Planning for Town Centres: Practice research at CCRI reproduced here by kind permission Slow-Food-announce-partnership-deal guidance on need, impact and the sequential of the author [accessed 17 04 12] 101 approach http://www.communities.gov.uk/ Zasada, 2009:19 125 The international Ark of Taste lists over 700 products publications/planningandbuilding/ 102 Zasada, 2009:19 from 50 countries, http://www.slowfood.org.uk/ towncentresguide [accessed 19 05 12] 103 IGD, 2012 our-projects/ [accessed 17 04 12] 79 Bach, 2011 126 104 Source of all main market data: Soil Association, IGD, 2012 80 Bach, 2011 2012, The Organic Market Report 2012, http://www. 127 Symbol groups are a form of retail franchise: the group 81 Department for Communities and Local Government, soilassociation.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=5QS2 acts as supplier to smaller grocery stores which trade 2011, Draft National Planning Policy Framework: 4GNSZTA%3d&tabid=116 [accessed 25 04 12] under a common name such as SPAR or Premier Consultation, p.8, July, http://www.communities.gov. 105 Seth, A. and Randall, G., 1999, The Grocers: The Rise 128 Figures from IGD (2012) for 2011 data compared to uk/documents/planningandbuilding/pdf/1951747. and Rise of the Supermarket Chains, London, Kogan IGD 2010 data cited in Schoenborn, 2011:12-13 pdf [accessed 01 03 12] Page, cited in Simms, A., 2007:68 129 Eurofood, 2002, ‘Convenience boost for Tesco’, 82 DCLG, 2012, National Planning Policy Framework, 106 Verdict research cited in DCLG/Hillier and Parker, 1998, 7 November http://findarticles.com/p/articles/ March p.7[0] http://www.communities.gov.uk/ Impact of Large Foodstores on Market Towns and mi_m0DQA/is_2002_Nov_7/ai_94447960/ publications/planningandbuilding/nppf District Centres. Para. 6. http://www.communities. [accessed 23 05 12] [accessed 22 05 12] gov.uk/archived/publications/planningandbuilding/ 130 All data from Plunkett Foundation, 2011, Community 83 DCLG, 2012:8 impactlarge [accessed 20 05 12]; Competition Owned Village Shops: A better form of business, January 84 Commission, 2008 cited in Schoenborn, 2011:3 DCLG, 2012:8, para. 27 131 SPAR is a symbol group: individual SPAR members are 107 85 Portas, 2011:14 AC Nielsen Homescan figures for the share of independent but benefit from being part of a large 86 total grocery spending, quoted in The Grocer, international organisation with collective buying and Portas, 2011 19 November 2005; McKinsey Quarterly, ‘Tesco in 87 marketing power, a strong corporate image and access DCLG, 2012, High streets at the heart of our 2003’ both cited in Simms, 2007:88 to a range of equipment and resources communities: the Government’s response to the Mary 108 IGD, 2012 132 Portas review, March, http://www.communities.gov. This figure uses generally 2001 census data for the 109 uk/publications/regeneration/portasreviewresponse IGD, 2012 town/city. Where urban boundaries are not contained [accessed 19 05 12] 110 The co-operatives are part of this history: from within the 2.5-mile radius study area, ward data for the areas covered by the study area have been used to 88 Urban Pollinators, 2011, The 21st century agora: the first Rochdale grocery store in 1844 to over 1,400 such retail co-operative societies by 1890, derive a more accurate population total i.e. for Birstall a new and better vision for town centres. (20,000) and Sheffield (284,000) A collaborative response by leading doers and thinkers co-operatives grew to take one third of the grocery 133 to the Mary Portas review. Cited in Portas, 2011:38 market share by the 1950s and with 10 million The figure of 697 towns and 50 cities in England was members (Simms, 2007:70). calculated using the Great Britain Economic & Trade 89 All these have been included where relevant 111 Digest. http://www.gbet.com/AtoZ/ in assessment of food webs for individual Kantar Worldpanel, 2012; according to DEFRA, 2011:21 134 location reports Kantar Worldpanel are the most up-to-date data. The ratio of each job supported to