The Complete Permagarden Manual

Growing Household Nutrition and Agroecological Resilience in the Face of Global Hunger, Poverty, Climate Change and Chronic Disease

A Step-by-Step Guide

To Create and Teach Home-Based Climate-Smart

Nutrition-Focused Permanent Gardens

using the Terra Firma Method

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Acknowledgements

Climate Change, Poverty, HIV/AIDS, and Nutrition Insecurity are inextricably linked. This cycle of insecurity contributes to the spread of poverty and HIV where hungry people may turn to unsafe health and environmental practices, in order just to feed themselves a meager diet. Once infected, chronic undernutrition increases susceptibility to opportunistic infections and hastens the onset of AIDS. As people living with HIV become sick, they are unable to engage in normal livelihood activities, including agriculture, thus threatening the nutritional and economic security of themselves, their families and their communities. Within the global context of climate change, economic downturns and insecure land tenure, especially amongst women and the rural poor, this situation becomes even more acute and demands a more appropriate, locally driven, cycle of resilient living.

In response to these critical issues, beginning in 2006, the Peace Corps embarked upon an agroecological garden program for all Volunteers and their local counterparts in Permaculture and Bio-Intensive Home Gardens. By 2007, they became known simply as “Permagardens”. The continuing goals of the program are to provide all vulnerable families, including PLWHA, with an attainable, practical and adaptable method that helps them to increase their own household food, nutrition, health, income and environmental security through “climate smart” gardens. Results have proven the method’s effectiveness to significantly increase household resilience with a high probability of replication by other organizations and individuals. The method helps families build skills to locally adapt to and mitigate the impacts of these major global issues on their own terms. These gardens can fill the gap between available crops in the market and the need for daily food in the family kitchen. As they require the use of only what is already accessible, they strengthen the local environment in an economically viable manner acceptable even to the most marginalized families.

The initial funding for these efforts came in 2006 from Peace Corps Tanzania, through a grant from USAID and PEPFAR, the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. These funds allowed time for investigation of past actions in nutrition utilization for those living with HIV and lead to the livelihood security and gardening approach that follows in these pages. Ongoing funding to bring these concepts to the broader Peace Corps and International NGO community has been provided by Feed the Future, the Food Security program of USAID. All due thanks are hereby acknowledged.

As you read through this manual you will come to fully understand the statement: If you prepare for the climate you can stop worrying about the weather. In these days of great climate insecurity we have a chance to adapt to the new reality and mitigate against its impacts. We cannot sit back and remain as victims requiring rescue from outside forces but rather strive to become victors over the very destruction we are witnessing. The answers lie within the local environment and its people if we simply open our eyes, walk, talk, work and learn together. As the photo on the cover exemplifies, the spark for the fire of change now rests in your hands.

If our desire is to end hunger we must feed the soil; letting plants feed themselves, the earth, and its many citizens, large and small…including us.

You are the one who can make change happen. Start small, slow the water, feed the soil, and eat well, while teaching others how to move from being a ‘Weather Worrier’ to a ‘Climate Conqueror’!

Peter Jensen Agroecology and Permagarden Training Specialist Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

April 2017

All opinions expressed within this document are my own and do not necessarily reflect the policies nor opinions of the United States Government, USAID or the Peace Corps. The science that is found within this manual, however, is fact and thereby not under dispute.

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary 5 How To Use This Manual 6

Session 1: Overview and Rationale for a New Paradigm 8

Defining a Permagarden 8 Vision Goals and Tasks 9 Defining Empowerment and Resilience 9 Defining our Targets 10 Why Garden Projects Fail 11 Overcoming the Barriers to Adoption 12 The Rule of CLOSE 13 Climate Smart allows Nutrition Focus 15 The Cycle of Better Living 17 Training Exercise: Teach Two 18 Training Exercise: Roll Crumple Fly 19 Terra Firma: Putting it all Together 20 Plan for Success: Train & Visit 22 Training Exercise: Go, Grow and Glow 22

Section 2: Key Technical Topics 23

An Overview of the Key Steps 23 The Circle of Sustainability 24 The Basic Needs of Life 24 Deep Soil Preparation 24 Close Spacing 25 The Garden Map 26 Create the Healthy Microclimate 26 Compost for Continuity 26 The Values of Local Soil Amendments 27 Protective Berms and Swales 27 Water Management “Six S” 28 Water off a Roof 29 Soil Health – The key to Sustainability 30 Understanding Your Soil 30 Soil Texture 30 Soil Structure 31 Soil Acidity 31 Soil Fertility 31 Dealing with Problem Soils 31 Training Tip: The Basic Needs of Life 32 Compost : Benefits 33 Making Compost 34 Materials to Use 34

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Materials NOT to Use 34 Step by Step Instructions 34 Garden Seasonality 36 Making Biochar from Crop Residues 37 Making Vegetable Compost ‘Tea’ 39 Crop Rotation 40 Organic Pest Control 41 Live Fencing 42 Planting the Fence 43 Pruning the Fence 43 Starting Seedlings 44 Planting Seedlings 44 Seedling Creation 44 Seed and Plant Spacing Chart 45

Section 3: Creating the Permagarden Step by Step 46

1. Community Resource Walk 47 2. Preparing the Planting Area 49 3. Garden Layout for Water Management 50 4. Creating Protective Swales 52 5. Double Digging Production Beds 54 6. Bio-Intensive Plant and Seed Spacing 56 7. Garden Management 58 8. Permatainers 60

Continuity: Moving from Weather Worrier to Climate Conqueror 61

Section 4: Walk and Talk Topic Extension Guidelines 62

How to Use the Garden Dialogue Method 62 Building Sustainability 63 General Barriers and Problem Statements 64 Dialogue Topics 1. Household Nutrition 65 2. Identifying Garden Spaces 68 3. Nurturing the Soil 69 4. Local Soil Amendments 70 5. Compost 71 6. Bed Location and Preparation 72 7. Household Water Management 74 8. Surface Water Management 76 9. Mulching 78 10. Plant Timing and Spacing 79 11. Plant Fertility Needs 81 12. Disease and Pest Control 82 13. Crop Rotation and Continuation 84

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Appendix 1. Peace Corps Approach to Nutrition 85 2. The Outreach Plan 86 3. Progressive Productive Behavior Checklist 87 4. Permagarden Teaching Checklist 88 5. Training Flipsacks 90 6. Permagarden Stories of Change 91 7. Overcoming Stunting: Our Window of Opportunity 93 8. The Agroecological Vision: Building Intersectoral Resilience 94 9. The Garden Map 95

Notes: 96

Climate-Smart, Nutrition-Focused Permagardens: From Weather Worrier to Climate Conqueror.

Why do we need this alternative method? Isn’t larger- scale farming more efficient than small, family gardens? From a purely economic perspective, this can be argued. But within the harsh tropical climates and the even harsher, evidence-based, climate change, neither families, nor their ecosystems, can afford NOT to take on a new agroecologically-sound approach.

So much is happening; seemingly all at once. We see weather extremes and loss of previously dependable cycles; devastating floods and long droughts. When coupled with the ever decreasing availability of arable land due to erosion and overpopulation, and the loss of labor force due to urbanization and chronic disease, there is a huge need to adopt a new approach. Climate-smart gardening shows us how WE can take control; how WE adapt, mitigate and thereby intensify production from small spaces that our children, and our economies, require for empowering, self-development.

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Executive Summary

Hunger, malnutrition and early childhood stunting are huge problems across the developing world. The root causes have been debated for many years as being linked to poverty, illness, lack of sanitation and hygiene, early marriage, low birthweight babies and climate change. These causes can be overwhelming. Mitigating the problems at the source is, of course, one solution; but a very difficult and costly one. What is needed is a simple solution of adaptation to the new realities; one in which all those impacted can participate; techniques that will bring resilience to each household, one small adjustment at a time. It is this small, step-by- small-step approach that is best exemplified by the creation of nutrition-focused, climate- smart, home gardens. The garden IS the long sought after link between seasonal agriculture and the daily need for sound nutrition. These small, high-yield, daily-accessed gardens, embody all three Climate Smart approaches of adaptation, mitigation and intensification allowing even the most marginalized family the chance to be an active part of their own solution rather than being the perennially disempowered victims of the problem.

While acknowledging the important role of agriculture in providing crops to market and food to family table, we must also note that this is seasonal. We all require food on a daily basis and crops in the market do not necessarily translate to food on the table. This is true around the world, but most readily apparent in the developing world where high rates of childhood stunting are the norm rather than the exception. Agriculture and ecology combined can teach us how to fill the daily family food gap through daily accessed, kitchen gardens. Lessons learned in the garden can then be applied on the farm, as the farmer chooses. The task of a change agent is to respond simply and locally, to appeal to the risk-averse, highly-vulnerable family. In this era of severe climate change, extreme poverty and chronic disease, all methods introduced must be proactive. They must build independence, not continue dependence.

The 5-Step “Terra Firma Method” informs us how to create Permagardens as a blend between Permaculture and Bio-Intensive Gardening. Permaculture provides us with protective features that work with nature rather than against her. Bio-Intensive provides powerful methods to maximize weekly productivity. This permanently protective and productive “Permagarden” becomes a high-yield, nutrition-focused, ‘classroom’ allowing a family to achieve dietary longevity quickly and close to home. The five critical steps are: local resource assessment, carbon capture, proactive protection, year round production and daily management. The method uses only locally accessible materials, tools, seeds and plants to provide the family with a daily supply of diverse, nutrient-dense vegetables, fruits, grains and legumes. This productive space will not always produce the same crop; rather, it is designed and managed in such a way that it will continue to provide dietary longevity and eventual diversity to the family table, week after week, day after day.

Using the Walk and Talk Method, these techniques can be gradually taught to your neighbors. Together, through these actions, we can alleviate the current lack of nutrition and climate security experienced by so many . Time is of the essence, especially in these days of great climatic malfunction. We can’t change this change. But we can change how we adapt to this new reality of climate irregularity. It is through your thoughtful dialogue and action, within the reality of where you live, that lasting resilience can be achieved.

By following the principles outlined in this manual, even the smallest areas and poorest soils can yield well. The resulting harvests close to home, using only local resources, will be the incentive anyone needs to acknowledge that the answers lie within us and our environment.

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How to Use this Manual

This manual is intended to support hands-on trainings in Permagarden Creation. It focuses on the key steps to create nutrition-focused, climate-smart gardens with vulnerable populations, anywhere in the world. It provides a way to get started from even the most challenging soils and climates; but it is not an encyclopedia of gardening. This manual focuses on how to esatablish a permanent garden, the choices you make on what and when to plant should be based on the local social and environmental dynamics in which you find yourself. Within these pages you will find four sections only: 1.Overview and Rationale; 2. Background Technical Topics; 3. Permagarden Creation Steps; and, 4. The Permagarden Walk and Talk Extension Method.

By following the ‘Terra Firma’ principles outlined in this manual – assessment, capture, protection, production, management and extension – you will note you do NOT need large areas, nor initially high-quality soil, or copious amounts of water or money in order to succeed. You will learn that the best tools to use are the ones you already have, or that can be sourced freely from the local ecosystem. You do not need new tools, or expensive synthetic fertilizers to attain nutrition and income security; in fact, the very opposite is true. If we start with new tools, fertilizers and irrigation equipment, not only is that wrong, it is the opposite of right. Our key task is to use only that which people already have! These thoughtful, low- labor actions, focusing on water management and soil health, show all who practice them that, for them, the large-scale, “commercial agricultural” approach may not be required. It can even be argued that those large, imported methods are counterproductive for them and their landscapes. This new paradigm of “Small is Bountiful” stands in stark contrast to the “Bigger is Better” approach of commercial agriculture. But bear in mind that te path to a sustainable farming landscape starts at the kitchen door; passing through the garden.

Like this garden in dry northeastern Rwanda, your permagarden, and that of your most willing neighbor, may begin from hard, infertile waste ground or from an established seasonal garden in trouble. Through your small doable actions, it will evolve into the deep, healthy soil you see here providing weekly family nutrition, ‘maternal’ income and environmental sustainability for a local family of seven.

A fully-protective and highly- productive, climate-smart, nutrition-focused family permagarden in Northeastern Rwanda. March, 2015.

This garden is the essence of the TOT approach: it was created by a local family who had been trained by a local health clinic volunteer who had been trained by a Health Clinic worker who had been trained by a Peace Corps Volunteer who had been trained by Peace Corps Rwanda.

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Let’s Get Started!

Why are you here? Why are you reading this manual? Hopefully, it is to learn how a garden can be the product of a problem solving approach and how you can be a positive agent of real change. In order to inspire change you must be willing to be ‘strange’. Whether you are growing a garden within a school, health clinic, agriculture office, or next to your own kitchen, you have a chance to be an influence on those around you. The overarching goal of this manual and the permagarden trainings that it supports is that you be a positive influence. Your actions will not go unnoticed. You have a choice, as do those whom you are targeting in your change efforts, to pursue a course that is ultimately sustainable but difficult, or one that is easier but regrettably not sustainable by our target audience. Behavior change is hard, but it is by definition impossible if we don’t first achieve positive attitude change. You must be willing to ‘be strange’ if you want to see change. The work you are about to embark upon will seem strange to many. You may encounter resistance from those who don’t like to see the upset of the status quo. This should be expected and is perfectly normal. You are the Positive Deviant, looking for those few who are willing to be strange alongside you. Your job is to get started; and let those willing few find you. They will be the Early Adopters. It will be they who will eventually take the lead, and do so by your example. While our vision is to reach the entire community of 100 families we need to recognize that it will happen slowly over time by starting with the 5 early adopters and their 10-15 followers. You may not see this happen, but you will know that you got people started along their own pathway of agroecological resilience.

Introductory Energizer: The Positive Deviant “Rain Dance” Imagine you are leading a training with 10 village mothers. From the beginning you need to keep things interactive. This exercise needs no language skills and can help you and your group see how an idea becomes at first tolerated, then appreciated, and finally, adopted. By the end, the group will also be learning how to manage their most vital resource: water In front of the group, simply rub your palms together. After a minute, walk around, smiling, while still rubbing your palms together. You are looking for the first to follow you. As soon as you see her, walk over and join her. Now it is just the two of you (you, the Positive Deviant, and she, the Early Adopter). Watch what happens next. Soon it will be a few more (the Early Followers who just needed to see someone else start). Soon, it will be nearly everyone (the Late Followers) and even a few who will stubbornly refuse. This is what you hope to see; you have started the ‘hand rubbing’ movement! Now the fun really begins. When all are rubbing their palms, lead them through the next actions for 10 seconds each: snap fingers; clap hands; slap thighs, louder and louder. All should be following you. It sounds like rain on a roof. Now: Stop! All will stop. You should have their full attention in the stunning silence. Now, do the following actions slowly, giving time for all to follow you: arms extended, palms up (stop); slowly stretch your hands to either side of your body (slow); Slowly crouch to the ground (sink); reach your arms in front of you (spread); hug your shoulders (save); and finally, slowly twist as you rise up, ‘water through the roots’, breathing out as you stand (transpiration) giving shade to the ground with your hands and arms (shade). What did we just learn? That change starts with simple actions by a Deviant and an Early Adopter. While at first reluctant, others quickly followed because it was now “the thing to do”. It was simple, easy and fun. What emotions were people feeling? Many will say nervous, scared, confused but then happier as everyone joined in. That is the whole point. Change is always uncomfortable and awkward at first. If we want others to follow, we must do a simple act, and wait for the early adopters to find us! The others will follow in their own time. Through body movements, you just introduced the Six Steps of Water Management: Stop, Slow, Sink, Spread, Save, Shade. The “Six S” ( Success) of Water Management!

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Section 1: Overview and Rationale

Defining a Permagarden

Over the years, we have come to realize a great paradox: some of the highest levels of nutrition-related, childhood stunting can be found in areas with the greatest agricultural potential. While the irony is frustrating, it should be noted that agricultural history, policies and programs in these areas have usually favored the production of cereal crops, grown mainly for marketing and family income, and to ‘feed the nation’. Unfortunately, increases in farm family income does not necessarily translate into improved nutritional status of children. Looking closely at these areas we see a farming approach aimed at filling the National Grain Reserves, rather than providing a diverse diet for local children and adults. In many of these areas, as in others less fortunate, there are very few gardens to fill the gap. All too often, the assumption is that if nutritious crops are in the market, and incomes increase, then the crops will be in the kitchen and the dietary balance of children will increase. Regrettably, that assumption is false. While the Permagarden is not meant to replace grain production, it does provide climate-smart lessons for the larger grain field. As you will learn, the core principles of a Permagarden, “Terra Firma”, provide valuable lessons that translate to the ecosystem as a whole. Home-based, permanent gardens, become classrooms for teachers, farmers and cooks alike: a garden that can do more than just complement family diets; it can provide the majority of the diet. This is the ‘missing link’ between seasonal agricultural production and daily nutritional needs of the family. The “Terra Firma” (Solid Earth) method is organic and sustainable as it uses only locally accessible materials to enhance the local environment, support local gender dynamics, and enhance the economic viability marginalized families.

By definition, the Permagarden is permanent. It is close to the home and therefore easy to manage even by children, the ill and the elderly. Its permanent pathways between permanent growing beds allow easy access to diverse garden products while the protective berms that surround it hold local medicinal, herbal and floral plants that live from year to year and never need replanting. Compared with conventional, shallow-tilled, row gardens, yield increases of 600% greater per unit area have been achieved by the second growing season. Rather than worsening, as is the case with conventional agriculture and gardening, Terra Firma methods increase soil health, depth and water holding capacity over time. This method involves small, doable actions that build upon sound assessment and sociocultural understanding of the local climatic, soil, and seasonal conditions. It expands through work and conversations with local residents forming strong bonds between agriculture, environment and human health.

This manual will guide you through a series of steps which go into creating a home based Bio-Intensive “Permanent” Garden. You will experience how it is a blend of the two evidence-based approaches, Permaculture and Bio-Intensive Gardening. As used herein, “Permaculture” helps us with permanent protection while “Bio-Intensive” helps us achieve a 52-week harvest cycle. Through the coming pages you will see several examples of Permgardens from around the world and will no doubt see that they all look about the same. While conditions vary geographically and climatically, there are key features found no matter where you are: 1. the protective berms and saturation holes that maximize the minimal rain while minimizing the maximum runoff; 2. the permanent pathways between the ‘double dug’, carbon enriched, garden beds that also capture and direct water; and 3. the planting of useful permanent perennials within and along the created berms. What changes from region to region are the tools, amendments and plants chose; but the structure remains more or less, the same. Bio-Intensive principles, the double digging, triangular’ plant spacing, mulching,

The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 8 is practiced within the production beds found within the protective berms. To the casual observer, a Permagarden looks like a raised bed garden. What is not seen is the thoughtful attitude changing actions that went into its development. So while “Permaculture” protects and “Bio-Intensive” produces, it is the Rule of CLOSE which enables acceptance and adoption across the economically vulnerable, climatically fragile and risk-averse regions of the world. As I like to say, “if your actions are not CLOSE, don’t even start.”

Vision, Goals and Tasks

While the overall vision is resilience in the face of shocks (be they economic, social or environmental) our objective is the home garden, with its principal goal of daily nutrition security. With such a garden providing daily nutrition to all children and adults, excess produce can be sold which allows a family to take control and to build their own sense of empowerment and resilience. We achieve these goals through doable tasks: resource assessment, water control, soil health, plant management and weekly planning that can be taught to neighbors without further need of outside assistance.

Vision: Climate Resilient Families improving the quality of their own lives, and those of their neighbors, through improved access and utilization of nutritious food derived from small-scale, high-yield, organic gardens.

Goals: 1. Increased Access and Utilization of Nutritious Food 2. Increased Maternal Income from Sale of Excess 3. Landscape Resilience to Weather Extremes

Tasks: 1. Local Resource Assessment and Capture 2. Water Management with Berms and Swales 3. Soil Health and Double Digging 4. Bio-Intensive Plant Care and Management 5. Season to Season Planning 6. Community Based Outreach

Defining Empowerment and Resilience

Empowerment, and the sense of control, accomplishment and hope it engenders, are all part of our vision statement above. The key hidden word is power; the outcome being strength and security. Tangible food and income, now a reality, opens the family to a world of possibilities they never would have attempted earlier. Empowerment is freedom; we can agree that that is a rare feeling amongst risk-averse, marginalized families.

But, if empowerment is what we look for ‘down the road’, then it is environmental resilience that gets us there. A simple visual exercise is to compare the bounces of a ball and a tomato. In one hand, hold the tomato. It is strong, visually perfect, yet fragile. In the other hand, hold an ugly ball. It too is strong, but flexible. What happens after they fall to the ground is our definition of resilience, the ability to bounce back from shocks. The rubber ball will bounce back, it is resilient to shock, while the tomato will smash as it is not. This is an obvious but surprisingly effective visual. Further, if you are working with a group, and have some space where people can safely tumble, refer to the shaded training tip below. The critical ‘take away’ from these activities and discussions is, “How well our gardens, fields, homes and families bounce back from shocks, be they environmental, health,

The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 9 economic or societal, is a measure of how resilient they are or are not.” A Permagarden is like the ball; its many protective and productive features, are what allows it to bounce back. On the other hand, the conventional, shallow-tilled, row-garden, is the tomato. Even if it has an imported irrigation system, that is just one more thing to break and be dependent upon others to fix. This is the very opposite of resilience and empowerment.

Teaching Tip: The Partner Push Resilience can be hard to imagine, but it is easy to see using this simple exercise.

Partners face each other. One represents a challenge or sudden shock; the other is the marginalized person without ability to bounce back, who assumes a crouching ‘fetal’ position (highly vulnerable). This person falls over at a mere touch from the ‘shock’. Have the group decide the next simple step to build strength: eyes looking at the shock; standing up (feet together); feet side to side; feet front to back; knees bent; shoulders braced; and finally, moving to meet the shock before it hits them. Discussion points:

 strength/resilience builds step by step, not all at once  being proactive rather than reactive is essential  we still fall over after the first 3 steps but by the end we are empowered with knowledge and skill to meet the shock head on.  We are all “in control” if we choose to take the next step.

Defining our Targets

It has been said that “garden activities fail”; or “Gardens don’t make any difference in people’s lives”; or, “Gardens are not economically viable”; or, “Gardens take too much work”. These statements are found throughout development literature and in many ways, they are accurate. But the Terra Firma approach is different because of the Rule of Close and the very first step of Permagarden creation which involves assessment of the local resources, challenges, assets and the people who will be the gardeners. If we aim at the right target, sometimes we hit it. But if we don’t even aim at the correct target, we will, by definition, NEVER hit it. And who is our target? In this case it is the mother, child and family table.

The subtitle of this manual is: Growing family nutrition security in the face of global climate change, hunger, disease and poverty. That is a tall order. But that is the reality of our world in which we operate. The poorest of the poor, the landless, and the not-yet-subsistence farming families of tropical urban and rural areas are those most vulnerable to the shocks of economy, climate, disease and health. And within this group, it is the mother and child who should receive our closest initial attention. The public health term is MABU, or Mother and Baby Unit, and THAT is our target; with the father and older children by their side.

Our challenge is to bring an end to childhood stunting, the condition where the body fails to thrive and develop into healthy adulthood. To eliminate childhood stunting we must see its many facets but focus on one for the moment: lack of access to quality complementary foods from age 6-24 months. Looking at rates of malnutrition and age, we notice the precipitous rise in stunting, underweight and wasted children starting after the period of exclusive breast feeding. And this is our ‘window of opportunity’; those critical first 1000 days of life.

A community without stunted children is one where families can build their own strong, vibrant economy. If our garden activities target the people who prepare the food and feed the

The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 10 families (women) then the people who farm the fields and feed the nation (women and men) will succeed as well. That is a bold statement, but one which does not work in reverse. Many regions of the world that have the highest levels of agricultural potential and productivity are also the ones that seem to have the highest rates of childhood stunting. A review of the literature on garden project failure, will highlight a glaring issue. All too often, the key objective of the garden was (or became) income generation. At that point, the target audience shifted to men. This is not necessarily a bad thing. However, an increase in family income, if as is often the case, is controlled by men, does not always lead to increases in child nutritional status. In fact, the opposite is true. As incomes rise, child nutritional status dips. So - should we be excluding men? Not at all; they are the foundation to build upon. But we must recognize that, in most traditional societies, men control the assets and profits of farm production whereas women feed the children and serve as critical labor on the farm. If we can agree that it is women who make the choices of what to serve the family every day, then can we also agree that they should be the target of our gardening efforts around the home? And can we also agree that our key objective is balanced nutrition and nutrient-dense complementary foods first, with modest income gains second?

Why Projects Fail

Looking further into this issue we notice that there are a number of other reasons, beyond missing the mothers as our target, for why garden projects fail the sustainability test. And that is a key distinction: projects. Gardens have made a huge contribution to human society since the dawn of time; gardens are sustainable. So why aren’t garden projects sustainable? That is a good question and one which has lead to the very manual you are now reading. The answer to that question lead to the development of the Rule of CLOSE to be discussed a few pages from now.

As you look to create your own Permagarden (the very name implying permanence), or as you design outreach efforts in your community, you must bear past failures in mind. To make these mistakes once, is, well, a mistake. To make them twice is foolish. To make them again and again, knowing they are mistakes, is a waste of money, time and talent and leads to the impression that gardens don’t work. But of course gardens work; it is the design of the garden projects that are all too often gravely at fault.

The number one reason, in this author’s humble opinion, is what we have already addressed; aiming at the wrong target. This stems from a failure to fully assess the resources that already exist in the area, most especially the human resource. Who do we want the gardeners to be? Mothers. And why should it be mothers? Because they are, generally speaking, the ones who care for the daily dietary needs of the family. Do not come away from this thinking that we should exclude men, on the contrary. But they should be invited to attend trainings at the convenience of the women, NOT the other way around. How many garden/nutrition trainings have we seen conducted at the Farmer Training Centers of the world? Who has the time and inclination to attend these trainings? You know the answer; it is the men who have the greater flexibility to travel to a distant training center. The lesson we learn from this is to hold garden trainings close to the homes of the target audience. So that’s failure lesson number one: failing to fully assess the local resources and gender realities of the very place we hope to make an impact. But what else causes these projects, not just garden projects, to fail?

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 Reliance on something imported: tools, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides. These are expensive and possibly dangerous and when the subsidy from the project ends, so too do the gardens.  The work is too far away, too heavy or too complicated for the proposed target audience. It is not, as they say, child-friendly. If we are aiming at the marginalized families of the world, the chronically food and health insecure, then subsistence is our goal, not our baseline. Once families achieve subsistence, the ability to feed themselves a balanced, healthy diet, then and only then can we help them advance to further market or technologically sophisticated methods.  The area under production is too large, often multiple times greater than the available labor can support or to which the families have realistic long term access. If garden projects teach a method that requires at least 50 square meters (which is still small in most eyes) to start with, that will eliminate the vast majority of our target audience that only has 25m2 . Therefore, we must have a garden which can produce a bounty from just 25m2. Those families with more have every opportunity to expand if they so choose.

What are the lessons learned? Start small and keep things close, local, organic, and easy.

Overcoming the Barriers to Adoption: The Walk and Talk Dialogue

As change agents, our job is to approach a task or challenge through the eyes and background of those who we think need to change. What sort of change will be seen as easy and positive? Who decides what changes are necessary as we look to improve child nutrition security? Notice the type of question I am asking. They are open-ended; not merely yes or no. As we ask these questions of ourselves and our ‘beneficiaries’, we do so from a position of vulnerability. We don’t really know what the answer will be, do we?

Our role is to guide families toward possible solutions once they have embraced the need for change. We walk through fields, around homes and neighborhoods, down hillsides and into forests asking questions about what we see as issues that impact food security, income generation, environmental and human health, sanitation and hygiene. It is from responses to our open-ended questions that we can guide people toward local solutions. In many cases, there are already local experts just looking for the chance to speak up. You will give them voice. We are facilitators of local talent, skills and knowledge; gently nudging people towards a paradigm shift away from “Bigger is Better” towards “Small is Bountiful”!

It is through this “Walk and Talk” Approach (rather than the Sit and Listen) that even the most marginalized individual can begin to see possible solutions to her own problems, answers to challenges that were previously viewed as somebody else’s job to fix. Following a series of dialogue inspiring questions, walkers are guided to action steps that are small and immediately doable: assessing household assets; making a water stopping berm; double digging a garden bed; planting a living fence; planting seeds and plants precisely. (For further guidance on this, see the dialogues in Section 4: The Permagarden Walk and Talk Topics).

But what do we mean by barriers to adoption? If you were to ask families in many parts of Africa and Asia a simple question, “Why don’t you have a garden?” you would get a range of completely understandable reasons why not. These barriers are very real:

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o No Water o Not Enough Land o Bad Soil o No Tools o No Seeds o No Fertilizer o No Pesticides o No Labor o No Money o No Water

These are completely understandable, especially for people who are looking at gardens from the perspective of income generation or large-scale agriculture. After all, they just have small areas outside their homes. Don’t you need a large plot with good soil? Drip irrigation? Tractors, shade netting, fertilizer, pesticides and a team of laborers? This is what we all hear in the media: modern agriculture. But this is where the permagarden and the Walk and Talk methods can overcome each and every one of those “barriers”. A permagarden harvests and saves water, on small plots near home, using already accessible seeds, plants, tools and fertility amendments. They don’t require synthetic pesticides, a lot of hard labor or any new money. Yet they are ‘just’ gardens; small spaces have the potential to generate nutritious food, income, environmental resilience and empowerment…every single day. With all this going for it, why the resistance to change? Simple: because real behavior change is hard.

The Rule of CLOSE: Achieving Attitude Change, the Precursor to Behavior Change

A note of caution: a completed Permagarden may look difficult and laborious to the casual observer. And that is a potential drawback, one which any project must be cautious about. Remember that we never know who is watching! If it looks too hard, despite the promise of great yields and environmental resilience, many may stay away, saying, “I can’t do that”. They are the ‘late followers’, they need to see actual results. If we want to reach them, then we must look to the ‘early adopter’ and the subsequent ‘early followers’, the ones who will do the action without needing to actually see the reason why. That can be very tricky; how do we find these hardy few? We start small and easy and take note of those who come to find us, asking questions, expressing interest and eagerness to help. These are our early adopters.

A Permagarden can be created from established shallow-tilled, row gardens or from barren waste areas normally viewed as useless and unsightly. Follow these simple steps:.  Slow Water  Dig Deep  Add Carbon  Plant Close  Harvest Often  Eat Well

Building a house takes time, planning and skill, just like a garden. However, once created, A Permagarden completed in Mekelle, easy maintenance is all that is required. Knowing that our ‘target audience’ tends to fall in the Ethiopia ‘highly-vulnerable’ category, we must take small, measured steps to allow wide-spread

The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 13 adoption. As change agents, we are required to think carefully throughout the entire process to make sure each step is both socially acceptable and easily replicable. If not, don’t start!

Our goal is to achieve lasting nutrition security and real behavior change. To achieve this, slow and steady psychological attitude change is a must. As we set forth on the tasks needed to achieve the measurable goals of food and income security, we must assure that everyone can do the same on their own. Therefore EACH task MUST follow this simple rule. By following it, any activity we are promoting (not just gardens by the way) will be viewed as ‘doable’, especially by the vulnerable, risk averse families, and as such, can be passed from neighbor to neighbor well after our hands-on training sessions have concluded.

To be successful, our teaching must be hands-on, participatory, organic and well within the realities of the local landscape. Choose the ‘worst’ soil and the oldest tool, not the best of each. In this way, local gardeners and farmers can determine what is truly feasible for them to continue on their own. All of these issues can be summarized by one word, CLOSE, where each letter holds multiple meanings. However, the key amongst them tell us that ALL of our actions, learning moments and materials, must be Close, Local, Organic, Small and Easy. If you miss even one, any one, our mother/farmer/student will say, “No. I can’t do it”. Good ideas fail all the time; usually for one of the reasons expressed by the opposite words to CLOSE. If we follow this rule we will be preparing for success, not designing for failure.

C. Close: (Opposite = Far). This refers to the point of daily control. It can be the home, farm,office, clinic or field station. But it must be physically close to where you go every day. If it is far away, key management steps will be missed and results will suffer. The closer to the locus of control; the better.

L. Local: (Opposite = Imported). This refers to accessibility of everything we use, not just availability. If it’s not locally accessible, don’t use it!. For example, compound fertilizer may be available in the shops but if your target audience doesn’t have money to buy it, this availability is irrelevant. This applies to tools, plants, seeds, as well as sources of soil fertility and soil building. If something must be imported it will be an overwhelming barrier to adoption by others..

O. Organic: (Opposite = Synthetic/Static). This refers to all materials as well as the thought processes and decision making that goes into the action. Garden amendments must be non-synthetic to keep costs and dangers to public and environmental health low. And, just as decision-making is fluid, these gardens breath, evolve, adapt and remain flexible like other organic organisms. In this way it fits within the particular issues posed by the local people and landscape challenges in terms of slope, sun, moisture and soil. This is an Opportunity. It is an opportunity for empowerment, an opportunity for economic and environmental resilience. It is not a guarantee. However, as you explore the connection between effort and reward, you will have an opportunity to advance. If you choose to do so!

S. Small: (Opposite = Large). This may be the most important factor in determining acceptance and repetition. Actions must be seen as small in order to be successful and this applies to the initial size of the garden. The garden can be expanded later if space allows, but at first it must be just a few square meters. In the end, all will see that it is far better to manage a small space very well than a large space poorly. As the initial creation phase can be labor-intensive (double digging is by definition ‘digging twice’ after all) one of the biggest mistakes we can make is to make the garden too big. It will simply appear to be TOO hard.

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Other relevant S words: Substantial: while these gardens may be small, the yield is comparatively high per unit area. Yield increases of 400% per unit area have been repeatedly attained by the end of the third growing season. (Jeavons, 2010) In this way, a small space, can out produce a much larger space. Simple: complicated concepts are harder to grasp. Keep the concepts simple. For example, stop the water with swales and you gain control; dig deeper and the roots will go deeper; add organic matter and the soil will hold more water. These are not complex theories. And as such, they are far easier to accept, adopt and adapt.

E. Easy: (Opposite = Difficult). It has been said that “the hardest thing we have to do is to make it look easy”. If done incorrectly, double digging will appear to be hard work. It is, but for just a short time. Making the berms appears time consuming, they are. But the benefit in terms of water saving is enormous; you just won’t see it for several months into the dry season when the soil in your beds is still moist. Therefore, as the work is occasionally hard, we must remember that easy refers to the fact that the concepts are easy to see, do, teach and learn. The creation phase can be hard work, but the maintenance of that work is easy.

Other relevant E words: Enjoyable and Empowering. Don’t forget that the overall vision of the Permanent Garden is to build household empowerment through resilience. Protection x Production = Empowerment. This is a powerful motivator. And for a victimized, stigmatized, aid-dependent and vulnerable family, is a tremendous psychological lift.

While Behavior change can happen; it will only occur once positive attitude change is achieved. By following this Rule you will hear people say “Yes I can”, rather than “No I can’t”. That is attitude, not behavior. It is then through individual, supportive follow-up that these repeated action steps may eventually lead to real behavior change. The small, doable actions, outlined in the coming sections, will lead to real change but ony IF, after each step, you ask, “was this action CLOSE?” If people can say yes, then your continuing monitoring and evaluation will have a much higher likelihood of yielding successful adoption at the household level. Behavior change is hard. Yes. It is however impossible if we don’t first achieve positive attitude change. But that is why it is called a ‘rule’, right?

By now you have likely seen what the first letters of the opposite words spell: FISSLD. If your actions included even one of these, your target audience will likely say “I can’t do it”. And if your actions include ALL of them, well then your work become just another example of good idea that fizzled. This is why we say, “If your actions aren’t CLOSE, don’t even start. Continuing without changing your actions is not only wrong, it is the opposite of right.”

Climate Smart allows Nutrition Focus (Adapt x Mitigate x Intensify)

If we hope to improve the health status of children and adults then we must take on the fact that balanced nutrition is a daily requirement. Nutrition education is vital and the science needs to be understood even though it can be a bit complicated. But nutrition lectures, or cooking demos, without thought towards the daily access to the produce are not enough to bring about change. But if your nutrition lessons and demonstrations use the products pulled from the home garden, and not that which can only be found in the market, then we can move beyond mere information and achieve real adoption of these best practices.

Refer to the Essential Nutrition Actions in the Appendix. Make note that they focus on daily access to nutrient dense foods. The key word is daily. The only way the nutrition focus can

The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 15 move beyond the classroom and into the kitchens is if the produce comes from easily accessible home gardens that have a 52-week harvest cycle. It is unrealistic to assume that just because nutrient dense crops are available in the market that the cook will have the time, money or transport to access it on a daily basis.

Recall that the first goal of a Permagarden is increased access and utilization of nutritious garden products. There are resources beyond resources that cover the many facets of nutrition. But this can all become overwhelming and complicated, especially considering our target audience; the marginalized, highly-vulnerable, resource-poor, lesser educated mothers of the world. As we know, achieving lasting behavior change is difficult. If we want a change to be accepted it must be seen as small and doable by everyone. Nutrition, as it is customarily taught in the science and health classrooms, will appear quite complicated. If we hope to see actual gains in achieving our goal of improved utilization of garden products, we must look for a way to simplify our discussions and, most importantly, our actions.

While fine for the high school and university classroom, a deep explanation of what a carbohydrate is, how it works and why it is important (gives us energy) can be more than is needed at the home kitchen level. Would it not be easier to simply help people understand which of their local foods give them the energy they need to GO? Rather than explaining what a protein is (or harder, amino acids) and what they do (build our bodies) would it not be simpler to describe foods that help the body to GROW? Rather than explaining the myriad and dynamic actions of vitamins and minerals and their role in our immune system, would it not be easier to define them as getting our bodies to GLOW in the fight against disease? This is not to say that people should not learn these complexities. On the contrary, of course they should; eventually. But just as the garden should not be large in the beginning (remember small?) so as to avoid excluding those with less area, so too should our scientific explanations of nutrition start with the most basic building blocks of knowledge: how different types of foods help our body do all three actions: Go, Grow and Glow.

And in an effort to achieve this simplicity, we must pull these go, grow and glow foods directly from our garden that is in high levels of productivity 52 weeks of the year. To do this requires a ‘climate smart’ approach: adapt to the local climate realities; mitigate against the severity of that climate; and finally, intensify production from a small space managed well.

The bed on the left has been shallow dug and row spaced using conventional methods. The bed on the right has been double dug and planted using triangular spacing. Both were planted on the same day. This one garden bed continued to produce nutrient dense food for the family table for 3 months whereas that on the left provided just one month of harvest. Berms forced water deep, carbon added to the soil held it, and close spacing and careful harvesting maintained a vibrant microclimate. The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 16

The Cycle of Better Living

As you work your way through this manual, and as you begin the process of creating small Permagardens with your neighbors, remember that real, lasting behavior change is hard but can be achieved. First, we must follow the Rule of CLOSE (ensuring that everything we use and do is close, local, organic, small and easy). Second, in our teaching of others, we follow the See, Do, Teach learning method (see it, do it, teach it). And Third, that all actions must follow this ‘formula’ for Behavior Change Adoption (BCA):

SDA w/IMVR = AC BCA

SDA: Small, Doable Actions IMVR: Immediate Measurable Visible Results AC: Attitude Change

As we discussed in the Rule of CLOSE it is the Attitude Change that we are after in the short term. If people see, through their own actions and materials, that it is possible to do something (ie, it was CLOSE) then they will be much more likely to actually repeat the action on their own later. But as the rule states, this is merely an “Opportunity to Change”; it is not a guarantee. People have to want to change as well as see that it is possible. Once this attitude is gained (“Yes, I Can”) our job is to follow up weekly (the dashes in the curvy line above). If you start with too large a group you will not be able to perform this critical follow up step that will enable behavior change to take root.

This brings us back to our overall vision: Empowered families improving the quality of their own lives through improved access to nutritious food and income derived from their home landscape. Healthy people growing healthy food from healthy soil can lead to the creation of resilient communities able to tackle any number of other development challenges. Many will agree that without family nutrition security in place there can be little further sustainable development.

The Cycle of Better Living

Starting with a Permagarden at the center of a spiral, all lessons learned can and will expand outward to meet the needs of the community.

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Teaching Tip: “Teach Two” Paper Tearing Exercise

This is a simple activity that helps you, the trainer, help your learners visualize the importance and impact of the small, doable action approach to learning. It also reminds all of the Rule of CLOSE; if we expect our actions to be repeated by as many people as possible (The goal of behavior change is for everyone to have the opportunity to change if they want to.) then these actions must be close, local, organic, small AND easy.

Objectives: to provide a visual representation of exponential growth (as of microbes in compost) as well as the virtue of simplicity when it comes to achieving widespread adoption.

Everyone gets one piece of old scrap paper (avoid using good paper). Ask the group to hold their paper in their hands and simply tear it in half. Ask the obvious question: How many pieces are there? Two. Mention that the same happens when one person teaches two others to perform a task so simple and with follow up, that the learners do indeed do the task (make a berm for example). Now, ask all to put the two together and tear in half. How many now? Four. Same idea. Continue stacking, tearing and counting 6 times (at that point you will have 64 pieces of paper.) Reiterate this point; in just 6 replications the result is 64, PLUS the 32 teachers that taught them, so actually the number is 96! From this point on it becomes hard to tear so it helps to write the following down: 8 times = 256, 15 times = 33,000! But that is simply too hard to believe. Go back to the 256

sheets of paper. When pressed down, this is just 1 cm high. But when you go just 7 doubling and tearing steps further, that cm becomes a meter!

If your group is ready for this, you can continue the mathematical exercise. As you repeat the same doubling exercise, use centimeters, meters and eventually kilometers. (As a trainer, I encourage you to do the math for yourself, because you simply may not believe what I am about to show you.)

15 times doubling and tearing = a stack of paper 1 meter high… After 25 times, we get a stack of paper 1 Kilometer high… After 35 times, we get a stack of paper 1000 Kilometers high… After 45 times, we get a stack of paper 1 Million Kilometers high… After 50 times, we get a stack of paper 32 Million Kilometers high…

Which is a stack of paper that can reach to the moon, and back, 41 times!

A few Lessons Learned: (ask your group to describe what they have learned)

 Keep things simple so learners become teachers  The methods follow the rule of Close so can be replicated by all  Teach a few very well rather than many, not so well.  Follow up after learning is critical if we want our learners to teach  Our actions must be small, doable and have visible, measurable results.

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Teaching Tip: Roll Crumple Fly

Roll:

This exercise shows us how innacurate perspectives can be when focus is too close. Roll a piece of paper into a tube. Look down the tube with your dominant eye. Focus on an object 10’ away – that is the “problem” – the view is clear but narrow. Now, open the other eye while still looking through the tube at the “problem”. You are now looking beyond to see possible solutions. However, this is still too narrow a view (the tube is our cultural, historical blinder) that can still alter perspective. Illustrate this by moving your free hand (both eyes open, one eye to the tube) to the side of the tube, not covering the opening, but flush to the side of the tube. Give it some time. Then ask, What do you see? (A hole in my free hand!). Now remove the tube, but still hold on to it. This is our history and cultural values which cannot be ignored but can, perhaps, get in the way of seeing solutions. With both eyes wide open, discuss how social values, myths and the current way we do things can sometimes be a barrier to adoption of new ideas.

Crumple:

Hold the now unrolled paper flat across your palm. Have the group call out local challenges, shocks or difficulties faced by families (illness, drought, hunger, poverty, etc) and with each one, crumple a bit more of the paper until it is finally just a ball in your palm. Slowly uncrumple the ball of paper. Notice that no matter how much we try smooth it, the damage never goes away. This is our target audience – weak, risk averse, hungry, poor, scarred, and scared. In a word; vulnerable. The exact opposite of resilient.

Fly:

Not everyone knows how to make a paper airplane. But this activity can give your group some perspective on the importance of following instructions but also the importance of having clear, step-by-step instructions to follow, especially when working with the vulnerable from the exercise above.

Phase One: Everyone gets a piece of clean paper and are told simply to make a paper airplane in two minutes. Observed what happens. Who knows how? Who tries to copy from their neighbor? Who lets their neighbor copy from them? When time is up, ask to see all the planes. What do you notice? They are all planes of some sort, but do they all fly the same? Try them and see what happens. Ask this question: if the plane doesn’t fly well, whose fault is it? Why? If the plane doesn’t fly, is it because paper planes don’t work or is it because some design elements are missing? Did all planes fly the same way? Probably not. Discuss, guiding participants to conclusions that lean towards needing clear, step-by-step instruction.

Phase Two: Everyone gets a new piece of clean paper as before. This time however, give proper step by step guidance (fold down the middle, bend top corner down to the center fold, fold two halves together, fold wings evenly) and watch to make sure each person follows along (step by step instructions with proper follow up). By the end of a few minutes, each person will have a very similar paper airplane. Whether the plane flies well or not is not a question of random success or failure but a true critique on the method of its creation.

As further illustration, use the smoothed out crumpled ball to make a second airplane now that you know how. This is a powerful image of the how even the most vulnerable can learn to ‘fly’.

Link to Permagardens:  A garden is not a Permagarden unless it contains all of the protection, production and management elements that go into its creation. No berm? Not a Permagarden. Beds not deep? Not a Permagarden.  Permagardens have many elements in their design that must be taught step by step  Clear guidance and follow up allows for proper evaluation and a fuller understanding of the results we achieve.  Each fold of the plane represents the way one action builds upon the previous action.