turnover varied from 112 £28k-£81k p.a. between highest and lowest locations; 90 London Assembly Planning and Housing Committee, Cranbrook, 2006:3 113 figures for supermarkets were calculated from data 2010, Cornered Shops – London’s small shops and the Tesco’s website enables searching for local produce in 2011 company annual reports as follows: Tesco – planning system, July, p.19 within 30 miles of the Hexham store which reveals £138k p.a. http://www.tescoplc.com/media/417/ 91 Competition Commission, 2008, Trends in the number seven local products at the time of writing the location tesco_annual_report_2011_final.pdf; Sainsbury’s – of convenience stores and specialist grocery stores, report (August 2011): free-range eggs, milk, ice cream, £141k http://www.j-sainsbury.co.uk/media/171813/ Appendix 5.1; note there are some alterations to splits Nettle cheese, chilli sauce and beer, www.tesco.com/ ar2011_report.pdf; Morrisons – £144k http://www. between businesses so the figures are only broadly greenerliving/greener_tesco/faqs/qa_local_ morrisons.co.uk/corporate/2011/annualreport/ comparable over this period but the trend is evident sourcing.page? [accessed August 2011] financial-statements/group-financial-statements/ (numbers have been rounded) 113 http://www.morrisons.co.uk/Corporate/Corporate- consolidated-statement-of-comprehensive- 92 Figures from FARMA cited in Home, S., responsibility-2011/Policy-Guidance/British- income/Default.aspx# [accessed 15 03 12] ‘So you want to open a farm shop’, Farmers Regional-and-Local-Sourcing/ [accessed 14 04 12] 135 Pretty, J., 2001, Some Benefits and Drawbacks of Local weekly, 24 June 2005, http://www.fwi.co.uk/ 114 http://www.morrisons.co.uk/Corporate/Corporate- Food Systems, TVU/Sustain AgriFood Network, www. Articles/24/06/2005/92680/So-you-want-to.-open- responsibility-2011/Policy-Guidance/British- sustainweb.org/pdf/afn_m1_p2.pdf a-farm-shop.htm [accessed 05 05 12]; FARMA figures Regional-and-Local-Sourcing/ [accessed 14 04 12] [accessed 21 11 11] cited in Cabinet Office,2008:45 confirm 4,000 farm 115 http://www2.sainsburys.co.uk/aboutus/policies/ 136 Low, S. A. & Vogel, S., 2011, Direct and Intermediated shops in the UK with combined turnover when policies.htm [accessed 14 04 12] Marketing of Local Foods in the United States, USDA including farmers’ markets and box schemes/ 116 Economic Research Report, http://www.ers.usda.gov/ pick-your-own schemes of £2 billion per year. Estimates of the percentage of local based on Kantar Worldpanel, 2012 data of all expenditure at the four Publications/ERR128/ [accessed 21 11 11] 93 This figure takes into account duplication as most major supermarkets through main store tills (but 137 Federation of Small Businesses, 2012, Small producers will attend several farmers’ markets excluding petrol and in-store concessions) converted Business Statistics http://www.fsb.org.uk/stats 94 Pretty, 2002:122 to an annual figure to estimate turnover [accessed 29 04 12] 95 New Economics Foundation (NEF), 2001, Local 117 http://www.asdasupplier.com/about-us/local- 138 These were Tesco, Sainsbury’s, Marks & Spencer, Food Shopping better for Rural Economy than sourcing Boots and John Lewis. Monbiot, G.,2009, Tesco-opted, Supermarket Shopping, 7 August, http://www. http://health.asda.com/sustainability/ethical- August 10 http://www.monbiot.com/2009/08/10/ neweconomics.org/gen/m6_i121_news.aspx eating/local-and-regional.aspx [accessed 14 04 12] tesco-opted/ [accessed 29 04 12] 96 NEF, 2005, Trading Places: The local economic impact 118 http://www.asdasupplier.com/about-us/local- 139 Porter, S. & Raistrick, P., 1998, The Impact of Out-of of street produce and farmers’ markets, New sourcing [accessed 14 04 12] ; speech by Paul Kelly, Centre Food Superstores on Local Retail Employment. Economics Foundation p.19, http://www.susdev.co.uk/ Director of External Affairs, Asda, at CPRE National Retail Planning Forum. http://www.nrpf.org. pdf/051202-tradingplaces.pdf [accessed 21 11 11] Food for Thought seminar, Conservative