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Terra Firma: The Process that Puts it all Together

The tropics is a region of beauty, potential and opportunity. It is also a region of harsh reality of pounding rain and searing drought. This situation is only made worse by unpredictable shifts in weather due to climatic changes caused somewhere else. The people of the tropics did not cause their climate to change; they have the industrialized world to thank for that. Rather, it is the people of the tropics who have become the victims of that change and who are currently attempting to practice agriculture the way the industrialized, temperate, seasonal world has taught them which has resulted in an inappropriate response to this change. It is our job as change agents, be we private citizens of our respective nations, Peace Corps Volunteers or workers within one of the Peace Corps’ many public and private partners, to foster this new paradigm of working within the bounds of nature, rather than against them. And that is where the notion of ‘Terra Firma’, or Solid Earth, originates.

The 5-step model starts with assessment, but does not end with management. Rather, the process simply continues around the “Q”. Once the center is perfected, the gardener can take these lessons and spiral outward to include market gardening, field crops, livestock, pasture and tree crops as space and desire allows.

It is time to put all of this together; to be on the same page so to speak. A major challenge across the developing world, especially in the tropics, has been to create a sustainable linkage between seasonal agricultural production and the daily nutritional needs of the family. On one hand we have smallholder farmers, working hard to produce predominantly cereal crops for the market. And on the other hand we have the mother, children and the elderly needing food on the table, three or more times every day. Food is available but families lack access. The ‘access gap’ between the two can be enormous. By now you should have come to the answer to the following question: What could be placed in between these two, currently non- intersecting circles of agriculture productivity and nutritional need, that would allow them to

The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 20 sustainably interconnect? Yes, a home garden that is permanently-protective, high-yield, small-scale, easily-managed, and nutrition-focused. By blending locally appropriate agricultural methods of intensification and adaptation with the traditional needs, values and tools found in every home, the permagarden creates the permanently accessible link between national level food availability and family required nutritional utilization.

What we have been discussing thus far is leading us to a paradigm shift. We are moving away from “Climate-Dismissive Agriculture” towards “Climate-Smart Agriculture”; away from seasonal monocropping towards year-round, agroecological, multicropping; away from a “feed the market” approach towards a “feed the family” approach; away from “Bigger is Better” towards “Small is Bountiful”. This is essentially a movement where all families who choose to being able to feed themselves well from a small space, managed well. By coming this far, you are now part of this movement away from systems at odds with nature to a ‘whole family ecosystem approach’ that works with the natural world, blending environmental, economic and social realities, values and assets with modern science. With this solid framework in mind throughout, we can begin to measure our results. Are we able to move towards communities with well-fed families in control of their own resilient and beautiful home landscapes? Can the Permagarden be the tool that gets us to this vision? How will we know if we achieve this vision? Just as we as change agents are called upon to do, we must help families learn to monitor and evaluate their food security choices so they can make their own informed decisions and chart their own way forward.

Terra Firma literally means Solid Earth. It can be applied directly to the garden but other efforts as well. The ‘Terra Firma Method’ refers therefore to the step by step creation of resilient ecosystems and families through home-based, properly monitored and evaluated projects, including gardens. A home-based Permagarden evolves through the blending of evidence-based, scientifically-valid methods using local tools and materials within the local sociocultural values and needs of the family. The founding principles of Permaculture and Bio-Intensive are proven. However, they can also appear too complicated and overwhelming. Therefore, we must measure progress slowly and steadily, step by step. (Refer to The Progressive Productive Behavior Checklist: Appendix 4). As you continue through these pages and as you step out to practice the methods at your own home and that of your neighbors, you will notice that the Terra Firma method uses only small, doable, repeatable actions. This checklist will help you measure family adoption over time. It is this approach that builds the skills, confidence and positive attitude essential to lasting behavior change. As a methodology, it builds upon (rather than works against) and responds to the many environmental, economic and social challenges of the tropical world. And it can be created right outside the back door of most homes across the world. These family garden ‘classrooms’ will provide solid local lessons in nutrition, environmental resilience and agricultural sustainability all in one place.

And that is Terra Firma: the intercultural blending of modern, climate-smart science with traditional values, tools and methods that allows people of all backgrounds and economic standing to create their own environmentally resilient and sustainable future. Their own ‘Solid Earth’. By following the principles and techniques laid out in this manual, you will be engaged in the process every step of the way. You are encouraged to teach small groups in such a way that all who start can follow; and all who follow can teach. If our vision is empowered families then our measurable goals must be resilient nutrition and income security. But it is the small measurable tasks that lay ahead which are the stepping stones to sustainable change: Terra Firma/Solid Earth.

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Train and Visit. Monitor and Evaluate. Report and Repeat.

As we learn new skills we gain confidence. But as we try to repeat them on our own, we can also lose our way, become discouraged, and abandon those skills. But if you receive a visit from your trainer after a few weeks of practice, any missed steps can be corrected and confidence restored. With this in mind, your training design must include visitations. This “Train and Visit” model works well with small groups (Appendix 2) and will bring much higher levels of household adoption as well as more local experts able and willing to co- facilitate future trainings or simply provide their new skills from neighbor to neighbor. With good monitoring comes good reporting comes good repetition and community wide impacts of increased consumption, greater income and improved environmental resilience.

In a short time, using only local tools, real change happens. What is required now is thoughtful management, and timely visits. From there the ideas can spread across the hillsides as well as within every home compound. These men and women were once vulnerable and dependent; now they are trainers, teachers, contributors!

Training Tip: The Go, Grow and Glow Activity

On the ground, draw a circle with lines dividing it into thirds intersecting in the middle. Label each section Go, Grow and Glow. Discuss what these labels mean. Using word cards, pictures or the food itself, allow trainees to place the food they regularly eat, ate yesterday, etc under each category that they think is correct. When all is done, ask if all agree and, by group consensus, correct where necessary. Ask the group what they notice as they look down on the foods:

 Why is one “leg” of the stool heavier than the rest?  Describe the balance or lack of balance.  How could this balance be improved?  Why should this balance be improved?  What essential nutrition elements can you identify?  How would a daily accessed home garden help you and your family?  Why was this session important?  Did this lesson follow the Rule of CLOSE?  How will you share this activity with your family, friends and neighbors?

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Section 2: Key Technical Topics

An Overview of the Key Steps

Before we launch, it is good to have the overall framework in mind. The following are the key steps that go into the creation of a climate-smart, nutrition-focused, garden classroom.

1. Determine Garden Location and Local Resources. Explore the property and determine the challenges and assets found there: sun, soil and slope. Assets are land, water, plants, waste, animals, people and structures. How does the rainwater move? How can it be stopped, slowed and allowed to spread effectively? Is there adequate sun? What is the quality and depth of the soil? How can it be improved using local materials? These and other questions are the key to helping people see their landscape with new eyes. Most of what we need, we already have, most likely free but for the cost of gathering. By doing proper assessment we are on the right path.

2. Prepare the Planting Area. Once a suitable garden area is discovered, clear the area of weeds and grasses to create a map of garden features. Lightly cultivate the entire area, smooth the surface to allow a garden layout “map” of swales, beds and paths to be drawn.

3. Create Water Controlling Berms and Swales. Berms protect the garden from the erosive force of runoff water. They also hold and redirect that water so that it can slowly sink and spread deep within the soil profile from where it will return once dry weather returns. The swale connects each water retention hole. It is these swales and berms that differentiate a permagarden from a conventional garden. The berm is to the garden as brakes are to a bus. Without the brakes the bus may not be able to control its speed just as the berm puts a brake on the runoff giving the gardener control of both minor and major rain events.

4. Plant the Berms. Planting leafy, bush type and ground covering perennials on the berms will protect the swale which protects the garden. We also gain many important products for cooking, medicinal, and other uses.

5. Double Dig and Plant the Beds. The step-by-step method of deep soil preparation builds healthy soil structure allowing the close, precise ‘triangular’ spacing of vegetables, pulses and small grains within the garden bed, increasing yield by as much as 600%.

6. Visit the Garden Every Day. Daily management is critical for an abundant harvest. Regular attention to minor issues is important to assure a healthy harvest as well as making the garden serve as an attractive demonstration to even the most casual of observers.

A completed Permagarden, Nekempte, Ethiopia, June 2013.

Berms and beds on the contour capture and redirect water coming from the nearby roof and hillside. Runoff water is controlled and stored deeply under the garden. The beds absorb excess water keeping them moist for many days following the rain and the recharged subsoil releases the excess back long after the rains stop.

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The Circle of Sustainability: Creating a Healthy Microclimate

While I refer to this as The Circle of Sustainability, it may be best to think BIOINTENSIVE MINI-FARMING of this as a cycle of resilience Sustainable Diet Production requiring personal action. The trouble with “sustainability” is that someone DEEP SOIL PREPARATION has to sustain it; yet we can never

allows actually see it. It is our vision. The When added to CLOSE, PRECISE ‘beauty’ of resilience however, it that Planted with PLANT SPACINGS it can be seen step-by-step and can

SEEDS (acclimated to local also be measured via individual COMPOST growing conditions) creates actions.

INSECTS & Provide HEALTHY MICRO- DISEASE Material produce CLIMATE for It all starts at the top with deep

resist PEOPLE digging with carbon additions. As we

feed holds follow the circle, these deeply-dug, carbon-enriched, garden beds allow THRIVING NUTRIENTS, WATER & CO HEALTHY 2 close and precise plant and seed PLANTS stimulates spacing. The resultant closed leaf GROWTH produces canopy holds valuable nutrients, water, microbial life and carbon CIRCLE OF SUSTAINABILITY dioxide stimulating growth. Creative companion planting and rotation provides a bounty of nutrient-dense vegetables and staple grains that resist insects, feed people and provide materials to continue the cycle through composting. By taking full advantage of the power that nature provides, families and crop farmers alike can begin to grow more nutrition focused crops than they ever thought possible within astonishingly small spaces: the heart of “climate smart” gardening.

Years of practice around the world has shown that Bio-Intensive garden beds, developed within permanent water controlling swales, can, within a few months, provide more than 4 times as much food per unit area of conventional home gardens. Local perennial plantings, known as guilds, combine with soil and water management techniques that work together to support the fringes of the garden (and property) taking advantage of height, space and shade on corners and edges. The bio- intensive garden beds developed and managed within the open, sunny spaces then produce a bounty for the family table. The following elements describe the key aspects in greater detail that allow this “circle of sustainability/resilience” to continue, year to year, week to week, giving further rationale for the creative work to come.

The Basic Needs of Life

What do you need just to live? The basic needs of air, water, food, and shelter are the same for our garden plants. Therefore, as you begin to create the garden, remember the circle of resilience and how it fosters these basic needs. Keep in mind as you go forward in this process, that the most important elements to add to the garden and its soil are air, water, food and shelter. We dig to add air and water, then hold it in place by adding organic matter.

Deep Soil Preparation

The average garden (and field) is typically tilled to the depth of the equipment used to work the land. At best this means soils are aerated to 20 cm. Over time, and successive tillage to the same depth, an impermeable “hoe/plow pan” is created blocking the movement of air and water through the soil

The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 24 profile, decreasing air and nutrient uptake creating stunted plants. If plant roots can’t go deep (which they can only do if there is good air-water dynamics) then they must be spaced farther apart so as to avoid competing with neighboring plants. When planted farther apart, the intense tropical sunlight will heat the soil, increase weed germination, and increase H2O, CO2 and N2 loss, leading to weak plants that require greater levels of effort from the gardener just to keep them alive, let alone thrive.

The solution begins by preparing the soil deeply (“double digging”); breaking through and amending that compacted subsoil layer, where ample air, water and carbon will allow healthy plant roots to thrive and go as deep as they wish. It has been shown that a mere 2% increase in root health will give a corresponding doubling of plant yield. That yield will increase each season and with each new crop as soil continues to be amended with locally created compost and other waste material additions building micronutrient levels in both soil and plant.

Double digging with local tools allows for closer plant spacing as the roots can grow down rather than merely to the side. These permanent beds and permanent paths also work to capture rain water. Crops are then rotated between beds from season to season to maximize control, break disease and insect cycles and achieve higher yields with ever increasing levels of soil fertility and structure.

Close and Precise Plant Spacing

As the garden bed is now aerated and amended with wood ash, char, aged manure and locally made compost to add to its microbial health, nutrient and moisture holding levels - it can be planted with greater density and precision. Each vegetable, grain or fruit plant will have a certain root spread and growth habit. It will also have its own unique canopy of leaves and stems. Within this natural canopy, plants will maximize their space without competition while maximizing use of essential nutrients, moisture and carbon dioxide.

A summary chart of key crops can be found on page 45. For further detailed plant spacing information and more on Bio-Intensive Gardening in general, see How to Grow More Vegetables, (John Jeavons, Ecology Action, USA)

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Drawing The Garden ‘Map’

The permanent garden beds must be no wider than 100cm allowing easy access from the 50cm wide paths on either side. The length of the beds depend on space available but should not be longer that 4 meters to allow for easy management. Once the bed is fully aerated via double digging and amending, it is never to be walked on again. Walking on freshly cultivated soil, as is done while tending conventional, shallow-tilled, row gardens, removes the air space, badly compacting the soil. Not only is this counterproductive to all the work involved in tilling the land, but this will also seriously jeopardize root health critical to achieving high yields. Therefore, a width of no more than 1 meter is ideal, making it possible for the gardener to reach the center of the bed and its plants from either side. Before we start digging any garden beds, we must start with the drawing of the garden map (see Appendix 7).

Creating a Healthy Microclimate

As the plants grow to maturity, and after early attention to weed removal, the leaves will form a dense, protective canopy over the soil. The closed canopy is vital as it will hold moisture and CO2 below while allowing more leaf surface area above to capture sunlight and drive greater levels of photosynthesis. CO2, while driving global climate change, is the critical ingredient of photosynthesis whereby carbon and water mix to form sugars and oxygen for plant growth. Additional moisture needs are diminished due to a decline in evaporation as well as greater water holding during the wet season. This “micro” climate, below the leaves, works to stimulate the growth of thriving, healthy plants.

Understanding this Carbon Cycle is key to understanding the power of this microclimate. By adding organic matter (carbon) to soil we are feeding billions of microorganisms. Microbial decomposition of that organic matter, releases copious amounts of CO2 which helps plants create more sugars and the soil create more carbonic acid. This acid works to breakdown the naturally-occurring minerals (bound in the clay) into plant-available nutrients. And, when they die, these microbes become part of what we call humus. And finally, upon their death, they become anti-biotics, vitamins and natural growth hormones! The gardener’s job then becomes one of “livestock manager”, ensuring adequate air, water and carbon in the soil system to keep these vibrant microbial communities active and thriving throughout the year.

Compost

Widely regarded as one of the most valuable contributions the gardener can make to improve soil quality, water retention and overall plant vigor, compost helps us manage any “problem” soil, be it too sandy, clayey, hot, cold, acidic or basic. Structurally-weak, sandy soils will be able to hold water and nutrients while heavy, sticky clay soil will be able to release water and nutrients to the plants. This valuable soil conditioner can hold 6 times its weight in water and is teeming with beneficial microbial The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 26 life. These microbes generate carbon dioxide for both plant sugar and carbonic acid production. This acid allows various forms of soil minerals to become ‘plant available. For example, Phosphorus, ‘useless’ in its pure form, is changed into plant accessible Phosphate due its interaction with the carbonic acid now found in the soil.

While compost piles are best made during the wet season when ample water is available, the water saturation holes at the corners of the permagarden can serve ‘double duty’.

During the dry season, use the holes to create vital compost while also holding applied moisture. Care should be taken to cover the mixture with an old grain sack as we want to limit exposure to sunlight. Once the rains begin, we must make sure to clean out the holes to receive the runoff flow as the holes are initially intended.

Local Soil Amendments: Manure, Wood Ash, Charcoal, Biochar and More

Through the landscape resource walk exercise (pg 42), you and will discover the many useful ‘waste’ materials that can be used to enhance the health of garden soils. Brown and green leafy waste for compost, and Manure are perhaps already known for their values, but what is known about wood ash, charcoal, coffee grounds, egg shell, and kitchen waste?

Wood ash: a good source of Calcium Carbonate and other minerals useful to remove soil acidity. A soil with a low pH (acidic) will block the uptake of beneficial minerals into the plant. Wood ash, found almost everywhere, counteracts this pH imbalance.

Charcoal: those small chips and dust, no longer useful as fuel, when added to soil, prevent further compaction after deep digging as well as hold air, water and bacteria in its micropores. The char you add today, will still be found in that soil thousands of years from now as proven by researchers in the Amazon Basin investigating the “Terra Preta” (black earth) garden soils created by the local indigenous population over two thousand years ago.

Biochar: charcoal made specifically for soil improvement, from the abundant and underutilized, carbon-rich, crop residue such as maize stalks, rice husks, sugarcane bagasse, etc. Making biochar is relatively simple. See the instructions on page 37.

Coffee Grounds: if locally accessible are an excellent source of organic Nitrogen. It is acidic but already in a stabilized form releasing slowly into the soil water for uptake.

Egg and Oyster Shell: an excellent source of Calcium, important for healthy flowers. Both must be dried, before being crushed into powder. For this calcium to become plant available however, it must first be digested by soil microbes, make sure your soil has ample air, water, and organic matter.

Kitchen Scraps: often simply tossed away, these are a tremendous source of both macro and micronutrients. Follow the method described in the Appendix to convert this waste into nutrient and microbe dense ‘tea’ for irrigation and foliar application to garden crops.

Manure: while widely known to increase soil fertility, it is best used as a source of microbial life and organic matter rather than ‘fertilizer’. That from ruminant livestock (cow, sheep and goat) is therefore preferred as it contains higher levels of decomposing microbes.

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Protective Berms and Swales As we have seen across the globe, water is the key limiting factor to the spread of home gardens, especially amongst resource-poor families. But the question we must ask is, “Do you really lack water? Or do you lack control of water?” In many parts of the developing world, we see areas that become inundated with rain for three months and then don’t see a drop for nine. Mekelle, a city in the dry northern region of Ethiopia, receives 700mm of rain per year while London, England, a city many consider to be ‘wet’, receives the same amount, around 700mm per year.** One city is water-stressed while the other is not. The difference is that London gets 70mm every month whereas Mekelle receives all its rain in just 3 months. Based on this, how can we hope to encourage gardens in Mekelle? How can we begin to bring some measure of control to this situation? It is in fact rather simple, and takes no more than a few hours at the household level: create berms and swales. Specific details can be found in Section 3 but with water-stopping berms in place, the formerly uncontrolled runoff can now slowly sink into the subsoil. This “subsoil moisture recharge” allows saved water to move back UP into the root zone during the subsequent dry season. The topsoil may appear dry, but a simple investigation will reveal a moist layer that can sustain vegetable growth for several months. (See photo below. Notice the water just below the hoe at a depth of 30 cm.)

Water Management “Six S”: Stop Slow Sink Spread Save Shade We are witnessing a simple principal at work. When people take control of their most precious local resource, water, the impact is astounding; not just in terms of the soil moisture levels but also in terms of measurable levels of enthusiasm and empowerment. “I stopped the water!” is a comment heard over and over again. While we can’t stop the rain, we most certainly CAN control what we do with the water once it arrives. This is especially important in these days of climate insecurity, as customary rainfall patterns shift beyond our control. There are in essence, 6 ‘pathways’ of water management at work here and they all start with the letter S, “Six S”: Stop, Slow, Sink, Spread, Save and Shade. Having a soil with good air and carbon content will allow the movement of water from an area of high concentration (the subsoil) to one of low concentration (the drying topsoil). This is similar to what will happen if you place the tip of a dry cloth (good pore space) into a bowl of water. Within just a few minutes, you can see and feel that the entire cloth is wet. What is happening in the garden, thanks to the berms and holes, is that the runoff now stops and slowly sinks deeply into the subsoil where it is saved until the topsoil begins to dry at which point it is drawn back up (via capillary action) into the root zone of closely-spaced and mulched plants. The leaf canopy then provides shade over the soil, retaining the moisture as long as possible.

Digging deeply into the garden beds, even 4 months after the rains have stopped, you may find a reserve of moisture as you see here. This moisture is the September rain held until January! It is important to note that this can only happen if berms are in place for the entire rain season and the garden beds are well aerated and amended with carbon so as to hold the water once it arrives.

** www.samsamwater.com/tools

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Water off a Roof Have you ever wondered just how much water comes off a roof over the course of a year? In the tropics this is a very important point for families to appreciate so that they can overcome the understandable barrier of “I don’t have enough water”. The formula is quite simple and the amount of water available, even in our semi-arid environments, is remarkable.

Annual Rainfall (mm) x Square Meters of Roof = Liters of water

For Example: even in parts of the African Sahel, annual rainfall is just under1000mm. In this part of the world, farming is purely seasonal except where irrigation is in place. But this form of irrigation is targeted at commercial farmers, not the marginalized, subsistence farmers or transient agro-pastoralists. The idea of having a year-round garden in this area is almost laughable. But let’s think this through in terms of Permagarden structures and philosophy.

The average roof is 4m x 6m, or 24m2. If the annual rainfall is indeed 1000mm, using the formula above we see that a total of 24,000 liters of water falls off the end of that roof. Is THAT enough to grow a garden year round? Yes. With properly placed berms, holes and deeply dug garden beds, most if not all of this water would be forced into the subsoil, returning to the root zone during the first 3-4 months of the dry season. While not ALL of this water can actually be retained, the purpose of this exercise is to highlight the opportunity. Think of this in terms of traditional methods of gathering water; 24,000 liters is equal to 1200, 20-liter buckets of water carried from a distant water source! And this does not include the rain that falls on the garden itself; so in fact, it is even more. If the garden is 5mx5m, using our formula, we see that this means an additional 25,000 liters (1000mm x 25m2). Combining water off the roof with water on the garden we see that there is actually a little over 45,000 liters to control. And that is the key word: Control. While people realistically say they lack water, what they lack, in fact, is the knowledge and skill on how to control and hold it. And this is where you, the change agent, come in. You CAN’T make it rain. But you CAN teach people how to control the water once it falls.

Refer to the completed Permagarden below with its top, side and bottom berms, corner holes, and swales connecting them all together. The water you see in the holes and swales comes from the roof of the nearby house. Without these structures in place, most of that water would have been lost. When people complain that the berms are ‘wasted space’ suggest this analogy: a garden without a berm is like a bus without brakes. A bus needs brakes to provide the control needed to maintain long term speed and safety. If not, it will crash. In the case of our gardens, without this long term water holding, they will fail during the dry season; not because we didn’t have the water, but because we didn’t have the control of it after it fell.

A Permagarden in Ethiopia following a 20-minute shower. Each of these holes is 1/8th of a cubic meter (50cmx50cmx50cm). This highly visible, measurable result is one that anyone will appreciate, but most especially those who have to walk a distance to gather water for home use Each of these ‘saturation holes’ holds +/- 125 liters. This doesn’t include the water held by the paths, swales or beds. 500 liters is equal to 25 trips to the water source, and back! Was the time spent making these structures time well spent? Many will agree, yes it was.

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Soil Health - The Core Element of all Successful Gardens

When it comes to successful gardens and agricultural fields, well managed soil and water are the recognized keys to that success. A healthy soil is the basis of a healthy, productive garden bed where plants get all the minerals and moisture they need, when they need it. Improving air and water health of the soil will lead to increased root health which will result in an increase in overall harvest time and therefore the yield. Proper water management with simple swales and well amended soil will allow the soil to hold water longer, improving soil moisture during the dry season, while preventing erosion during the rains. With a long-term approach, productive soil can be achieved regardless of initial soil quality. Locally available soil amendments can be used to build resilient plants, while proper soil management only requires locally available tools. It is important to understand these basic themes that relate to the soil itself: o Soil is a living substance and must be nourished and protected. o Understanding our soil is the first step towards knowing how best to manage it. o All that is needed to improve the health and overall quality of our soil can be found within the local environment. o Sustainable soil health can be achieved in a relatively short time using only local tools, plants and amendments. o Deep soil preparation, and the use of locally prepared compost and other amendments, is the key to proper soil health and moisture retention leading to resilient plants. o Management gets easier with time as the foundational elements are implemented. o Small spaces, near homes, using proper soil and water management techniques, can yield a bounty of nutritious foods

Understanding Soil Understanding your existing soil will help to unlock the soil’s potential to grow more crops. The critical elements of soil are texture, structure, acidity, organic matter, and fertility. Bear in mind that the “ideal” soil is one that is 25% air, 25% water, 48% mineral particles and 3% humus. Considered together, all elements combine to create a healthy soil.

Soil Texture: The Percentage of Sand, Silt and Clay A soil’s texture cannot be changed, but knowing the textural class will tell us how best to improve it and will give clues about current nutrient and water holding capacity.

 A Sandy Soil (higher percentage of sand) will be well-drained but lack native fertility.  A Clay Soil (higher percentage of clay over sand and silt) will be higher in fertility (the negative clay particle holds positively charged mineral nutrients) but is easily water logged and difficult to cultivate.  A Silt Soil, often located close to rivers with seasonal flooding, will hold water, yet be low to medium in natural fertility.  A Loam Soil, one with near equal amounts of each, will be the ideal soil as it is both well-drained and high in fertility. It is rare to find such a soil, but it can be created.  Organic matter, incorporated in the form of compost, manure and char, is used to improve soil quality, be it too sandy or too clayey. The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 30

Soil Structure: Water and Air Holding Ability

The greatest function of soil is to hold water. It can only hold water if it contains air. It can only maintain this air if it contains carbon. It is all three; air, water and carbon, that determine healthy soil structure. A soil that holds together, either too much or too little, gives us clues as to what we need to do to change it or what will grow best in it as it is. A soil which is too compacted will restrict root growth and prevent nutrients from reaching the plant. This can be solved by using the deep soil amending technique known as double digging (see below) In sandy soils with too much pore space, water quickly drains before the plants can access it. In dense clay soils, the soil gets waterlogged as all the pore space is quickly filled with water, thus suffocating plant roots and soil organisms. Soil Organic matter (SOM), the key element to add, will allow a clay soil to drain water, a sand soil to hold water, all while acting as a source of food for microbes and holding nutrients for improved plant growth . A gardener can increase SOM by adding fully-cured compost, well-rotted manure, or crushed charcoal during cultivation.

Soil Acidity (pH): Affecting nutrient uptake

Acid in soil blocks the plant roots’ ability to absorb beneficial minerals due to the presence of too many hydronium ions (pH is a measure of the amount of these acidifying ions found in the soil). These ions are removed from the root zone once the acidity is removed which can be done through the addition of liming agents such as calcium carbonate, found in wood ash. Most minerals are available to plants in soils which are just slightly acidic (pH 6.0 -6.8). Soil acidity on either side of this range will prevent nutrient retention in soil and limit uptake in the roots. Soil acidity can be changed by adding wood ash to remove acidity and coffee grounds to increase it. Farmers will need to connect with local agencies to test for soil acidity but in the meantime can increase a plants ability to grow in either acid or basic soils by adding large amounts of compost, manure and charcoal. Soil Fertility: Availability of Important Plant Nutrients in the Soil

Different crops require different nutrients for proper growth. Leafy crops, such as Swiss Chard, will need more Nitrogen. Fruit crops, such as tomatoes, need small amounts of Nitrogen but more Potash and Phosphate. Root crops, such as beets, require no Nitrogen, and only small amounts of Phosphate and Potash. Legumes, such as beans and peas, complete this crop rotation pattern by working to return Nitrogen to the soil through the process of atmospheric N-fixation. Plant specific nutrient needs can be found at The World Vegetable Center at www.AVRDC.org. It is also good to know that certain waste materials, many found locally, provide nutrients organically and economically. Dealing with Problem Soils – Heavy Clay, Loose Sand, Waterlogged

The basic method of double digging applies to all soil types. Different soil types will offer different challenges. A clay soil is heavy and hard to dig, but inherently fertile whereas a soft sand is easy to dig but inherently infertile. The simple answer is: Organic Matter.

Sandy soils will often have a layer of darker organic matter which has been trapped in the subsoil below a heavy top layer of what appears to be pure sand. It is best to first remove this top layer (it can be used in brick construction) to allow easier access to the “richer” soil

The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 31 below. Loosen, dig and amend as described. Extra manure, compost and biochar, applied to the lower layer especially, will help to enhance soil water holding ability and nutrient levels. Dry, compacted subsoil found in clayey soils can be loosened by applying a small amount of water over the exposed subsoil trench (see picture above) and allowing it to soak down and soften the subsoil over night. The double dig can proceed with relative ease the next morning.

Heavy clay topsoil can be extremely sticky when wet so should be allowed to dry slightly before attempting the double dig. Ample use of char, ash and compost or aged manure is critical to loosen these dense soils which will continue to improve with each growing season.

Waterlogged Soils are some of the trickiest to work with. The reason they are waterlogged is simply because they have become too saturated with water. The first step is to alter the flow of excess water to that particular site. A soil which has been flooded repeatedly will have been leached of many of its nutrients. As above, the way to improve this soil is to add copious amounts of compost, manure and char so as to improve water drainage. Sand can also be added if available locally.

The main lesson from working with any problem soil is this: it can be fixed through proper digging and amending. As you work through these challenging soil types remember the basic needs of life of any organism, including soil, are, in order, air, water, and food.

Teaching Tip: The Basic Needs of Life

All living things; people, plants and soil included, require 5 basic things to sustain life. In order, these are Air, Water, Food, Sunlight, and Shelter. To illustrate this point, 2 -3 weeks prior to a training event, lay 10 bean or maize seeds between two pieces of soft paper or towel. Add water every morning to maintain constant moisture but also allow air to circulate. After a few days you will notice the seed coat swelling and cracking with germination apparent. This is highly instructive on its own. The point you are trying to make is that seeds, just like people, do NOT require food (from the soil or sunlight) until several weeks have passed. What seeds need is contained within the air, water and seed itself. This is of course, NOT saying that soil/food and sunlight are not important. It IS saying that our first priority when it comes to growing food is to provide a well-structured soil that holds vital air and water and all times. We do this by properly cultivating to add air, and applying carbon-rich amendments to hold the air and the water that is soon to arrive with the rains or from irrigation.

On the left, bean seeds covered with moist paper. On the right, the same bean seeds 3 weeks later showing abundant growth despite the absence of soil!

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Compost

Organic matter, best applied as well-cured compost, is the most important ingredient we can add to improve the overall health and structure of garden soil. It should be promoted as a conditioner rather than as a fertilizer. As a conditioner it ensures essential levels of air, water, microorganisms and micronutrients needed for vigorous root health and corresponding growth and crop yield. As outlined below, compost plays many roles in the soil. While it is easy to make, collecting the materials can take time. This effort pays off over the course of just a few months, as these local waste materials are converted into a soft, micronutrient- dense, microbe-rich asset. Plan ahead by stockpiling dry, carbon materials. Then, when moisture and green materials become available, make as much compost as space allows

Within 48 hours of making a compost, monitor the temperature. If you do not feel heat at this point, a mistake was made in the creation and this is the time to correct it. This high temperature (120o F/50oC) is caused by an exothermic reaction during decomposition and will kill pathogenic bacteria, fungi, viruses and weed seeds. A key error is that the pile became dry because it was made in a sunny spot or was not adequately covered. No moisture = no bacterial life = no heat.

While compost is ideal, do NOT WAIT till you have it to start making your permagardens. The process takes 3 months. Families don’t have that time to wait to start growing their gardens. We use what have already: dry, well-rotted livestock manure. Create the double dug garden beds with manure; Grow that first cro;. Then renovate the topsoil with your 3- month-old compost prior to planting the next crop, and all subsequent crops thereafter.

What Compost Provides that Fertilizer Does Not: (It’s a Conditioner – Not a Fertilizer!)

 Improved Soil Structure – compost breaks up heavy clay and binds together sandy soils. This improved structure allows a sandy soil to hold water and a clay soil to drain water, promoting proper root growth and health.  Soil Moisture Retention – the organic matter in compost allows it to hold 6 times its weight in water. A soil with good organic matter content soaks up rain like a sponge and regulates the supply to the plants.  Aeration – plants can obtain 96% of the nutrients they need from the air, sun and water. A well aerated soil assists in the diffusion of air and moisture into the soil and in the exchange of nutrients. Carbon dioxide released by organic matter decomposition diffuses within and above the soil where it is absorbed by the canopy of leaves of closely spaced plants.  Fertilization – while compost is not a “fertilizer”, it does contain some N, P, K, Mg, and S and is especially important as a source of trace elements such as molybdenum, zinc, and iodide.  Nutrient Release – related to fertilization, organic acids released by decomposing organic matter, dissolves soil minerals making them available to plants. As organic matter continues to break down it slowly releases key nutrients for plant uptake and a healthy soil microbe population.  Nitrogen Storage – Nitrogen, one of the most important of plant nutrients, is also the most easily lost to leaching and gasification. If added to soils low in organic matter, this N is quickly converted to gas and lost to the air. Organic compounds bind with nitrogen, allowing it to be released slowly and steadily as the plant needs it, thus stopping its loss to leaching and volatilization. The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 33

 Soil Acidity and Toxin Buffer – plants have specific tolerances in terms of toxins and soil acidity. Organic matter, in particular the carbon molecule, draws these toxins and acidity out of the soil water, allowing plants to have a broader range of tolerances to these elements which are common in the world’s poorest soils.  Germination and Early Seedling Growth – steady moisture levels are required to allow the seed coat to crack and germinate. Compost in the soil will act as a sponge, absorbing the water and keeping the seed moist. This will increase the speed of germination and the tolerance of young seedlings surviving periods of dry weather that would otherwise destroy the tender stems, roots and leaves.  Microbial Life – just one tablespoon of finished compost can contain over 7 billion beneficial microorganisms. 7 billion. This life is essential for soil and plant health, photosynthesis, carbonic acid creation for mineral availability and nitrogen fixation. Plus, when they die, they become the building blocks of anti-biotics, vitamins and plant growth hormones.

Making Compost

Materials needed:

 Brown, carbon-rich, dry leaves, straw or grasses without seeds – 5 large sacks  Green, nitrogen-rich grass, tree leaves or garden waste –1 large sack  One 20-liter bucket of ruminant manure, old compost or quality topsoil as a source decomposing bacteria  Four, 20-liter buckets of water, needed to ‘activate’ the bacteria.  A one meter long stick (bark removed) to serve as a simple thermometer.  Old grain sacks to cover the entire pile. A bit of clear plastic is optional to show condensation retention after 3 days (a useful training technique).

Materials that should NOT be added to a compost pile:

 A properly made compost pile will reach temperatures above 120o F that will kill most pathogens and seeds. However, plants known to be diseased or under severe insect attack should be removed and burned rather than composted. The risk of further infection outweighs the benefit of the organic material.  Plants which are toxic to other plants and microbial life such as Eucalyptus, Acacia, Juniper, Bamboo, Gmelina, Hemlock, onion, citrus, and castor bean.  Plants which may be too acidic, such as pine needles.  Perennial, invasive weeds and their root systems: Kuch, Bermuda, or Striga.  Soap, oil, meat or the manure from meat-eating animals, such as humans, cats and dogs, which may contain dangerous pathogens.

The Step by Step Process:

1. Select a space in the shade. Bacteria need water; too much sun will dry out the compost pile, causing bacteria to go dormant, which will slow down the decomposition process. 2. Gather brown and green materials. Large leaves should be chopped into small pieces to speed the decomposition process and release moisture and minerals.

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3. A properly made compost pile will contain 1/3 green materials and 2/3 brown materials. Think of it as “a pile of wet dirty leaves” for simplicity sake. 4. Begin to layer and mix the brown and green materials. Start with a 10 cm layer of brown. 5. Add a 2 cm layer of chopped green leaves. 6. Add 4 large handfuls of top soil, manure or finished compost. 7. Blend all layers together while water is added to moisten well. 8. Repeat steps 4 through 7 until the pile is 1m x 1m x 1m. 9. Cover with 1” of topsoil and a sheet of plastic to help hold the moisture in the pile. 10. After 2 days the pile will become very hot – this means the bacteria are working to break down the materials. DO NOT MIX – measure temperature only if desired. 11. WAIT ONE WEEK then mix the pile while adding more water as needed . 12. Turn/flip the entire pile to a space just next to itself and make a new pile where the first one was. The heat will return in a few days, but not as high as before. 13. WAIT ONE WEEK before mixing and applying water again. Cover well. 14. Allow pile to rest for at least two weeks before mixing again. 15. Continue with bi-weekly mixing, watering and covering until the inside of the pile is brown, crumbly and cool to the touch. At this point, the compost is ready to be used in the garden.

One pile, after 2 or 3 months (turning once every 1-2 weeks and adding water as needed), will provide 10, 20-liter buckets of finished compost for use in the garden. This is enough for 3, 3-meter long garden beds. During garden bed renovation following the removal of the previous crop, one 20-liter bucket will be added per square meter.

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Seasonality: Prepare for the Climate; Stop worrying about the Weather

Proper timing of various actions in any garden is essential to experience their full beneficial effects. For example, the full benefit of the water controlling structures of Permagardens is not seen until several months AFTER the rain season ends. While other gardens which lack these measures are struggling due to low soil water availability, the permagarden structures have stopped and slowly spread the water down where it is saved in the subsoil. Due to this ‘subsoil moisture recharge’, garden beds remain moist for many months later. This has essentially extended the ‘wet/dry’ season (dry air but wet soil) from one month to as many as six. If we were to wait to create the swales until after the rainy season, not only would we miss all that potential water capture, but the highly-visible and inspiring “teachable moment” of moist soil well into the dry season. If we dig the soil too soon after the rains, when the soil is still saturated, we risk severely damaging the soil structure and compacting it even further. Finally, if we choose to plant fragile vegetables during the rainy season (ie, tomatoes, lettuce, carrots) we face a long battle against insects and diseases as these plants cannot tolerate overly moist soil nor overly wet leaves.

One of the major barriers to creation of household gardens is a perception that pests will destroy all that is grown. As will be discussed in pest management, the key method of pest control is ‘cultural’. This refers to good soil and water management techniques as well as the properly timed planting of healthy seedlings in deep, well-drained soil. If the soil is deep and richly-amended, and the water is evenly provided, plant health and disease control is greatly enhanced and growth will be easily extended by several months.

Knowing your ‘expected’ climate calendar is essential. In order to adapt we must understand the current reality. During these days of great climatic irregularity, to adapt our methods to meet the new reality of irregularity is critical. Properly timed actions that mitigate against the vagaries of the climate (dry periods during the rain; wet periods during the dry) will mean that we can actually turn this confusing climate change to our advantage!.

Monitor and Manage for a Evaluate weekly harvest

‘wet/dry’ ‘dry/dry’

Rain Begins: Create Plant Leaf, Fruit, and Renovate Garden Root , Compost Beds, Compost

‘wet/wet’

Rain Ends: Plant Grains and Harvest Legumes

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Making Biochar from Crop Residues *

Biochar, or carbonized plant material, is a vital source of pure carbon used for soil improvement. It has many advantages: It improves a soil’s ability to hold air and water; it increases soil CEC, cation exchange capacity, a measure of nutrient holding and absorption; and its micropores serve as permanent housing for the billions of beneficial microbes found in a healthy soil. Biochar, added year to year, will build a healthy soil structure and result in resilient, highly productive crops. Making charcoal from agricultural waste is similar to the process used by traditional charcoal makers in many parts of the developing world. Carbonaceous materials (wood, grasses, crop residue, etc) are set on fire for a period of time and then, all oxygen is excluded, usually in a soil pit, and the materials carbonize rather than combust. What remains is pure carbon; charcoal or biochar. While a soil pit can be used, a smaller scale version, described below, uses a 55 gallon metal drum. Follow these simple steps: 1. Gather dry crop residues, newspaper, and a match. 2. Dig a hole slightly less in diameter than the barrel with air intake vents on either side. Alternatively, you can set the barrel onto 3 bricks. Both methods will allow good initial air flow. 3. Place rolled newspaper and dry leaf (such as maize cob leaves) “wicks” into each of the small holes in the bottom of the barrel. 4. Tip the barrel over the hole or onto the bricks. 5. Add your crop residue in a pyramid shape along with highly combustible paper or dry leaves. Fill ¾ of the barrel. More will be added later. 6. Light the wicks. Encourage the flame by tilting the can slightly to maximize air flow. Build a small fire in the hole to encourage a better flame. 7. When smoke is rolling out of the top of the barrel, place the barrel back down over the hole or on the bricks. Continue to add more crop residue until the barrel is full. 8. Add a lighted paper through the top of the barrel so that smoke turns to flame. Allow the flame to engulf all the materials for 2-3 minutes. 9. Remove bricks from below or add soil to cover the vents of the hole while also placing the lid on top of the barrel. Be careful as flames may shoot out from underneath at first. 10. And several handfuls of sand or clay soil around the edges of the lid. Make sure no smoke is allowed to escape from within the barrel. 11. Wait. Allow the materials to be carbonized for at least 4 hours. Woody materials will need more time. 12. Remove the soil and the lid from the top of the barrel and tip the barrel onto a grain sack. Place the fully carbonized pieces into the sack and crush into small pieces now ready for use in the garden, or blended with manure to make charcoal briquettes for cooking fuel.

*Waste charcoal pieces, found in abundance in our many urban and peri-urban markets, can be gathered freely or at minor cost and used as you create your permagardens. The biochar process described here is a way to capitalize upon the abundant woody stems that you will soon be generating but which are hard to compost.

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Making Biochar: Step by Step in Pictures

55 Gallon Drum with holes in bottom Burn hole with good ventilation

Stuff holes with wicks of leaves Start wicks and burn hole

Add materials and allow all to burn Cover once engulfed in flame for 3 min

4 hours later, finished biochar Crushed and ready to add to soil

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Making Vegetable Waste ‘Tea’

Note: This exercise is best saved until the family actually HAS kitchen waste! See this as a ‘finish line’ activity rather than a ‘starting line’ activity. When families have an abundance of waste to manage, this will be a very useful technique.

Kitchen Waste Compost Tea: Use a 20 liter Jerry can with the bottom cut off and turned upside down. Poke a hole in the cap to allow liquid to drain out. The cut off ‘bottom’ can be used as the lid. Elevate the barrel and place a basin below to catch the ‘tea’.

In the bottom, add a 2cm layer of char, 2cm manure, and 1cm of dry straw or grass.

Prepare a box of dry brown leaves and keep it nearby. This will be used every time you add vegetable and fruit waste from the kitchen and will help to absorb odors.

 Every night, add a small bucket of saved vegetable waste from the kitchen (no oil, meat), cover with 2 cm of the dry brown materials that has been set aside.

 Clean the kitchen bucket with ½ liter water and add this to the Jerry can and cover.

 The following morning, collect the ‘tea’ in the basin below the barrel. Mix with 3 parts water before using to irrigate your garden vegetables.

 Continue in this manner until the jerry can is full. This may take over a month depending on how much vegetable “waste” you generate.

 When can #1 is full, slide it over and start again with can #2. Continue to add ½ liter of water to can #1 to keep it moist and to collect the fertile ‘tea’ from the bottom.

 When can #2 is full (after another month) empty can #1 and use the cool compost in the garden. Slide Can #2 over and continue to make tea. Can #1 can begin again.

Note: The tea can be stored in a closed container for several weeks. This extra fermentation will also increase its vitality. Use this strong tea with mature seedlings and plants having first diluted it with water at a 5:1 ratio (5 parts water to 1 part tea). It can be too strong for fragile root systems to absorb.

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Crop Rotation: Leaf – Fruit – Root - Legume

Crop rotation is arguably one of the most important organic cultural practices you can employ to balance soil fertility and break pest and disease life cycles. Planting the same crop (including from the same family) from season to season will cause nutrients to decline and pest and disease cycles to flourish. The permagarden beds make crop rotation simple – we don’t change the location of the beds; rather, we change what is planted in each from season to season. This balances the nutritional needs of the soil, the plants and the family as well.

Different crops have different primary fertility needs. Take note that before planting any new crop, additional compost is needed to maintain micronutrient, organic matter and beneficial microbe levels. “Leaf, Fruit, Root, Legume” is a simple cycle to use as you educate others.

 Leafy crops (spinach, amaranth, sorghum, maize) enjoy lots of nitrogen so should be planted “first” in newly manured and fertilized garden beds.

 The following season, plant a fruit crop (tomato, eggplant, pepper) which like some nitrogen but need more phosphorus for proper flower development. Actually, too much nitrogen and your tomatoes will be “all plant, no fruit” and could develop various imbalances causing blossom end rot or make them susceptible to fungal diseases.

 Next comes a root crop (carrots , turnip, beets) as they require even less nitrogen but need more potassium for proper root development.

 Finally, follow it all by planting a legume (peas, beans) which will use few nutrients while adding nitrogen back into the soil through the process of atmospheric nitrogen fixation.

By following a good crop rotation plan, we are also breaking the pest and disease cycles which will mean healthier, stronger plants and little to no need for costly and “dangerous” pesticides.

A Permagarden in its 2nd growing season, following a brief rain season. This dry region of Rwanda shows high levels of malnutrition due to poor access to nutrient-dense foods and clean water. A good crop rotation plan, as this photo shows, is critical to demonstrate good growth despite limited hand watering in the dry season.

Organic Pest Control

Define organic. It does not simply refer to what we do NOT use, (ie, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides) but more importantly, organic measures refer to what we DO use and what actions

The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 40 we DO take in terms of soil health and water control, plant timing, rotation and care during the various growth stages. The key word here, as throughout the permagarden classroom, is control. We as managers should not be in the business of trying to kill every insect, good and bad. Our job is to first identify the real problem and then, if necessary, control their numbers with solid, practical activities such as crop rotation mentioned above. Above all, we must take care not to destroy our enemies at the expense of our friends recognizing that just a few dozen insect species, amongst the many millions, are known to harm agricultural crops.