Party uk/pub.htm [accessed 07 12 11] 97 All data in this section from The Soil Association, Conference, 13 October 2011 140 Portas, 2011:31 119 2011, The impact of community supported http://www.tesco.com/greenerliving/greener_tesco/ 141 See IGD ShopperVista, Shopper Trends 2011 February agriculture, November what_tesco_is_doing/local_sourcing.page survey: the economic downturn has accelerated the 98 The first CSA in the USA started in 1985 rising to 400 in [accessed 14 04 12] trend for locally sourced food, as shoppers have 2001 and more than 1,400 in 2010. In 2007 on USDA 120 http://your.asda.com/sustainability-local-sourcing sought to support local economies and communities. estimates over 12,500 farms were selling through CSAs, [accessed 14 04 12] In December last year, over half (52%) of shoppers though this is less than 1% of about 2 million farms in 121 Tesco, 2012 claimed to purchase local products in order to support the U.S.A. Cited in Johnson et al., 2012 local producers, a quarter (25%) to support local
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
retailers, and over a fifth (22%) to keep jobs in their 163 These measures are permitted by European Union justifies their opinion that the case for local food’s area.’ http://www.igd.com/index.asp?id=1&fid=1&si Directives, though specifying local produce is not. lower environmental impact is weak. d=8&tid=30&folid=0&cid=1489 [accessed 29 04 12 ] These recommendations are drawn from Food Links 184 Foster, C., Green, K., Bleda, M., Dewick, P., Flynn, A. & 142 NEF, 2002, The Money Trail: Measuring your impact UK, 2006, Best Practice in Sustainable Public Food Mylan, J., 2006, Environmental Impacts of Food on the local economy using LM3, New Economics Procurement, June, www.sustainweb.org.uk Production and Consumption: A report to the Foundation and The Countryside Agency, London, p.viii 164 IGD, 2011 Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 143 NEF, 2002:viii 165 IGD, 2011 Manchester Business School, DEFRA, London, p.142 144 166 http://www.ifr.ac.uk/waste/Reports/DEFRA- NEF, 2011, The Benefits of Procuring School Meals IGD, 2011 Environmental%20Impacts%20of%20Food%20 through the Food for Life Partnership, http://www. 167 Hastings, T., 2012, Re-asserting a sense of place: the Production%20%20Consumption.pdf neweconomics.org/publications/the-benefits-of- community role of small shops, University of Oxford/ [accessed 07 05 12] procuring-school-meals-through-the-food-for-life- Association of Convenience Stores. 185 partnership [accessed 07 12 11] Cabinet Office, 2008:87 168 Schoenborn, A., 2011, The Right to Retail: can localism 145 186 Garnett, 2003 NEF, 2005, ‘Buying local worth 400 per cent more’, save Britain’s small retailers? ResPublica/ACS. http://www.neweconomics.org/press-releases/ 187 Garnett, 2008:29 169 Hastings, 2012 buying-local-worth-400-cent-more 188 DEFRA,2012a [accessed 07 12 11] 170 Clarke, I. & Bunga, S. 2009, ‘The economic and 189 DEFRA, 2005, The Validity of Food Miles as an 146 This combines estimates of jobs nationally at outlets social role of small stores: a review of UK evidence’, International Review of Retail, Distribution and Indicator of Sustainable Development. http://archive. selling local food (103,000) and at the 2,000 suppliers defra.gov.uk/evidence/economics/foodfarm/ identified (34,000) supported by estimated local food Consumer Research, 20(2): 187-215 171 reports/documents/foodmile.pdf [accessed 15 11 sales. We have not added extrapolations to other Pioch, E., & Byrom, J., 2004, ‘Small independent 11]. For example, in one study it showed how a suppliers as food webs overlap and there is a risk of retail firms and locational decision-making: sandwich company in Derbyshire, which lay a few double counting. This figure could be far greater. Outdoor leisure retailing by the crags.’ Journal of hundred metres from a major supermarket chain it 147 Schoenborn, 2011:39 Small Business and Enterprise Development, was serving, was transporting its sandwiches 160km 11(2):222-223; Megicks, P., 2007, ‘Levels of strategy 148 Schoenborn, 2011:29 away to a redistribution hub: a clear example of an and performance in UK small retail businesses’, unsustainable model of food distribution. 149 Schoenborn, 2011:29-31 Management Decision 45(3):484-502; Broadbridge, 190 Foster et al.,2006:136-137 150 Kay, J. 2009, The Future of Markets, Wincott Lecture, A., & Calderwoo, E., 2002, Rural grocery shoppers: 191 20 October, http://www.wincott.co.uk/Wincott_ Do their attitudes reflect their actions? International Cross, P., Edwards, R. T., Opondo, M., Nyeko, P. & Lecture_Oct09.doc [accessed 23 05 12] Journal of Retail and Distribution Management Edwards-Jones, G., 2009, ‘Does farm worker health 30(8):394-407; vary between localised and globalised food supply 151 Gerber, 2003:241 cited Schoenborn, 2011:31 172 Hastings, 2012 systems?’ Environment International, 35(7): 152 Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, 2012, 1004-1014 173 Hare, C., Kirk, K, & Lang, T., 2001, ‘The food shopping BIS Bulletin Special Update Friday 11 May 2012 192 Foster et al., 2006:141 Groceries Code Adjudicator Bill experience of older consumers in Scotland: Critical incidents.’ International Journal of Retail & 193 Foster et al., 2006:141 153 See The Church of England Ethical Investment Distribution Management 29(1):25 194 Advisory Group, Company Supply Chains: the issues Analysis for Burnley had not been completed by the 174 for responsible investors, January 2007, http://www. Johnson et al., 2012:12 time of writing so is omitted here churchofengland.org/media/36539/supply_chain_ 175 http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/srb1102.shtml 195 Portas, 2011:12 january_2007.pdf [accessed 24 05 12] Concern over [accessed 23 05 12] 196 See NPPF paragraphs 111 & 112 in DCLG, 2012:26 late payments to small suppliers,’ news article, 31 176 http://www.foodsecurity.org/farm_to_school.html for policy on brownfield and fertile agricultural land; August 2006, http://www.theaccessgroup.com/2134. [accessed 15 04 12] see para. 28 in DCLG, 2012:9 for rural diversification aspx [accessed 24 05 12] 177 Rural Economy and Land Use Programme, 2008, 197 See NPPF para 23: ‘local planning authorities should: 154 For produce unavailable within the 30 mile radius, Briefing Series No 8. Land to Mouth, March, p.10 recognise town centres as the heart of their this boundary may be extended up to 50 miles. http://www.relu.ac.uk/news/briefings/BRIF8.pdf communities and pursue policies to support their 155 Cranbrook, 2006:16 [accessed 24 05 12] viability and vitality’, DCLG, 2012: 7 156 MLCSL, 2010, Livestock Markets in the 21st Century: 178 Cranfield University press release 11 Apr 2012 – Were 198 DCLG, 2012: p.1,5 A Review of the Livestock Markets in England – Ancient Plants More Nutritious? cites preliminary 199 This should allow some scope for expansion in growing the Challenges and Opportunities, p.8, www.eblex.org. Unilever research which ‘found that an older variety of areas or contraction; it is even more relevant now that uk/documents/content/publications/p_cp_ apple, the Egremont Russet, contained up to 10 times strategic planning has gone in order to retain local livestockmarket2010040111.pdf [accessed 09 02 12] more of a phytonutrient than some modern varieties. retail hierarchies 157 The team hypothesise that this finding will be just According to Ed Bedington, editor of the Meat Trades 200 This was a major recommendation of the Competition Journal, in 2010 there were just 6,553 butchers’ shops. one example of older plant varieties being richer in nutrients and fibre per fresh weight.’ http://www. Commission grocery market enquiry which reported Quoted in ‘Bringing home the bacon: could butchers in 2008. The test targeted Tesco by suggesting a come back to the high street’ http://www.guardian. cranfield.ac.uk/news/pressreleases/2012/ page57260.html [accessed 24 05 12] market share locally of over 60% as a threshold and co.uk/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2011/aug/17/ was supported by most major retailers but not Tesco. 