The very first step in pest and disease control is to start with a quality seed or healthy plant grown at the correct time of year. All too often we see gardeners struggle with out of season growing. For example, tomatoes, grown during the rainy season. This is understandable when most gardeners lack water. The trouble is, no matter how healthy your seedling is when it is planted, the sheer volume and force of the rain will physically damage leaves and stems allowing the pervasive fungus and insect populations to gain easy entry into the plant. Growers are then forced to apply corrective measures, often chemical fungicides and pesticides. This example illustrates the importance of year round thinking. If we can all but eliminate the lack of water in the dry season (by creating berms and recharging subsoil moisture) we will then be able to harvest huge yields of tomatoes with little effort or reliance on expensive and dangerous synthetic measures.

The tomato example leads us to the four basic levels of pest and disease control. As you will see, many of the steps have already been completed once you have properly created the permagarden, complete with perennials on berms and deeply dug and amended garden beds.

Cultural : sound agricultural practices giving the plant a healthy root system and steady growth. A plant will be able to outgrow or grow through any insect invasion as most insects are attracted to weak, over fertilized, water stressed plants. These measures eliminate over 50% of all pest problems

 Swales to promote subsoil moisture recharge  Soil well amended with local fertility  Double Digging for a strong and health root system  Triangle Spacing to create a healthy microclimate  Compost and biochar to build microbial life  Crop Rotation to break disease and insect life cycles while promoting balanced nutrient needs.

Physical: the physical exclusion of problem insects and the careful removal of problems. Physical actions such as barriers or traps eliminate a further 40% of all pest problems

 Timed applications of nets or baskets over garden beds to exclude flying insects and birds  Pruning off any dead, diseased or damaged limbs or leaves as soon as possible.  Traps, such as yellow sticky boards, shallow cups of beer, or circles of char and ash around the stems to deflect insects.

Biological: the use of various biological allies to defeat our biological enemies. These measures take care of the remaining 10% of pest problems.

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 Compost Tea, diluted with water 5:1, used as a foliar spray, wards off fungus and certain insects discouraged by the aroma.  Perennial flowering borders and living fences serve as housing for beneficial predatory insects.  Botanical sprays, such as that shown below with lantana, oil and soap, prevents invading aphids from amassing too great a number.  Neem seed oil extraction which acts as a potent insecticide as a last resort.

Chemical: (Bio-Rational)

 Costly and dangerous to both the environment and people, synthetic chemical solutions are not advised for permagardens. Frankly, if all of the above are performed in a timely manner, synthetic chemical solutions won’t be required at all.

Lantana/Garlic Botanical Spray

2 handful lantana leaves, crushed.

6 cloves Garlic, crushed.

Let sit 4 days

1 Tbsp cooking oil

½ Tbsp dish soap

Strain, spray on leaves and stems

*many options exist: pepper/garlic/onion chopped, soaked and sieved; glyricidia and/or neem exposed to UV light, then soaked, and sieved also serve us well as bio-rational chemical pest control.

Live Fencing

The importance of strong fencing cannot be overstated. Without this simple structure, damage from livestock, wind and careless children and adults is inevitable. The introduction of certain trees, shrubs and grasses, grown in combination, can be used to create an eventual barrier while providing useful products for kitchen and garden alike. This “live fencing” is a good long term strategy so is recommended to be included in the permagarden creation but will take as much as a year or more to fully establish itself. As this cannot be avoided, a strong fence of locally available materials such as wood, bamboo and thatch is highly recommended at garden creation. Whenever possible, choose multipurpose trees and shrubs.. This list below is not exhaustive. Locally preferred and customarily used species should also be investigated thoroughly during your landscape walk and talk exercises.

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Some Suggested Live Fence Species:

 Leucaena leucocephala: Legume. Green Manure, Fodder, Firewood, Poles  Sesbania grandiflora: Legume. Green Manure, Fodder, Firewood, Poles  Glyricidia sepium Legume. Green Manure, Fodder, Firewood, Poles  Tephrosia vogelii Legume. Green Manure, Pest Control, Firewood  Lantana Shrub. Green Manure, Pest Control, thorns  Vetiver, Elephant, Napier Grasses. Fodder, Medicine, Compost  Sisal, Acacia species Fiber, thorns

Planting the Fence Plant mature seedlings of any of the above leguminous trees one meter apart, at least a half meter outside the swales. In the space in between, plant a shrub such as lantana of the spiky sisal plant. In a line outside this, alternating between the shrubs and trees, plant vetiver grass. This will give a multidimensional barrier to wind and animals once it is fully established. Pruning the Fence Allow the trees to grow to a height of 2 meters. This will establish a strong root system. Then cut the trees at one meter, using the branches and leaves as kindling or in making biochar, and the leaves as green manure for soil building or directly as a green material for compost. Where the tree was cut becomes the new top of the tree. As trees grow from the top, this will force the growth hormone rushing up the tree to force many new stems to emerge in the process known as coppicing. This thickens the trunk, now a fence post, while providing copious nitrogen rich leaves in the many years to come. Prune the side branches as time moves on to give the fence more body. Meanwhile, prune and shape the grasses and shrubs as they mature more slowly.

Sesbania grandiflora, a fast-growing legume, used as a living fence in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. These trees are just 14 months old. As branches become larger, they can be cut and used as fence rails with the stumps acting as fence posts. The ‘posts’ will send out new shoots and nitrogen rich leaves which can be cut and added to the soil just prior to garden bed renovation and replanting.

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Starting Seedlings

Starting seedlings from local or purchased seeds has a number of advantages:

 Saves water as only minimal is required for strong seedling establishment  Ensures that a known strong, healthy plant will be planted in the garden  Allows better garden timing as direct seeded crops mature in the garden while seedlings mature off site ready to be planted as soon as other plants are removed.

Producing Healthy Seedlings

The seeds of many staple crops, commonly planted in both field and garden, are directly sown in the garden beds. This applies to maize, wheat, sorghum, beans, pumpkins, carrot, potatoes and sweet potatoes. Do to initially fragile root systems, these crops do not respond well to transplanting.

Most vegetable plants however, must be planted out into the garden beds as fully developed seedlings so that they have the best chance for survival and productive life. Much less water will be required to develop these plants in small containers off site and you will be assured that when the time comes, you are planting only the healthiest plants into your fully texturized, double-dug, garden beds.

By starting seeds in good soft soil, either in a nursery bed in the garden, or in small containers, the gardener is once again asserting control - control over moisture, sunlight and seed quality. Upon development of sturdy stems and leaves, vegetables such as tomato, pepper, cabbage and kale, can be outplanted into prepared garden beds at their rightful and proper spacing (refer to the spacing chart below). As they have been treated to a steadily increasing amount of sun, moisture and quality soil they will continue to flourish with limited shock once planted in the garden bed.

Planting Seedlings

Care should be taken when transplanting young seedlings into the garden bed. Damage to the main stem can result in limited growth and weakness so cradle the new seedling with care as it goes into the garden bed. Minor damage to the fibrous root system is acceptable as the plant will easily recover. Pinch off two or three small older leaves to reduce the root-to-shoot ratio which helps to limit continuing moisture loss from shocked roots. Growth will be temporarily halted as the root system reestablishes itself. After a few days, growth will continue unabated.

Seedling Creation Steps

1. Prepare soft, light soil (compost mixed with char dust and a small amount of topsoil) in a square meter section of a garden bed. Crush any large clumps of soil or compost to make a fine seed bed. Moisten the surface, allowing water to soak down at least 5 centimeters.

1a. Alternatively, place this compost-char-soil mix into small cardboard boxes. This will have the advantage of being moveable depending on sunlight and moisture needs. Small holes in the bottom of the box are critical to allow easy watering from the bottom up and easy drainage of the excess moisture.

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2. Sow seeds 1cm deep and close together using triangular spacing according to the below. Cover with light soil/char mix and gently water the entire surface. Water should be reapplied before the soil dries out, approximately every morning. This is where the compost is helpful as it helps to retain moisture around the seed encouraging germination.

4. Move boxes to shade or cover the seedling bed with a simple thatch structure to keep intense sun and heavy rain off the fragile seedlings. As the seedlings develop (within 7-10 days), gradually increase the amount of sunlight they receive so that by the time they are fully developed (in about 6 weeks) they will be prepared for transplanting into the harsher world of the larger garden bed.

5. Once seedlings have stems as thick as a pencil, having at least two sets of true leaves, they are ready to be planted at their proper spacing. Loosen the soil on all sides of the seedling bed or box so that tender plants can be easily removed one cluster at a time. Before planting remove those few lower leaves to limit continuing transpiration and limit shock.

Seed Spacing (in centimeters) for Direct Seeded Crops:

Crop Spacing in Garden Bed (cm) Maize 35 (plant 2 but remove 1 at 2 weeks) Wheat 5 Beans (dry/green) and cowpea 15 Swiss Chard 20 Beet 10 Carrot Rows 10 cm apart, thin to 5 cm Kale (Ethiopian goman) 15 Amaranth Broadcast lightly, thin to 4 cm Groundnut 14 Pumpkin, Melon 100 (allow to spread within bed) Zucchini, Summer Squash 30 (can plant hill with 2 per hill) Garlic (cloves) 8 Irish Potato (sprouted tubers) 18, 15 deep Sweet Potato (stem cuttings) 30

Seed Spacing (in centimeters, in trays) for Transplantable Seedlings:

Crop Spacing in Seed Tray/Bed Spacing in Garden Bed (cm) Tomato 4 35 (stake up with poles) Broccoli 4 30 Cabbage/Kale 4 30 Eggplant 5 35 Pepper (hot or not) 5 25 Cucumber 4 25 (train to grow up trellis) Leaf Lettuce BC then thin to 6 15 Swiss Chard 5 15 Beet 2 10 Onion BC then thin to 2 8

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Section 3: Creating the Permagarden using the Terra Firma Method

Assess Capture TERRA FIRMA

Protect Manage

Produce

Step 1: Community Resource Assessment Walk Determine Challenges and Assets Map Available Garden Locations Gather Local Soil Amendments

Step 2: Prepare the Garden Area Remove Rocks and Debris Cultivate Lightly Assess Soil Quality, Texture and Structure

Step 3: Garden Layout for Water Management Determine Principal Water Sources Determine Primary and Secondary Slopes Draw the Garden Map of Berms, Swales, Paths and Beds

Step 4: Water Control “six S” with Swales Create Swales with Saturation Holes Improve Quality of Berm Soil Plant Perennials and Temporary Annuals on Berms

Step 5: Create Bio-Intensive Garden Beds Double Dig Garden Beds Amend with Local Materials

Step 6: Bio-Intensive Plant and Seed Spacing Create the Closed Canopy using Triangular Spacing Practice Intercropping and Companion Planting

Step 7: Garden Management Planning for Pest Control Crop Rotation and Intercropping Mulch & Drip Bottles

Step 8 : Garden Protection and Fencing Plant Live Fencing

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Step 1: Community Resource Assessment Walk and Talk

Building local skills and confidence is a critical first step in creating sustainable gardens. It begins in partnership with local families by looking around the community and household to determine what can be of use. Waste materials such as charcoal, wood ash, manure, green and brown organic material, all contribute to the goal of soil health but to simply tell people this fact is not enough. If what is already known within the community can be drawn out via open conversation, local empowerment and ownership will result. Within the household itself there are spaces that could be better utilized, waste areas that could be converted into a bounty of produce with just a little extra work to clear the land, control the water and manage new plants. Our first step is to walk the community landscape and household with family members with the goal of identifying and placing values on waste while mapping suitable garden areas within the family compound. The two principal benefits of this activity are to build awareness of the value of materials normally discarded and to establish trust within the community by focusing on local knowledge, materials, tools, plants and people. The Terra Firma method is ‘organic’ as it originates from within, not imposed from outside.

Key Messages:

 Nearly every household will have some space to grow plants in a ‘complementary’ garden that could provide significant nutrient dense food and income for the family.  Many local resources exist around the home or local landscape that can help sustain productive soil and gardens.  Long-term planning starts with simple mapping of the homestead and can help avoid further loss of resources.  Outdoor learning-by-doing is far more effective than lecturing in a classroom. Engaging family members in a powerful new classroom, close to home.

Community members learn more and gain more confidence from self-discovery than from classroom lecture.

What to look for as you draw your community and household asset map:

 Available space: can be less than a few square meters or as large as 25. Look for areas next to buildings or fences that are currently not well used but still offer sunlight at least 4 hours a day.

 Waste materials: wood ash, charcoal, manure are known to have nutrient and organic matter that is useful. Kitchen waste, green and brown leaves and water can be

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collected and used in small compost piles. Bones, egg shells, oyster shell are a good source of calcium and phosphates. Ask what is already being used.

 Water sources: this can be future runoff from roofs, hillsides, roads and pathways that can be controlled and redirected, homestead wells or municipal taps nearby.

 Dangers to be controlled: livestock, birds, children are all sources of useful materials or labor but also need to be controlled by fencing or other means.

 People within the household: who is going to be the principal manager of this new space? Ownership of the means and profits must be understood from the beginning, as especially important consideration if the garden is in public space.

 Plants and Seeds: Many of the most important vegetables to promote are the ones which people already eat, just not enough of. Ask neighbors, friends, the family itself what seeds or plants they have or are willing to share. Perennial herbs such as lemongrass, aloe, rosemary, rue, are all possible to be divided and replanted.

 Tools: contrary to popular belief, the only tools you need to create a vibrant garden are hoes and buckets. Survey the household and neighborhood for additional tools that could be useful such as rakes, watering cans, grain sacks and shovels.

By asking open-ended questions, those that require explanation rather than simply yes or no, people begin to see landscape challenges and assets with new eyes. This process allows participants to look critically at what they want, what they have and what they need to do to get there. This appreciative inquiry process builds awareness of what is around us and how we can bring all of it together in a permagarden where we will realize that we can change our circumstances through planning and careful work. This is how we begin to “take control” and build personal empowerment which is so essential to successful development.

Based on these assessments and conversations, gather useful materials, tools and plants, and bring them to the garden area. Remove any debris, rocks or weeds. Now we can begin to determine how best to create a fully protective and productive permagarden in terms of soil and water management, as well as areas for making compost and biochar where appropriate.

Guiding Questions:

 How can rainwater be captured from the roof or nearby hillsides?  Where does the rainwater move once it hits the soil?  How can it be stopped and allowed to sink and spread within a new garden?  How can the slope be altered? Why would this be a good idea?  How much sunlight is needed? DeIs there adequate sun in this area?  How can wind be a factor in limiting plant health? What can we do to mitigate this?  Where can materials for compost (green and brown leaves, water, manure) come from and where can the piles be located?  What is the current soil quality in terms of structure and texture?  What techniques do you already use to improve the structure of the soil?  What materials could be used that are available here to improve the soil?

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Step 2: Prepare the Planting Area

The resource walk has revealed possible garden spaces and resources. A suitable garden space has been found to include the following in terms of sun, soil, slope and security:

 Sunlight: at least 4 hours a day in the tropics  A slight slope is ideal, but not required  Water is easily accessible  It can be protected from extreme winds, livestock, people  Soil is present (ie, the area is not solid rock) for improvement

A good starting point is 4m x 4m. The key message is to start small. More space can be added later depending on family acceptance and desire. A large starting space can become too labor intensive too quickly and become very discouraging. Starting small will ensure the best possibility for further expansion within the community.

This is a relatively simple first step. It allows us to properly plan for protection and production aspects of the garden to come.

 Clear the area of rocks, weeds and other debris.  Lightly cultivate the entire area to remove weed and grass roots that are just below the surface. These removed weeds can be used later in the composting process once the roots have completely dried out, an especially important point with the perennial grasses. Lightly cultivating the entire area to a depth of just 5 centimeters. Not only will we remove potential hazardous waste materials, stones and weeds but this will also allow the easy smoothing of the entire surface so as to “draw” a garden plan that will lead to a fully protective and productive garden with the swales and beds to come.

Mark out the entire area then remove any debris or rocks. Grasses and weeds should be removed below the root mass and discarded for later use. Lightly cultivate the area to a depth of 5 cm.

Tae Mauk Village, Myanmar.

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Step 3: Garden Layout for Water Management

The objective of this step is to create a garden map that includes swales berms and holes for protection as well as meter-wide garden beds for production. Refer to the appendix for a sample garden plan. The focal point of this step is to determine where runoff water enters the garden and where it will naturally want to go as it passes through the garden. Tremendous amounts of rainfall will fall on this garden space. We want to control it during the heavy rain so that we can access it via soil capillary action during the ensuing dry periods.

Proper water management follows five main pathways: stop, slow, sink, spread and save. By forcing the excess water to stop and slowly sink, moisture will be held as it spreads deeply within the improved soil structure of the double dug garden beds. As dry weather returns, capillary action within the improved soil will draw this moisture back up from the saved excess into the root zone of dry season vegetables.

This plan will be the initial diagram of what we want the overall garden to look like: an upper water controlling berm (which includes a swale or ditch with holes at either end); the defining side berms; 2 or 3 meter-wide beds with narrow permanent paths in between; and, space for fencing to block both wind and animals and to serve as climbing support for certain climbing perennials. The hard (never dug) pathways between the beds will work to help to direct water into the well aerated and amended garden beds.

Creating the Garden Plan

Visualize water flow by ask these simple questions: Where will the water come from? Where will it first enter the cleared garden area? Where do we want the water to go?

The answer to that last question is critical. We want gardeners to answer “Exactly where we WANT it to go!” The key message being that the gardener is in control and can make decisions that make the most sense for her garden and surrounding landscape. Consider all water runoff sources, roofs, paths and roads that can be taken advantage of during heavy rain events. Our overall goal is to increase the amount of water entering the garden so that we can absorb and store as much as possible for the coming dry season or dry periods within the rain season to ensure continual growth.

Determine Primary and Secondary Slopes

 Stepping back from the cleared garden area, look for the most obvious slope from top to bottom. This is the Primary Slope.  Standing at the bottom of the garden area, looking up the primary slope, determine the right-to-left ‘tilt’ of the garden area. This is the Secondary Slope.  We want to encourage water to slowly move along the secondary slopes so that the water has time to sink into the soil.

Draw the Garden Plan (See the Appendix for a complete Plan)

 The stopping berm will be placed at the top of the garden so that it will block the main flow of water coming down the primary slope and then gently guide the water slowly along the secondary slope.

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 Using a stick, draw 4 long lines only the top slope of the garden. o The first line is perpendicular to the primary slope and forms the baseline for the next three. o The second line is 40 cm below and parallel to the first. Primary o The third line is 50 cm below and parallel to the second. slope o The fourth line is 40 cm below and parallel to the third.

swale

berm

side

berm path

Double Dug Garden Bed (#1 of 3)

 At either end, just above the second line, draw 2, 50cm circles. These will be the receiving holes (saturation basins) that capture and slow the bulk of the water coming into the garden.  Envision these holes filling with water during a rain event. Where do we want the water to go? Right. Exactly where we tell it to go. As the water slowly spills out of the hole, we want to direct it along the side of the garden so that it does not flow into the garden beds in the middle.  Draw an outline of the swale that will carry this water down the primary slope eventually into another hole that will be part of the lower stopping berm. Draw a parallel line 50 cm towards the outside of the garden. This is the side berm.  Below the first bed, repeat the steps above creating the outline of as many one meter wide beds as the space allows.  Complete a drawing of the lower “holding” swale, complete with 50 cm wide berm and holes at either end. Note the holes within the berm, to keep the swale/path intact.

Double Dug Garden Bed (#3 of 3)

swale

berm

Step back to survey your garden drawing. Does it “Minimize the Maximum and Maximize the Minimum”? Make minor corrections as the group decides. This will serve as your guide as you begin to create the swales and paths and dig the berms and beds.

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Step 4: Creating Protective Swales and Berms

It is now time to create the protective berms, swales and holes based on the map. Before you start, walk through the drawing so that all can describe the six water management pathways: stop, slow, sink, spread, save and shade and how each structure will assist.

Create the Top Berm, Swale and Saturation Holes

 Pull 5 cm of loosened soil from the top line down to the 2nd line.  Pull 5 cm of loosened soil from the bottom line up to the 3rd line.  This should make a low mound of soil with a path on either side: the upper path is the swale, the middle mound is the berm and the lower path is the path around what will become the first meter wide garden bed.  Remove the soil from the circle representing the hole to a depth of 10 cm only. Place removed soil below the hole and along the berm. Once the berm soil has been amended, this hole will be deepened to 40-50 cm.  Using your hands or the hoe handle, shape the soil so that the top of the berm is flat.

Side Swales and Berms:

 Following the pattern drawn previously, loosen the soil within the side berms.  Drag the soil from the marked drainage path (swale) onto the berm.  As above, smooth the surface of the berm like a tabletop.  At the bottom of each side swale, create two more holes as above.

Lower Swale and Berm:

 Remove soil from each of the lower holes, placing soil below the hole for added strength as well as along the lower berm, copying the upper berm and swale.  Loosen the soil of the lower berm and smooth it as was done for the upper berm.  The final exit hole, at the lower end of the secondary slope, will need a small drainage ditch leading out of the garden so as to prevent garden flooding.

As you complete this process you should end up with four complete swales, berms and holes.

Amending the Berm Soil

The primary function of the berm is to control runoff water. However, by amending the soil within the berm, much in the same way as for the garden beds in the step to follow, the secondary function becomes possible: the planting of medicinal, nutritious or culturally important, protective perennials. This process is the same for all the permagarden berms: top, bottom and side.

 Straddling the smoothed berm, using the local tool, loosen the soil down to the compacted subsoil, along the entire length of the berm.  Go back to the beginning and remove a 50 cm wide portion of this soil and place it on a grain sack for later use.

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 Standing on the path or to the side, facing the exposed subsoil, loosen this subsoil as deep as possible (a further 30 cm is sufficient) leaving the soil in place once loosened.  Amend the subsoil with 2 handfuls each of charcoal and/or small sticks and manure. Mix well.  Again straddling the berm, moving along the secondary slope, pull the next 50 cm of loosened berm topsoil over what you just amended, exposing the next portion of compact subsoil.  Loosen and amend this new area of subsoil with the carbon and manure, continuing the process down the entire length of the berm. Note that this is a simplified double digging exercise.  When you finish amending the subsoil, including the berm that surrounds the hole, use the initially removed topsoil to cover this final section of amended subsoil.  Rake the entire surface smooth and flat. The berm should be 10-15 cm higher than the paths on either side.  Amend each meter length of the berm with ½ bucket manure, ¼ bucket charcoal, and several handfuls of wood ash. Mix all amendments into the top 10 cm of the berm.  Make sure the berm is flat so as to prevent surface erosion during watering.  Gently water the berm with one 20-liter watering can or bucket. Allow to fully soak.  The berm is now ready to plant with useful perennials and annuals.

Planting the Berms

During the community resource walk, locally perennials were discovered. These perennials can be divided and replanted. It is important to use only locally accessible and appropriate perennials but a few examples are aloe, lemongrass, rue, birdseye chillies, rosemary, papaya, and even sweet potato for its nutrient-rich leaves.

With gathered perennials at your side, you are now ready to plant your perennials in guilds around the holes and in the berms. A guild is perhaps best described as a team; where each plant plays complementary roles. For example, a medium height Rosemary can be planted next to a bunch grass such as lemongrass which are in turn protected by creeping ground covers below and a tall papaya above. This companion planting concept will lead to further discussion of crop rotation and intercropping during the planting of the production beds.

Preparing the top berm for double digging Amending the topsoil of all the protective berms (Burkina Faso, May 2016) (Nepal, April 2016)

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Step 5: Create Bio-Intensive Garden Beds  Double Dig Garden Beds  Amend with Local Materials

Bio-intensive refers to both the manner of deep digging as well as the manner of offset triangular spacing to be outlined in the following step. Just as in the berm soil above, breaking through the lower compaction found in most cultivated soils will improve the overall structure (air and water holding capacity) of the soil which allows annual crops to flourish. It is good to do a quick review of the key reasons for the double dig.

 To allow annual crop roots to go deep quickly so as to reach air, water and nutrients.  To allow closer plant spacing so that the leaf canopy closes, capturing CO2, holding moisture and eliminating weed growth. (triangle spacing)  To create a healthy microclimate below the leaf canopy helping the plant grow to its fullest possible potential while being resistant to pests, diseases and drought.

A properly constructed garden bed will allow plants to gather and absorb all the water and nutrients they need to grow. A 4-meter long garden bed can be completely “double dug” and amended by two people, moving slowly and steadily, in about two hours. The goal is to create a deep soil profile with good air and water dynamics. Once the double digging process has reached 50 cm, in subsequent years one need only amend the surface with compost, blend, smooth and plant. The double digging work is finished so long as you do not allow people or animals to walk within the beds and continue to practice crop rotation and regular compost adding.

To complete the fully texturized double dug bed, follow these simple steps:

 Straddling the defined bed and moving in one direction, chop into the surface down about 5 cm. This is merely a cleaning/organizing process that allows us to remove stones and perennial grass roots and to make sure the shape is correct and even.

 Straddling the bed once again, but moving in the opposite direction, loosen the topsoil down to the compacted lower soil. Pull out the first 40cm wide “trench” of this topsoil, placing it temporarily on a sack at the end of the bed. Moving forward, straddling the bed, continue to loosen to the hardpan and pull the loosened topsoil back into the space you just opened. If the soil is very dry, add a few cups of water over the compacted subsoil letting it soak in before moving forward.

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 When you reach the end you will be left with an open trench down to the compacted layer along the width of the bed. This has been what we call the “single dig”.

 Rake the soil smooth, leaving that final trench open.

 Gather your soil amendments (manure, char, sticks, other local carbon materials).

 Standing to the side of the open trench, loosen the hard subsoil. Go as deep as you can. This is the double dig.

 To the loosened subsoil, blend in 3 large handfuls each of manure and carbon waste.

 Pull the next 40cm of loosened topsoil (from the single dig) over the newly amended subsoil, exposing the next trench of compacted subsoil.

 Loosen, amend and repeat to the end of the bed.

 Into the last trench, return the soil that was first removed during the single dig. Rake the entire bed smooth so as to redefine the new bed for all to see.

 Now amend the topsoil. Per square meter, add 1/2 bucket of dry manure t, 1/4 bucket of charcoal dust, 1/8 bucket of wood ash, and (if available) a handful of egg shell.

 With your hands, blend all ingredients uniformly over the bed before incorporating all with the top 20cm of topsoil.

 Rake the bed flat and add 10 liters of water/m2 gently over the entire bed. This helps to settle the soil for planting. As you apply the water, check for possible erosion points and fix any sections where the water runs off into the pathways.

 After an hour has passed, thoroughly crush, blend and smooth the surface to receive seed, seedlings or other plants.

 This bed is now amended to a depth of 40-50cm and will be slightly elevated. Proper management will mean never having to deeply dig this bed again.

Any soil can be improved by double digging and proper amending. This photo shows the first three steps:

1. Loosen topsoil 2. Pull back to expose hard subsoil 3. Aerate subsoil another 20 cm

Make note that the root zone has just expanded by over 400% which greatly increases root health and resilience.

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Step 6: Bio-Intensive Plant and Seed Spacing  Crop Rotation Planning  Benefits of Triangular Spacing

The deep digging allows us to place our plants using close, precise triangular spacing. By planting in triangles we maximize plant density, plant health, and overall yield per square meter. The soon to close leaf canopy will maximize sun to leaf and shade to soil increasing photosynthesis and decreasing moisture loss from evaporation. As a result, 30% more plants can fit within a given space and each plant has the potential to be 2-3 times as productive. Overall yield increases while resource needs decrease. It’s a pretty good idea. But it can only be done if the beds have been properly dug and amended as described in Step 5.

Triangular spacing with tomatoes: two weeks and 6 weeks after planting. Note the use of mulch and drip bottles placed around the seedlings during the first month in the garden bed.

The Benefits of Bio-Intensive Spacing: (see seeding chart on page 45).

 Increases Plant Density (deeper roots allow close space, able to grow more/unit area)  Increases Plant/Root Health (moisture and CO2 capture)  Decreases Weed Pressure (canopy shading of bare soil)  Decreases Hand Water Requirement (canopy shading of bare soil)

Crop Rotation Planning and Planting

To review, the crop rotation pattern we use, balances soil and plant fertility between crop families while also breaking pest and disease life cycles. Crop rotation is one of the most important plant health and pest control practices in home gardens and crop fields alike. Each bed, or portions of beds, can hold successive plantings following the Leaf – Fruit – Root – Legume rotation plan. For example, over the course of 18 months depending on the rain/dry season, a bed will be planted with Kale, then Tomato, then Carrot, and finally Fava Bean.

Marking and Planting the Bed

Following the seed and plant spacing chart (pg 42), and using a meter stick along one end of the bed, mark seed holes along the end of the bed 15, 20, or 35 cm apart depending on the crop being planted. Place small sticks in each hole. Move the meter stick that same distance

The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 56 down the bed but shifted half that distance to the left or right. We are making equilateral triangles and marking holes with sticks down the length of the bed, as this shows:

Companion Planting

Planting varying species has several advantages to the gardener. It increases the diversity of plants grown per unit area and will be healthy for all concerned so long as plants with compatible growing seasons and root habit (one long, the other short) are chosen. This method of joint planting also confuses pests who far prefer to attack monocultures There are several good combinations of plants that grow well side by side and work well to help each other flourish. This is not an exhaustive list. Use local seeds and ideas as much as possible

 Tomatoes with Carrots  Tomatoes with Basil  Maize with Cowpea  Maize with Beans and Pumpkins From a crop rotation perspective, the heavier feeder is considered the lead plant. For example, maize as a heavy feeder is the key rotating crop as compared to beans a heavy giver. When planting companions, expand the recommended plant spacing by a few centimeters to continue to avoid root competition

Relay Intercropping

Planting varying species in the same area but at slightly different times is a good way to maximize productive space. This is combining fast growers with slower growers such as tomatoes, which take a few weeks to expand into their entire growing area and radish, a fast grower which can be harvested just as the canopy begins to close. Beans can be planted for just 6 weeks for the express purpose of invigorating the soil for an incoming heavy nitrogen feeder such as kale, spinach, cabbage or maize. The beans are essentially starting the relay race and have the principal job of nourishing the soil (through atmospheric Nitrogen-fixation which completes its task in under 8 weeks) rather than provide any edible beans or leaves for the gardener. It is essentially sacrificed to provide both nitrogen and organic matter from the decaying leaf and root material that is sliced out of the garden and incorporated into a compost pile nearby. This may seem like a harsh activity. But it helps the next crop immensely rather than simply leaving the soil empty and lifeless for 8 weeks. It is exactly this type of activity which is inspired by the protective and productive permagarden.

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Step 7: Garden Management

 Mulch  Drip Bottles  Pest Control  Crop Rotation

Once planted, the garden will require ongoing care and management to minimize the negative impacts of weeds, insects and diseases; to repair minor damage from wind or rain when it happens; and to harvest vegetables at peak growth so as to maximize yield per square meter.

Mulch

This is one of the more important steps in vegetable production. Whether planting seeds or seedlings, continuously adequate soil moisture is essential to foster rapid seed germination and a reduction in transplant shot. Any dry material can be used that has no viable seed heads: straw, bark chips, grass without seeds and dry brown leaves.

Drip Bottles

Watering seeds and seedlings is critical. For freshly planted, mulched beds, once a day is sufficient. As seedlings grow into mature plants they will have greater water and nutrient needs even as the leaf canopy closes blocking sunlight from hitting the soil. A simple technique using locally available water bottles allows the garden manager to apply water exactly where it is needed, to the roots. Most vegetables can be harmed by overhead watering which wets the leaves unnecessarily. Vegetables want wet roots but dry leaves making them difficult to grow during the rainy season. The ‘drip bottle’ is the answer.

 Poke three small holes into the bottom of a 1 liter used water bottle.  Fill with water or the diluted compost tea. Place the cap on firmly.  Liquid will only come out of the bottom as the cap is opened.  Bury the bottle so that the cap is still above ground and the bottom is at the lower roots, 5 cm from the main stem. Open the cap slightly, allowing liquid to slowly drip.  Keep bottles in the ground, refill each morning as necessary.  Place up to 8 bottles per square meter of garden bed.

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Pest Control

Prevention is the first order of business. All of the work that went into the creation of controlled water and deep healthy soil will produce vigorous plants that are resilient to pest and disease attack. But there could still be a need for work beyond these cultural techniques. As described earlier, there are four levels of pest control, each with varying tasks:

 Cultural: Swales, Double Digging, Amendments, Plant Spacing of Healthy Seedlings  Physical: Pruning away the dead, diseased and damaged limbs, traps, hand picking, and netting  Biological: Companion Planting, perennial borders housing beneficial insects, botanical mixtures.  Chemical: biological and synthetic insecticides, fungicides and herbicides often beyond what we need

Compost tea and botanical mixes prevent damage from insects and disease fungus.

Physical protection with thorny branches keeps chickens away. If insects arrive, a simple piece of mosquito netting serves as a physical barrier that still allows in light and moisture.

Crop Rotation

One of the best ways to maintain a healthy garden from year to year is to develop a crop rotation plan that follows the Leaf – Fruit – Root – Legume pattern. This works to balance nutrient needs between crops while breaking disease and insect life cycles never letting them become established. This is indeed how “a gram of prevention is worth a kilo of cure.”

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Permatainers: The Two-Tier Tire-Tower

Container gardens offer opportunities for those who do not have the space for a full garden to still grow food near their homes. Large buckets, wicker baskets, old oil jugs and tires are all good examples of useful containers. For any container garden to be successful it must have a deep soil profile and loose fertile soil heavily amended with charcoal and compost. The tire tower described below displays all elements of the permagarden: assessment, protection, production and management. Remember to recirculate the water after it collects in the pan.

1. Gather compost, mineral soil, charcoal and wood ash. 2. Find two tires of equal dimensions. 3. Elevate the tires with bricks and boards to allow a drip pan to fit below.

Remove three side walls then stack tires on a platform with a sack with hole in bottom.

Fill lower tire with charcoal/soil mix and the upper tire with soil/compost mix.

Amend top with ash, char, coffee grounds and place drip pan below for easy recycling.

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Continuity: Moving from Weather Worrier to Climate Conqueror

Now that we have come to the end of this manual we have come to the beginning of the work. Section 4 that follows may appear to be redundant but its repetition is intentional. The Walk and Talk Extension Method is a new take on an old idea: We learn best by actually doing the work that most direct impacts our local lives and environments. We walk and we talk; and as we bring out local knowledge, skills and attitudes about how and why to make good choices. When that choice is made, the work is relatively easy to carry out because it stems from local choices. The Terra Firma Method gives people a chance to make their own choices, their own differences, in their own lives. While we use it here as a cyclical model of garden creation and management, the same circular process can be applied to many other aspects of life that so many people feel so helpless against. If so, people can move from being a victim of climate to a victor over it.

The title of this field manual, Growing Household Nutrition and Agroecological Resilience in the Face of Global Hunger, Poverty, Climate Change and Chronic Disease , is quite a mouthful. And that – is the point! Put yourself into the mind of a farmer anywhere in the world. While the following question applies most especially to low-resource, rainfed farmers of Africa, Asia or Latin America, it still applies to others as well. Are you there? Ok, here it is: what are the two things you worry most about? Take a moment. The answers will vary of course but I propose that they will boil down to just 2 things: the weather and market prices. Second question: What are the two things over which you have no control? Exactly! The weather and global market prices. Both are established by outside others and we farmers are just the victims of these circumstances.

But as I hope you have come to see by now, while we have identified the challenges (the ‘monsters’ known as climate, climate change, hunger, poverty, HIV, cancer, communicable disease, etc) we have also identified a possible local solution (Terra Firma) that we can bring to bear against all of them. Yes, ALL of them. The Walk and Talk session plans that follow can help you work with families, farmers, youth and the elderly of all regions of the world to turn those monsters and those worries from enemy to allies. By going through these steps, a mother worried about the destructive forces of weather and hunger can use the very climate to her advantage; she can learn to stop, slow, sink and spread the deluge of rain during just a few months and then reap the harvest of fresh produce close to home during the long, sunny dry season that follows. Can we change the climate? Can we change climate change? Can we change market prices set by market leaders from far far away? No, we cant. But, can we use the “Six S” of runoff management and double digging to change the microclimate of our small gardens and farm fields? YES. Can we then grow crops on a weekly harvest cycle rather than an annual harvest cycle? YES. Can we then target our production to meet times of better global market prices? YES. Can we move from being a victim of the climate to becoming a victor over it? I propose that YES WE CAN! Just as these primary school teachers in Mehoni, Ethiopia (500mm annual rainfall) have learned to do.

It is now time for you to move from one classroom to the next; the classroom where you practiced the steps of making a permagarden to the family classroom where the lessons are applied. The Walk and Talk Topics are designed to help you do just that. Good luck and keep in touch.

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Section 4: The Permagarden Walk and Talk Topics

How to Use the Garden Dialog

1. WALK & TALK: while walking through the garden/compound, engage the group about the current conditions, potential assets, waste areas, or gardens/containers. Use the opportunity to point out unused resources (ie, waste materials) that may be around the home. (charcoal, swept leaves, wood ash, livestock manure, vegetable waste, etc). Who knows what these provide? Why is this an important first step in problem solving? (we have what we need!)

2. LISTEN: Allow ‘gardeners’ to bring up challenges and problems in terms of preparation, production, selling, storage or personal issues that may impact his/her ability to be resilient and productive . Show empathy. You value all opinions. This is what we mean by ‘organic’.

3. PLAN: We are here to solve problems, not just make gardens. Using the Garden Dialogue tools, ask open-ended questions to engage in a dialogue about the underlying causes of the problem. Let the gardener exhaust the topic before moving on to another issue. Tackle the problems together and choose the best alternatives as a solution. Look to ways to blend concepts rather than keeping them separate. In agroecology, the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. Help all understand how this blend builds resilience for all aspects.

4. TAKE ACTION: Discuss how and when the gardener will implement the solution. What materials need to be gathered? Reiterate the importance of using resources found around the home and successful examples from within the community. Start working part or all of the plan right away. Time is of the essence.

5. RETURN TO GARDEN: The return visit is critical. Even if the problem persists or requires more technical knowledge, look for technical support from within the community. Encouraging continued work is more important than seeking outside help.

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Building Sustainability

 The Return Visit

The final step in the Walk and Talk Extension Method is a planned return to the home landscape. New gardeners need repeated support and encouragement to proceed even if the plan seemed very simple and straightforward. A return visit should occur within a few weeks of the development of the action step, discussion, or plan. These return visits will also build a stronger relationship between neighbors. It is also during the return visit(s), that a quick visual/mental check of productive behavior(s) adoption can be made. Even very modest advances in these behaviors should be noted and applauded. It can often take years for even the simplest new innovation to be adopted. The steps in the creation of a permagarden and the various landscape improvements that stem from it must, by definition, come in small steps. Do not expect immediate wholesale adoption. Adoption should be slow and steady. That is how behavior change happens – via small, doable actions that build on each other, just as do each of the garden dialogue topics and their resultant productive behaviors.

 Productive Behavior Checklist

Careful monitoring and evaluation of action steps taken is essential for forward learning and thinking. It is also essential for good reporting of successes and challenges so that those coming in the future can learn from what went on before. Developing a Productive Behavior Checklist for each beneficiary can help both the extensionist and the individual see that progress has been made and where extra work may be required to truly build the vision of empowerment and resiliency. (See Appendix 3).

Action Step or Behavior Date Date Number Others started completed impacted taught Household Asset Map Created new “comp” garden Find/use local soil amendments Making/using compost Making/using liquid fertilizer Water capture from roof Water capture in swale/berm Bio-intensive garden beds Practicing crop rotation Organic pest control Selling or adding value to produce

 Developing a Neighborhood Network

A key element to enabling sustainable adoption of any new idea or skill is to build a locally supportive network. Locally engaged individuals, able to conduct dialogues on their own, can be called upon to assist others who may be interested in following along with the innovation. A strong local network of voluntary “extensionists” will bring stability and resilience to the local community in the same way that strong individuals make up resilient families. If we manage this we are well on our way to achieving the overall vision of people able to improve the quality of their own lives.

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General Problems and Barriers to Productive Behavior Adoption:

Nutrition, Land, Water and Plants

Nutrition Problem Statement: There is high seasonal food and nutrition insecurity amongst many rural and urban dwellers due to lack of access, overall availability, and/or poor levels of nutrition education leading to poor utilization.

Barriers  Perceived lack of land and water accessibility to grow food  Lack of attention given to the role that complementary gardens can play to alleviate food and nutrition insecurity

Land Problem Statement: Perception that people don’t have enough land to produce crops for family consumption or sale.

Barriers  Beneficiaries don’t value or place importance on the few crops they grow around their compound  Beneficiaries don’t see how much productive space around their household could be used to grow fruits, vegetables and other crops  Perception that vegetables are for sale, not consumption.

Water Problem Statement: The perception (and reality) that water, be it from rain, river or municipal supply, is not reliably available, thus limiting garden production and expansion.

Barriers  Most beneficiaries are practicing only limited water-conservation methods at their homes, with much of the rain that falls subsequently lost to run-off or in-field evaporation.  Most beneficiaries do not see the value of reusing bathing or cooking ‘waste’ water, despite water’s relatively high cost in terms of money, time and energy.  Most beneficiaries burn crop residue, leaves and other plant ‘trash’ which could otherwise be used as mulch to prevent evaporation and erosion.

Plants Problem Statement: Perception that people don’t have adequate access to inputs, including seeds, seedlings, fertilizer and pesticides

Barriers  People are reluctant to spend money on inputs without some confidence in getting a return  People have developed a reliance on items freely given to them by donors  Perception that people don’t have ‘enough’ land or water to grow crops.  Perception that fertilizer is all that is needed for soil health and fertility.

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Topic 1: Household Nutrition

Barriers  Perceived lack of land and water accessibility to grow food near home.  Lack of attention given to the role that complementary gardens can play to alleviate food and nutrition insecurity.  Little awareness of the nutrient content and benefits of most crops grown for household consumption.  Perception that vegetable growing is for income generation, not family consumption.

Targeted Messages and Productive Behaviors  A healthy, well-balanced diet can be secured from locally grown foods found in complementary gardens within the home landscape.  Specific crops, especially bright colored and dark green leafy vegetables, are the best to grow for their nutritional value.

Guidance and Training Tips  Why do we need a balanced nutritious diet? o A balanced diet maintains a body’s defense mechanism or immune system, promotes physical and mental development and is essential for good long term and resilient health. o Vegetables high in iron and Vitamins A and C help the body fight illness and infection. o Food security and nutrition play a crucial role in mitigating the effects of HIV/AIDS, especially when coupled with ART. o Healthy eating can allow PLWHA to remain active and earn income for a healthier and more productive economic and community life. o Permagardens principally target the needs of the most marginalized groups but are active family classrooms for all populations.  How do we secure a nutritious diet? o Grow a range of crops around the home in complementary gardens that can be harvested for home consumption, especially bright colored and dark green leafy vegetables o Income earned from selling excess crops can be used to buy other foodstuffs as necessary.  Orange, yellow, red and dark-green-leafy vegetables are high in iron, Vitamin A/C  Leaves and stems of dark, green leafy vegetables should be eaten on a regular basis

Questions for Walk and Talk  What are your daily eating habits? What do you eat the most of? The least of? What elements could be missing in your diet?  What roles do different foods play in our diets? How and where can we get them? Can we produce them ourselves? Who already grows vegetables and why?  What is the relationship between nutrition and health? Nutrition and HIV/AIDS? Nutrition and Poverty? (optional questions)  Describe what we mean by Grow foods? Glow Foods? Go Foods?  Why do PLWHA in particular need to eat more nutritious foods?  How do you eat the leaves of sweet potato and beet? Why is this a good thing? Is it a good thing?

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Action Steps:

Selecting Nutrient-Dense Vegetables for a Nutrition Garden

 Create a simple 3 column list on a piece of paper, on a board or simply drawn on the ground. Each column is headed with the words GO, GROW and GLOW. Based on what the group says they have eaten over the past 1, 2 or 3 days (whichever makes local sense) write the foods down on separate pieces of paper. Once all foods are listed, have the participants place them under the various categories and discuss what they see. Is the diet diverse? How could it be improved realistically? Why is diversity an important issue?

 Discuss which local vegetable varieties are known to be high in Vitamin A, C and iron. The same for local grains and protein sources.

 Choose colored vegetables such as those that are orange, yellow and dark-green to highlight as immune system boosters: o Amaranth – stem and leaves o Mustard – stem and leaves o Kale and Collards - leaves and stems o Pumpkin – fruit and leaves o Sweet potato leaves - leaves o Orange fleshed sweet potato – roots and leaves o Climbing bean o Carrot, beet, radish and other root crops o Tomato

 Planting a Small Nutrition Garden (see double digging section)

o Properly prepare a small garden bed (0.5m x 1.5m) close to a fence or wall to support climbing bean. o Plant climbing bean seed 25 cm apart along the fence or wall; these will grow up the wall with trellis as support. o Plant pumpkin, 2 seeds together, 1 meter apart, between the bean plants. These will spread over the ground. o Scatter amaranth seed along the front half of the bed and cover lightly with soil. Harvest the entire plant after 3 weeks. Allow pumpkin to grow to cover entire space where amaranth had been. o Water gently. Repeat watering with bathing water every other day. o Cover with 1-2 cm rice straw or dry maize leaves. More can be added as beans and pumpkin grow through this first layer.

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HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTION — LAND

Problem: Perception held by many that they don’t have enough land to produce crops

Topic 2: Identifying & Developing spaces for “Complementary Gardens”

Barriers:  Families don’t value the few crops they can grow around their compound.  Families don’t yet see how much productive space exists already (waste areas) around their household that could be used to grow vegetables and other crops.  Current paradigm is that vegetables come from larger plots or from places with ready access to lots of water.

Targeted Messages and Productive Behaviors  Regardless of not having space for a larger garden or farm field, every household usually has some space that could be modified to grow plants in a ‘complementary’ garden that could provide food and income for the family.  Many local ‘waste’ resources (char, ash, food waste, wastewater) exist around the home/ neighborhood that can help sustain productive gardens.  Long-term planning and mapping of the homestead can help avoid further loss of resources (assets) and can actually build value in them for the future.