179 butchers-return-high-street-independent See http://www.peakdistrict.gov.uk/eqm; and for Tesco ‘appealed to the Competition Appeals tribunal [accessed 08 02 12] reports on the development of the Environmental on the grounds that its impact on consumer benefit 158 The NPPF stipulates that: ‘Local authorities should Quality Management scheme http://www. was not sufficiently assessed’ and was successful seek to improve the quality of parking in town centres peakdistrict.gov.uk/looking-after/eqm (Schoenborn, 2011:38). A reframing of consumer so that it is convenient, safe and secure (...). They [accessed 30 05 12] interest beyond price benefit to individual consumers should set appropriate parking charges that do not 180 SAFE Alliance, 1994, Food Miles Report: The dangers of would support market diversity and greater undermine the vitality of town centres. Parking long-distance food transport, reprinted by Sustain competition on the high street. enforcement should be proportionate.’ DCLG, 2012:11 2011, p.8. The report also sought to draw attention to 201 NL Agency, 2010, Criteria for the Sustainable Public para. 40 the globalisation of food production through ‘cheap Procurement of Catering Version: 1.3. 26th March, 159 Portas, 2011:27-28 non-renewable fossil fuel energy’ which made energy Prepared for the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning 160 intensive agriculture and long-distance transport of and the Environment (VROM) p.2 http://www. East Cambridgeshire District Council, 2007, Ely New food viable economically. Estates Study, www.eastcambs.gov.uk/sites/default/ senternovem.nl/mmfiles/Criteriadocument%20 181 files/ldf/ely_estates_survey_2007_32266.pdf MacGregor, J. & Vorley, B., 2006, “Fair miles”? Catering_tcm24-323613.pdf [accessed 16 05 12] [accessed 19 04 12] The concept of “food miles” through a sustainable 202 These are: the Brighton and Hove Food Strategy, 161 development lens. International Institute for Durham Food Strategy, Cardiff Food and Health Cited in Portas, 2011:39; section 106 agreements Environment and Development (IIED). between local planning authorities and landowners Strategy, Herefordshire Food Partnership, Sustainable 182 are legally binding obligations often to provide Weber, C. L. & Matthews, H. S., 2008, ‘Food-Miles and Food Strategy and Action Plan, Food Futures Food services or infrastructure to make a development the Relative Climate Impacts of Food Choices in the Strategy for Manchester, Liverpool Food and Health acceptable in planning terms United States’, Environmental Science & Technology Strategy, Middlesbrough Food Sustainability Action 42(10): 3508-3513 Plan, Sheffield Food Plan 162 Cited in Portas, 2011:39 183 It seems to be the only citation in the Cabinet Office’s 203 Steel, 2008:323-4 2008 Food; an analysis of the issues report which
From field to fork: The value of England’s local food webs
Summary of Acknowledgements The Campaign to Protect Rural England mapping locations (CPRE) is extremely grateful to the many local volunteers, CPRE staff, Pilot locations businesses, local residents and other Birstall: a large village (pop. 12,500) in stakeholders who contributed to this Leicester’s northern suburbs. project, especially those individuals Hastings: a large seaside town (pop. 86,000) from businesses and the general public on the East Sussex coast. who took part in interviews, case Kenilworth: a historic market town (pop. studies, workshops and public meetings. 