Guidance and Training Tips  There are many unused or underutilized spaces around the home that could be used to grow fruits and vegetables. Look for small (less than 2 sq meter) areas currently used to store wastes or simply not used at all.  Ensure that people know the differences between agriculture (large ½ acre), market gardening (1/4 acre medium) and complementary gardening (household level, 4m x 4m).  Walk through the compound and gardens and ‘map’ the resources currently available that can help build productive assets (land, water, agricultural or fish waste, animal manures, plants, char, ash, egg shell, coffee grounds, etc).  Remember, it is far better to manage a small space well (Complementary permagardens) than a large space poorly.  The most important things to add to garden soils are air, water and carbon. Fertilizer and size of the plot is irrelevant if those three items are neglected.  The RULE of CLOSE: everything we do MUST be close to the home, locally sourced, organic in substance and design, small in size to start, and easy to see, do and eventually teach. If the opposite of any, whatever it is we are promoting, will fail in the long term…it will NOT be resilient nor sustainable.

Questions for Walk and Talk  Do you or your neighbors have gardens? Why or why not? What do you/they grow? What else could you/they grow?  Do you or they have small complementary gardens? Why or why not?  What, if any, is the difference between a larger garden and a complementary garden? (income as focus usually) Do you think that complementary gardens can or should be larger than they currently are?

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 What type of land do you think is suitable for a garden? Where should it be located (not far away, but with good sun, fixable soil, and a gentle slope)/  If your soil is too hard, what can you do, with what you have, to improve it? What do you see others adding to the soil? Why do they do that?

Action Steps

 Household Compound Mapping:

o This should take form through a participatory mapping exercise in which the gardener and other group members sketch a map of the terrain together (location of dwellings, paddocks, prevailing wind direction, fields, trees, waterways, geographical features, source of water) and draw up a list of assets (materials and resources: animals, manures, fruit, timber, artisanal skills, outside income sources, fuelwood, fodder, compost, water, etc) that are present and available for use by the household. o A similar list should be drawn up of materials and resources used by the family, but presently do not appear in any useful quantity around the household. These are things such as food, cooking oil, fuel, construction materials, composting materials, water, grazing areas, etc. o Making the connection between what is used in a household and the cost and effort it takes to acquire such an item helps give ideas for gardeners and households to work on changing the situation. From these lists is drawn the action plan for each homestead.

 Locating and creating a complementary garden site:

o Walk around the home and identify potential areas to grow more plants . Does the area get enough sun? at least 6 hours? . Can the soil be prepared to grow plants? . What local materials can be used to protect the site from animals? o Beds can be various sizes and can be located under existing trees (papayas, bananas) or along fence lines if there is still some sunlight reaching the soil o Mark out and prepare the garden bed. Can be very small (see double digging section in this manual). o Make sure you only use local tools and materials (rule of CLOSE). o Plant, nurture and return to check on progress regularly.

“The Badder the Better”

A harsh local environment can be turned into a bountiful garden helping the family achieve three important goals:

Increased Consumption of Nutritious Food

Increased Environmental Resilience

Increased Maternal Income

In fact, what better place to prove this point than in a spot like this? If you can make it here, you can make it anywhere.

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Topic 3: Nurturing the Soil – General Barriers:  Gardeners don’t see the value of time spent nurturing the soil  Widespread lack of knowledge and information on how to nurture the soil  General over-reliance on chemical fertilizers as the sole need to grow plants

Messages and Productive Behaviors  Soil is living and needs to be healthy just like plants and people. Healthy soil= healthy plants= healthy people=healthy communities  Managing soil fertility and depth enables higher yields from smaller areas.  Nurturing soil is a continual process.  Building soil fertility is a low-cost way to increase harvests and profits.  Maintaining soil health does not require special tools - most homes already have what they need (hoe, digging spade, buckets).

Guidance and Training Tips  A healthy soil is rich in microbial life. Microbes help the soil release nutrients to the plant through the creation of beneficial acids.  Plants use nutrients to grow so the gardener needs to continually amend the soil to allow future plants to grow and produce in the same space.  Expose gardeners to various ways of improving the health and quality of their soil: o Sourcing and using soil amendments- to condition and fertilize o Making and using compost- to condition and fertilize o Mulching the garden- to hold moisture and provide nutrients o Proper bed preparation- to allow water and root infiltration

Questions for Walk and Talk  Describe what a healthy soil looks like? Feels like? Smells like?  How can we make a soil healthy? What is meant by “healthy”?  What are you doing now to the soil before you plant a garden near your home?  What waste material could be used to nurture the soil? Where do you put any of this material around your house?  Why do you think healthy plants give a better yield? Do they taste better?  How are neighbors nurturing or caring for their soil?  What tools are best to help nurture the soil?

Action Step:

 Gathering Local Soil Amendments - for later addition to soil or compost making

. Walk around the home and through the neighborhood to locate amendments . collect these soil amendments and bring home: Wood ash from cooking area (calcium carbonate, potash) Charred crop residues (carbon for air and water holding) Dry grasses or crop waste (carbon materials for composting) Animal manure – cow, chicken – fresh or dry (bacteria for composting) Green leaves from trees, vegetable waste (nitrogen material for compost)

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Topic 4: Nurturing the Soil - Soil Amendments Barriers:  Gardeners don’t recognize that much of the material or resources needed to amend their soil can be found around the home or within their communities.

Messages and Productive Behaviors  Animal manures, ash, charcoal dust, burned crop residue, fish waste and organic plant material are all valuable assets available locally that can be used to improve the long- term quality of the soil.

Guidance and Training Tips  Why do we add soil amendments? o Soil amendments add important nutrients for plant growth o Soil amendments improve air and water structure of soil o Soil amendments help to increase microbial life for soil health  How do we use soil amendments? o Identify sources of potential soil amendments within the community o Ask neighbors or others in the community to use their waste materials o These materials can be heavy so proper transport should be arranged o Dry manure is best as a soil amendment; fresh manure can harm plants  What are commonly available amendments and what nutrients do they have? o Wood ash - calcium, potash, phosphate and magnesium o Charcoal dust and burnt rice husks- carbon o Manure (cow, pig, poultry)- nitrogen, phosphate, potash, micronutrient o Green plant leaves (shredded)- nitrogen, organic material o Maize cob and plants, Rice straw- organic material, carbon  Burnt rice husks add carbon to soil and serve as a deterrent to soil based pests (worms), which are cut by the sharp edges.

Questions for Walk and Talk  What waste materials are available around your house, neighborhood or market?  What is the best way to use animal manures to help the soil?  Are other people using waste products to amend the soil in their garden? Why.  What amendments have you added to your own garden? Why did you do it? Could you see a good result? Can you describe the change you saw?

Action Steps  Applying charcoal dust/burnt rice husks and wood ash to the garden: o Locate a source of charcoal residue or burnt rice husks o Gather enough charcoal dust to apply 2 cm over the top of your growing area o Gather enough wood ash to apply thin layer over the top of the growing area o Mix both amendments into the top 10 cm of the soil o Repeat once a year o These amendments add important minerals back into the soil  Applying well-aged (dry) manure to the garden: o Locate a source of well-aged poultry or cow manure o Gather enough to apply 2-5 cm over the area where you will plant your crops o Mix into the top 20 cm of the soil o Repeat before every planting cycle

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Topic 5: Nurturing the Soil- Compost

Barriers:  Benefits of compost are not widely known or understood.  Many gardeners don’t know how to prepare nor apply compost to the soil.  Pervasive feeling that compost is not as effective as chemical fertilizers.

Messages and Productive Behaviors  Gardeners regularly make and use compost as a soil conditioner.  A soil rich in compost will hold 6 to 10 times as much water as a soil without.

Guidance and Training Tips  Why do we compost and use it to amend the soil? o Compost is a cheap/effective soil conditioner made from local waste. o Adding compost increases the microbial life of the soil, adds nutrients and improves the root growth of plants leading to yield increases. o The addition of compost helps to increase the moisture holding capacity of the soil helping a plant withstand longer periods of drought.  How do we make and use compost? o Locate materials such as leaves, grass, straw or other residue. o Build compost pile (see Action Step below for guidance). o With regular mixing compost can be ready in 3 months (brown and crumbly and cool to the touch). o Apply 2 cm layer of well-aged compost to soil of growing area and mix in prior to planting. o Continue to source materials and make compost throughout the year  Compost must remain moist (wet sponge) keep it out of direct sun and wind.  Heat generated in the compost comes from beneficial bacteria.

Questions for Walk and Talk  Have you ever heard of compost?  Have you ever tried to make compost?  Do you know anyone who has successfully made and used compost?  What materials in your area could be used to make a compost pile?

Action Steps  Preparing a compost pile: o Bring the following to a shady or covered area near the garden (you will need enough material to a make a pile 1m x 1m x 1m): . Green vegetative materials (tree leaves, grass, plant waste) . Brown material (dried crop residue, straw, grass, shredded or chopped branches, brown leaves) . Manure (small amounts to sprinkle through the layers as bacteria source) . Water: 60-80 liters . Long, sharp stick (to aerate and measure pile moisture and temperature)

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 Making a compost pile: o Dig a 1m x 1m hole, 10cm deep only. Soil will be added back later. o Add a 5 cm layer of coarse sticks to the bottom of the ‘hole’. o Add a 20 cm layer of dry brown vegetative material (carbon). o Add a 5 cm layer of wet green plant material (nitrogen). o Add a 1 cm layer of animal manure or topsoil. (bacteria) o Mix layers (not sticks) together with 4 liters of water. o Continue adding and mixing layers till pile is 1 m tall. o Put stick down through the center of the pile from the top - this helps to aerate the compost and can be used to measure the temperature. o Cover with plastic tarp to keep heat and moisture inside. o Mix and add small amount of water to the entire pile every 2 weeks. o Compost will be ready when material is dark, crumbly with no warmth to the touch. With regular turning and moisture, the compost will be ready in 2-3 months.

Topic 6: Nurturing the Soil - Bed Location and Preparation Barriers:  Widespread lack of knowledge on how best to prepare the soil for planting.  Beneficiaries don’t see how much productive space around their household could be used to grow fruits, vegetables and other crops.

Messages and Productive Behaviors  Proper soil preparation helps to reduce pests and weed infestation and helps plant roots to grow.  Plant roots require water and air to move freely in soil in order to grow.  A properly double dug and amended bed will need water just 3 times a week. A conventional raised bed over compaction will need water 2 times a day.

Guidance and Training Tips  Why do we take time to prepare beds for planting? o Deep soil allows closer plant spacing which encourages a dense and protective canopy - this canopy will capture and hold moisture in the soil and can help to keep weeds from growing. o Deep soil can hold more water and air - leading to stronger plant roots and above ground growth. o Preparing a bed with pathways lets the gardener apply important soil amendments easily prior to planting.  How do we prepare beds? o Choose a sunny area close to the house o Define and mark out the 1 meter wide area where you will grow plants o Loosen the soil deeply, add amendments and mix (see steps below) o Plan for protecting the area by building fence from material (sticks, bamboo) or trees found nearby  Garden beds can range in length, be located in multiple areas around the home  The double digging process needs to happen only until you reach 50cm. the next planting cycle you will only need to amend the topsoil, smooth, and plant.

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Questions for Walk and Talk  How have you ever prepared land for a garden before?  What areas around the house that could be used for planting?  Have any of your neighbors prepared a garden using beds and paths?  What are the benefits to you and the plant of having a deep soil?  What do you need to add to the soil to help plants grow?  What tools do you have that can be used to dig and prepare the soil?

Action Steps

 Simple Bed Preparation (double digging): o Mark out the area to be dug, less than 1m wide. Beds can be long but 4 meters is a good maximum length. o Loosen the topsoil in the bed to a depth of 10 cm. The “clearing” dig. o Straddling the bed, moving in the opposite direction, remove a 40cm wide trench of loosened soil. Place this soil on a sack outside the bed. o In this open trench, loosen the soil down to the compaction layer, often a different color. Pull this soil out and place it on the sack as well. o Move down the length of the bed in this manner, pulling the loosened soil back into the trench just created. This is the “single” dig. o Moving in the opposite direction, stand over the exposed trench of compacted subsoil. Break up the subsoil, leaving it in the bed, to a depth of another 30 to 40 cm. This is the “double” dig. o To this loosened subsoil, add and mix four handfuls each of charcoal dust and manure. Add small amount of water to settle the amendments. o Bring the next trench of loosened topsoil over this loosened subsoil. o Continue down the length of the entire bed. o Add first trench of removed topsoil (on the sack) back in at the end. o Smooth the entire bed so that it is flat like a bed. o Add other amendments (manure, char, ash) and mix into the top 20 cm. o Smooth the bed flat by hand (so water does not run off). o The bed is now ready for triangle planting.

The stark difference between soft topsoil and compacted subsoil must be pointed out clearly. In this step by step manner, literally any soil can be significantly improved for long-term resilient vegetable growing. By digging and amending deeply, plant roots will find all the food, air and water they need to thrive in a narrow space. This allows plants to grow closer together creating a closed canopy of leaves that maximizes light above and shade below. With this closed canopy, more plants and healthier plants are a result and yield increases of 600% more than the same area of shallow till gardens.

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HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTION — WATER

Problem Statement: The perception that water, be it from rain, river or municipal supply, is seen as not reliably available, thus limiting garden production and expansion.

Topic 7: Household Wastewater Management

Barriers:  Many families do not see the value of reusing bathing or cooking ‘waste’ water, despite water’s relatively high cost in terms of money, time and energy.  Concern that wastewater can bring disease if it is reused.

Messages and Productive Behaviors  Water can be used beyond its original purpose saving money, time and energy.  Wastewater can be captured easily to grow plants in a small area.

Guidance and Training Tips  Why do we want to use wastewater? o Capturing and using wastewater can turn a problem area (muddy, smelly) into a nice garden area. o Reusing water can help the family save money and energy, as s/he will not have to gather more for gardening. o Using wastewater in small gardens can bring more food (and possibly money) to the family without large amounts of extra effort. o With good planning and action, wastewater will continue to naturally soak into the soil to sustain garden beds from year to year. o A small garden bed created near the bathing area can give many easy-to-see lessons to draw upon when creating larger garden beds farther away.

 How to use waste water o Observe bathing, cooking, and hand washing areas. What do you notice about the soil and plants nearby? (Likely to be greener, healthier, and softer even in the driest months.) o Loosen soil from this area. Notice how deeply water has soaked. How would this help the plants grow? (longer and with less stress.) o Observe how deeply the water has soaked down if it has stopped for some reason – next to a rock, tree, pot, or grass clump. o A narrow ditch can now be dug to draw water away so that it can moisten a bigger area. o To compare, try to loosen soil far away from the bathing area. It will be too hard to dig and would not support plant life without extra watering. o When a return visit is made, have the gardener point out how the bathing/cooking area has improved in terms of soil quality, plants, food, flowers or any other values she may see.

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Questions for Walk and Talk  How often do you bring water to the home? At what cost? For what purposes?  What do you notice about the area near where you bathe/cook? (Soil soft, Plants green)  Could the bathing area be relocated from time to time throughout the year? How would this help to create more small garden areas?  How are the plants growing nearby? (Compare to plants farther away.)  What does the soil look and feel like? Wet? Heavy? Muddy? Smelly? Is this a problem you would like to see solved?  Do your neighbors have plants growing near bathing/cooking areas? Is this a good thing?  Would you like to have more plants growing here? Why? How could this area become a garden? What is the first thing you would have to do?  What are any simple actions you can do to turn this area into a diverse, small garden?

Action Steps  Creating a wastewater garden bed o Locate a small space near the bathing area. (0.5mx0.5m or slightly larger) . With a hoe, make a small channel for water to flow slowly away. . At end of this channel, dig a shallow hole or furrow to let water spread wider. . Add rocks or sticks at the end to hold the water within in the small area. . Add dry grasses, leaves, charred plants to cover the soil, hold the water and keep it soil soft and wet. . When soil is moist (could be in a few weeks), loosen and amend the soil and plant locally available plants (lemongrass, pepper, beans, even papaya if space allows). . Observe the area several weeks later to see the difference a small change has made.

Mekelle, Ethiopia. 2012.

In a region that receives just 500mm of annual rainfall, this method turns the climate from enemy to ally. A fully protective and productive Permagarden with water-controlling perennial planted swales and holes surrounding “double dug” and amended bio-intensive garden beds will provide a balance to the insecure local climate. A bounty of produce for family consumption and income for many years is all the proof we need.

Permagardens: Minimizing the maximum while maximizing the minimum.

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Topic 8: Protecting the Garden: Surface Water Management Barriers:  Minimal knowledge on effective conservation measures that can help manage surface water for its most effective storage and use.

Messages and Productive Behaviors  Stopping and slowing water runoff will prevent soil erosion and increase soil moisture retention to continuously grow garden plants.  One cubic meter of water = 1000 liters. In places that get 1000mm of annual rainfall, a 24 square meter roof will ‘collect’ 24,000 liters of water.  Rainwater collected in the subsoil (subsoil moisture recharge) will return to the root zone of double dug and amended garden beds five months later.  What is the bad thing about a gully? All the water goes to one place. What is the good thing about a gully? All the water goes to one place – and can be controlled.

Guidance and Training Tips

 Why should you create swales and berms? o Digging a simple, soil-based structure (a ditch or ‘swale’) will give the gardener a measure of control over the water moving across and away from his/her land. o Water will be held in the swale and directed where s/he wants it to go. o Once stopped, water will slowly sink and spread within the soil below the swale allowing plant roots to get water as they need it, and over a longer period of time. o What had been a problem area (soil erosion) is now an asset area (a garden with greater moisture).

 How can you make a swale and berm? o Observe where water has flowed: off the roof, onto the soil and then away likely causing a small gully to form. o As you walk over the land, you can ‘feel’ the slope. Where is the highest point? Water would have entered the area from the highest point around. This is the primary slope (top to bottom). Look for the secondary slope (side to side). This is how you begin to gain control. o Observe where the water has stopped in a hole or ditch. The soil nearby and “down slope” will be wet and soft; the plants greener and healthier. Ask for understanding. o Create a simple swale, berm (low wall) and garden bed. (See Action Step below).

 A swale has two purposes; 1.to protect from surface runoff; 2. To absorb the excess runoff forcing it deep for subsoil moisture recharge. Notice how the berm can become a planting bed itself. Principally for perennials, however, if food crops are grown, care should be taken to maintain the overall structure of the berm once these plants are finished producing.  Several garden beds (production) can be created below the swale and berm structure (protection) you have created.

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Questions for Walk and Talk  What happens when it rains here? Where does all the water go? Is this a problem?  How much water comes off that roof and into this garden area? (square meters x mm annual rainfall = liters)  How do you control the rainwater now? Can you collect it from the roof?  Do any of your neighbors control surface water? How do they do it?  What happens when the water stops in a hole or near a rock or bunch of grass?  What do you notice about the soil around this hole or ditch? Is the area wet for a longer time? What is the soil like?  What can we do to make water stop? Slow down? Sink? (answer: dig a hole or a ditch.)

Action Steps  Create a simple, permanent, water-holding swale: o Observe where past rainwater has entered the land and moved away. o At the top of the slope, dig a 40cm wide x 15cm deep “ditch” perpendicular to the slope of the land (against the flow of water). This ditch/swale can be 1-4 m long depending on the size of the garden area. o Place loosened soil from the ditch on the lower side of the swale to form a low bed or ‘berm’. o Add amendments to the berm soil and smooth the surface. (a simple double dig). o At either end of the swale dig a 50 cm x 50 cm hole to stop the force of the water. o Side berms can be created to direct the moving water to the lower berm. o This upper berm can now become a growing garden bed as well. (use perennials if possible – aloe, lemongrass, sweet potato) but long lived chard is also acceptable.

 Create a garden bed, “below” the swale.

o Mark out a 1m-wide garden bed, following the curve of the swale, 30 cm from the berm. This becomes a permanent pathway for easy garden bed management later. o Prepare and plant a garden bed (as in Bed Preparation Dialogue). o Return with the group after rain to see how the swale has stopped water and allowed it to sink towards the garden bed.

The double-dug bed ‘down slope’ from the berm will capture normally lost runoff deep with its subsoil.

In this way, we help families move from ‘Weather Worrier’ to ‘Climate Conqueror’.

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Topic 9: Water Retention with Mulch

Barrier: Little understanding that mulch can help store water longer in the soil

Messages and Productive Behaviors  Locally available plant waste materials are regularly saved for use as mulch to protect the soil and increase water retention and infiltration.

Guidance and Training Tips  Why should you practice mulching? o Plant material, left on the soil surface, will help keep soil cool and wet because the sun will not reach it. o Weeds cannot grow which leaves more water for growing crops. o Decaying organic matter improves the water-holding structure of soil. o As soil holds more water, plants can grow during dry periods. o Decaying organic material serves as food for good microbes that provide many values to the soil, as well as good housing for beneficial insects and earthworms. o Mulch on the soil softens the force of falling rain, preventing erosion.  How to practice mulching o Gather leaves, crop residue and dry grasses. o Keep them in or near an area where you wish to grow a garden. o Place a 3-5cm layer of dry material around the base of plants. o Remaining material can be left on the soil surface to keep sun off and prevent erosion from rainfall impact.  Many things can be used as mulch but materials should be dry. Wet, green plant material can be used but if it is placed too close to stems or leaves of growing plants it can cause them to rot. Therefore, if using green materials as a mulch, make sure they are placed away from tender stems and leaves.

Questions for Walk and Talk  Do any of your neighbors add mulch to their land or around their plants? Have you asked them why?  What do they use? Can you see any difference in the plants or the soil? Weeds?  Do they have to water as often to keep their plants growing?  Do you have any plants growing that dry out quickly? Why is that happening?  What materials do you have around here that could be used as mulch?  What is happening to those materials now? Are they being burned?  Are there any problems with using these materials as mulch? How can you solve those problems? (“looks messy; it blows away; chickens move it away”)

Action Step: Mulching your Plants  Walk around the landscape. Pull leaves away from the soil. Feel and see the moisture difference in this soil compared to an area that had no leaves on the soil.  Is there any noticeable difference in the moisture? Weeds? Worms?  Have a pile of dry leaves, straw and grass ready to use as mulch whenever needed.  Gather mulching materials and place it around growing plants, including fruit trees.

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HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTION- PLANTS

Problem Statement  Perception that there is not adequate access to inputs, including seeds, seedlings, fertilizer and pesticides

Topic 10: Timing of Planting and Spacing

Barriers  Poor knowledge of the correct season to grow crops  Must grow vegetables during the rainy season when there is enough water. (This is actually the worst time to grow vegetables (diseases, insects).  Crops are often planted without knowing the correct plant spacing

Messages and Productive Behaviors  The best yields in crops result from proper plant timing and spacing  Growing fragile vegetables in the dry season from residual rain water in soil.

Guidance and Training Tips  Why do we think about timing when it comes to planting? o Successive plantings (not all at once) allows for a continual harvest o Proper timing enables the most productive use of land  Why do we think about plant spacing? o Proper spacing between plants allows for best growth/maximum yield o Plants that are properly spaced can suppress weeds and hold moisture in the soil most effectively  How do we do it? o Sometimes it is good to grow plants according to when you can get the best price in the market - though this means growing the plants at a different time than other people o Learn the proper plant spacing for each crop and follow it when you are in the field planting o Different plants can be spaced and planted together according to height (multiple layers) or root growth habit- this allows for closer plantings o Developing a cropping calendar is an effective way to manage the timing of your planting  Triangular plant spacing enables more plants per productive space than the traditional method of planting on in long rows.

Questions for Walk and Talk

 What time of year do you grow vegetables? Is that the only time you grow vegetables? Could you grow in another season? Have you ever planned the planting of your garden according to a calendar? To meet market demands?  What is the effect of too much water when growing in the rainy season?  Do neighbors grow in the dry season? Are there times of the year when people are not growing vegetables and the price is high in the market? Could you grow a crop to get those higher prices?  What happens when plants are spaced too close together? Too far apart?

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Action Steps

 Triangular Plant Spacing o Choose the garden bed to be planted o Select seedlings for planting if at all possible (seedlings ready to go). o Locate a straight stick that is the length of the correct between-plant spacing for your crop (see chart in appendix). o Use stick to mark out planting locations along the end of the bed. Dig those holes by hand o Use the stick to form a triangle between two of the holes and a point further into the bed. Dig a new hole at that point. o After whole bed is marked out and dug the pattern should appear as many small triangles. o Plant seedlings to cover the roots completely o Water well

 Staggered Plant Timing with Amaranth o Gather local amaranth seed. o Smooth and prepare first 1/3rd of a garden bed. o Scatter seeds, cover and water. o Wait 2 weeks. o Repeat seeding, covering and watering on next 1/3rd of the garden bed. o Wait 2 weeks. o Repeat final 1/3rd planting. o Harvest and eat from first 1/3rd of the bed.

Triangular spacing creates a closed leaf canopy which captures moisture and carbon dioxide below and absorbs sunlight above. Weeds are prevented and garden beds require significantly less additional watering even during extreme heat.

Follow the crop rotation plan: Leaf – Fruit – Root – Legume to balance fertility and break disease and insect life cycles.

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Topic 11: Plant Fertility Needs

Barriers  Knowledge of specific fertility needs of different crops is low  People don’t know the nutrient value of certain locally available soil amendments

Messages and Productive Behaviors  Plants have specific fertility needs that should be met when growing

Guidance and Training Tips  Why do plants need to be fertilized? o Fertility allows for the proper growth and development of a plant o Proper fertilization and plant growth limits pest and disease problems o Different types of crops have different fertility needs depending on the part of the plant we are looking to harvest (root, leaf, stem or fruit)  How can we best provide fertility (nutrients) for the plants? o Plants take up nutrients through their roots and through their leaves- enabling us to provide nutrients in a number of ways o Liquid fertilizers are a quick and effective way to provide nutrients to growing plants o Soil based fertilizers provide longer-term (slower release) feeding to the plant  Compost is a good soil conditioner but not a complete fertilizer- therefore should not be seen as the sole source of nutrients for a garden

Questions for Walk and Talk  What do you use to fertilize your plants? Do you apply this to all of your plants in the same way?  Do different plants need different types of nutrients to grow best? Do papayas need the same nutrients as lettuce?  Is it possible to over-fertilize a plant? What effect could this have on a plant?  Are there materials around the community that could be used as a fertilizer? Do other people practice this? Have you tried it?  How can you turn waste material into something useful?

Action Steps  Preparing a Liquid Fertilizer o Locate a large pot or barrel that can hold at least 30 liters of water o Gather material and add to empty pot- . Fish waste . Chicken and/or cow manure o Fill the pot with water o Mix the ingredients and water, and then cover o Wait at least two weeks while the materials ferment o When ready (a strong dark tea color) scoop out liquid and filter into a watering can. Dilute this ‘tea’ with 5 parts water to one part tea. o Apply directly to leaves and whole plant- can be applied every two weeks

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Topic 12: Plant Disease and Pest Control

Barriers  General knowledge of plant diseases and pests is low  Overreliance on chemicals to solve problems

Messages and Productive Behaviors  Crops can be protected from pests and diseases using low-cost, locally-available resources

Guidance and Training Tips  Why do we protect plants from pests and diseases? o Pests and diseases attack crops and lead to reduced yields or total loss  How do we control pest and diseases? o Cultural- . Crop rotation to break disease and pest cycles . Build a healthy soil to grow stronger and more resistant plants . Plant different crops together that can help discourage infestation (companion planting) o Physical- . Grow a diverse selection of different plants within the same growing area to limit pest infestation (moving away from monocultures) . Observe problems and hand remove the pests or diseased plant parts as they appear- remove these from the garden . Weeds may hold plant pests and diseases so should be removed by hand or prevented from growing with mulch. o Botanical- . Include flowering plants at garden margins to help attract beneficial insects that will feed on the pests (not all insects are pests) . Certain plants have pesticidal and fungicidal qualities that can be used to make pest and disease remedies for the garden

Questions for Walk and Talk:  What is the importance of managing pests? What could happen to your crops if you don’t deal with the problem?  What are the signs and symptoms of possible pests or diseases in the garden?  What are common pests or diseases in your area? Do you know how to control them?  Can you control pests naturally? Have you seen neighbors using local remedies to control pests? Do you know what they used? Do you know how they prepared it?  Do you have a problem growing certain crops because of pests or diseases in your area? What could you do to avoid such problems if you still wanted to grow those crops?  Are you spending money now to buy chemical pesticides? Is it working? Can you think of other ways to control the problem without spending money? Are there resources in the community to help you do this?

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Action Steps

 Making a Botanical Pest Remedy using Neem o Collect, depulp, wash and dry ripe seed o Dry in shade 3-7 days. Any bad seeds should be thrown out. o Crush seeds in a mortar or other vessel (mortar used for edible crops should not be used). 500g crushed seed should be mixed with 10 liters of water and let sit overnight (or 50 g of seed in one liter of water). o Filter the liquid through a cloth and put in container for use. o Preparation can be used directly using a sprayer, brush or swab technique. Use no more than once a week, with every 10-15 days the optimal interval. o Effective against most chewing and sucking insects on crops. Does not kill pest outright, merely disrupts their feeding mechanisms so they eventually die. o Neem is also good at controlling fungal outbreaks of early and late blight (tomatoes) as well as powdery mildew on cucumber, pumpkin and melon. o Fresh neem leaves, soaked for 3 days as a tea, can be sprayed on crops as a pest repellent whereas the oil process above works as a pest killer.

 Practice basic cultural pest control o Practice good weeding and soil health building to improve plant ability to fight insects and diseases. o Loosen the soil to kill weeds and break surface crust to allow water to sink. o Remove weeds when very small; add to compost pile if no seeds. o Add rice straw or compost as mulch around plants to add nutrients and control weeds. o Add burnt rice husks or other charred residue to soil surface to discourage crawling pests.

 Plant various plants within margins of garden or property to assist in pest control o Aromatic plants to discourage pests from entering garden: lemongrass, mint, marigold, tansy. o Flowering plants and shrubs to attract beneficial insects that can eat or destroy pests: marigold, flowering vines. o Companion plants that assist each other by discouraging pests. o Trap crops that draw pests away from higher value crops for hand control.

Thorny branches protect from larger pests and then serve as a brace for old mosquito netting to keep away flying pests while still allowing sunlight, air and moisture to the vegetables.

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Topic 13: Crop Rotation

Barriers  Gardeners rely on only one or two crops to grow  Little knowledge on the beneficial effects of a crop rotation system

Messages and Productive Behaviors  Practicing crop rotation will result in lower pest and fertility problems

Guidance and Training Tips  Why do we rotate crops? o Crop rotation helps to break or disrupt pest and disease cycles in the garden o Rotating different crop varieties in the same spot is an efficient use of existing fertility in that specific plot  How do we practice crop rotation? o Learn the different fertility needs of each type of crop . Leaf crops (lettuce, cabbage, kale)- requires high nitrogen . Fruit crops (tomato, eggplant, winter melon, cucumber)- potassium, phosphate, needs less nitrogen . Root crops (sweet potato, daikon radish, carrot, beet) - lesser amount of phosphate, does not like nitrogen . Legumes (beans, clover, peanuts)- adds nutrients back to soil o Design your planting for the year building on this knowledge of varying plant fertility needs. o A good planting sequence is the Leaf-Fruit-Root rotation, designed to give each of the crops the nutrients it needs to grow best.

Questions for Walk and Talk  What have you grown in your garden over the past year? Do you plant the same crop in the same place every time? Have you noticed any change in the quality of the crops? Is there an increase or decrease in the amount or type of pests? Diseases?  How do you plan for the types of crops you grow in the garden?  Are your neighbors doing any type of crop rotation? Have you ever spoken to them about it? Describe what they do.

Action Step  Developing a basic Crop Rotation Plan (Leaf, Fruit, Root) o Choose the crops you will grow over the year o Identify which plant type they are (leaf, fruit, root or legume) o Plant leaf crop first and then harvest o Plant fruit crop following the leaf crop. o Plant root crop following the fruit crop. o Plant a legume to help return nutrients back to the soil o After each harvest, ensure that the soil is properly amended with compost.

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Appendix 1: The Peace Corps Approach to Nutrition Peace Corps aligns its approach to nutrition with a framework known as the Essential Nutrition Actions (ENA). The ENA framework combines best practices with contemporary evidence to highlight interventions demonstrated to have the greatest potential for optimal nutrition outcomes. The framework embraces the 1,000 days—a critical window from pregnancy through a child’s second birthday—and uses a life cycle approach focused on prevention.

ESSENTIAL NUTRITION ACTIONS (1) Nutrition for adolescents and women during pregnancy and lactation (2) Exclusive Breastfeeding during the first six months of life (3) Complementary feeding starting at six months, with continued breastfeeding to two years of age and beyond (4) Nutritional care of sick or malnourished children (5) Prevention of vitamin A deficiency in women and children (6) Prevention and control of anemia in women and children (7) Consumption of iodized salt by all household members

MESSAGES FOR PERMAGARDEN PLANNING Nutrition for adolescents and women during pregnancy and lactation: Adolescent girls and pregnant/lactating women have increased nutritional needs. When planning a permagarden to target these groups select micronutrient-rich (colorful) foods : amaranth, various beans, peanuts, orange-fleshed sweet potato, pumpkin, moringa, okra, papaya, spinach, tomato etc.

Complementary feeding starting at six months (with continued breastfeeding): At 6 months, breast milk no longer fulfills a child’s energy/ nutrient requirements. Breastfeeding should continue while supplemented with age-appropriate, energy-rich, nutrient-dense foods to support optimal development. When targeting households with small children, select crops that make ideal complementary foods: orange/yellow vegetables and fruits such as carrots, orange-fleshed sweet potato, pumpkin, mango, papaya; dark green leafy vegetables like kale or chard, as well as important fat and protein sources such as avocado, beans, eggs, peanuts, peas or lentils.

Prevention of vitamin A deficiency in women and children: Women and children—particularly 6 -23 months —are especially vulnerable to vitamin A deficiency. During garden planning, select vitamin-A rich foods. Consider supporting small animals, as animal- source foods (fish, eggs, chicken, liver, meat and milk) are prime sources of vitamin A. You might also choose to grow vitamin-A rich fruits and vegetables including papaya, mango, orange-fleshed sweet potato, pumpkin, other orange/yellow fruits and vegetables (with the exception of citrus fruits which can be included, but are not sources of Vitamin A), dark green leafy vegetables etc.

Prevention and control of anemia in women and children: Women and children are also vulnerable to developing anemia, often the result of advanced iron deficiency. Selection and promotion of iron-rich foods can mitigate the risk of anemia. Again, support animal husbandry practices as animal-source foods such as fish, eggs, chicken, liver and meat provide the most bioavailable form of iron. Iron-rich plant foods however, despite containing a less bioavailable form of iron, can be combined with vitamin C-rich foods to increase absorption. In garden planning, select iron-rich plant foods like legumes (peas, beans, lentils etc.) and dark green leafy vegetables.

Adapted from “Essential Nutrition Actions and Essential Hygiene Actions: A Reference Handbook for Peace Corps Volunteers and Community Members” USAID, SPRING, 2014.

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Appendix 2: The Outreach Plan (Train, Visit, Monitor and Evaluate)

The Five ‘Terra Firma’ Technical Sessions

Resource Assessment ASSESS  Basic Needs of People, Plants, and Soil Life  Soil Health: Texture vs Structure  Garden Site Needs: sun, soil, slope, access  Landscape Resource Walk using the “Walk and Talk”  “Its not what you look at that matters, it is what you SEE.” Resource Capture CAPTURE  Making a Compost Pile  Making ‘Activated Charcoal’ and ‘Soil Food’  Water Volume Assessments (roof and pathway water capture) Water Management “Six S” PROTECT  What are the six S’s  Garden Layout Map  Creating Berms, Swales and Holes  Amending Berm Soil for Useful Local Perennials Soil Health PRODUCE  Double Digging (“one tool, one bed, one hour”)  Improving Soil Structure and Fertility (air, water, carbon) Bio-Intensive Management MANAGE  Triangular Spacing to Achieve the Closed Canopy  Mulch for Weeds and Water Management  Crop Rotation  Pest Control Framework (Cultural, Physical, Biological, Chemical)

The Planned Home Visit for Mutual Learning Using the Progressive Productive Behavior Checklist the trainer and families alike will be able to monitor their progress from step to step. These monitoring visits should take place at least once per month through the first year after initial training. Before and after photos will provide excellent evidence within evaluation reports. Evaluate and Report “Do not merely go where the path already leads. Go instead where there is no path; and leave a trail for others to follow.” Small groups trained well and visited often provide the data you will need to properly evaluate and eventually report on the three Permagarden Goals: Increased Consumption of Nutritious Food; Improved Environmental Resilience; and, Increased Maternal Income.

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Appendix 3: The Progressive Productive Behavior Checklist Measuring Permagarden Progress towards Perfection

Family Name ______Village/Town/Kebele ______

Date (s) of Garden Visit ______

Action/Behavior Date First Observed Comments Gathering charcoal, ash, egg shell, manure, etc (specify) Stockpiling Carbon Materials for later use (compost or mulch) Created Berms (w perennials?)

Have made a Garden Plan outlining berms, paths and beds Made Single Dug Beds

Made Double Dug Beds amending with local waste materials Use Triangle Spacing

Use Companion Planting or Relay Intercropping Apply Mulch

Use Crop Rotation Plan for next planting season

Making Compost

Using Compost

Making ‘Tea’ from saved kitchen vegetable waste

Have Taught Others

Other:

Other:

Name of Person Reporting ______

Appendix 4: Permagarden Teaching Check List

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Reasons for Promoting Permagardens: Food Security at the Family Level (Availability) Income Generation Opportunity (Access) Nutrition Supplementation to Family Diet (Utilization) Family Resilience and Empowerment (Control Accomplishment Hope) Climate Change Response (max/min rainfall management) PLHIV Care and Prevention (Behavior Change Communication) Environmental Mgt Education (expansion to the farm field )

Why do we call it a Permagarden? Permaculture (Permanent Agriculture) = Permanent Protection Bio-Intensive Annual Garden = Abundant Production Protection x Production x Management = Empowerment and Resilience

Key Training Messages:

 Small and Close to the Home (can expand once skills develop)  Everything is Local (Plants, Seeds, Tools, Amendments)  No or little start- up cost (reusing what is being wasted)  Simple Behavior Change serves as analogy for other prevention education  Family Food, Nutrition and Income “Security” OPPORTUNITY (no guarantee)  Climate Change Response and Adaptation leads to Resilience and Empowerment  Small Changes = Big Differences  Start Small, Grow Big, Stay Home, Eat Well  All activities/materials must be Close, Local, Organic, Small and Easy

Local Waste Products for Soil Improvement Wood Ash (Minerals and pH balancing – Ca, Mg, P, K) Charcoal dust (carbon sequestration, air/water holding, microbe housing) Livestock Manure (Minerals – N, P, K; water holding, better tilth) Green/brown leaves (compost materials, green manure, nitrogen, tilth) Egg Shell, crushed (calcium) Coffee Grounds (Organic, slow release Nitrogen)

Local Perennial plants/shrubs useful in the Permagarden: Papaya (food, shade, medicine, income, gift) Aloe Vera (medicine, income, immune system support, gift) Lemongrass (palliative tea, income, gift) Rosemary (herbal remedy, bush) Banana (food, income) Passion (grow on fencing, food, income) Local Multipurpose Trees/Shrubs and there uses/benefits

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Neem (GManure, Medicine, Insecticide, Soap, Firewood, Shade) Leucaena (GM, Fodder, Fencing, Medicine, Firewood) Moringa (GM, Food, Medicine, Water Purification, Fencing) Glyricidia (GM, Fencing, Shade, Firewood) Lantana (Nutrient accumulator, hedges, insecticide) Compost Making Browns (carbon), Greens (nitrogen), Water, Soil/Manure (bacteria), Air and Time Make in the shade to prevent excessive moisture loss; cover with plastic One cubic meter, mix 2x/month, finished when brown/crumbly and cool Water Management Pathways and Structures STOP Swale SLOW Berm SINK Hole SPREAD SAVE (deep below the Bio-Intensive Garden Beds) SHADE (under the leaf canopy of the Bio-Intensive Garden Beds) Measuring Roof Runoff: (mm Annual Rainfall) x (square meter of roof) = Liters of water Why plant Bio-Intensive triangles (double digging and amending first to increase soil health and structure) Increase Plant Density (deeper roots allow close space, able to grow more/unit area) Increase Plant/Root Health (moisture and CO2 capture) Decrease in Weed Pressure (canopy shading of bare soil) Decrease in HandWater Requirement (canopy shading of bare soil) Basic Nutrition Food Groups: Go Foods (Carbohydrates – grains, tubers, fruits/vegetables) Grow Foods (Proteins – legumes, peanuts, animal products) Glow Foods (Vitamins/Minerals – DGLV, colored fruit and veg, meats) Crop Rotation Cycle - Reasons and Plant Families Break Plant Disease Cycles Break Pest Insect Life Cycles Balance Soil Fertility additions and losses Leaf (Higher Nitrogen need) maize, millet, sorghum, DGLV Fruit (Less N, More P for fruit) tomato, pepper, eggplant Root (little N, More K, some P) carrot, potato, beet, Legume (returns N to soil) beans, cowpea, peanut Common Sense Pest Control: Cultural, Physical, Biological, Chemical Behavior Change Formula: SDA w/IMVR = AC ==BC (Small Doable Actions with Immediate Measurable Visible Results = Attitude Change ===Behavior Change

Appendix 5: Training Flipsacks

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Appendix 6: Permagarden Stories of Change

Purpose:

The “Story of Change” approach, adapted from Most Significant Change1, will allow PCVs to record stories that highlight significant improvements in a household’s life since participating in a Peace Corps sponsored event. This adapted approach attempts to give community members a voice to assess the direct outcomes of a training or activity they participated in, such as creating a permagarden. The “Stories of Change” technique is particularly effective when used with a larger project such as one that incorporates cross-sector programming priorities (CSPPs) on an ongoing basis. Following the collection of these stories, it is also recommended that PCVs facilitate a community activity to share the results of the recording process (only as appropriate, given the socio-cultural context).

Instructions:

Visit the household(s) you helped train in permagardening and interview each using the informal interview process detailed below. Ideally this interview would be incorporated into a regular follow- up support visit to the household, rather than a separate visit.

Suggested timeline:

Perform the informal interview 6 months after the first permagarden training is provided to the household; follow-up again 6 months after that if possible. Example: Month 0 June 2016 Permagarden training Month 1 July 2016 Observation period 1 (refer to observation checklist) Month 3 September 2016 Observation period 2 (refer to observation checklist) Month 6 December 2016 Observation period 3 (refer to observation checklist) Month 6 December 2016 Stories of Change, part 1 Month 12 June 2017 Stories of Change, part 2

Process:

Speak to one household at a time during this process. Ease into the discussion with household members and avoid jumping straight to the main question (what’s the biggest change they’ve seen). Individuals interviewed will often need time to think about what you are asking them and to digest that information, so consider starting with some informal discussion about the garden.

Part A: Question guide to complete with the household’s members who were trained on permagardening and who were observed beginning their own permagarden at Observation Period 1.

This is to be submitted at Month 6

Part B: Feedback from the Volunteer’s perspective about what could be done better going forward with Permagardening.

This is to be submitted at Month 6

1 http://www.mande.co.uk/docs/MSCGuide.pdf The Complete Permagarden Manual April 2017 Page 91

Part A: Question guide with households trained in permagardening

You should already know the household, but if needed, feel free to introduce yourself and explain that you are there to get their feedback on the permagarden and see how you can assist them going forward.

1. When and how did you first learn about permagardening? How soon after the training did you begin your own permagarden? 2. What do you remember most from your experience with permagardening? 3. What is something that you would have liked to have known before starting your own permagarden (that you were not trained in)? 4. What changes have you and your household seen in your lives since you started your own permagarden? (probe to see what changes they have seen since they planted, harvested, etc. as needed) 5. Of those changes, what would you say is one of the more significant changes you and your household experienced in this time period?

Part B: Feedback guide for Volunteer’s perspective

This should be completed after the interviews with your households and used as a reflection of your work.

1. How and why did you decide to train your community in permagardening? What specific problems faced by your community did you identify (possibly via formative research) that you were working to address? 2. How did your project work to alleviate those problem(s) faced by your community? Please describe any specific activities you conducted with the community, as well as any events that were held as part of the project. 3. What challenges did you face in this project, and how did you work to address them? These could be related to the Peace Corps, country context, specific activities, etc. 4. What were some highlights of this project that you think other volunteers and staff should be aware of? For example, what worked particularly well for you and for the community/household in this project? 5. If you could do this project again, what would you do differently? What do you wish you had known before you started this permagardening project? Guidance for any photos submitted:

Include a caption with each photo submitted. Please seek permission first from community members (household) prior to taking photos. In the caption, please describe the following:

 Who is in the photo – name, approximate age, and role in community  What they are doing  Why this photo is important in representing the project  How they have benefitted from the project – for example, have they learned something that they will use going forward? Did they gain exposure to a new skill/knowledge through the project? Perhaps it may be an unintended benefit, such as gaining confidence to speak in front of large groups

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Appendix 7: Overcoming Childhood Stunting – Our Window of Opportunity

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Appendix 8: The Agroecological Vision: Intersectoral Resilience

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Appendix 9: The Garden Map

(Note: Arrows indicate surface water flow during rain events. As water slowly moves along these pathways it will be absorbed deep within the subsoil. Crop selection depends on prevailing climate: grain and legume in the wet; leaf, fruit, root and legume in the dry.)

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Notes:

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Notes:

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