24,000) in the heart of Warwickshire. CPRE also thanks the following Knutsford: a small market town (pop. 20,000) for their valuable support during the on the Cheshire Plain just south of Manchester. project: Lady Caroline Cranbrook, Sheffield: one of the largest cities in England Professor Elizabeth Dowler (University with a population of over half a million people. of Warwick), Dr Moya Kneafsey and Totnes: a small market town (pop. 8,500) in Hannah Lambie (University of the South Hams district of Devon. Coventry), and Alex Inman of Alex Inman Consulting for development of Main locations the mapping tools used; Kath Dalmeny, Burnley: a large market town and former Jeanette Longfield (Sustain), Dr Tom industrial centre (pop. 74,000) in Lancashire. MacMillan (Soil Association); Clare Darlington: a large market town (pop. 99,000) Devereux, Victoria Williams and Ben in the Tees Valley, north east England. Messer of Food Matters for workshop Ely: a cathedral city in Cambridgeshire, materials and training; Dr Ian the third smallest in England (pop. 19,000), Fitzpatrick for additional research; and a designated market town. Jennifer Smith, Peter Couchman Faversham: a traditional market town in (Plunkett Foundation) and many the heart of Kent (pop. 18,000); home to the colleagues at Making Local Food National Fruit Collection. Work partner organisations. Haslemere: a small country town located on Our special thanks go to those the Sussex-Hampshire border (pop. 16,000). volunteers and staff who contributed Ledbury: a bustling market town (pop. 10,000) to data entry, analysis and further in south east Herefordshire. research at CPRE: James Campbell, Hexham: a historic market town (pop 11,000) Rosie Dixon, Sophie Fleming, Thanusan in the Tyne valley in Northumberland. Gunabalasingham, Robert Harding- Newark: an affluent market town (pop. 27,000) Payne, Claire Lindfield, Louise Maxwell, in Nottinghamshire. Annie Monteith, Ben Partridge, Norwich: the largest city in the East of Judith Rosten, Madeleine Selman England (pop. 130,000). and Barbara Woods. Otley: a small market town (pop. 15,000) in CPRE gratefully acknowledges West Yorkshire close to the Yorkshire Dales. the support of the Big Lottery Fund Penrith: a market town (pop. 15,000) in the for the Mapping Local Food Webs Eden Valley, Cumbria. project, which enabled the community- Shrewsbury: a large town (pop. 96,000) in based research for this report to Shropshire close to the Welsh border. be undertaken. Yeovil: a large market town (pop. 42,000) in south Somerset. The Campaign to Protect Rural Making Local Food Work is a five-year The Big Lottery Fund’s Changing Spaces England (CPRE) fights for a better programme funded by the National programme was launched to help future for England’s unique, essential Lottery through the Big Lottery Fund. communities enjoy and improve their and precious countryside. We believe It helps people to take ownership of local environments. The programme is a beautiful, thriving countryside is their food and where it comes from by funding a range of activities from local important for everyone, no matter supporting a range of community food food schemes to education projects. where they live. enterprises across England. Campaign to Protect Rural England 5-11 Lavington Street London SE1 0NZ T 020 7981 2800 E [email protected] www.cpre.org.uk CPRE is a company limited by guarantee, registered in England (4302973), and a registered charity (1089685) Printed on paper manufactured by a mill that is registered under the internationally recognised environmental management standard 14001. Contains material sourced from responsibly managed forests together with recycled fibre. Author: Graeme Willis Additional material: Ian Fitzpatrick, Thanusan Gunabalasingham, Thea Platt, Judith Rosten Editing: Barney Jeffries Design: www.mikestafforddesign.co.uk Print: The Lavenham Press Maps: Land Use Consultants Photo credits: All photos Terry Rook, except front cover (bottom left), Rob Wolton; front cover (bottom right), Andrew Roland/Shutterstock.com; page 16 (bottom), Niall Keay; page 19 (bottom), page 36 (banner); page 60 (banner) Steve George; page 23 (bottom), Bill Pearson; page 24 (bottom), Picks Farm; page 25 (bottom), page 31 (bottom) Jason Row; page 26 (bottom), Canal Side CSA; page 33 (bottom), Booths; page 35 (bottom) Julian Germain; page 36 (bottom), blodgett.esq; page 47 (bottom), Rebecca Green; page 55 (banner), David Hughes/Shutterstock.com June 2012